Chapter VECTOR-VALUED

FUNCTIONS AND MOTION

2 IN SPACE

OVERVIEW When a body (or object) travels through space, the equations x = ƒstd,
y = gstd, and z = hstd that give the body’s coordinates as functions of time serve as para-
metric equations for the body’s motion and path. With vector notation, we can condense
these into a single equation rstd = ƒstdi + gstdj + hstdk that gives the body’s position as
a vector function of time. For an object moving in the xy-plane, the component function
h(t) is zero for all time (that is, identically zero).
In this chapter, we use calculus to study the paths, velocities, and accelerations of
moving bodies. As we go along, we will see how our work answers the standard questions
about the paths and motions of projectiles, planets, and satellites. In the final section, we
use our new vector calculus to derive Kepler’s laws of planetary motion from Newton’s
laws of motion and gravitation.

2.1 Vector Functions

When a particle moves through space during a time interval I, we think of the particle’s
coordinates as functions defined on I:

x = ƒstd, y = g std, z = hstd, t H I. (1)

The points sx, y, zd = sƒstd, gstd, hstdd, t H I, make up the curve in space that we call the
z
particle’s path. The equations and interval in Equation (1) parametrize the curve. A curve
in space can also be represented in vector form. The vector
1
rstd = OP = ƒstdi + g stdj + hstdk (2)
P( f (t), g(t), h(t))
r
from the origin to the particle’s position P(ƒ(t), g(t), h(t)) at time t is the particle’s position
O vector (Figure 13.1). The functions ƒ, g, and h are the component functions (components)
of the position vector. We think of the particle’s path as the curve traced by r during the
y
time interval I. Figure 13.2 displays several space curves generated by a computer graphing
x program. It would not be easy to plot these curves by hand.
Equation (2) defines r as a vector function of the real variable t on the interval I. More
FIGURE 2.1 The position vector generally, a vector function or vector-valued function on a domain set D is a rule that
1
r = OP of a particle moving through assigns a vector in space to each element in D. For now, the domains will be intervals of
space is a function of time. real numbers resulting in a space curve. Later, in Chapter 16, the domains will be regions
 2.1 Vector Functions

in the plane. Vector functions will then represent surfaces in space. Vector functions on a
domain in the plane or space also give rise to “vector fields,” which are important to the
study of the flow of a fluid, gravitational fields, and electromagnetic phenomena. We
investigate vector fields and their applications in Chapter 16.

z z z

x y
x
x y
y
r(t)  (sin 3t)(cos t)i
r(t)  (cos t)i
(sin t)j
(sin 2t)k r(t)  (4
sin 20t)(cos t)i

(sin 3t)(sin t)j
tk (4
sin 20t)(sint)j

(cos20t)k
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 2.2 Computer-generated space curves are defined by the position vectors r(t).

We refer to real-valued functions as scalar functions to distinguish them from vector

functions. The components of r are scalar functions of t. When we define a vector-valued
function by giving its component functions, we assume the vector function’s domain to be
the common domain of the components.

z
EXAMPLE 1 Graphing a Helix
Graph the vector function
rstd = scos tdi + ssin tdj + tk.
2␲

t␲ Solution The vector function

t  2␲
rstd = scos tdi + ssin tdj + tk
is defined for all real values of t. The curve traced by r is a helix (from an old Greek word
for “spiral”) that winds around the circular cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1 (Figure 13.3). The curve
t ␲ lies on the cylinder because the i- and j-components of r, being the x- and y-coordinates of
r 2
0
P the tip of r, satisfy the cylinder’s equation:
t
(1, 0, 0) t0
x 2 + y 2 = scos td2 + ssin td2 = 1.
x2
y2  1 y
The curve rises as the k-component z = t increases. Each time t increases by 2p, the
x curve completes one turn around the cylinder. The equations
x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t
FIGURE 2.3 The upper half of the helix
rstd = scos tdi + ssin tdj + t k parametrize the helix, the interval - q 6 t 6 q being understood. You will find more
(Example 1). helices in Figure2.4.
 z z z

x x x
y
y y
r(t)  (cos t)i
(sin t)j
tk r(t)  (cos t)i
(sin t)j
0.3tk r(t)  (cos 5t)i
(sin 5t)j
tk

FIGURE 2.4 Helices drawn by computer.

