A PRESENTATION ON

POLYMER ADDITIVES, BLENDS AND COMPOSITES

BY
GROUP 3

FOR CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT IN CHE 591: POLYMER ENGINEERING II

COURSE LECTURER:
ENGR. DR. C.E. AKHABUE
 GROUP MEMBERS

NAMES MAT NO

EDOBOR OSARUMWENSE ENG1703863

KINU KELVINJOE ENG1703889

RICHARD MARK OSAMEKE ENG1703917

EMMANUEL OHIOKHAI OKHUOYA ENG1603820

DAVID MARVIS MOHAMMED ENG1709842

KANUHOR EJIROGHENE EMMANUEL ENG1703888

EBENE SOPHIA ENG1703862

UDOKANG DENNIS ENG1603841

PERFECT ISIBOR OSAHON ENG1707908

i
 TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENTS
GROUP MEMBERS ................................................................................................................................... i
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................................... 3
ADDITIVES ................................................................................................................................................. 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ADDITIVES .................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 19
POLYMER BLENDS ........................................................................................................................... 19
CHARACTERIZATIONS OF BLENDS ............................................................................................ 19
BENEFITS OF BLENDING ................................................................................................................ 21
B. blending might prompt ease of processability: .............................................................................. 21
CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................................................................................... 23
COMPOSITES .......................................................................................................................................... 23
COMMON COMPOSITES ..................................................................................................................... 23
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES........................................................................................ 24
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES ............................................................................................ 24
ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES ...................................................................................................... 25
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES ................................................................................................ 26
POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMCs)..................................................................................... 26
FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF PMCS........................................................................ 27
QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................................................. 32
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 33

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Exemplified Application Of Additives In Various Stages Of The Production Process Of A
Polymeric Material........................................................................................................................................ 1
Figure 2: Impact of expanding plasticizer fixation on the modulus-temperature plot .................................. 6
Figure 3: Sub-atomic designs of some flame retardants ............................................................................. 10
Figure 4: A portion of the Natural Foaming Agents ................................................................................... 17
Figure 5: Structures of Silane coupling agents ........................................................................................... 18
Figure 6: Visual Portrayal of Miscible Polymer blend Versus Immiscible Polymer blend ........................ 20
Figure 7: Classification of Composites ....................................................................................................... 25

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning phases of the improvement of the polymer commercials it was understood
that helpful materials must be gotten assuming that specific additives were integrated into the
polymer framework, in a cycle regularly known as 'compounding'.
Normally, commercial plastics are combinations of at least one polymers and different
additives like plasticizers, flame retardants, lubricants, stabilizers, and fillers. The specific plan
will rely on the particular application or handling prerequisite. For instance, poly (vinyl chloride)
(PVC) is a thermally unsound polymer having high modulus, or firmness, regular of other lustrous
polymers at room temperature. To get an adaptable grade sap of PVC for use as bundling film or
for wire protection, the polymer should be blended with a plasticizer to diminish its Tg and with a
modest quantity of an additive to work on its warm dependability at handling temperatures.
Much of the time, certain properties of a polymer can be upgraded by blending it with another
polymer. For instance, the designing thermoplastic, poly (2, 6-dimethyl-1, 4-phenylene oxide)
(PPO), is a high-Tg polymer that is challenging to process in light of its powerlessness to warm
oxidation at high temperatures. Commercials saps of this polymer (Noryl) are blends of PPO and
high-influence polystyrene (HIPS) and can likewise incorporate various additives, like ointments,
warm stabilizers, flame retardants, or fillers. Since the Tg of PS (ca. 100°C) is lower than that of
PPO (ca. 214°C), the in general Tg of the PPO/HIPS blend is lower than that of PPO alone and, in
this way, the tar can be dissolve handled at diminished temperatures where the oxidative
precariousness of PPO isn't an issue. The fuse of HIPS likewise diminishes the expense of this
designing sap and further develops the effect strength of the blend.
Polymeric composites are actual combinations of a polymer (the grid) and a supporting filler
(the scattered stage) that further develops some mechanical property like modulus or scraped spot
opposition. Fillers might be inorganic (e.g., calcium carbonate) or natural (graphite fiber or a
fragrant polyamide like Kevlar). Practically any material can be utilized as the composite lattice,
including ceramic, carbon, and polymeric materials. Regularly, networks for polymeric
composites are thermosets like epoxy or (unsaturated) polyester sap; be that as it may, a few
designing thermoplastics with high Tg and great effect strength, for example, thermoplastic
polysulfones, have been utilized for composites. Head applications for composites are in
development and transportation.
It is significant anyway to take note of that, additives can be added at different phases of
creation of a polymeric material as found in the diagram underneath.

1
Figure 1: Exemplified application of additives in various stages of the production process of
a polymeric material

2
 CHAPTER TWO

ADDITIVES

An additive is any substance that is added commonly in little fixations to resins to

 Upgrade their properties

 Ease handling
 Change the physical, chemical or electrical properties of finished results
 Lessen the expense of production

An additive is a substance which is integrated into plastics to accomplish the ideal physical or
synthetic properties in the completed product, and is planned to be a fundamental piece of the
completed article.

Additives give on plastics huge expansions of properties in at least one bearings, such as
general durability, stiffness and strength, impact resistance, thermal resistance, resistance to
flexure and wear, acoustic isolation, etc.
The rubber industry was the original user of additives. Rubber is a thermosetting polymer, which
traditionally requires curing (peroxides), in a response which should be constrained by initiators
(for example sulfur compounds), accelerators (for example aniline), retarders, and so on. The
whole compounding and moulding process is to be controlled by antioxidants and antiscorch
agents to prevent decomposition. Plasticizers are added to further ease processability, and adhesion
promoters might be added to increase bonding with reinforcement. In order to protect products of
cured rubber during their lifetime, different additives are infused into the compound with give
protection from ozone, bright and inside heat develop (hysteresis) as the compound is stressed.
Other crucial parts of a final rubber compound are fillers as reinforcing agents, pigments, and
extenders (essentially low-cost fillers).

