Fundamentals of Photonics | 2nd Edition

Chapter 1.1, Problem 1E

Snell’s Law:

When the refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence, then the refraction angle is related to the angle
of incidence by the relation:

Here, is the angle of incidence, is the angle of refraction, and are the refractive index of
the two media.

Fermat’s Principle:

As per Fermat’s principle, light rays travel along the path of least time.

Refer to figure 1.1-4 (construction to prove Snell’s law) of the text book.

The time to travel between the two points say and is the distance in each medium divided by the
speed of light in the medium.

…… (1)

Here, is the time of travel, are the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2 respectively and
are the paths of ray travel.

The speed of light in a given medium can be written in terms of speed of light in vacuum. Write the
formula for refractive index.

Here, is the refractive index of the medium, is the speed of light in vacuum and is the speed of
light in the medium.

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Refer to figure 1.1-4 (construction to prove Snell’s law) of the text book. From geometry of the figure,

substitute for and for .

 …… (2)

Here, is the horizontal distance between points and and is the horizontal distance between
points and .

Refer to figure 1.1-4 (construction to prove Snell’s law) of the text book. From the geometry of the
figure,

Rearrange the terms.

…… (3)

Square both the sides.

Substitute for in equation (2).

Differentiate with respect to and equate it to zero to obtain the condition for minimum time of
travel.

Substitute equation (3) in the above equation.

Hence, the Snell’s law is proved.

Chapter 1.1, Problem 2P

Fermat’s Principle:

When optical rays travel between two points, they follow a path such that the time of travel and hence,
its corresponding pathlength is an extremum relative to the neighbouring paths.

The optical pathlength is either maximised, minimised or is a point of inflexion.

(a)

Refer to figure P1.1-2 (b) (reflection from mirror). Sketch the figure as shown in figure 1.

For path , the lowermost point (point ) is the deepest i.e. it travels maximum distance as
compared to other paths whose lowermost points and are above .

Hence, the time of travel is maximum for the path .

(b)

Refer to figure P1.1-2 (c) (reflection from mirror). Sketch the figure as shown in figure 2.
Point of inflection is the point where the pathlength changes from maximum to minimum or vice
versa. For all possible paths to the left of path , the lowermost point will be below point .
Hence, the pathlength will me maximum to the left of .

For all possible paths to the right of path , the lowermost point will be above point . Hence,
the pathlength will me minimum to the right of .

Therefore, the pathlength changes from maximum to minimum.

Hence, paths , and are points of inflexion.

Chapter 1.2, Problem 1E

Paraxial Approximation:

Paraxial rays are the rays whose angle with the axis of the mirror is relatively small. If only paraxial
rays are considered, the spherical mirror has a focussing property of a paraboloidal mirror and
imaging property like an elliptical mirror.

This is called as paraxial approximation.

Image Equation:

Write the image equation.

Here, is the distance of the object (on principle axis) from the mirror, is the distance of the image
formed (on principle axis) from the mirror and is the focal length.

Refer to figure 1.2-7 (Image formation by a spherical mirror) of the textbook.

Refer to figure 1. It shows the light rays emerge from the point . After striking the mirror, the light
rays get reflected and passes through . The height of the object and image are and
respectively.
The ray incident on the mirror makes an angle with the optical axis. The angle of incidence is . The
angle of reflection is also . The angle which the reflected ray makes with the optical axis is . The
angle which the mirror normal makes with the optical axis is .

Consider a ray originating from point at an angle .

Write the height at which the ray will meet the mirror.

…… (1)

Write the angle of incidence at the mirror.

…… (2)

For small angle , it can be assumed that .

Since (Here, is the radius of curvature),

Substitute for in equation (2).

Write the angle made by the reflected ray with the z-axis .

Substitute for .

Substitute for .
Further solve:

Substitute for .

…… (3)

Alternately, the angle can be written as:

…… (4)

Substitute equations (1) and (3) in equation (4).

Hence,

…… (5)

Write the image equation.

Substitute for in equation (5)

Substitute for .

Hence, the magnification is .

Chapter 1.2, Problem 2E

Snell’s Law:

When the refracted ray lies in the plane of incidence, then the refraction angle is related to the angle
of incidence by the relation:

Here, is the angle of incidence, is the angle of refraction, and are the refractive index of
the two media.

Write equations 1.2-9 and 1.2-10 from the textbook which are the conditions satisfied for the
derivation.

Here, are the refractive index of the two mediums, are the distance of object and image
from the aperture respectively, are the heights of the object and image respectively and is the
radius of curvature.

Refer to figure 1 and write Snell’s law for the figure.

Here, is the angle which the normal to the lens (at the point of incidence) makes with the optical
axis, is the angle which the incident ray makes with the optical axis, is the angle which the
refracted ray makes with the optical axis and is the vertical distance from the optical axis.

Apply the Snell’s law.

…… (1)

Assume all the angles to be paraxial .

Since for small angles , substitute for .

Substitute for and for .

This is equation 1.2-9. The equation obtained is independent of the angle from which the rays are
coming.

Since the rays are paraxial, the angles of incidence and refraction can be given by and .
Write Snell’s law.
This is equation same as 1.2-10 of the textbook.

Both the equations are independent of i.e. the angle from which the rays are striking. Hence, rays at
other angles will also be directed from to .

Chapter 1.2, Problem 3E

Aberration:

The light rays falling at large angles do not follow paraxial laws. The deviation results in distortion of
the image. This is known as aberration.

Fermat’s Principle:

According to the Fermat’s principle, the light rays travel along the path of least time.

Here, refraction index as a function of position and is the path over which the light rays travel.

Refer to figure 1. The figure shows refraction through a spherical lens.

The distances are the distances travelled by ray 1 and ray 2 respectively, are the refractive
index if medium 1 and 2 respectively and are the distance of points from the apex.

From Fermat’s principle, the optical path length should satisfy the condition:

…… (1)

To define a surface for this condition, choose any arbitrary point .

Apply Pythagoras theorem. For triangle ABC substitute for and for triangle BCD

substitute for in equation (1).

…… (2)

Therefore, for given values of , the height of the image is dependent on and not on the incident
angle.

Hence, the equation (2) defines an aberration free imaging surface.

Chapter 1.2, Problem 4E

Thin Lens Formula:

The distance of the object and image from the pole and the focal length of the lens is related by the
image thin lens formula which is derived in this solution.

Write equation 1.2-8 of the textbook.

…… (1)

The ray at angle and height refracts at the first surface and its angle is altered to . Here, is the
refractive index of the material and is the radius of curvature of the first surface.

Similarly, write the equation for the second surface.

Here, is the radius of curvature of the second surface.

From equation (1) substitute for .

…… (2)

Write equation 1.2-12 of the textbook.

Here, is the focal length.

Substitute for in equation (2).

……. (3)

Hence, equation 1.2-11 is proved.

In general, and .

Substitute for and for in equation (3).

Hence, equation 1.2-13 is proved.

Chapter 1.2, Problem 5E

Numerical Aperture:

Numerical aperture (NA) is a dimensionless number which defines the range of angles over which light
can be accepted or emitted by the optical system.

Acceptance Angle:

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle with which a ray of light hits the fibre core such that the
incident light is guided by the core.

Refer to figure 1. The figure shows refraction at the core surface and total internal reflection at the
cladding.
In the figure, are the refractive index of the core and cladding respectively and are the
angle of incidence, refraction at core and incident angle on cladding respectively.

Apply Snell’s law at the air/core surface.

…… (1)

Write the condition for total internal reflection:

Hence,

Substitute for in equation (1).

 …… (2)

Hence, the formula for numerical aperture is proved.

Substitute for and for in equation (2).

Further solve.

Hence, the numerical aperture is and the acceptance angle is .

Chapter 1.2, Problem 6E

When light is originated in a medium of high refractive index, it is difficult to extract it out in air by
refraction. The light rays undergo total internal reflection.

(a)

Refer to figure 1.2-19 (trapping of light in a parallelepiped of high refractive index) of the textbook.
Write the half angle for the rays within the six cones.

Here, is the half angle and is the refractive index.

Substitute for .

The rays within the cone are refracted into air in all the directions. However, the rays outside the cone
undergo total internal reflection. The cones do not overlap and the reflected rays remain outside the
cones without undergoing refraction. This because the half angle is less than .
(b)

Write the area of the spherical cap of one cone.

