BIO 151- Concepts of Biology I

Chapter 6:
A Tour of the Cell

Katerina Tsouma, Ph.D.

Department of Biology, University of Dayton
 Cells
•All organisms are made of cells
•The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can live (unit of life)
•All cells are related by their descent from
earlier cells
•Cell structure is correlated to cellular
function
cells have many different structures
they are very tiny
 How do we Study Cells?
➢ Cells are usually too small to be seen by the naked eye
➢ Microscopes are used to visualize cells
most big cell is amoeba

Cell size and scale

https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/cells/scale/

Know these!
 Figure 6.7

cells are small so they can perform

transportation of substances easily n faster
, example oxygen

• The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on the size of cells
• The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical
• As the surface area increases by a factor of n2, the volume increases by a factor of n3
• Small cells have a greater surface area relative to volume
 How do we Study Cells?

➢ Three important parameters of microscopy (affect

quality of an image):
✓ Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image
size to its real size
✓ Resolution (resolving power), the measure of
the clarity of the image, or the minimum
distance of two distinguishable points
✓ Contrast, visible differences in brightness
between parts of the sample
 How do we Study Cells?
➢ Light Microscopy
❖ Light microscopes can magnify to about 1,000
times the size of the actual specimen
❖ Light passes through biological samples
❖ Image is magnified by glass lenses

❖ Resolving power is 200nm

What can be seen?

✓ Whole living cells
✓ Whole fixed cells -usually stained to see
details
✓ Largest organelles (nucleus)
✓ Many probes, such as labeled antibodies
How do we Study Cells?
➢ Electron Microscopes

❖High-energy electrons pass through or

on to a sample
❖Image is magnified by electromagnetic
lenses
❖Resolving power is 2 nm

What can be seen?

✓ Fixed (dead) cells
✓ All organelles in great detail
✓ Large molecules
 How do we Study Cells?
➢ SEMs and TEMs

❖Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) provide 3-D

images
❖Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) are
used mainly to study the internal structure of cells
Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic
Karyon=kernel=nucleus

Different because: Similar because:

• Nucleus • DNA
• membrane bond organells • cell membrane
• sizes • chromosomes
• • cytosol inside cytoplasm

Eukarya: Bacteria,
Protists, Fungi, Archaea
Animals, Plants (proks)
 Prokaryotic Cells
➢ Unicellular
➢ Evolutionarily older: ~3.5bya

➢ No nucleus topnews.net.nz

➢ No membrane-bound organelles
➢ DNA in an unbound region called
the nucleoid
thedoctorplan.com
See Figure 6.8, p. 101

Eukaryotic Cells
➢ DNA in nucleus (bound by
the nuclear envelope)
➢ Membrane-bound
organelles
➢ Cytoplasm between the
plasma membrane and
the nucleus
➢ Younger: first fossils
~1.5bya
➢ Multicellular & Unicellular

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ebDTpHOljU
 Cells are the Units of Life
cell membrane

golgi apparatus lysosomes What does a cell need to

microtublules live and function properly?
nucleus
smooth
endoplastic cell mebrane is made of phospholipis
reticulum this phospholipids are made by
endoplasticreticullum.
rough
endoplastic
reticulum ribosomes
• Structure
• Particular function
• Storage of nutrients etc.
cytoplasm
• Input/output of
energy/material (FOOD!)

Activity 5.3: Eukaryotic Cell Tour (oup.com)

 The Nucleus: Information Central
❖The nucleus contains most of the
cell’s genes
❖It is surrounded by the nuclear
envelope

❖In the nucleus, DNA is organized

into chromosomes (Humans=46)
❖Chromatin
nucleolus have rRNA
which is ribosomal RNA
 Nucleus (cont.)

• Nuclear lamina: net-like array of protein

fibers that maintain the shape of the
nucleus

• Nuclear envelope and lamina form border

• Nucleolus: part of chromatin that makes

the subunits of ribosomes (rRNA)

Inside A Cell (utah.edu)

 Ribosomes:
Protein Factories

❖Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal

RNA and protein (in the nucleolus)
❖Two locations of protein synthesis:
➢ Free ribosomes
➢ Bound ribosomes (Attached to Endoplasmic
Reticulum)
❖Translate sequence of nucleotides in mRNA
into amino acid sequence of polypeptides
 The Endomembrane System
➢The endomembrane system consists of
• Nuclear envelope
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Vacuoles
• Plasma membrane