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SUPPLY FORMS

Different physical supply forms for product formulation exist: powders, irregular flakes,
beads/prills, granulate (highly extruded or compacted), lenses, pastilles, spheres, emulsions and
liquids. Most of the additives are solids. Product shape is unequivocally impacted by the creation
strategy for the additive, commonly expulsion, (strand) pelletizing, crushing, showering, chipping,
or pastillating. The fundamental worry of the additive maker is dependably to have a characterized
throughput (kg/h) of pellets with a particular typical measurement (mm) from a given material. A
latest thing is the re-working of conventional workhorse grades of a few additive classes into
ecologically more acceptable product shapes, which offer more noteworthy safety and are simpler
to deal with and to blend. Conventional additives in powder structure discharge dust and will
generally stream sporadically in feeder gear causing problems of hygiene and handling.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADDITIVES
Additives can be classified into two namely:
 Additives that maintain polymer properties
 Additives that extend polymer properties

1. The first class includes additives that change plastics into desired shape and to safeguard
materials from degradation by heat, oxidation, mechanical and attacks that are chemical in nature.
Examples of the “maintaining” class are antioxidants, plasticizers, heat stabilizers, processing
aids, and lubricants.

2. Additives which expands polymer properties provides an extension of service timeline of

plastics while still allowing the plastics to widen its area of application, e.g. UV/light stabilizers,
antioxidant, and antimicrobials, flame retardants. By utilizing these additives, the chain and
molecular weight of the polymer stay unaltered under specific conditions and period of use.

Other additives which modify polymer surface or bulk properties without actually changing the
polymer molecular weight or chain exists. Examples include nucleating Agents, clarifiers, surface
modifiers, as well as antifogging and antistatic Agents. Additives like chain extenders or
crosslinking/spreading Agents chemically react with the polymer chain and may primarily change

4
the polymer structure/engineering. Also, a few additives are infused into polymers not to fully
impact the actual polymer but safeguard merchandise that the advanced polymer would carry e.g.
UV absorbers and oxygen scavengers that protect content of food packaging polymeric products.

We will discuss some of the most common categories of polymer additives below. It is however
necessary to point out that even within a specific category, like plasticizers, there are a very large
number of additives available. Therefore the additive which is best for a given polymer plastic
depends hugely on the base polymer (for the purpose of compatibility) and the application of the
final product.

Plasticizers:

Most Base polymers are rigid and as such lack the necessary flexibility and properties that are
needed for plastics processing. Plasticizers are added to enhance rheology alongside elasticity.
Plasticizers is presently one of the most widely used polymer additive in the polymer industry. An
example of a plasticizer and its area of use is the esters used in the production of PVC materials.
Plasticizers, especially for PVC, comprise one of the biggest fragments of the additives market.
The chief capability of a plasticizer is to decrease the modulus of a polymer at the temperature of
use by bringing down its Tg. The impact of a plasticizer on modulus is outlined by the figure
underneath. As displayed, expanding the convergence of the plasticizer causes the change from
the high-modulus (shiny) level area to the low-modulus (rubbery) level district to happen at lower
temperatures. Moreover, the progress of the plasticized polymer happens over a more extensive
scope of temperatures than for the unplasticized polymer. Plasticizers are organic compounds with
low molecular weight which has a Tg of about - 50°C. At times, a miscible high molecular weight
polymer having a low Tg (e.g., polycaprolactone or copolymers of ethylene and vinyl acetic acid
derivation) can be utilized as a plasticizer. Necessities for a compelling plasticizer incorporate
incomplete or complete miscibility with the host polymer and a low Tg. The Tg of the plasticized
polymer relies on the plasticizer focus and the Tg of every part.

5
Figure 2: Impact of expanding plasticizer fixation on the modulus-temperature plot

6
Fillers

Fillers are typically basic or complex substances which may be metallic or nonmetallic, organic
or inorganic, or of animal or vegetable origin, utilized for the changing and reduction of polymer
properties and cost respectively. At low levels, filler might lessen formation of cracks and
deformation in final polymer products. It may improve the surface characteristics, abrasion,
temperature and humidity resistance and flow properties under cold conditions. It may also
increase dimensional stability and reduce molding pressure and processing temperature.

It might likewise increment layered strength and decrease forming strain and handling
temperature.

Fillers incite between polymers three kinds of cooperation with viscoelastic way of behaving:

1. Polymer, fascination, relative development and flexible recuperation;

2. Filler particles and polymer;

3. Filler particles themselves.

The manner of interaction between polymers is determined by the nature of the polymer molecule,
its routineness, and portability of its sections, level of steric block and the presence of steady or
transient crosslinks and entanglements and loose ends in the curing. The presence of fillers
modifies the relative segmental motion of the polymer just marginally.

Fillers are a fairly straightforward and generally applied to upgrade on the mechanical performance
and decrease the expense of polymeric materials. A few properties of materials have changed with
the incorporation of fillers, including modulus, thermal expansion, creep resistance, strength,
impact resistance, etc. Impact resistance is one of the significant mechanical properties that
empower the use of materials. The fuse of fillers into polymers has empowered them to be utilized
in different designing applications.

Filler acts as a heterogeneous nucleating agent. Its nucleating impact is regulated by the
concentration of the filler, size and state of the filler particles, the chemical structure of the filler
and furthermore by the dispersion of the filler particles in the polymer matrix. It is likewise
impacted by the course of expansion of filler into the polymer, change of the filler surface and the
shared communication of the polymer and the filler.
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 Fillers can be added to thermosetting polymers to increment durability, strength, firmness,
layered solidness, consistency, warm conductivity and electrical conductivity. Fillers can likewise
be added to diminish shape shrinkage, coefficient of warm development (CTE), fume transport,
and at times, cost. To further develop such mechanical properties many fillers with a remarkable
arrangement of qualities are integrated, for example, inorganic fillers, including powder, glass
fiber, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) barium sulfate (BaSO4), and so on.