Here, is the distance from the centre and is the angle subtended.

The area for a complete sphere is . Write the fraction of the emitted light which lies within the
solid angle for one cone.

Here, is the area from which light is emitted.

Write the expression for six cones.

Substitute for .

Substitute for .

…… (1)

Note that the amount of optical power generated is assumed to be proportional to the solid angle.

Hence, the ratio of the optical power extracted to the optical power generated is given by

Note that the derivation is valid only if which implies:

Hence, the condition is .

Substitute for in equation (1).

Hence, of the optical power is extracted.

Chapter 1.2, Problem 7P

Snell’s Law:

Write Snell’s law.

Here, are the refractive index of input and output medium respectively and are the angles
of incidence and refraction respectively.

Lateral Displacement:

When an incident ray passes through a glass slab, it emerges out as a ray parallel to the initial ray. The
ray is laterally shifted and the perpendicular distance between the incident ray and emerging ray is
known as lateral displacement.

(a)

Draw the diagram as shown below:

Figure 1 shows the refraction within a glass slab. Angle is the angle of incidence, angle is the angle
of refraction, the incidence angle of the refracted ray is also , is the refraction angle of the
emerging ray, is the thickness of the slab and is the lateral displacement.
Write Snell’s law for refraction at top surface.

Substitute for and for .

…… (1)

Write Snell’s law for refraction at bottom surface.

Substitute for and for .

…… (2)

From equation (1), substitute for in equation (2).

Hence, the emerging ray is parallel to the initial incident ray.

Draw the diagram.

The variables for figure 2 are same as figure 1. The distance is the lateral displacement.

Consider ,

…… (3)
Consider ,

…… (4)

From equations (1) and (2):

Hence, the lateral displacement is .

(b)

Draw the diagram.

Figure 3 shows refraction through a slab of various interfaces. The refractive index of each interface
varies a . The angles are angles of refraction. The angle is the angle of
incidence of the entering ray.

Here, is any integer.

Write Snell’s law for each interface.

…… (5)

Similarly, for next interface:

…… (6)

From equations (5) and (6).

Similarly, Snell’s law can be written up to interfaces:

Hence, it has been proved that .

Chapter 1.2, Problem 8P

Lens Maker Formula:

The lens maker formula is used for spherical lenses which relates the focal length of the lens with the
refractive index of the two mediums and the radius of curvature of the two spherical parts.

Write the lens maker formula.

…… (1)

Here, is the focal length, are the refractive index of input medium and lens respectively and
are the radius of curvature.

Substitute for , for , for and for in equation (1).

The negative sign in is due to the biconvex lens.

Hence, the focal length is .

Determine the focal length when the lens is immersed in water.

Substitute for , for , for and for in equation (1).

Hence, the focal length is .

If the refractive index of lens was less than water and more than air, the focal length obtained would
have been negative and the biconvex lens would behave like a biconcave lens inside water.

Chapter 1.2, Problem 9P

Numerical Aperture:
Numerical aperture (NA) is a dimensionless number which defines the range of angles over which light
can be accepted or emitted by the optical system.

Acceptance Angle :

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle with which a ray of light hits the fibre core such that the
incident light is guided by the core.

Write the formula for NA and acceptance angle.

…… (1)

Here, are the refractive index of core and cladding respectively and is the acceptance angle.

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Since cannot be greater than , therefore, total internal reflection will not occur in such a case.

Hence, the NA and acceptance angle are not defined.

Chapter 1.2, Problem 10P

Spherical Boundaries and Lenses:

For a given lens, the distance of object and image can be written related with the refractive index of
input and output medium and radius of curvature of the lens.

Write the equation 1.2-9 of the text book.

…… (1)

Here, are the distance of the object and image respectively, are the refractive index of the
input and output medium respectively and is the radius of curvature.

The tiny glass ball can be considered as a double convex lens with refractive index and radius
of curvature .

Substitute for , for , for (considering the radius of the sphere as the radius of the
lens) and for in equation (1).

The parallel rays will meet at the focus i.e. at a distance of from the centre of the ball.

Refer to figure P1.2-10 (focussing light with spherical glass ball) of the textbook. Write equation (1) for
the rays emerging out of the sphere.
Substitute for , for , for (considering the radius of the sphere as the radius of the
lens) and for .

Hence, the focal length will be .

Chapter 1.2, Problem 11P

When light is originated in a medium of high refractive index, it is difficult to extract it out in air by
refraction. The light rays undergo total internal reflection.

(a)

Except the front side, all the other sides are coated. Refer to solution of exercise 1.2-6 and write the
percentage of light extracted (from the one open side).

Substitute for .

Required percentage

Hence, of light can be extracted from the front side.

(b)

The light will extract out of the front face in a conical region.

Calculate the half angle in the absence of the transparent material.

Substitute for .

Calculate the half in the presence of the transparent material.

 

Substitute for and for .

Since the half angle for the conical region from where light is extracted is higher when the transparent
material is placed, therefore, more amount of light will be extracted.

Hence, adding the transparent material will increase the extraction of light.

Chapter 1.3, Problem 1E

Slab with Parabolic Index Profile:

A graded index (GRIN) is a material whose refractive index varies with position. In these materials,
doping is done in controlled concentrations.

Write equations 1.3-11 and 1.3-12 of the textbook.

…… (1)

…… (2)

Here, is the trajectory of the ray, is the fundamental period, is the distance along z-axis and
is the slope of trajectory. The variables and are the initial position and slope respectively.

Substitute for (since the ray is incident at the centre) and for in equations (1) and (2).

Here, is the slab length.

Write the angle at which the rays refract into air.

Refer to figure 1. Here, is the focal length, is the vertical distance of the entering ray from optical
axis and is angle of the final emerging ray with the optical axis.
From the above diagram.

…… (3)

Hence, the focal length is .

Refer to figure 1.

…… (4)

Substitute and from equations (3) and (4).

Hence, the value of is .

From the above equation, the ray trajectories are:

Chapter 1.3, Problem 2E

Numerical Aperture:

Numerical aperture (NA) defines the range of angles over which light can be accepted or emitted by
the optical system.

Acceptance Angle:

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle with which a ray of light hits the fibre core such that the
incident light is guided by the core.

Write equation 1.3-11 of the textbook.

Here, is the initial position, is the fundamental period, is the distance along z-axis and is the
initial slope.

Since the ray is incident at the centre of the fibre, substitute for .

The ray traces a sinusoidal trajectory. The amplitude of the trajectory is . Since the amplitude

cannot be greater than the radius , therefore, the maximum value is .

Write the formula for numerical aperture (NA).

Here, is the acceptance angle and is the refractive index.

For small angles

Hence,

Substitute for .

Hence, the numerical aperture is .

Refer to solution for exercise 1.2-5.

Write the acceptance angle for step index fibre.

Here, are the refractive index of the input and output medium.

Substitute for and for .

Since,

Hence, the acceptance angle is which is equal to the acceptance angle of graded index fibre.

Chapter 1.3, Problem 4P

GRIN Fibres:

A graded index (GRIN) material is a material whose refractive index varies with position. Such
materials are made by doping in controlled concentrations.

Write the equations for refractive index of GRIN in cylindrical co-ordinates.

Here, is the refractive index of the material , is the radial distance and is angle used to
define the cylindrical co-ordinates.

Write equation 1.3-4 of the textbook.

…… (1)

…… (2)

Here, is the refractive index of the material and are the position co-ordinates.

Write the cylindrical co-ordinates.

Here, is the radial distance and is angle used to define the cylindrical co-ordinates.

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Substitute for and for in equation (2).

Hence, the differential equations with cylindrical co-ordinates are and

 
Chapter 1.4, Problem 1E
Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix equations.

…… (1)

…… (2)

Here, are the angles of the ray in the input and output plane respectively, are the height of
object and image respectively and are arbitrary constants.

(a)

As per the question, substitute for in equation (1).

Therefore, for a given , the value of is same independent of . Hence, it is a focussing system. All
the rays which will enter at the same angle will meet at the same point .

(b)

As per the question, substitute for in equation (1).

Therefore, for a given , the value of is same independent of . Hence, it is an imaging system.

As per the question, substitute for in equation (2).

In this case, the angles are directly proportional which means all the rays remain parallel.

As per the question, substitute for in equation (2).

In this case, all the rays originating from a particular point will become parallel.