➢These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles

Inside A Cell (utah.edu)
 The Endomembrane System: Endoplasmic Reticulum
“The little net within the cytoplasm”

➢ Two distinct regions of ER:

✓ Smooth ER (no ribosomes)
• makes lipids; detox cell
✓ Rough ER (has bound ribosomes)
• makes proteins (some glycoproteins)

➢ Transport vesicles: membranous spheres that carry

ER products to other parts of the cell
 Endomembrane System: Golgi Apparatus
✓ Receiving & Shipping

Receives proteins from

rough ER and modifies
(carbs), sorts and sends
proteins elsewhere
 Endomembrane System:
Lysosomes

❖ Originate in the Golgi

❖ Membranous sacs of enzymes used by animals to hydrolyze
macromolecules
✓Phagocytosis
❖ Also break down damaged organelles so parts can be recycled.
✓Autophagy (cell recycling)
Inside A Cell (utah.edu)
Endomembrane System: Lysosomes

To eat a cell… To eat yourself…

Endomembrane System: Lysosomes

To eat a cell… To eat yourself…

 Endomembrane System: Vacuoles

Membranous sacs that bud from ER, Golgi, or plasma membrane

➢ Food vacuoles (formed by phagocytosis and

fuse with lysosomes)
➢ Central vacuoles (plants): store nutrients &
water
➢ Contractile vacuoles (pump excess water
from cell)

Contractile vacuole of Paramecium

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Ynm5ZOW59Q
 The Endomembrane System: Secretion

Secretion of a substance
from the cell
Ex. Insulin from pancreatic
cells

* Some products may

exit the cell without
ever crossing a
membrane!
 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
Convert energy to usable forms

Double Own DNA

Membrane

Free
Ribosomes
Semi-
Autonomous chloroplast takes light enegry

(some) Protein and covert to chemical energy.

mitochondria takes chemical energy
and makes some other chemical energy.
Synthesis
Mitochondria

Place of cellular respiration: Break down

organic molecules & convert energy to a
form cells can use for work (ATP)

Powerhouse of the cell

➢ Have double membrane (outer/inner) with inner membrane space
➢ Cristae: folds of inner membrane
✓ Increase surface area of the inner membrane
➢ Matrix: Fluid-filled space (enzymes, also DNA, ribosomes)
➢ Have their own DNA: Reproduce themselves & make some of their own proteins

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell

inner membrane of mitochondria have enzymes which
makes atp. cristae increase surface area of cell by which
atp production is increased and proefficients the process.
in metrix we find dna.
 Photosynthetic organelles found in
Chloroplasts plants & a few protists (algae)

Sites of photosynthesis: converts solar energy

to chemical energy and makes sugar
➢ Double membrane with inner
fluid fill space where dna and other membrane space
stufs are found.
➢ Stroma: fluid within chloroplasts
(DNA, ribosomes, enzymes)
➢ Thylakoids: flattened, connected
stacks (grana) of membrane
✓ Increase surface area of the
inner membrane
➢ Contain chlorophyll: pigment that
absorbs solar energy
➢ Have their own DNA: Reproduce
themselves & make some of their
own proteins
breaks down things like lysosomes.
Peroxisomes (Degradation)

H2O2

❖ Contain enzymes that break down fats &

detoxify the cell

❖ Hydrogen peroxide is made as byproduct

❖ Good example of cell compartmentalization

& why it is important
 Eukaryotic Cells
✓ Plant Cells

intercellular spaces to transport

See Figure 6.8, p. 101

 Cytoskeleton
cell skeleton.

➢ Network of protein fibers extending

throughout the cytoplasm

➢ Each fiber is a polymer made up of proteins

➢ It is composed of three types of molecular

structures (polymers):
➢ Microtubules
➢ Microfilaments
➢ Intermediate filaments
 Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility

❖ Cell Shape: Protein scaffolding provides mechanical strength

❖ Internal organization: Stabilize

positions of organelles and
molecules

❖ Cell motility:
✓ Changes in cell location
✓ Movements of parts of the cell
changes in the shape of cell , is possible because of changes in cytoplasm.
 Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility (con’t)
❖Intracellular transport: Provides railroad track for moving organelles
 Microtubules
Structure

Functions:
mitotic

• Shaping the cell

spindles

• Guiding movement of organelles (tracks)