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the least expensive industrially accessible inorganic filler material.
It has been widely utilized as a particulate filler in polymer. In any case, the contradiction of its
high energy hydrophilic surface with the low surface energy of hydrophobic polymers is an issue.
It is important to take care of this issue before it very well may be utilized as useful filler. The
surface is frequently made organophilic by different surface modifiers, for example, silane
coupling Agents, titanate coupling Agents, phosphate coupling Agents or stearic corrosive.
Subsequently, a monolayer of hydrophobic natural particle is joined to the mineral surface.

Barium sulfate (BaSO4) is utilized as filler attributable to its phenomenal temperature and
corrosive and antacid obstruction. It further develops properties like effect opposition, compound
obstruction, heat opposition, layered security and strength, and so on. Polymer composites with
BaSO4 have low thickness, high mechanical properties and warm conductivity and are misty to
X-beams. The polymer composites made with the consolidation of BN can diminish thermal
expansion while both increasing and enhancing thermal conductivity and electrical insulation
properties respectively.

A little addition of BN could upgrade extrusion properties by expanding their flow capacity.
Carbon dark filled polymers have many fascinating scientific and applied viewpoints. The various
uses of these materials incorporate antistatic materials with moderate conductivity or potentially
minimal expense and furthermore in semiconducting materials for the cable industry.

Filler in polymer additionally has the contrary impacts of reinforcement and nucleation. The
reinforcement brings about an expansion in modulus and bulk crystallinity, though the ability of
calcium carbonate to nucleate diminishes the spherulite size and adversely affects yield pressure,
reducing the positive impact of the expansion in level of crystallinity.

8
The impact of fillers on the polymer structure, energy of crystallization, and extreme properties of
composite polymer materials is a mind boggling issue because of various elements concerning the
filler as well as the polymer. Subsequently, the level of progress relies upon the prudent decision
of support, molecule size and shape, volume division, and the surface treatment that advances
association between the polymer framework and filler.

Flame Retardants

Flame retardants are additives that slow down the science and physical science of the ignition
interaction. Flame resistant with fragrant and aliphatic gatherings can lead to hydrophobic and
hydrophilic moieties. With flame resistant, the similarity and miscibility with the polymer is
significant. Flame retardant requires the disturbance of the consuming system at least one phases
so the cycle is flamed inside an OK timeframe, and different instruments are utilized.

A significant consider the flame arrangement and consuming of polymers are thermo-oxidative
responses which continue all the while in the gas stage, dense stage, and on the outer layer of the
connection point limit. Notwithstanding the speed increase of the corruption, the retardants
likewise influence the delivery pace of products during debasement.

The significant fundamental synthetic components in most commercials flame retardants are
chlorine, phosphorus, and bromine. Most flame retardants contain at least one of these
components, frequently notwithstanding such different components as nitrogen and antimony. The
presence of nitrogen or potentially antimony upgrades the viability of the fundamental components
in specific blends (definitions).

9
 Figure 3: Sub-atomic designs of some flame retardants

The Combustibility of polymer can be considered from three perspectives:

1 .Fire Hazard, or the degree to which the material addresses a threat to life and property;

2. Fire damage, or the degree to which the way of behaving of the material in a flame adds to
monetary misfortune;

3. Fire protection, or the degree to which the material diminishes the danger and harm to different
materials in the system.

Alumina trihydrate, combinations of halogenated organics, and antimony oxide are the most
usually involved flame retardants in polymers. Customarily, halogen-containing compounds, alone
or related to antimony trioxide, are the principal flame retardants. Metal hydroxides, for the most
part aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide, are ordinarily utilized as flame retardants in
polymers because of their nontoxicity and minimal expense. Ammonium polyphosphate
(Application) is a viable intumescent flame retardant for polymer-based materials.

10
Antistatic Agents

Antistatic Agents are utilized as additives in polymer to disseminate electrostatic surface

charge on polymer surfaces because of contrariness with polymer. The additive moves to the outer
layer of the polymer, building uniform layer. The hydrophilic end of the additive assumes control
over the static charge leaving lipophilic end as anchors in the polymer. The distending hydrophilic
end retains dampness from the encompassing air and develops a conductive way, diminishing the
surface resistivity. Antistatic agents can act by building up a conductive path to bring charged
particles into contact and as lubricant or mold-release agents during processing.

The rate of migration is dependent on a number of factors such as compatibility between the
antistatic additives and polymer, polymer crystallinity, total amount of polymer additives,
concentration of antistatic, and temperature.

Quaternary ammonium compounds, long-chain derivatives of glycols and polyhydric compounds,

and N, N-bis (2-hydroxy-ethyl) alkyl amine are used as antistatic agents in polymer. However,
glyceryl monostearate (GMS) is one of the most common antistatic additives used in polymer.
Glyceryl monobehenate (GMB) and blendtures of GMB and GMS are more effective antistats in
polymer than GMS alone.

Antistatic plastic materials are frequently made by compounding a thermoplastic with a conductive
filler such as carbon black, carbon fibers or metal fibers. Virtually all migration of internal
antistatic additives to a polymer surface apparently takes place during processing

Colorants

Valuable colorants are framed through covalent coupling with polymers. They structure
agglomerates with polymer in light of the fact that the greater part of them are polar species. Costly
natural shades are the most powerless against the agglomeration issue. Colorants are regularly
utilized with transporter saps. These transporter saps advance great and uniform scattering by:

 Wetting of the pigment surface, forestalling agglomeration

 Separating agglomerates or arrangement of agglomeration.

Pigments in customary structure significantly affect polymer. They cause an unpredictable and
inconsistent effect on the physical properties with highly variable dimension, which are common

11
problems in polymer products. Colorants don't nucleate and consequently don't affect actual
physical properties. In this manner, colorants work on the presence of polymers and cover staining

12
because of handling. Probably the most widely recognized and financially savvy colorants are
carbon dark, titanium dioxide, and azo-type colors.