Chapter 1.4, Problem 2E

Ray Transfer Matrix:

Ray transfer matrix is a method to perform ray tracing calculations by mathematical means.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for refraction at planar boundary.

Here, are the refractive index of the input and output medium respectively.

The first ray enters from air. Hence, the refractive index for input medium will be . Write the
combined ray transfer matrix for free space propagation and refraction at planar boundary for the
first plate.

Similarly, write the ray transfer matrix for the second plate.

Write the combined matrix for the first and second plates.
Similarly, write the general form matrix for plates.

Include the interface between the last plate and air and write the overall ray transfer matrix.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is .

For an inhomogeneous material, the refractive index is . Hence, the summation sign can be

substituted with integral. Substitute for and write the ray transfer matrix.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix for an inhomogeneous material is .

 
Chapter 1.4, Problem 3E
Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for transmission through thin lens.

Here, is the focal length of the thin lens.

Write the combined matrix for a gap followed by a thin lens.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is .

Chapter 1.4, Problem 4E

Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for transmission through thin lens.
Here, is the focal length of the thin lens.

Refer to figure 1.4-3 of the textbook and write the combined ray transfer matrix. The distance of free
space propagation is for left side and for right side.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is .

Write the general ray transfer matrix.

Here, are the elements of the matrix.

Refer to solution of exercise 1.4-1.

For imaging, the value of element must be .

The element in the ray transfer matrix is . Equate it to .

Divide the equation by .

Since, the imaging condition is satisfied, therefore, (solution of exercise 1.4-1).

Hence, for a given , the value of is same, independent of . This means all the rays coming from a
single point will reach the output plane at a single point regardless of the angle.

Refer to solution of exercise 1.4-1.

To focus all the rays on a single point, the element should be zero.

Substitute the condition in element .

Hence, for , all parallel rays focus on a single point.

Chapter 1.4, Problem 5E

Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for refraction at spherical boundary.

Here, are the refractive index of input and output medium respectively and is the radius of
curvature.

Refer to figure 1.4-4. The system consists of:

1. Distance in air, followed by

 2. Air/glass refracting surface, followed by

3. Distance in glass, followed by

4. Glass/air refracting surface, followed by

5. Distance in air

Write the ray transfer matrix for subsystem 2.

Substitute for , for and for . Here, represents the focal length.

Write the ray transfer matrix for subsystem 2 and 3.

Write the ray transfer matrix for subsystem 2,3 and 4.

Substitute for and solve.

Further solve the above matrix.

 
Include subsystems 1 and 5.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is .

For the system to be an imaging system, the element should be . Equate element to .

…… (1)

Write equation 1.4-17.

Substitute for and solve.

…… (2)

Write equation 1.4-16 and substitute for .

 …… (3)

Here, distance is shown in the figure 1.4-4 (Imaging with thick lens).

Substitute equations (2) and (3) in equation (1).

Substitute for and for . Here, represents the focal length. Here, distances
are shown in the figure 1.4-4 (Imaging with thick lens).

Hence,

…… (4)

Here, …… (5)

Using equation (3), substitute for in equation (2).

…… (6)

Substitute for and for in equation (5).

Substitute for in equation (4).

Hence, the image equation is satisfied for element to be i.e. for an imaging system.

Consider incident rays parallel to the optical axis. Write the ray transfer matrix for subsystem 2,3 and
4.

Combine this matrix with the matrix of distance in air where will be the point where the rays will
meet.

The element of the matrix should be for the parallel rays to meet at a single point. Equate element
to .

Using equation (3), substitute for

Substitute for from equation (6).

Hence, the rays will meet at a distance from the right surface of the lens i.e. the point .

 
Chapter 1.4, Problem 6E
Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for transmission through thin lens.

Here, is the focal length of the thin lens.

Write the composite matrix for a system comprising of free space followed by a lens.

Refer to figure 1.4-9 (periodic set of pair of lenses). The unit cell of the system can be considered to be
composed of two subsystems. Each unit cell consists of a free space followed by a lens. Write the
composite ray transfer matrix for the two subsystems.

Here, and are the focal length of the two lenses.

Write the first and fourth elements of the resultant matrix which are and respectively.

Refer to equation 1.4-32 and write the condition for stability.

Substitute for and for .

Hence, the desired condition of stability is .

Chapter 1.4, Problem 7E

Optical Resonator:

An optical resonator is an arrangement of optical components in such a way that a beam of light
circulates in a closed path.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for reflection from a spherical mirror.

Here, is the radius of curvature.

Refer to figure 1.4-10 (Optical resonator).

The optical resonator can be considered as a periodic system in which a unit system consists of a
single round trip between the pair of mirrors.

A paraxial ray starting from position , travels a distance in free space, gets reflected from mirror 2
and travels back the same distance to reach mirror 1 at position .

This process is repeated periodically. Thus, the unit cell consists of two subsystems viz. free space
followed by reflection from a mirror.

Write the ray transfer matrix for the two subsystems.

Write the composite ray transfer matrix where the paraxial ray travels a distance in free space, gets
reflected from mirror 2 and travels back the same distance to reach mirror 1.

Write first and last elements of the resultant matrix which are and respectively.

Refer to equation 1.4-32 and write the condition for stability.

Substitute for and for .

Hence, the desired condition of stability is .

Chapter 1.4, Problem 8P

Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for transmission through thin lens.

Here, is the focal length of the thin lens.

The ray gets transmitted through a thin convex lens of focal length , travels a distance and then
passes through a thin concave lens of focal length .

Write the composite matrix.

If the distance traversed by the ray is equal to its focal length i.e. , the element will be zero.
Hence, the system will be a focussing system. All the rays which will enter at the same angle will meet
at the same point.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is .

Chapter 1.4, Problem 9P

Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for refraction at spherical boundary.

Here, are the refractive index of input and output medium respectively and is the radius of
curvature.

Write the refractive index.

Here, is the anatomical tilt of eye, is the vertical distance and is the refractive index for zero
vertical distance.

Generally, is chosen such that , hence, fractional change in the refractive index can be

neglected.

The system consists of:

1. GRIN plate refracting surface, followed by

2. Distance , followed by

3. GRIN plate refracting surface.

Refer to solution of exercise 1.3-1. The GRIN slab can be considered as a lens with focal length

Here, is the focal length of the lens.

Write the ray transfer matrix for subsystem 1.

Substitute for , for and for .

Write the ray transfer matrix for subsystem 1 and 2.

Write the ray transfer matrix for subsystem 1,2 and 3.

Substitute for , for .

Substitute for and solve.

Substitute for .

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is

Chapter 1.4, Problem 10P

Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Refer to solution 1.4-9P and write the final ray transfer matrix.
Here, is the propagation distance, is the anatomical tilt of eye and is the refractive index for
zero vertical distance.

Write the condition for stability.

…… (1)

Here, and are the first and last elements of the ray transfer matrix.

Substitute for and in equation (1).

Hence, the condition for stability is . It is dependent on the value of .

Chapter 1.4, Problem 11P

Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the ray transfer matrix for free space propagation.

Here, is the distance traversed by the ray.

Write the ray transfer matrix for reflection from a plane mirror.

The optical resonator can be considered as a periodic system in which a unit system consists of a
single round trip between the pair of mirrors.

A paraxial ray travels a distance in free space, gets reflected from mirror 2 and travels back the
same distance to reach mirror 1.

This process is repeated periodically. Thus, the unit cell consists of two subsystems viz. free space
followed by reflection from a mirror.
Write the combined ray transfer matrix for free space propagation and reflection from planar mirror.

Write the composite ray transfer matrix where the paraxial ray travels a distance in free space, gets
reflected from mirror 2 and travels back the same distance to reach mirror 1.

Hence, the unit ray transfer matrix is .

Refer to equation 1.4-24 and write the formula for (term to define stability condition).

Here, and are the first and last elements of the ray matrix respectively.

Substitute for elements and .

Refer to equation 1.4-25 and write the formula for .

Hence, the value of and is .

Write the equation 1.4-27 of the text book.

(Here, the value of constant is to be determined)

Substitute for and .

 

Hence, there is a single root for the equation.

Write equation 1.4-31 of the text book.

Here, represents the ray position, is the amplitude of the ray, is the stage and
is the phase angle.

Expand the term.

Neglect higher order terms.

Hence, the ray position is of the form where is and is .