All Eukaryotic • Separating chromosomes during cell division
Cells
• Cilia used in motility
• Flagella used in motility
 Microtubules
➢Centrosome
In animal cells, microtubules grow out from centrosome
(near the nucleus)
 Microtubules
➢Cilia & Flagella

❖ Microtubule-containing cell extensions

❖ Cell movement through water

❖ Fluid movement over tissue surface

❖ Different beating patterns

 Microtubules
➢Cilia & Flagella

❖ Microtubule-containing cell extensions

❖ Cell movement through water

❖ Fluid movement over tissue surface

❖ Different beating patterns

 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)

All Eukaryotic
Cells

Functions:
• Networks shaping the cell
• Muscle contraction
• Cell motility
(pseudopods)
• Cytoplasmic streaming in
plant cells
 Intermediate Filaments
Mainly in
Vertebrates

❖Sized in between microtubules and microfilaments

❖Diverse types -family of proteins that includes keratins
❖Persist even after cell dies Functions:
• Cell shape
• Skin
• Anchorage of organelles (e.g.
• Hair nucleus)
• Formation of nuclear lamina
• Nails • Especially sturdy, more permanent
fixtures
What is found outside a cell??
Extracellular Components
➢Plant Cell Wall

The cell wall:

• Protects the plant cell

• Maintains its shape

• Prevents excessive uptake of water

• Is made of cellulose fibers embedded in

other polysaccharides and protein
Extracellular Components cell wall is made up of strong fibres and
embaded in strong matrix (like steel and

➢Plant Cell Wall concrete)

The cell wall:

Animal cells
dont have cell wall

• Protects the plant cell

• Maintains its shape

• Prevents excessive uptake of water

• Is made of cellulose fibers embedded in

other polysaccharides and protein
 Extracellular Components
➢Extracellular Matrix
• Recognition and communication
• Mainly made of proteins & carbs that are secreted by the cells
sugary proteins

• Holds tissue together

• Cell communication-
coordination
 Intercellular Junctions

Physically connect one cell with the other

a. Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells

➢ Channels allowing cytosol to pass between cells

➢ Water and small solutes

can pass freely
 Intercellular Junctions
b. Junctions in Animal Cells

Cytoplasmic
Gap junctions channels: Allow cell-
cell communication

“Seals”: Block material

Tight junctions movement (e.g. skin
cells)

“Rivets”: Fasten cells to

Desmosomes
one another (e.g. muscle
(Anchoring junctions)
cells)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJ9WTD0XEnc
 Emergent Properties of the Cell
❖ A cell is a living unit greater than the sum of its parts
❖ Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles in order to function

Plasma
Cytoskeleton Membrane

Lysosomes

ATP

Gene
Expression
Ribosomes
(nucleus)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ebDTpHOljU
Which structure is common to all three domains of life?

a) nucleus
b) endoplasmic reticulum
c) mitochondria
d) phospholipid bilayer cell membrane
e) endocytotic vesicles

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Where are enzymes responsible for biosynthesis of membrane lipids located?

a) endoplasmic reticulum
b) nucleus
c) lysosomes
d) Golgi apparatus
e) plasma membrane

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

What is the correct order of the exocytosis or secretion pathway?

a) rough ER, endosome, Golgi apparatus, smooth ER

b) rough ER, Golgi apparatus, smooth ER, plasma membrane
c) smooth ER, rough ER, exocytosis, Golgi apparatus
d) rough ER, Golgi apparatus, transport vesicle, plasma membrane
e) rough ER, Golgi apparatus, endosome, plasma membrane, transport vesicle

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 By now you should be able to answer the following:
➢ What is an “organelle’? What types of organelles are there in eukaryotic cells? What are their structures and
functions?
➢ What similarities and what differences are there between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
➢ What instruments do we use to visualize cells? What are their types? What are their differences?
➢ How do we separate cell components, including organelles, experimentally?
➢ What is the pathway that a secretory protein follows from its synthesis to its secretion from the cell?
➢ What are the functions of the endomembrane system?
➢ What functions do mitochondria and chloroplasts perform?
➢ What is the cytoskeleton and its functions? What are its components and how do they compare to each other?
What are their corresponding functions?
➢ What types of intercellular junctions are there? What are their functions?
➢ What are the differences between the following pairs of terms? magnification and resolution; prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cell; free and bound ribosomes; smooth and rough ER
➢ Describe the structure and function of a plant cell wall
➢ Describe the function of extracellular matrix (animal cells)
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