Antimicrobial Agents (Biocides)

Antimicrobial properties, especially buildup opposition, are in commercials polymer

organizations containing low groupings of truly consolidated antimicrobial Agents, for example,
chlorinated aromatics, organometallic compounds, and so on. Antimicrobial Agents are a
significant part of resistance that are deadly to an expansive range of microbes, like Gram-positive
and Gram-negative microscopic organisms, growths and protozoa, however nontoxic to
mammalian cells.

A synthetically fortified framework could prompt an assortment of modern, clinical, and purchaser
products having further developed protection from microbial assault. Weighty metals with wide
range biocidal impacts are the most generally utilized inorganic antimicrobials. Ionic silver is
known to have the biggest antimicrobial limit, with long haul biocidal properties, low
unpredictability and low poisonousness to eukaryotic cells. Hence, silver-based antimicrobial
fillers in polymer grids base their antimicrobial movement on a supported arrival of silver particles.

Antimicrobials are coordinated into polymer framework materials any place the microbial
development is impeding to the products. Metallic silver is somewhat nonreactive, however in
watery conditions, silver particles are delivered, and the antimicrobial action relies upon the
intracellular gathering of low groupings of silver particles.

Utilization of polymeric materials with antimicrobial properties has been acquiring expanding
interest in blendes and composites. Polymers can go about as framework of the materials holding
the antimicrobial Agents. The qualities of the polymer, like its hydrophilicity or its sub-atomic
weight, affect the last antimicrobial movement concerning angles from the pace of biocide delivery
to giving synergistic exercises. Copper 8-hydroxyquinolate and n-(trichloromethylthio) phthalate
are utilized to lessen development of microorganisms on polymer surfaces.

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Crosslinking Agents

Crosslinking Agents integrate carbon particles from various chains of the polymer, changing
what were once gooey straight portions into an insoluble gel network that does not soften anymore
or streams like a run of the mill thermoplastic. The level of crosslinking that not entirely set in
stone by the level of polymer chains that are interconnected in this organization, or all in all, the
thickness of the gel part. Higher crosslink thickness is the consequence of additional linkages per
length of polymer chain, bringing about bigger property changes.

Crosslinking is an extremely valuable procedure for the change of polymers. It tends to be started
by heat, substance Agents, illumination, or a blend of these. Hypothetically, any straight polymer
can be changed over into a cross-linked polymer with some adjustment in the particle. Crosslinking
is a strategy for working on the layered soundness at higher temperatures and expanding protection
from mechanical burdens which produce twisting. Crosslinking is a successful method for working
on its quality.

Particles have at least two gatherings equipped for responding with the utilitarian gatherings of
polymer chains, where such a response interfaces or connections the chains 2-
mercaptobenzothiazole, benzoyl peroxide, dicumyl peroxide, sulfur, and toluene diisocyanate.
Crosslinking of a thermoplastic is ordinarily a two-step methodology. To start with, compounding
and shaping are performed under conditions which shouldn't enact the crosslinking responses. The
last option is rather acted in a subsequent step, frequently at fairly expanded temperature.

The pace of a thermally enacted crosslinking response, e.g., a nucleophilic replacement, ought to
hence be basically as high as could really be expected. The reactivity ought to, then again, not be
sufficiently high to cause sub-atomic amplification or in any event, crosslinking rashly. Any place
a branch extremist consolidates with another branch revolutionary, it shapes a crosslink between
the two macromolecules included. Any place the quantity of crosslinks hence shaped surpasses a
specific basic part of the quantity of chains, generally a limitless sub-atomic weight crosslinked
insoluble organization might result.

Crosslinking is a somewhat broad term in composite science. Crosslinking is utilized as a more

broad term to incorporate restoring, which represents crosslinking by synthetics. Crosslinking is a
course of shaping a three-layered network structure from a direct polymer by a compound or actual

14
technique. Substance strategies produce covalently fortified networks, i.e., compound gels. The
arrangement of organization structure is one of the fundamental circumstances for creating the
actual properties. Crosslinking Agents include no impact inside the translucent districts of a
polymer. Compound crosslinking is another technique that has been utilized economically for
crosslinking polymers like polyethylene.

Without any gas pedals, the crosslinking response requires a few hours and is at this point not of
commercials significance. With the utilization of gas pedals, ideal restoring can be achieved.
Notwithstanding, restoring can be accomplished with expanded crosslinking utilizing various
different compound functionalities, including amides, anhydrides and amines.

The crosslinking Agents will present an organization that further develops intensity and substance
opposition, stress breaking, and shrinkage. The main strategy is the peroxide-instigated
crosslinking.

Regularly dicumyl peroxide is applied as the crosslinking specialist and stabilizers are required
towards thermo-oxidative corruption. Epoxy tars have as of late been hardened utilizing low Tg
materials, for example, macro monomers of poly (n-butyl acrylate)

Peroxides

Peroxides are utilized as relieving Agents to start the responses in thermoset polymers. Natural
peroxide Agents are the most well-known Agents used to start free extremists and subsequently
controlled crosslinking in polymer. The polymer from a polymerization started by the peroxide
has a sub-atomic weight a lot of lower than that of a polymer from a polymerization performed
under comparable circumstances and continuing at a similar rate yet started by
azobisisobutyronitrile.

Benzoyl peroxide (BPO) and different peroxides have been utilized widely as response initiators
and additionally crosslinking Agents, Ketone peroxides and bisazoisobutyronitrile debased the
polymer. Dicumyl peroxide, the best restoring specialist, was trailed by tert-butyl cumyl peroxide,
cymyl cumyl peroxide, and methyl cumyl peroxide. Comparable in relieving activity was l-
isobutoxy-1-cumyl peroxyethane. Benzoyl peroxide and lauroyl peroxide were more dynamic at
lower temperatures, while tert-butyl perbenzoate showed a moderate way of behaving. Di-tert-
butyl peroxide was significantly less dynamic than the cumyl peroxides however comparable in

15
its warm reaction. Tert-butyl hydroperoxide alone added to pliable or modulus upgrade in a
polyurethane stock. Cumene hydroperoxide, p-methane hydroperoxide, and tert-butyl
isopropylbenzene hydroperoxide are dared to apply a semi relieving activity from decreased
extensibility and expanded recuperation from elastic set by stocks where they had been integrated.
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, dicyclohexanone peroxide, and methyl amyl ketone peroxide
corrupted the polymer. The fundamental kinds of polymeric peroxides are:

Vinyl polyperoxides, got by the oxidative polymerization of vinyl monomers;

Corrosive polyperoxides, got by the buildup of natural dibasic acids with sodium peroxide.