Chapter 1.4, Problem 12P

Ray Transfer Matrix:

A ray transfer matrix is a matrix used to trace the ray path mathematically.

Write the basic equations for ray transfer in three-dimension.

……(1)

……(2)

……(3)

……(4)

Here and are the position co-ordinates and angles respectively,

are arbitrary constants.

Write the matrix form of the equations.

(a)

For free space propagation, the refractive index is constant. There will be no refraction, therefore,
and . Hence, the constants are zero and are equal to .

The distance travelled in free space is . Write equations (1) and (2) accordingly.

Substitute the value of constants in the matrix.

Write the ray transfer matrix.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is .

(b)

Write the relation between angles of refracted and incident rays.

Here, is the focal length.

Comparing with equation (4), are zero, is and is .

Since, there is no focussing power in plane, hence, . Therefore, are zero.

Also, the ray height is not altered. Hence, and . Therefore, are zero and
are . Substitute the value of constants in the matrix.
Write the ray transfer matrix.

Hence, the ray transfer matrix is .

Chapter 2.2, Problem 1E

Validity of the Fresnel Approximation:

The validation criterion for a spherical wave to be approximated by a paraboidal wave within a circle of
radius and it is originated at a distance away from the given axis.

Write the validation condition of the radius of the circle.

....... (1)

Here, is the radius of the circle, is the distance from the axis and is the wavelength.

Calculate the maximum possible radius of the circle.

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Thus, the radius of the circle is .

Write the equation for the maximum angle.

Here, is the maximum angle.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the required angle is .

Write the equation for the Fresnel number.

Here, is the Fresnel number.

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the Fresnel number is .

Chapter 2.2, Problem 2E

Write the paraboloidal wave with the Complex envelop

…… (1)

Here, is the complex envelop, is iota, is a constant, is the wave number, is the
distance covered by wave along -direction, distance covered by wave in -direction, distance
covered by wave in -direction.

Consider the Paraxial Helmholtz equation:

Here, is the transverse Laplacian operator.

Differentiate equation (1) with respect to

Differentiate the above equation with respect to

…… (2)
Differentiate equation (1) with respect to

Differentiate the above equation with respect to

…… (3)

Operate operator on

Substitute the expressions of and from equation (2) and (3), in the above

equation

…… (4)

Differentiate equation (1) with respect to

…… (5)

Substitute as in equation (4)

…… (6)

Hence, equation (1) satisfies the Paraxial Helmholtz equation.

Write the paraboloidal wave with the Complex envelop

…… (7)

Here, with as a constant and is also a constant.

Differentiate equation (7) with respect to :

Differentiate above equation with respect to :

Differentiate equation (7) with respect to :

Differentiate above equation with respect to :

Operate the transverse Laplacian operator on :

Substitute the values of and from equation (2) and (3), in the above equation

…… (8)

Differentiate equation (7) with respect to

Substitute as in equation (8)

…… (9)

Hence, from equation (7) and (9) we conclude that the paraboloidal wave with the Complex envelop

and satisfy paraxial Helmholtz

equation.
Consider the following plot between vs. :

Here, is the relative Intensity, is the distance

The intensity of a Gaussian beam is represented by the square of the amplitude. The Graph between
relative intensity and distance is in Typical Gaussian Shape.

Chapter 2.2, Problem 3P

Write the Helmholtz equation.

...... (1)

Here, is laplacian operator, is optical wave energy and is wave vector.

Write the equation 2.2-15 of the text book.

...... (2)

Here, is initial area, is radial vector, is the optical wave energy as a function of and is
wave vector.

From the equation (2), the expression of do not have any mass and heat flux term.

Write the equation for .

Substitute for .
Simplify the above expression.

Substitute for in equation (1).

Substitute for and in equation (1).

Thus, Helmholtz equation is verified.

Chapter 2.2, Problem 4P

Write the equation for the area of the sphere.

Here, is the area of the sphere, is the radius of the sphere.

Write the equation for the flux through the elemental part.

Here, is the flux through the elemental part, is the current and is the small elemental area.

Integrate the above equation to calculate the net flux through the entire sphere.

Here, is radius of the sphere.

The term indicates the total area of the sphere .

Substitute for .

Write the equation for luminous flux is termed of the optical power.

Re-arrange the terms.

....... (1)

Here, is the optical power.

Calculate the luminous flux.

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Thus, the intensity of the luminous flux is .

Chapter 2.2, Problem 5P

Write the equation for the wave function.

Here, are two dependent functions and is the wave function as a function of .

Write the three dimensional wave equations.

Here, is the wave function, is radius of the cylinder, is the frequency.

Substitute for and divide and multiply by on both sides.

In the above equation RHS is a function of and LHS is the function of so the validity of each side
should be equal to .

Write the Bessel’s differential equation.

Here, is wave vector.

Now,

Write the harmonic equation at .

Write the general solution of the harmonic solution in terms of wave function.

Here, is angular frequency, is imaginary and are the constants.

In the above equation is outgoing cylindrical wave and is incoming cylindrical

coordinate wave.

Thus, the required expression is .

Chapter 2.2, Problem 6P

Write the Helmholtz equation.

...... (1)

Here, is laplacian operator, is optical wave energy and is wave vector.

Consider the wave equation.

Here, is complex amplitude, is complex envelop as a function of , indicates the

imaginary part and is the distance from the axis.

The wave is propagating along the z-direction transversely modelled by the complex amplitude.

Consider the modulation is slowly is varying as a function of z.

Write the equation for the variation of the wave.

Here, is wavelength, is complex envelop and is the distance along x-axis.

Expand the Laplace equation.

 ....... (2)

Here, is complex laplacian operator.

Write the equation for the longitudinal deviation.

....... (3)

Substitute the equation (2) and (3) in equation (1).

Write the above equation in the operator forms.

Thus, the Paraxial Helmholtz equation is .

Chapter 2.4, Problem 2E

Draw the ray diagram for the lens analysis.

Here, are the incident and reflected ray angles, is focal length, is the height and is
object distance.

Write the equation corresponding to Snell’s low.

Here, is refractive index.

Consider the paraxial rays (small angles) it means .

Write the equation for .

 ...... (1)

Write the equation for by using the above figure.

...... (2)

Similarly form the figure,

...... (3)

Substitute for in equation (2).

Substitute for .

Simplify the above equation.

...... (4)

Write the equation for the focal length.

...... (5)

Here, is object length and is length of the image.

Substitute for .

...... (6)

Similarly,

Write the equation for the other lens.

...... (7)

Here, is the radius of curvature of the other lens.

Add the equation (6) and (7).

...... (8)

Substitute for in equation (8).

The above obtained equation is Lensmaker’s formula.

Chapter 2.4, Problem 3E

Draw the given figure.

Here, is focal length is number of lines, is the angle and is height.

The plane waves are transmitted by the thin lens of focal length parallel to the axis of the lens.

Generally the light is converted in the paraboidal wave (spherical wave) cantered at a point which is
known as focal point.

Write the equation for the by using the figure.

When is very small then .

Substitute for .

Thus, the value of is .

Chapter 2.4, Problem 4E

Draw the ray diagram.
Here, is centre of curvature, is width of arc, is radial distance, are coordinate distance,
is the distance from the centre to the side of the lens and is the horizontal distance.

Write the equation for the distance by using the above figure.

...... (1)

Consider the thin lines .

Simplify the term .

Substitute for in equation (1).

Write the equation for the transmittance of the lens.

Here, is the transmittance of the lens, is constant plane factor and is wave number factor,
is the wave vector and is focus length.

Write the equation for the constant plane factor.

Write the equation for the focal length.

Here, are image and object distance.

Write the equation for the input electric field based on the constant plane factor.

Here, is the function of and is the input electric field.

Similarly,

Write the equation for the output electric field based on the constant plane factor.

Here, is output electric field.

Substitute for and for .

Substitute for .

Thus, the required expression is .

 

Chapter 2.4, Problem 5E

(b)

Draw the ray diagram.

Here, is centre of curvature, is width of arc is radial distance, are coordinate distance,
is the distance from the centre to the side of the lens and is the horizontal distance.

Write the equation for the distance by using the above figure.

Consider the thin lines .

Simplify the term .

Substitute for in equation (1).

 

Write the equation for the transmittance of the lens.

Here, is the transmittance of the lens, is the wave vector, is constant plane factor and
is wave number factor.