DEFINITION Derivative
The vector function rstd = ƒstdi + gstdj + hstdk has a derivative (is differen-
tiable) at t if ƒ, g, and h have derivatives at t. The derivative is the vector function
dr rst + ¢td - rstd dƒ dg dh
r¿std = = lim = i + j + k.
dt ¢t: 0 ¢t dt dt dt

DEFINITIONS Velocity, Direction, Speed, Acceleration

If r is the position vector of a particle moving along a smooth curve in space, then
dr
vstd =
dt
is the particle’s velocity vector, tangent to the curve. At any time t, the direction of
v is the direction of motion, the magnitude of v is the particle’s speed, and the
derivative a = d v>dt, when it exists, is the particle’s acceleration vector. In
summary,
dr
1. Velocity is the derivative of position: v = .
dt
2. Speed is the magnitude of velocity: Speed = ƒ v ƒ .
dv d 2r
3. Acceleration is the derivative of velocity: a = = 2.
dt dt
4. The unit vector v> ƒ v ƒ is the direction of motion at time t.
 We can express the velocity of a moving particle as the product of its speed and
direction:

Velocity = ƒ v ƒ a b = sspeeddsdirectiond.
v
ƒvƒ

z
EXAMPLE 4 Flight of a Hang Glider
A person on a hang glider is spiraling upward due to rapidly rising air on a path having po-
sition vector rstd = s3 cos tdi + s3 sin tdj + t 2k. The path is similar to that of a helix (al-
is shown in Figure 2.7for
0 … t … 4p. Find
(a) the velocity and acceleration vectors,
(3, 0, 0) (b) the glider’s speed at any time t,
x y (c) the times, if any, when the glider’s acceleration is orthogonal to its velocity.

FIGURE 2.7 The path of a hang glider Solution

with position vector rstd = s3 cos tdi +
(a) r = s3 cos tdi + s3 sin tdj + t 2k
s3 sin tdj + t 2k (Example 4).
dr
v = = -s3 sin tdi + s3 cos tdj + 2tk
dt
d 2r
a = = -s3 cos tdi - s3 sin tdj + 2k
dt 2
(b) Speed is the magnitude of v:
ƒ vstd ƒ = 2s -3 sin td2 + s3 cos td2 + s2td2

= 29 sin2 t + 9 cos 2 t + 4t 2

= 29 + 4t 2 .

The glider is moving faster and faster as it rises along its path.
(c) To find the times when v and a are orthogonal, we look for values of t for which
v # a = 9 sin t cos t - 9 cos t sin t + 4t = 4t = 0.
Thus, the only time the acceleration vector is orthogonal to v is when t = 0.

Differentiation Rules
Because the derivatives of vector functions may be computed component by component,
the rules for differentiating vector functions have the same form as the rules for differenti-
ating scalar functions.
 Differentiation Rules for Vector Functions
Let u and v be differentiable vector functions of t, C a constant vector, c any
scalar, and ƒ any differentiable scalar function.
d
1. Constant Function Rule: C = 0
dt
d
2. Scalar Multiple Rules: [custd] = cu¿std
dt
d
[ƒstdustd] = ƒ¿stdustd + ƒstdu¿std
dt
d
3. Sum Rule: [ustd + vstd] = u¿std + v¿std
dt
d
4. Difference Rule: [ustd - vstd] = u¿std - v¿std
dt
d
5. Dot Product Rule: [ustd # vstd] = u¿std # vstd + ustd # v¿std
dt
d
6. Cross Product Rule: [ustd * vstd] = u¿std * vstd + ustd * v¿std
dt
d
7. Chain Rule: [usƒstdd] = ƒ¿stdu¿sƒstdd
dt