Vinyl polyperoxides are of interest because of their potential applications like exceptional
initiators and curatives.

Foaming Agents

A Foaming agent can be any substance or blend of substances fit for delivering cell structure
inside a polymer matrix. During the processing of polymers, the foaming agent produces gas that
works with the development of the polymer. Two sorts of substances, to be specific physical and
chemical Foaming Agents, are steady. Nitrogen is a physical blowing specialist which expands
when tension is delivered, bringing about the development of cell structure. The thermal and
physical properties of combinations of polymer and blowing Agents along with information on
qualities of these parts are the premise of polymeric foams. The properties which improve while
utilizing Foaming in polymeric materials are:

 Diminishes weight, which lessens raw materials costs;

 Improves properties like protection against heat or noise and electrical properties;

 Relieves internal stresses that cause warpage or sink marks in the molded parts.

16
 Figure 4: A portion of the Natural Foaming Agents

Foaming Agents are ordered into two significant classifications:

 Inorganic blowing Agents: Sodium bicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, sodium boron

hydride, silicon oxy-hydride, and so forth. They produce gas rather leisurely and age is
hard to control.
 Organic blowing Agents: Azodicarbonamide (ADC), dinitrosopentamethylene tetramine
(DPT), 4, 4 – oxybis (benzenesulfonyl hydrazide) (OBSH), and so forth. Gas age at a
fitting rate by warming and disintegration temperature can be handily controlled with
blowing activators.

There are two types of chemical foaming agents, namely endothermic and exothermic foaming
agents. A foaming agent is used to increase rigidity in many thermoplastic polymers. Endothermic
foaming agents absorb and exothermically release heat during cellular structure formation.
Foaming agents are used in polymer processing methods such as extrusion, injection, compression
and rotational molding. Foaming agents should have the following characteristics:

 Gas formation must take place in a temperature range close to the processing temperature
of the polymer;
 They should be easily dispersible within the polymer;
 Decomposition products should be compatible with the polymer;
 They should not have any detrimental influence on the polymer’s properties;
 They should be color neutral, and not be corrosive in nature.

17
Coupling/Dispersing Agents

Coupling agents such as silane, titanate, etc., are used to improve the composite properties.
They convert the hydrophilic surfaces of reinforcing agents, such as fillers of calcium carbonate
and natural fibers, to hydrophobic ones in order to disperse them in the polymer. Therefore, the
polymer and reinforcing agents are effective enough to have the interfacial adhesion properties of
each other.

Aminosilane is promoted for the interaction between fiber and polymer as adhesion promoter. It
helps to improve the tensile strength of the composites. Other treatments with
dichlorodiethylsilane, phthalic anhydride and maleated polypropylene in wood fiber with some
polymers were found to be ineffective.

Figure 5: Structures of Silane coupling agents

18
 CHAPTER THREE
POLYMER BLENDS
A polymer blend is an individual from a class of materials practically equivalent to metal
combinations where something like two polymers are blended together to make another material
with various physical properties.
Polymer blends are actual combinations of at least two polymers regardless of any compound
holding between them. The target of polymer blending is a down to earth one of accomplishing
financially suitable products through either one of a kind properties or lower cost than a few
different method could give.
A polymer blend is a combination of at least two polymers that have been blended together to
make another material with various actual properties.

CHARACTERIZATIONS OF BLENDS
By and large, polymer blends are ordered into all things considered:
1. Miscible polymer blend: This alludes to a blend of two undefined polymers, homogenous
down to the sub-atomic level and satisfying the thermodynamic circumstances for a miscible
multi-part framework. The really thermodynamic state of polymer similarity is the negative
worth of Gibbs free energy: ΔGm = ΔHm - TΔSm (can likewise be composed as ΔGm ≈ ΔHm ≤
0), and a positive worth of the second subordinate regarding creation: ∂2ΔGm/∂φ2 > 0. Where;
ΔGm is without gibbs energy of blending;
ΔHm is the free enthalpy;
ΔSm is the entropy;
T is the temperature;
φ is the piece, where φ is generally taken as the volume part of one of the parts.
ΔSm is the entropy factor and is a proportion of confusion or irregularity, is consistently certain
and, hence, is great for blending or miscibility particularly for low sub-atomic weight
arrangements. Conversely, polymer arrangements have monomers with a high sub-atomic weight
and thus the enthalpy of blending (ΔHm) is likewise a game changer for miscibility. ΔHm is the
intensity that is either consumed (endothermic) or created (exothermic) during blending. On the
off chance that the blending is exothermic, the framework is driven towards miscibility. The
blending is exothermic just when solid explicit cooperation happen between the blend parts. The
most well-known explicit collaborations found in polymer blends are hydrogen holding, dipole
and ionic communications.
Miscible polymers have a solitary stage structure, have properties of normal qualities between
the upsides of properties of its parts and have one Tg.

19
Immiscible polymer blend: This is a blend that displays multiple stages and doesn't conform to
the thermodynamic states of stage solidness. It is a blend whose free energy of blending; ΔGm ≈
ΔHm > 0. Typically, has two Tg's, since the two parts are stage separated. Miscible polymer
blend

Miscible polymer blend Immiscible PB

Figure 6: Visual Portrayal of Miscible Polymer blend Versus Immiscible Polymer blend

Researchers frequently measure the Tg of a blend to see whether it is miscible or immiscible. On

the off chance that two Tg's are found, the blend is immiscible. If by some stroke of good luck
one Tg is noticed, then, at that point, the blend is probably going to be miscible.
3. Compatible polymer blend: blends that are miscible in a specific valuable scope of structure
and temperature, yet immiscible in others. Most viable blends are immiscible and can be made
viable exclusively by an assortment of compatibilization strategies. At the point when the point
of interaction as well as the morphology of an immiscible blend is changed a polymer
combination is gotten.