The phase of the incident wave is proportional to and it binds the planer waveforms of the
plane wave transforming into a paraboidal wave cantered at a distance f from the lens.

Chapter 2.4, Problem 7P

Law of reflection:

According to this law, the incident, reflected light ray, and the normal to the plane surface of the
mirror are lies in the same plane.

The angle of reflection should be equal to the angle of incidence and both the angles are measured
corresponding to the normal of the mirror.

Refractive index:

It is defined as the ratio of the speed of the light in vacuum to the speed of light in material.
Mathematically it is defined as:

Here, is the speed of light in vacuum, is the refractive index and is the speed of light in
medium.

According to low of reflection, the spherical wave reflects from the plane mirror and it will remains
spherical but the orientation of the spherical wave will changed by .

Draw the figure for to show the reflection of the spherical waves.
In the above figure, the spherical ray incident on the plane mirror, it reflects according to the law of
reflection and the orientation will changed by .

Chapter 2.4, Problem 8P

Draw the direction of wave travel normal to the thin plate.

Here, is total thickness.

Write the equation for optical path length.

Here, is optical path length, is number of plates .

Consider the plane wave transmission through the transparent plate of thickness .

Consider be the complex amplitude of the wave and internal and external reflections are
ignored.

Write the equation for the propagation of the wave into the plate.
Here, is complex amplitude transmission of the plate and is wave number.

Write the equation for the complex amplitude transmission.

Here, is the complex amplitude transmission.

Now,

Here, is the wavelength.

Write the equation for the free space complex amplitude transmission.

Here, is the wave vector.

Substitute for .

Thus, the optical path length is .

Chapter 2.4, Problem 10P

Write the equation for the distance between the axis in z-plane corresponding to the given expression.

Here, is the distance between the axis in z-plane and are coordinates of x and y plane.

The distance is away from the axis in z-plane mirror need and additional distance .

Write the equation for the additional distance.

Here, is radius of curvature and is the additional distance.

In the above expression then,

Re-arrange the terms.

....... (1)

Write the equation for the focal length.

Here, is the focal length.

Substitute for in equation (1).

Write the equation for the reflectance at twice distance.

Here, is constant plane factor, is the imaginary and is wave number factor.

Substitute for .

Here, is the reflectance.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the required reflectance is .

Chapter 2.5, Problem 2E

Write the equation for the resulting intensity for two interfering waves.
Here, is the resulting intensity for two interfering waves, are interfering intensities of waves
and is the phase difference.

Consider the intensity of the either wave is .

Substitute for .

Re-arrange the terms.

....... (1)

Here, is the base intensity.

Write the equation for the phase difference.

Here, is wavelength.

Substitute for path difference.

Substitute for in equation (1).

Thus, the required expression is .

Chapter 2.5, Problem 3E

Bragg’s law:

It is the elastic scattering of x-raylight (photons) by the atoms in a lattice. The scattered
monochromatic x-raysphotons that are in phase create interference of the light. This phenomenon is
done to obtain the information about the crystal structure of the material.

Draw the figure for X-ray diffraction.

Here, is spacing between the atoms, angle of light incident and is spacing.

Write the equation for the path difference between the rays.

Write the equation for the phase difference by referring the above figure.

Substitute for .

For the constructive interference, the intensity should be maximum and the path difference in an
integer multiple of the wavelength.

For the first order

Substitute for .

Thus, the required expression is .

 
Chapter 2.5, Problem 4P
Write the equation for the displacement of the wave when it travels in z-direction.

Here, is displacement of the wave in z-direction, is amplitude, is angular frequency, is the

time, is the wave vector and is direction vector.

Write the equation for the displacement of the wave when it travels in opposite to the z-direction.

Here, is displacement of the wave opposite to the z-direction

Write the equation for angular frequency.

Here, is time period.

Write the equation for the resultant displacement.

Here, is the resultant displacement.

Substitute for and for .

In the above expression, the term is resulting amplitude and is the intensity.

From the above expression the resulting amplitude and intensity by comparing the general wave
equation is,

In the above equation, the intensity is a function of so the wave shows the graph nature.

Draw the graph ( ) between and .

 

Chapter 2.5, Problem 5P

Write the given equation.

....... (1)

Here, , are minimum and maximum values of and is the difference to sum ratios.

Write the equation for the resulting intensity for two interfering waves.

....... (2)

Here, is the resulting intensity for two interfering waves, are interfering intensities of waves
and is the angle.

For maximum intensity,

Substitute for in equation (2).

For minimum intensity,

Substitute for in equation (2).

Substitute for and for in equation (1)

For maximum fringe visibility should be zero.

Simplify the above equation.

Thus, the ratio of is .

Chapter 2.5, Problem 6P

Draw the figure 2.5-3(b) of the text book.
Here, is initial complex amplitude, are complex amplitude of spitted waves and , are
complex amplitude of reflected waves.

One of the ends Misalign mirrors produces a set of vertical and horizontal fringes at the detector.

The fringes on the detectorsare depends on the alignment (misalignment) of the mirror.

The number of vertical or horizontal fringes is directly proportional to the alignment or angleof the
mirror and inversely proportional to the incident light wavelength.

When the other mirror moves up in the interferometer, then the number of fringes will decrease.

Chapter 2.6, Problem 1E

Doppler Effect:

The change in the frequency of the sound wave when it travels from one object to another object is
known as the Doppler Effect.

Beat frequency:

The beat frequency is defined as the difference between the frequencies of the two waves.

Write the equation for the wavelength of the light.

Here, is speed of the light, is frequency of the light and is wavelength of the light.

Write the equation for the shift frequency.

Here, is shift frequency and is the speed of the wave.

Substitute for .

Here, is shift frequency, initial frequency and is the frequency.

Write the equation for the reflected frequency perceived by the observer.

Here, is the reflected frequency perceived by the observer.

Substitute for .

Simplify the above equation.

Write the equation for the apparent or beat frequency.

Here, is the apparent or beat frequency.

Substitute for .

The value of is very less as compared to .

Thus, the required expression is .

Chapter 3.1, Problem 1E

(a)

Calculate the angular divergence.

Here, is the angular divergence, is angular divergence and is initial spot size.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the angular divergence is .

Calculate the depth of focus.

Here, is depth of focus.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the depth of focus is .

Calculate the diameter of the beam.

Here, is beam diameter.

Substitute for and for .

(b)

Calculate the radius of curvature.

....... (1)

Here, is radius of curvature.

Substitute for .
Substitute for .

Similarly,

Substitute for .

Substitute for .

Thus, the radius of curvature is .

(c)

Write the equation for the optical intensity of the beam at the beam centre.

....... (2)

Here, is power, is optical intensity and is spot size.

At ,

Substitute for and for .

At ,

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the required condition is .

Chapter 3.1, Problem 3E

Write the given waist radius expression.

Here, is waist radius, is spot size, is wavelength and is radius of curvature.

Write the equation for the Gaussian beam spot size.

....... (1)

Here, is final and initial depth.

Write the equation for the radius of curvature.

...... (2)

Here, is radius of curvature.

Write the equation for the beam waist at medium.

....... (3)

Simplify the equation (2).

Re-arrange the terms.

....... (4)

Substitute for in equation (1).

Re-arrange the terms.

........ (5)

Use equation (2) and (5).

Substitute for in equation (2).

Thus, the required expression is .

Chapter 3.1, Problem 4E

Gaussian beam:

It is a beam of monochromatic electromagnetic wave (radiation) which have amplitude envelope in the
transverse plane is represented by Gaussian function.

Properties of Gaussian beam:

• The intensity of Gaussian beam is times of the peak value of intensity.

• The phase on the axis of the beam is retarded by the angle relative to the phase of a plane

wave.

• The width of the spherical beam is times of the width of the beam waist.
Write the equation for gain.

Here, is distance, is gain energy and is width from beam axis.

Substitute for and for .

Write the equation for the beam width along the beam axis.

Here, is wavelength, is the beam width along the beam axis and is constant equals to .

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the value of is .

Write the equation for the radius of curvature along the axis.

Here, are the radiuses.

Substitute for , for .

Thus, the value of is .

Chapter 3.1, Problem 5E

The depth of focus is axial distance within which the radius of the beam lies times of its minimum
value.

Write the equation for the Rayleigh range.

....... (1)
Here, is wavelength, is depth of focus and is width.

Simplify the given value of .

Here, are the radii of the inner and outer arc and is the distance between the .