dr
dt Vector Functions of Constant Length
P When we track a particle moving on a sphere centered at the origin (Figure 13.8), the posi-
r(t)
tion vector has a constant length equal to the radius of the sphere. The velocity vector dr> dt,
tangent to the path of motion, is tangent to the sphere and hence perpendicular to r. This is
y
always the case for a differentiable vector function of constant length: The vector and its
first derivative are orthogonal. With the length constant, the change in the function is a
change in direction only, and direction changes take place at right angles. We can also ob-
x
tain this result by direct calculation:
rstd # rstd = c2 ƒ rstd ƒ = c is constant.
d
FIGURE 13.8 If a particle moves on a [rstd # rstd] = 0 Differentiate both sides.
dt
sphere in such a way that its position r is a
differentiable function of time, then r¿std # rstd + rstd # r¿std = 0 Rule 5 with rstd = ustd = vstd
r # sd r>dtd = 0 . 2r¿std # rstd = 0.
The vectors r œ std and r(t) are orthogonal because their dot product is 0. In summary,

If r is a differentiable vector function of t of constant length, then

dr
r# = 0. (4)
dt

We will use this observation repeatedly in Section 13.4.

EXAMPLE 5 Supporting Equation (4)

Show that rstd = ssin tdi + scos tdj + 23k has constant length and is orthogonal to its
derivative.

Solution
rstd = ssin tdi + scos tdj + 23k

ƒ rstd ƒ = 2ssin td2 + scos td2 + A 13 B 2 = 21 + 3 = 2

dr
= scos tdi - ssin tdj
dt
dr
r# = sin t cos t - sin t cos t = 0
dt

Integrals of Vector Functions

A differentiable vector function R(t) is an antiderivative of a vector function r(t) on an in-
terval I if dR>dt = r at each point of I. If R is an antiderivative of r on I, it can be shown,
working one component at a time, that every antiderivative of r on I has the form R + C
for some constant vector C (Exercise 56). The set of all antiderivatives of r on I is the
indefinite integral of r on I.

DEFINITION Indefinite Integral

The indefinite integral of r with respect to t is the set of all antiderivatives of r,
denoted by 1 rstd dt. If R is any antiderivative of r, then

rstd dt = Rstd + C.
L

The usual arithmetic rules for indefinite integrals apply.

EXAMPLE 6 Finding Indefinite Integrals

sscos tdi + j - 2tkd dt = a cos t dtbi + a dtbj - a 2t dtbk (5)

L L L L
= ssin t + C1 di + st + C2 dj - st 2 + C3 dk (6)

= ssin tdi + tj - t 2k + C C = C1i + C2 j - C3k

 DEFINITION Definite Integral
If the components of rstd = ƒstdi + gstdj + hstdk are integrable over [a, b],
then so is r, and the definite integral of r from a to b is
b b b b
rstd dt = a ƒstd dtbi + a gstd dtbj + a hstd dtbk.
La La La La

EXAMPLE 7 Evaluating Definite Integrals

p p p p
sscos tdi + j - 2tkd dt = a cos t dtbi + a dtbj - a 2t dtbk
L0 L0 L0 L0
= C sin t D 0 i + C t D 0 j - C t 2 D 0 k
p p p

= [0 - 0]i + [p - 0]j - [p 2 - 0 2]k

= pj - p 2k
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for continuous vector functions says that

rstd dt = Rstd D a = Rsbd - Rsad

b
b

La
where R is any antiderivative of r, so that R¿std = rstd (Exercise 57).

EXAMPLE 8 Revisiting the Flight of a Glider

Suppose that we did not know the path of the glider in Example 4, but only its acceleration
vector astd = -s3 cos tdi - s3 sin tdj + 2k. We also know that initially (at time t = 0),
the glider departed from the point (3, 0, 0) with velocity vs0d = 3j. Find the glider’s posi-
tion as a function of t.

Solution Our goal is to find r(t) knowing

d 2r
The differential equation: a = = -s3 cos tdi - s3 sin tdj + 2k
dt 2
The initial conditions: vs0d = 3j and rs0d = 3i + 0j + 0k.
Integrating both sides of the differential equation with respect to t gives
vstd = -s3 sin tdi + s3 cos tdj + 2tk + C1.
We use vs0d = 3j to find C1 :
3j = -s3 sin 0di + s3 cos 0dj + s0dk + C1
3j = 3j + C1
C1 = 0.
 The glider’s velocity as a function of time is
dr
= vstd = -s3 sin tdi + s3 cos tdj + 2tk.
dt
Integrating both sides of this last differential equation gives

rstd = s3 cos tdi + s3 sin tdj + t 2k + C2.