METHODS OF BLENDING
Most polymer matches are immiscible, and accordingly, their blends are not framed
unexpectedly. Also, the stage design of polymer blends isn't harmony and relies upon the course
of their readiness.
Five techniques are utilized for the planning of polymer blending
1. Melt blending
2. Solution blending
3. Latex blending
4. Partial block or join copolymerization
5. Preparation of interpenetrating polymer organizations (IPN).
An IPN is characterized as a blend of at least two polymers in an organization structure, no less
than one of which is combined and/or cross-connected in the prompt presence of the other(s). An
IPN can be recognized from polymer blendes, blocks, or joins in two ways:
(a) An IPN swells, but does not dissolve in solvents, and
(b) Creep and flow are suppressed.

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BENEFITS OF BLENDING
The benefits of blending fall into two classes:
A. blending might further develop resin or product execution by:
1. Producing materials having a full arrangement of the ideal properties at most reduced cost.
2. Extending the designing pitches' exhibition by joining of more affordable polymers.
3. Improvement of specific properties.
•Fragility: Hardening weak polymers, hence taking out the need to utilize low atomic weight
additives (e.g., plasticizer in the adaptable PVC plans)
•Modulus and Layered Soundness: blending with more unbending and more intensity safe gum.
•Work on Dissolvable and Substance Opposition: Consolidation of semi crystalline polymer into
a formless sap. e.g., blends of Polycarbonate (PC) with Polyester (Irritation)
4. Providing means for reusing of modern or potentially metropolitan plastics squander.
5. The blending innovation makes it conceivable to remake high sub-atomic loads of to some
extent debased polymers, in this way to create elite execution particles from the plastics
squander.

B. blending might prompt ease of processability:

1. Process the high Tg sap at temperatures well underneath the warm debasement limit: Joining
of a miscible sap with a lower glass progress temperature (Tg) (e.g., PS/PPE blendes).
2. Reduce tension drop across passes on or sprinters, in this way expanding efficiency:
Consolidation of an immiscible, low thickness tar (e.g., LCP/Look blendes).
3. Stabilize the Foaming System: Joining of elastomeric particles further develops nucleation of
gas bubbles, consequently it settles the Foaming system, decreases bubble size and the last froth
thickness.
4. Provides the means for age of a controllable measure of the Foaming gas during the resulting
phases of handling, viz., and infusion shaping: Fuse of a degradable sap into a designing or
specialty one.
5. Easier, More Steady Handling: blending various levels of a similar sap expands the sub-atomic
weight conveyance, which thus brings about simpler, steadier handling (as well as better
mechanical execution).
6. Blending further develops product consistency (scrap decrease) and plant economy.
7. Blending discovers fast detailing changes, subsequently plant adaptability and efficiency

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8. Blending lessens the quantity of grades that should be made and put away.
9. Blending innovation offers techniques for delivering higher stylish worth materials, e.g.,
movies or coatings without gel particles (or "fish eyes"), moldings with sans streak surface
completion, and so on.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

COMPOSITES
A Composite is viewed as any multiphase material that displays a critical extent of the
properties of both constituent phases to such an extent that an improved combination of properties
is realized.
Composites can be characterized as materials that comprise of at least two chemically and
physically different phases separated by a distinct interface. The various frameworks are
consolidated sensibly to accomplish a framework with additional valuable underlying or useful
properties out of reach by any of the constituent alone.
They are combination of materials varying in structure, where the singular constituents hold their
different characters. These different constituents act together to give the essential mechanical
strength or stiffness to the composite part. Composite material is a material made out of at least
two particular phases (matrix phase and dispersed phase) and having mass properties essentially
not quite the same as those of any of the constituents.
Matrix phase is the essential stage having a ceaseless attribute. Lattice is generally more bendable
and less hard stage. It holds the scattered stage and offers a heap with it.
Dispersed (reinforcing) phase is implanted in the matrix in an irregular structure. This auxiliary
stage is known as the scattered stage. Scattered stage is typically more grounded than the lattice,
in this manner, it is in some cases called building up stage.
They are widely utilized as materials in making airplane structures, electronic bundling to clinical
gear, and space vehicle to home structure.
NOTE: The essential contrast among blends and composites is that the two fundamental
constituents in the composites stay unmistakable while these may not be conspicuous in
blends.

COMMON COMPOSITES
The transcendent valuable materials utilized in our everyday life are wood, cement,
earthenware production, etc. Shockingly, the main polymeric composites are tracked down in
nature and these are known as normal composites.
The connective tissues in well evolved creatures have a place with the most progressive polymer
composites in the world where the sinewy protein, collagen is the support. It capabilities both as
delicate and hard connective tissue.
Wood is a characteristic composite of cellulose filaments in a network of lignin. Most crude
artificial composite materials were straw and mud consolidated to shape blocks for building
construction.

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Supported concrete is one more illustration of composite material. The steel and cement hold
their singular characters in the completed construction. Notwithstanding, in light of the fact that
they cooperate, the steel conveys the strain loads and substantial conveys the pressure loads.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES
 They by and large comprise of at least two genuinely particular and precisely detachable
materials.
 They are made by blending the different materials so as to accomplish controlled and
uniform scattering of the constituents.
 They have prevalent mechanical properties and now and again extraordinarily not quite
the same as the properties of their constituents.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
Based on framework stage, composites can be ordered into:
 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
 Polymer Matrix Composites

Focus would made be made on polymer matrix composites in subsequent paragraphs.