Substitute for .

Substitute for in equation (1).

Thus, the equation which shows the depth of focus is .

Chapter 3.1, Problem 6P

Gaussian beam:

It is a beam of monochromatic electromagnetic wave (radiation) which have amplitude envelope in the
transverse plane is represented by Gaussian function.

Properties of Gaussian beam:

• The intensity of Gaussian beam is times of the peak value of intensity.

• The phase on the axis of the beam is retarded by the angle relative to the phase of a plane

wave.

• The width of the spherical beam is times of the width of the beam waist.

Write the equation divergence of the Gaussian beam.

Here, is divergence of the Gaussian beam, is wavelength and is waist radius.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the waist radius is .

Write the equation for the depth of focus.

Here, is the depth of focus.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the depth of focus is .

The maximum intensity is possible at the lowest beam size.

Write the equation for the maximum intensity at the lowest beat size.

....... (1)

Here, is the maximum intensity at the lowest beat size and is power.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the maximum intensity is .

Write the equation for beam after travelling distance after travelling distance .
Here, is the travelled distance.

Substitute for and for .

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the maximum intensity at is .

Chapter 3.1, Problem 7P

Write the equation for the waist at focus.

Here, is distance from to focus, is distance from , is wavelength and is waist at focus.

Write the equation for .

Here, is distance from .

Calculate the point of separation distance.

Here, is the separation distance from .

Substitute for and for .

Calculate the point of separation distance.

Here, is the separation distance from .

Substitute for and for .

Here are both much larger than the so it can see that and use large z limit from the
general case by neglecting the higher terms.

Here, is the separation distance from , is the depth of focus.

Write the equation for

Substitute for in the value of .

Consider .

Substitute for .
Simplify the above equation.

Substitute for and for and for .

Write the equation for .

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the waist radius is .

The curvature of the Gaussian beam wave front is largest at the Rayleigh distance on either side of the
waist crossing zero at the waist itself. Beyond the Rayleigh distance the curvature of the beam again
decreases in magnitude and approaching to infinity.

Draw the figure for the spherical beam corresponding to the above solution.
 

Chapter 3.1, Problem 8P

Draw the figure for the Gaussian beam in x-z plane.

Here, is waist radii in x and y-directions, is angle of divergence, is distance between the
required points and .is the distance between and focal point.

The depth of the four is the radius of the beam at the point in the direction of the propagation of
beam.
Write the equation for the depth of four in x and y-directions.

Here, is the wavelength of the beam, is depth in corresponding direction and is radius
along x-direction.

Write the equation for the angular divergence along x and y-plane.

Here, is the angular divergence and it should be in radian, is waist at focus.

Write the equation for the radius of the curvature.

Here, is the depth of focus along radius.

Write the equation of the intensity for .

Here, is the base amplitude, are the directional coordinates.

Draw the figure for the above conditions.

Write the equation of the intensity for .

Here, is the radius of curvature along x-direction.

Draw the figure for the given condition.

Here,

Thus, the required condition is .

Chapter 3.2, Problem 4E

The given wave has field distribution inside the cavity similar to the standing wave pattern. It
represents the longitudinal variation and now considers the transverse field distribution in the
transverse plane.

The optical gain of the ray is provided by the electrical pumping. The needed power is proportional to
the volume of the material and it can be reduce by decreasing the cross-sectional area of the material.

Draw the reflection of the light by the spherical mirror.

In the above spherical mirror, the radius of the curvature of the mirror is r and origin of the spherical
wave is indicates at the line of axis.

The phase front of the Gaussian beam is spherical and it can reflect back itself using the mirror with
the curvature.

When two mirrors are used in front of each other than an optical cavity will formed as shown below.

Write the equation for the symmetrical Gaussian radically distribution whose field variation.

Here, is the angular frequency, is the distance from the centre of beam, is the symmetrical
electrical field and is the base electrical field.

Chapter 3.2, Problem 6P

Write the equation for the spot size.

...... (1)
Here, is wavelength, is the waist radius, is focal length and is spot diameter.

Substitute for , for and for in equation (1).

Thus, the required focal length is .

Chapter 3.2, Problem 7P

There is no solution to this problem yet.

Chapter 3.2, Problem 8P

The curvature of the Gaussian beam wave front is largest at the Rayleigh distance on either side of the
waist crossing zero at the waist itself. Beyond the Rayleigh distance the curvature of the beam again
decreases in magnitude and approaching to infinity.

Draw the figure for Gaussian beam.

Write the equation for the angular divergence of the beam in air.

Here, is the angular divergence of the beam in air, is constant, is the wavelength, is
refractive index of air and is the width.

Write the equation for the angular divergence of the beam in medium.

Here, is the angular divergence of the beam in medium.

Calculate the ratio of .

Re-arrange the terms.

...... (1)

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the value of the angle of divergence is which is lower than the divergence angle
in air so that means the .

Chapter 3.2, Problem 9P

Write the equation for the quadratic refractive index .

Here, is the direction as a function of , is the quadratic refractive index.

Write the equation for the complex beam parameter for air side.

...... (1)

Here, is radius of curvature of the Gaussian beam in air, is wavelength, is the complex beam
parameter for air side.

Write the equation for the complex beam parameter for graded slab.

...... (2)

Here, is radius of curvature of the Gaussian beam in air, is wavelength, is the complex beam
parameter for air side.

For air neglect ,

Now, ABED low for the Gaussian beam

Calculate the .

Substitute for , for , for , for and for .

Similarly, write the equation for .

Compare the real and imaginary parts on both sides.

Thus, the required expression is .

Chapter 3.3, Problem 1E

Write the equation for intensity.

Here, is intensity at the centre radius, is waist radius, is base intensity.

Substitute for .

Draw the graph between the intensity and beam.

Here, FWHM- full width at half max.

Write the equation for the waist radius.

Substitute for .

Write the equation for the waist radius in terms of FWHM.

In the above expression,

The Gaussian function has the diameter .The radii of two circles at the peak intensity are times

at the beam waist.

Thus, the radii is times at the beam waist.

Chapter 3.3, Problem 2P

Write the equation for the intensity of the electric field at ,

Here, is the intensity at , is circle radius, is energy.

Write the equation for the power integer.

Here, is the power integer.

Substitute for .

Similarly,

Calculate the ratio .

Thus, the required power ratio at is .

Calculate the power integer when .

Calculate the ratio .

Thus, the required power ratio at is .

Similarly,

Write the equation for the intensity of the electric field at ,

Write the equation for the power integer.

Here, is the power integer.

Substitute for .
Similarly,

Calculate the ratio .

Thus, the required power ratio at is .

Calculate the power integer when .

Calculate the ratio .

Similarly, at
Thus, the required power ratio at is .

Similarly, at

Thus, the required power ratio at is .

Thus, the required power ratio at is .

Chapter 3.3, Problem 3P

Write the equation for the quadratic refractive index .

Here, is the direction as a function of , is spot width.

Draw the figure for .

Draw the figure for

Draw the figure for the super position of both the figures.
 

Chapter 4.1, Problem 2E

A Gaussian beam is defined as monochromatic electromagnetic radiation whose amplitude envelope
in the transverse plane is given by the Gaussian function as

Here, , , and are arbitrary real constants.

The function represents the complex amplitude of an optical wave

in the plane .

Construct the optical wave as

Substitute for in the above equation

Therefore, from the comparison of equations (1) and (2), it can be observed that the optical wave
represents a Gaussian beam.

Chapter 4.1, Problem 3P

The complex amplitudes of the monochromatic wave of wavelength in the and planes
are and , respectively.

If the input function is , then the output function is given as

Here, is the Fourier transform of the input function , and are the spatial
frequencies along the and axes. is the Fresnel approximation of the impulse response
function, .

The Fourier transform of the input function is given as

(a)

Substitute for in equation (2)

Substitute for in equation (1) as

Substitute for , for , and for in the above equation

Substitute for in the above equation

Therefore, the value of for equal to is

(b)

Substitute for in equation (2)

Substitute for in equation (1) as

Substitute for , for , and for in the above equation

 
Substitute for in the above equation

Therefore, the value of for equal to is

(c)

Substitute for in equation (2)

Substitute for in equation (1) as

Substitute for , for , and for in the above equation

Substitute for in the above equation

Therefore, the value of for equal to is

(d)

Substitute for in equation (2)

Substitute for in equation (1) as

Substitute for , for , and for in the above equation

Substitute for in the above equation

Therefore, the value of for equal to is

(e)

Substitute for in equation (2)

Substitute for in equation (1) as

Substitute for , for , and for in the above equation

Substitute for in the above equation

Therefore, the value of for equal to is

In each of the above cases, the input wave is expanded as a sum of the plane waves to give the value
of the output wave.