We then use the initial condition rs0d = 3i to find C2 :

3i = s3 cos 0di + s3 sin 0dj + s0 2 dk + C2

3i = 3i + s0dj + s0dk + C2
C2 = 0.

The glider’s position as a function of t is

rstd = s3 cos tdi + s3 sin tdj + t 2k.
This is the path of the glider we know from Example 4 and is shown in Figure 13.7.

Note: It was peculiar to this example that both of the constant vectors of integration,
C1 and C2, turned out to be 0. Exercises 31 and 32 give different results for these
constants.
 EXERCISES 2.1

In Exercises 1–4, r(t) is the position of a particle in the xy-plane at

time t. Find an equation in x and y whose graph is the path of the par-
ticle. Then find the particle’s velocity and acceleration vectors at the
given value of t.
1. rstd = st + 1di + st 2 - 1dj, t = 1
2
2. rstd = st + 1di + s2t - 1dj, t = 1>2
2 2t
3. rstd = e t i + e j, t = ln 3
9
4. rstd = scos 2tdi + s3 sin 2tdj, t = 0

2.1 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

1. x œ t  1 and y œ t#  1 Ê y œ (x  1)#  1 œ x#  2x; v œ dr

dt œ i  2tj Ê a œ dv
dt œ 2j Ê v œ i  2j and a œ 2j
at t œ 1

#
2. x œ t#  1 and y œ 2t  1 Ê x œ ˆ y
# 1 ‰  " Ê x œ "
4 (y  1)#  1; v œ dr
dt œ 2ti  2j Ê a œ dv
dt œ 2i
"
Ê v œ i  2j and a œ 2i at t œ #

3. x œ et and y œ 2
9 e2t Ê y œ 2
9 x# ; v œ dr
dt œ et i  49 e2t j Ê a œ et i  89 e2t j Ê v œ 3i  4j and a œ 3i  8j at t œ ln 3

4. x œ cos 2t and y œ 3 sin 2t Ê x#  "9 y# œ 1; v œ dr

dt œ (2 sin 2t)i  (6 cos 2t)j Ê a œ dv
dt
œ (4 cos 2t)i  (12 sin 2t)j Ê v œ 6j and a œ 4i at t œ 0

Velocity and Acceleration in Space

In Exercises 9–14, r(t) is the position of a particle in space at time t.
Find the particle’s velocity and acceleration vectors. Then find the par-
ticle’s speed and direction of motion at the given value of t. Write the
particle’s velocity at that time as the product of its speed and direction.
9. rstd = st + 1di + st 2 - 1dj + 2t k, t = 1
2 3
t t
10. rstd = s1 + tdi + j + k, t = 1
22 3
11. rstd = s2 cos tdi + s3 sin tdj + 4t k, t = p>2
4
12. rstd = ssec tdi + stan tdj + t k, t = p>6
3
t2
13. rstd = s2 ln st + 1ddi + t 2 j + k, t = 1
2
14. rstd = se -t di + s2 cos 3tdj + s2 sin 3tdk, t = 0
 d# r
9. r œ (t  1)i  at#  1b j  2tk Ê v œ dr
dt œ i  2tj  2k Ê a œ dt# œ 2j ; Speed: kv(1)k œ È1#  (2(1))#  2# œ 3;
i
2(1)j
2k "
Direction: v(1)
kv(1)k œ 3 œ 3 i  32 j  32 k Ê v(1) œ 3 ˆ 3" i  32 j  32 k‰

t# t$ d# r
10. r œ (1  t)i  È2 j 3 k Ê vœ dr
dt œi 2t
È2 j  t# k Ê a œ dt# œ 2
È2 j  2tk ; Speed: kv(1)k