On the basis of types of reinforcement are:

 Particulate Composites (composed of particles)
 Fibrous Composites (composed of fibers)
 Laminate Composites (composed of laminates)

Fibrous composites can be further subdivided on the basis of

 Natural/bio fiber
 Synthetic fiber

Biofiber encompassing composites are referred to as biofiber composites. They can be again
divided on the basis of matrix, that is,
 Non-biodegradable matrix
 Biodegradable matrix

Bio-based composites made from natural/biofiber and biodegradable polymers are referred to as
green composites. These can be further subdivided as:
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  Hybrid composites
 Textile composites

Figure 7: Classification of Composites

ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES
Polymer composites have the following advantages:

• Lightweight (potentially very high strength-to-weight ratio)

• High modulus and glass transition temperatures

• Ability to tailor properties for a wide range of applications

• Good fatigue resistance

• Easy to mold and bond to a variety of substrates or other composites

• Low thermal expansion (along with ability to tailor the CTE in the X, Y, and Z direction)

• Tailorable electrical properties

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 • Insulating composites with non-conductive fillers such as glass fibers and silica fillers •
Conductive composites using silver flake or powders

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES
Additionally, polymer composites are not without some disadvantages:

• Advanced composites have a high cost of raw materials

• Complex manufacturing processes are typically required to ensure low voids and porosity

• Long development times

• Low ductility

• Damage susceptibility and the potential for hidden damage (hard to inspect)

• Need careful resin selection to minimize moisture and solvent attack

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMCs)

Most commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a
resin solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw
ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most common
are known as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene,
polyether ether ketone (PEEK), and others.

The reinforcement materials are often fibers but can also be common ground minerals. The various
methods described below have been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product. As
a rule of thumb, hand lay-up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fiber, whereas
vacuum infusion gives a final product with 40% resin and 60% fiber content. The strength of the
product is greatly dependent on this ratio.

PMCs are very popular due to their low cost and simple fabrication methods.

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FACTORS AFFECTING PROPERTIES OF PMCS
1. Interfacial Adhesion: The behavior of a composite material is explained on the basis of
the combined behavior of the reinforcing element, polymer matrix, and the fiber/matrix
interface. To attain superior mechanical properties the interfacial adhesion should be
strong. Matrix molecules can be anchored to the fiber surface by chemical reaction or
adsorption, which determine the extent of interfacial adhesion. The interface is also known
as the mesophase.

2. Shape and Orientation of Dispersed Phase Inclusions (Particles, Flakes, Fibers, and
Laminates): The shape of the reinforcing particles can be spherical, cubic, platelet, or
regular or irregular geometry. Particulate reinforcements have dimensions that are
approximately equal in all directions. Large particle and dispersion-strengthened
composites are the two subclasses of particle-reinforced composites. A laminar composite
is composed of two dimensional sheets or panels, which have a preferred high strength
direction as found in wood. The layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together so
that the orientation of the high strength direction varies with each successive layer.
3. Properties of the Matrix: Properties of different polymers will determine the application
to which it is appropriate. The chief advantages of polymers as matrix are low cost, easy
processability, good chemical resistance, and low specific gravity. On the other hand, low
strength, low modulus, and low operating temperatures limit their use. Varieties of
polymers for composites are thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers, elastomers,
and their blends.

THERMOSETTING POLYMERS

Thermosets have cross-connected or network structures with covalent bonds with all particles.
They don't mellow yet deteriorate on warming. When set by cross-connecting process they can't
be reshaped. Normal models are epoxies, polyesters, phenolics, ureas, melamine, silicone, and
polyimides.

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ELASTOMERS

An elastomer is a polymer with the property of viscoelasticity, by and large having remarkably
low Youthful's modulus and high return strain contrasted and different materials. The term, which
is gotten from flexible polymer, is frequently utilized conversely with the term elastic, albeit the
last option is favored while alluding to vulcanizates. Every one of the monomers that connect to
shape the polymer is generally made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and silicon.

Elastomers are indistinct polymers existing over their glass progress temperature, with the goal
that impressive segmental movement is conceivable. At encompassing temperatures, rubbers are
moderately delicate and deformable; their essential purposes are for seals, glues, and shaped
adaptable parts.

Normal elastic, engineered polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene elastic, butyl elastic,

ethylene propylene elastic, epichlorohydrin elastic, silicone elastic, fluoroelastomers,
thermoplastic elastomers, polysulfide elastic, etc are a portion of the instances of elastomers.

MANUFACTURE OF COMPOSITES

The manufacture and molding of composites into completed products frequently joins the
development of the actual material during the creation interaction. The significant handling
strategies are hand rest up, sack shaping cycle, fiber winding, pultrusion, mass embellishment,
sheet forming, pitch move shaping, infusion forming, etc.

1. Hand Lay Up: The most seasoned, least difficult, and the most regularly involved strategy
for the assembling of both little and enormous built up products is the hand rest up procedure.
A level surface, a hole or a positive-molded shape, produced using wood, metal, plastic, or a
blend of these materials might be utilized for the hand rest up strategy.
2. Bag Molding Process: It is quite possibly of the most adaptable cycle utilized in assembling
composite parts. In sack forming process, the lamina is rested up in a shape and pitch is spread
or covered, covered with an adaptable stomach or pack, and restored with intensity and strain.
After the necessary restoring cycle, the materials become an incorporated formed part molded