Chapter 4.1, Problem 4P

The spatial frequency, , is defined as a measure of how frequently the sinusoidal components of the
wave function repeats itself per unit of distance. The sinusoidal components of the wave are
determined using the Fourier transform.

The spatial frequency, , is related to the angle, , of the cone within which the wave directions are
confined as

Here, is the wavelength of the wave.

Substitute, for , and for in the equation as

Calculate further as

Therefore, the angle of the cone within which the wave directions are confined is .

Chapter 4.2, Problem 1E

The Fresnel and Fraunhofer approximations are employed to define the diffraction patterns which are
created when waves pass through an aperture or around objects.

Write the Fresnel approximation.

…… (1)

Here, is the Fresnel number, is the maximal angle; where is the size of aperture, is

the distance from the screen and is the wavelength.

Substitute for and for in expression (1).

…… (2)

Write the Fraunhofer approximation.

…… (3)

Substitute for and for in expression (2).

Substitute for and for in expression (3).

Hence, the range of distance is more for Fraunhofer approximation and it is more restrictive than
Fresnel approximation.

The range of distance is for Fresnel approximation and for Fraunhofer

approximation.

Chapter 4.2, Problem 2E

Fourier Integral Theorem:

The theorem states that if is a flip operator, then:

Or in other words:

Here, is a function and is its inverse Fourier transform.

Write the Fourier transform expression for field in front and back focal planes.

…… (1)
Here, is the field in front focal plane, is the field in back focal plane and are the
position co-ordinates, is .

…… (2)

Write the inverted co-ordinates. Substitute for in equation (1).

Apply Fourier integral theorem:

Hence, when the co-ordinate system is inverted, the resultant field distribution yields the inverse
Fourier transformation.

Chapter 4.2, Problem 5P

Spatial Frequency:

The measure of how frequently the sinusoidal components of a structure repeat with unit distance is
called spatial frequency.

Write the expression for spatial frequency for two points.

…… (1)

…… (2)

Here, is the spatial frequency, is the wavelength, is the focal length of the lens and
are the two points.

Subtract equation (2) from equation (1).

Substitute for , for and for .

Therefore, the focal length of the required lens will be .

Chapter 4.3, Problem 6P

Write the equation for Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

…… (1)

Here, is the intensity, is the wavelength, are the position co-ordinates, is the propagation

distance and .

Here, , is , is the deviation function and is the size of

aperture.

Calculate .

For pinholes, the - dimension can be neglected.

…… (2)

Substitute equation (2) in equation (1).

Hence, the intensity is .

 
Chapter 4.3, Problem 7P
Fraunhofer Diffraction Pattern

Write the equation for Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

…… (1)

Here, is the intensity, is the wavelength, are the position co-ordinates, is the propagation

distance and and is the aperture function, is

Fresnel Diffraction Pattern

Write the equation for Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

…… (2)

Calculate for Fraunhofer diffraction.

Substitute for .

Substitute for in equation (1).

…… (3)
Calculate for Fresnel diffraction.

Substitute for .

Substitute in equation (2).

…… (4)

From equations (3) and (4), the diffraction pattern is same for Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

Hence, for the given aperture function, the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is same as the Fresnel
diffraction pattern.

Chapter 4.4, Problem 4P

A spatial filter is an optical device that utilizes the principles and properties of optical Fourier
transform to modify the form of a beam or ray of light or any other electromagnetic radiation. The
concept of spatial filtering uses the Fourier transform for signal processing in the frequency domain.

The cross-correlation between two functions measures the similarity of two series as a function of
with displacement of one function relative to the other.

If is the complex amplitude in the object plane and is the complex amplitude in the
image plane, while spatial filtering, the first lens studies the function into its spatial Fourier
transform and divides its Fourier components so that each point in the Fourier plane agrees to a single
spatial frequency. These components are then recombined by the second lens system and the object
distribution is impeccably remodeled.

The cross-correlation between the functions and can be mathematically expressed

as
Here, is the complex conjugate of the function at displacement, .

The handling of various spatial frequencies is carried out by the optical transfer function which is a
Fourier transform of the point spread function and is complex-valued. However, the complex
amplitude transmittances of the masks and the transparencies used would be real-valued when the
point spread function is symmetric about its center.

Chapter 6.1, Problem 1E

Write the plane wave in along x-axis

…… (1)

Here, is the electric field in -plane, is the complex component of vector along -axis, is the
angular frequency, is the time taken by single oscillation, is the phase factor along -axis.

Write the plane wave in along x-axis

…… (2)

Here, is the electric field in -plane, is the complex component of vector along -direction and
is the phase factor along -axis.

Write the parametric equation for ellipse for polarization of light

…… (3)

Write the above equation in time average form

…… (4)

Here, the time average are denoted by , is the time average of , is the time average of

and is the time average of .

Define the time average of

is the total time

Multiply equation (4) with :

…… (5)

Calculate the average value of and :

Substitute the values of from equation (1) in the above equation

Rewrite the above equation using very small and approximate

…… (6)

…… (7)

Use in the above equation

Rewrite the above equation using as the phase difference

…… (8)
Substitute the values of as , as and as in equation

(5)

Add and subtract on the left side of the above equation

…… (9)

Every term in the above equation is identified as stokes parameter; Write them in terms of Stokes
Parameter

Here, , , and are stokes parameters.

Write the value of each stokes parameter from equation (9)

…… (10) …… (11)

…… (12)

…… (13)

Write the known expression for :

Squaring both sides

…… (14)

Write the known expression for :

Squaring both sides

 …… (15)

Subtract equation (15) from (14)

…… (16)

Compare equation (12) and (16)

…… (17)

Write the expression for for left circularly polarized wave

is iota

Squaring both sides in the above equation

…… (18)

Write the expression for for right circularly polarized wave

Squaring both sides in the above equation

…… (19)

Subtract equation (18) from (19)

…… (20)

From equation (13) and (20)

 
From equations (10), (11), (17) and (21), we conclude that the stokes parameters can be represented as

Arbitrary Polarization can be written as the linear combination of two orthogonal on the basis of this
representation we have calculated and

Chapter 6.1, Problem 2E

Consider the T-matrix for a wave retarder:

…… (1)

Here, the y-component is delayed by the phase and x-component remains unchanged.

For the quarter wave-retarder .

Substitute for in the equation (1).

For parallel fast axis, the total matrix is:

Solve the above matrix.

Use the relation

Therefore, the above matrix becomes.

Hence, the two cascade quarter wave-retarders with fast parallel axis is equal to half wave-retarder.

If two fast axis are orthogonal, then the matrix is:

Solve the above matrix.

Use the relation:

Therefore, the above matrix becomes:

Hence, if the fast axis are orthogonal, then the result is half-wave retarder.

Chapter 6.1, Problem 3E

Consider the Jones matrix of a linearly polarizer:

…… (1)

Here, the term is defined below:

Here, is the angle made by the polarizer with x-axis in new coordinate system.

The term is:

For linearly polarizer, the matrix is defined:

Substitute for , for and for in the

equation (1).
Solve the above matrix.

Hence, the required Jones matrix is proved.

Chapter 6.1, Problem 6P

Consider the Jones matrix for the linearly polarized light along x-axis.

…… (1)

Write the Jones vector for the polarization rotator making an angle with the x-axis.

…… (2)

When the Jones vector is passed through polarization rotator, the new matrix is:

Substitute for and for .

Solve the above matrices.

For , the above matrix becomes:

Thus, by comparing the above result with equation (1), the jones matrix is same.

Hence, the jones matrix is invariant to rotation of the coordinate system.

Chapter 6.1, Problem 7P

Consider the Jones vector making an angle with x-axis with a linearly polarized light.

…… (1)

Write the Jones vector for the half-wave retarder with fast axis at an angle with x-axis.

For , the above matrix becomes:

The transmitted Jones vector is calculated below.

Substitute for and for .

Solve the above matrices.

Thus, from the above result, the transmitted light after passing through the half-wave retarder is
linearly at an angle

Hence, the transmitted light is linearly polarized at angle .