È
2(1) #
# i
j
(1 )k
" "
œ Ê1#  Š 2(1) # #
È ‹  (1 ) œ 2; Direction:
v(1)
kv(1)k œ 2
# œ # i È2 j  "# k Ê v(1)
2

œ 2 Š "# i  "
È2 j  #" k‹

d# r
11. r œ (2 cos t)i  (3 sin t)j  4tk Ê v œ dr
dt œ (2 sin t)i  (3 cos t)j  4k Ê a œ dt# œ (2 cos t)i  (3 sin t)j ;
# # v ˆ 1# ‰
Speed: ¸v ˆ 1# ‰¸ œ Ɉ2 sin 1# ‰  ˆ3 cos 12 ‰  4# œ 2È5; Direction: ¸v ˆ 1 ‰¸
#
1 1 "
œ Š 2
#È 5
sin #‹i  3
Š #È 5
cos #‹j  4
#È5
kœ È5 i 2
È5 k Ê v ˆ 1# ‰ œ 2È5 Š È"5 i  2
È5 k‹

d# r
12. r œ (sec t)i  (tan t)j  43 tk Ê v œ dr
dt œ (sec t tan t)i  asec# tb j  43 k Ê a œ dt#
# # #
œ asec t tan# t  sec$ tb i  a2 sec# t tan tb j ; Speed: ¸v ˆ 16 ‰¸ œ Ɉsec 1
6 tan 16 ‰  ˆsec# 16 ‰  ˆ 43 ‰ œ 2;
v ˆ 16 ‰ ˆsec 1 tan 1 ‰ i
ˆsec# 1 ‰ j
4
k "
Direction: ¸v ˆ 1 ‰¸ œ 6 6
#
6 3
œ 3 i  23 j  23 k Ê v ˆ 16 ‰ œ 2 ˆ 3" i  32 j  32 k‰
6

t# d# r
13. r œ (2 ln (t  1))i  t# j  2 k Ê vœ dr
dt œ ˆ t
2 1 ‰ i  2tj  tk Ê a œ dt# œ ’ (t
21)# “ i  2j  k ;
2
# Š" 1 ‹ i
2(1)j
(1)k
Speed: kv(1)k œ Ɉ 1
2 1 ‰  (2(1))#  1# œ È6; Direction: v(1)
kv(1)k œ È6

"
œ È6 i 2
È6 j 1
È6 k Ê v(1) œ È6 Š È"6 i  2
È6 j "
È6 k‹

d# r
14. r œ aet b i  (2 cos 3t)j  (2 sin 3t)k Ê v œ dr
dt œ aet b i  (6 sin 3t)j  (6 cos 3t)k Ê a œ dt#

œ aet b i  (18 cos 3t)j  (18 sin 3t)k ; Speed: kv(0)k œ Éae! b#  [6 sin 3(0)]#  [6 cos 3(0)]# œ È37;
ae! b i  6 sin 3(0)j
6 cos 3(0)k
Direction: v(0)
kv(0)k œ È37 œ  È"37 i  6
È37 k Ê v(0) œ È37 Š È"37 i  6
È37 k‹

In Exercises 15–18, r(t) is the position of a particle in space at time t.

Find the angle between the velocity and acceleration vectors at time
t = 0.
15. rstd = s3t + 1di + 23t j + t 2k
22 22
16. rstd = a tbi + a t - 16t 2 bj
2 2

#
15. v œ 3i  È3 j  2tk and a œ 2k Ê v(0) œ 3i  È3 j and a(0) œ 2k Ê kv(0)k œ Ê3#  ŠÈ3‹  0# œ È12 and
1
ka(0)k œ È2# œ 2; v(0) † a(0) œ 0 Ê cos ) œ 0 Ê ) œ #

È2 È2 È2 È2 È2 # È2 #
16. v œ # iŠ #  32t‹ j and a œ 32j Ê v(0) œ # i # j and a(0) œ 32j Ê kv(0)k œ ÊŠ # ‹ Š # ‹
È2 16È2 È2 31
œ 1 and ka(0)k œ È(32)# œ 32; v(0) † a(0) œ Š # ‹ (32) œ 16È2 Ê cos ) œ 1(32) œ # Ê )œ 4