28
to the ideal setup. Three essential trim strategies included are pressure sack, vacuum pack, and
autoclave.
3. Pultrusion: It is a robotized cycle for assembling composite materials into persistent,
consistent cross-area profiles. In this method, the product is pulled from the pass on as opposed
to constrained out by pressure. An enormous number of profiles like poles, tubes, and different
underlying shapes can be created utilizing proper kicks the bucket.
4. Filament Winding: Fiber winding is a method utilized for the production of surfaces of
transformation like lines, cylinders, chambers, and circles and is regularly utilized for the
development of huge tanks and line work for the substance commercials. High velocity exact
set down of consistent support in predescribed designs is the premise of the fiber winding
technique.
5. Preformed Molding Compounds: countless supported thermosetting pitch products are
made by paired pass on embellishment cycles, for example, hot press pressure shaping,
infusion trim, and move forming. Matched pass on embellishment can be a wet interaction yet
it is generally helpful to utilize a preformed shaping compound or preblend to which all
important fixings are added. This empowers the fulfillment of quicker creation rate. Shaping
blendtures can be partitioned into three general classes: batter forming, sheet shaping, and
prepregs.
6. Resin Transfer Molding: Pitch move shaping (RTM) has the capability of turning into a
prevailing minimal expense process for the manufacture of huge, coordinated, elite execution
products. In this cycle, a dry supported material that has been cut and formed into a preformed
piece, for the most part called aperform, is put in a pre-arranged shape hole. The tar is
frequently infused at the absolute bottom and fills the form up to diminish the ensnaring of air.
At the point when the sap begins to spill into the gum trap, the cylinder is cinched to limit pitch
misfortune. At the point when overabundance pitch starts to move from the vent region of the
form, the gum stream is halted and the shape part starts to fix. When the composite creates
adequate green strength it very well may be taken out from the apparatus and postcured.
7. Injection Molding: Infusion shaping is an assembling interaction for both thermoplastic
and thermosetting plastic materials. Composites is taken care of into a warmed barrel, blended,
and constrained into a form pit where it cools and solidifies to the design of the shape cavity.
Infusion forming is utilized to make numerous things, for example, wire spools, bundling,

29
bottle covers, car dashboards, pocket brushes, and most other plastic products accessible today.
It is great for creating high volumes of a similar product. A few benefits of infusion shaping
are high creation rates, repeatable high resiliences, and the capacity to utilize a great many
materials, low work cost, insignificant piece misfortunes, and little need to complete parts
subsequent to trim. A few weaknesses of this interaction are costly gear venture, possibly high
running expenses, and the need to plan pliable parts.
8. Reaction Injection Molding (RIM): Edge is like infusion forming aside from that
thermosetting polymers are utilized, which requires a relieving response to happen inside the
shape. Normal things made through Edge incorporate auto guards, air spoilers, and bumpers.
To start with, the two pieces of the polymer are combined as one. The blend is then infused
into the form under high tension utilizing an impinging blender. The most well-known Edge
processable material is polyurethane (by and large known as PU-Edge), yet others incorporate
polyureas, polyisocyanurates, polyesters, polyepoxides, and nylon 6. For polyurethane, one
part of the combination is polyisocyanate and the other part is a blend of polyol, surfactant,
impetus, and blowing specialist. Car applications involve the biggest area of purpose for Edge
created products. Polymers have been grown explicitly for outside body boards for the car
commercials. Non-E-coat polymers offer a great blend of firmness, influence opposition, and
warm obstruction for body board applications. These furnish fantastic readiness and
dissolvable opposition with the capacity to accomplish high differentiation of picture (DOI)
when painted.
9.Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding: On the off chance that supporting Agents are
added to the combination of Edge setting, the cycle is known as built up response infusion
shaping (RRIM). Normal supporting Agents incorporate glass filaments and mica. This cycle
is generally used to create inflexible froth auto boards. A subset of RRIM is underlying
response infusion shaping (SRIM), which utilizes fiber networks for the supporting specialist.
The fiber network is first organized in the form and afterward the polymer combination is
infusion shaped over it.

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Uses OF PMCs
PMCs are utilized for assembling:
 Aviation structures: The tactical airplane industry has fundamentally driven the utilization
of polymer composites. In commercials aircrafts, the utilization of composites is step by
step expanding. Space transport and satellite frameworks use graphite/epoxy for the
overwhelming majority underlying parts. ii) Marine: Boat bodies, kayaks, kayaks, etc.
 Car: Body boards, leaf springs, drive shaft, guards, entryways, dashing vehicle bodies, etc.
 Sports merchandise: Golf clubs, skis, casting poles, tennis rackets, etc.
 Tactical armor carriers and other protective layer parts.
 Chemical storage tanks, pressure vessels, funneling, siphon body, valves and so on.
 Biomedical applications: Clinical inserts, muscular gadgets, X-beam tables.
 Extensions and bridges made of polymer composite materials are acquiring wide
acknowledgment because of their lower weight, corrosion resistance,, longer life cycle, and
restricted quake harm.
 Electrical: Boards, lodging, switchgear, encasings, and connectors. Furthermore, some
more.

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 QUESTIONS
1. Establish the difference between a miscible and immiscible blend using their
thermodynamic conditions stating clearly the meaning of each thermodynamic term used.

2. What is Glass Transition Temperature Tg and how is it used to determine the nature of a
blend?

3. List five (5) advantages and disadvantages of composites.

4. Briefly discuss five (5) types of additives and give an example for each.
5. Using reinforced concrete as an example, explain what you understand by a composite
material, stating its individual constituents and the role they play in the composite material.

6. List five (5) composite fabrication methods and explain any two (2) of your choice.
7. Briefly explain the following terms:
I Thermosets
ii. Thermoplastics
iii. Elastomers
8. List five (5) applications of PMCs.
9. What is the main difference between a composite and a blend?

32
 REFERENCES
1. Bart, J. C. J. (2005). Additives in Polymers: Industrial Analysis and Applications (1st ed.)

[E-book]. Wiley.

2. Kresta, J. E. (2011). Polymer Additives (Polymer Science and Technology Series, 26)

(Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1984 ed.) [E-book]. Springer.

3. Subramanian, M. N. (2017). Polymer Blends and Composites: Chemistry and Technology

(Polymer Science and Plastics Engineering) (1st ed.) [E-book]. Wiley-Scrivener.

4. Mark, H. F. (2004). Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, Part 3

(ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POLYMER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 3RD EDITION)

(Volumes 9–12) (Volumes 9–12 ed.) [E-book]. Wiley-Interscience.

5. Amcor, Inc. (2019, September 4). What Are Polymer Additives?

https://amcorplastics.com/blog/what-are-polymer-additives/

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