A polarization rotator is an optical device in which the axis of a linearly polarized light is rotated by the
angle of choice while as in half-wave retarder, the axis of linearly polarized light is rotated twice the
angle between fast retarder axis and plane of polarization.

Hence, half-wave retarder is not equivalent to polarization rotator.

Chapter 6.1, Problem 8P

(a)

For wave retarder, the thickness of the crystal is calculated below:

…… (1)

Here, is the vacuum wavelength of the light and is the relative phase.

Substitute for .

Thus, it a quarter wave retarder.

The Jones matrix for the quarter wave retarder is calculated below:

Hence, the Jones matrix for retarder with fast axis along x-direction is .

(b)

For wave retarder

Substitute for in the equation (1).

This is the half wave retarder.

Consider the Jones matrix for wave retarder.

Substitute for .

Hence, the Jones matrix for half wave retarder is .

(c)

For wave retarder with fast axis along the y-axis, the Jones matrix is calculated below:

Hence, the Jones matrix for the wave retarder with fast axis along the y-axis is .

For the retarders placed in tandem, the result matrix is calculated below:

Substitute for , for and for .

 
Further solve the above matrix.

Hence, the resultant matrix introduces a rotation.

Calculate the resultant matrix if the order of the three retarders is reversed.

Substitute for , for and for .

Hence, the resultant matrix if the order of the wave retarders is reversed is .

Chapter 6.2, Problem 1E

Write the expression for the Brewster angle.

…… (1)

Here, is the refractive index of the medium 2 and is the refractive index of the medium 1.

From the given data, the medium 2 is the glass and the medium 1is the air.

Substitute for and for in the equation (1).

Hence, the required angle is .

Chapter 6.2, Problem 2E

The expression for the Brewster angle is,

…… (1)

Here, is the Brewster angle, is the refractive index glass plate and is the refractive index of
air.

Draw the diagram as shown below.

Substitute for and for in equation (1).

Determine the transmission angle by using the Snell’s law.

…… (2)

Here, is the angle of incident ray and is the angle of refracted ray.

From the diagram,

Substitute for , for and for in the equation (2).

Hence, a TM polarized beam of light is transmitted at an angle of .

Chapter 6.2, Problem 4P

Determine the angle made by the refracted wave with the normal by using the relation below:

Here, are the refractive indices of medium 1, 2 and is the angle made by incident wave with
the normal.

Substitute for , for and for .

Determine the reflection coefficient for transverse electric wave by using the relation below.

Substitute for , for , for and for .

Determine the power reflection of the transverse electric wave.

Substitute for .
Hence, the power reflection of TE wave is .

Determine the reflection coefficient for transverse magnetic wave by using the relation below.

Substitute for , for , for and for .

Determine the power reflection of the transverse magnetic wave.

Substitute for .

Hence, the power reflection of TM wave is .

Determine the average reflectance at the normal incidence.

Substitute for and for .

Hence, the average reflectance at the normal incidence is .

 
Chapter 6.2, Problem 5P
Consider the Fresnel equations when the electric field is parallel to the plane of incidence.

…… (1)

And,

……. (2)

Here, are the refractive indices of medium, is the angle made by the incident wave with
normal and is the angle made by the refracted wave with normal.

Use the given condition:

Substitute in the equation (1).

Thus, the reflection coefficient is zero.

Apply the Snell’s law:

Use the Snell’s law in the equation (1).

…… (3)

Apply the Trigonometric formula.

Thus, equation (3) becomes.

If , the reflection coefficient is zero and therefore no energy is carried by the refracted
wave when the reflected and refracted waves are perpendicular to each other.

From Snell’s law and use

Hence, the required Brewster’s angle is .

Chapter 6.2, Problem 6P

Determine the phase retardation of the transverse electric (TE) wave by using the equation below:

…… (1)

Here, are the refractive index of two mediums and is the angel made by the incident wave
with the normal.

For the transverse electric wave:

The critical angle when the waves is introduced by total internal reflection is as TE and transverse
magnetic waves are perpendicular to each other.

Determine the angle .

Here, is the critical angle.

Substitute for .

Substitute for , for and for in the equation (1).

Determine the phase retardation of the transverse magnetic (TM) wave.

Substitute for , for and for .

Determine the phase retardation.

Substitute for and for .

Hence, the required phase retardation is .

Chapter 6.3, Problem 1P

(a)

Calculate the retardation per millimetre.

Here, is uniaxial refractive index and is wavelength.

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the retardation per millimetre is .

(b)

Calculate the thickness of the crystal quarter-wave retarder.

Here, is the thickness of the crystal quarter-wave retarder.

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the required thickness is .

Chapter 6.3, Problem 2P

Poynting vector:

The Poynting vectors indicate the direction of the rate of energy transfer per unit area.

Its unit is .

Write the equation for the angle between the wave vector and Poynting vector.

....... (1)

Here, is the angle between the wave vector and Poynting vector and is uniaxial refractive
index.

Substitute for , for in equation (1).

Thus, the angle between the wave vector and Poynting vector is .

Chapter 6.3, Problem 3P

Write the equation for the wave vector of the extraordinary wave.
Here, is the wave vector of the extraordinary wave, are refractive index of air and quartz and
is angle of incident.

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the wave vector of the extraordinary wave is .

Write the equation for the wave vector of the ordinary wave.

Here, is the wave vector of the extraordinary wave, are refractive index of air and quartz and
is angle of incident.

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the wave vector of the extraordinary wave is .

Chapter 6.3, Problem 4P

Draw the figure for the reflection of the light.
Here, is thickness of the slab, is refractive index of the glass slab, is incident angle and is
lateral shift.

Write the equation for the lateral shift.

For the maximum incident ,

Here, is critical angle.

Substitute for and for .

Thus, the maximum lateral shift is .

Chapter 6.3, Problem 5P

Write the equation for the low of reflection.

....... (1)

Here, is angle of incident, is angle of reflection, are reflective indexes of medium 1 and 2.

Draw the figure for the reflection of the ray.

Here, is drift of the ray.

Calculate the angle of reflection.

Substitute for , for and for in equation (1).

Write the equation for the lateral shift.

Substitute for , for and for .

Thus, the drift of the ray is .

Chapter 6.3, Problem 6P

Conical refraction:

The propagation of the light along the optic axis of the crystal depends on the symmetry of the crystal.
The light beam does not change when the crystal is optically uni-axial. When the crystal is optically
biaxial, the beam will transform radically from its initial direction. This is the phenomenon of conical
refraction.

It causes a ray passes through a crystal surface to be refracted to the diverging cone of the light.

This type of optical effect is to take almost rill into the oblivion. This is major of the conical refraction
application id optical trapping.

In this 3D of the dark because it gives the analytical for metals of deduced by directly from the
theories of the conical refraction.

The conical refraction is present an experimental implemental of this optical potential.

Chapter 6.4, Problem 1E

Write the equation for the rotator power for the optically active medium.

....... (1)

Here, is the rotator power for the optically active medium, are refractive indices and is
wavelength.
Write the equation for .

Substitute for and for .

Expand the and on the basis of Taylor’s principal and neglect the higher order

terms.

Thus, the required expression is .

Chapter 6.6, Problem 1P

Any specific material have different coefficient of absorption for left and right circular polarized light.

Write the Jones Vector.

Here, is energy absorbed in corresponding surface, are the coordinates, are

coefficients of absorptions.

The elements of the Jones matrix act on the above Jones vector to creates the different possible
polarization.

The right circular light can be denoted by,

Corresponding to Jones matrix the vector becomes,

From the above relation, the right circular Jones matrix becomes,

Thus, the required expression is .

Chapter 6.6, Problem 2P

Write the equation for the intensity.

Here, is angle between the incident light and pass axis, is intensity.

Write the equation for the first polarize intensity of the emergent light.

Here, is the first polarize intensity of the emergent light.

Similarly,

Write the equation for the second polarize intensity of the emergent light.

Write the equation for the third polarize intensity of the emergent light.

Similarly for N-polarizer intensity becomes,

The amplitude of the light is directly proportional to the square root of intensity.

Write the equation for the amplitude corresponding to the above calculation.

....... (1

The last polarizer (Nth polarizer) along the positive y-axis so the light is transmitted light is linear
polarised.

When ,

Substitute for in equation (1).

Thus, the required expression is .