Functions and Linmits

Definitions:

1. Function:

Afunction is a rule that assigns to each element xin Xa unique element yin Y.
Example: A={Aisa function of x) ting 16.fdonain 4sts=16%b)
2. Donain: -etfunction *'
In a function f: X’Y the set Xis called the domain off.
3.Range:
In a function f: X ’ Ythe set of corresponding elements y in Yis called the range of f.
4. Independent and dependent Variables:
Iny=f().the variablez is called independent variable and y is caled dependent variable of f.
5. Real valued Function:

If variables used in function are real numbers then function is called real valued function.
6. Alrebraic Functions:
Functions which are defined by ål7ebraic expressioins.
7. Polynomial Function:
Afünction of theform Plr) a , + a - t t a o where a an an-2.. do are real numbers and
exponent are non-negative integers is called polynomial function.
8. Line.ai Function: Sgd 2011, Bd 2009, Sahi 2016, Guj 2016, Bhwl 2018
If degree of polynomial function is onethen it is called linear function.
Example: f l 3 +4
9. Identity Function Sangodha 2011, Rwp 2006
For any set X, a function I:X+X of the form lI )=x is called identity function
Example : f) =x
10. Constant Function:
Afunction C:%’Y defined byy C) =a is called constant function.
Example : c)=2
11. Rational Function Dgk 2017

Afunction of the form

P) whre P() and Q() are polynomial functions and Q() * Ois called rational

function.
12. Expcnential Function: Sargodha 2018
AFunction in which the variable appears as exponent is called exponential function.
Example: y=e,y= 2
13. Logarithmic Function: Federal 2016
Ifx= a' then y= log,x (>0, a 1) is called logarithmic function. fa =10 then y =logsox is called common log.
Ifa =e then y =log,r= Inr is called natural log.
14. Explicit Function: Sargodha 2008, Rwp 2008, Mul 2018
Ify is easlly expressed in term'of independent variable x then yis called explicit function.
Example: y=*+ 2r-1
15. Implicit Function: Sargodha Z008, Rwp 2013, Guj 2018,19, Lhr-19
Ify ls not easily expressed in term of independent variable x then yis called implicit function.
Example: i y + - 1
16. Even Function: Sargodha 2015, Mtn 2017, Fsd 2017, Bhwi 2019, Gul-2019
Afunction is called an even function if f() = f()
17. odd Function: Sargodha 2014, 15, Mtn 2017, Fsd 2017, Gu-2019, Bhwt19
Afunction clled an odd function if f(-x) =f)
18. Continuous Function: Sargodha 2015, 16, Bahawalpur 2016, Mul 201
Afunction f is continuous at c if satisfy three conditions
.f (c) is defined
ii. lim f() exits
I. lim f(r) =fc)
 Important Formulas

1. Sin hr
2

2. Cos h=

3. Tan hñ =
e*+e
4. Even Function f (-x)= f) Sgd 2015
Odd Function f (-x) =-fx) Sgd 2014,15
, o d c l a s s i

6 Perimeter of Square = 4x
7. Area of Square =x
8. Area of Circle = r
9. Circumference of Circle = 2Ir
10. Volume of cube = Var
11. fog (x) = f (ale))

12.

13.

14 lim (1+x)%e
15. lin a-1=log, a= Ina
16. Afunction fis continuous at c if satisfy three conditions Sgd 2015

i. f (c) is defined
. lim f(x) exists
iü. limfx) =f(c)
17. Discontinuous if one or more above three conditions are not satisfied.
18. Limit exist if L.H. imit = R.H. Limit
 DIFFERENTIATION 2

Definitions:

Averagc Rate of chan:ge: (Sargodha 2011, Fsd 2010)

Let fbe areal valued function then (difference quotient) f4)-f) is called average rate of change:
Derivative: (Sargodha 2009,2017 Fsd 2011, Guj 2013,2017)
Instantaneous rate of change of one variable with respect to other variable is called derivative or if limit of
Iim
f+)-fo) exist then it is called derivative denoted by
d
3 Mclaurin Series

ter) 0) +xS (0)+0) +...is called macaurin serles.

Taylor Scries

flrn) =fi) +hf(x)+f) *.. scalled taylor Serles

Incredsing Psd 2010, Sgd 2014,16
fis increasing on the intevál (a,b) if flx)> fix) where x> for z,XE(a,b)
Decreasing: Sargodha 2010,16
fis decreasing on the interval (a,b) if f ) <f()where x for x, n ela,b)
Stationary Puint: Guj 2010,2019, Sgd 2015, AJK 2016, Mul 2017, Fsd 2017, Dgk 2019
Any point where f is nefther, increasing nor decreasing.
5. Critiçal value or Critical Poirt: Rwp 2016, Uhr 2017, Mtn 2019

Ifc e Domain of fand f (c)=0 or fc) does not exist thenc is called critical value or critical point.
Relative Max ma: Fsd 2018
f has relative maxima at c if f (c) <0
10 Relative Minita

f has relative minima at c if f" (c) >0

11 Point of Intlcct on: Bawipur 2016, Lhr 2017, Pad 2019, Std 2019
The function fisincreasing beforex0 and also afterx= 0 such polnt is called point of inflection.
12 Power scries: Lhr. 2018
fle)=a +ax+ar+a+a+ .a+.... is calked power series expansion of afunction f(x) where
ao a1, a, are constant and x is variable
 Important Formulas

1. 18.

2.-1 19. d
d Cor +r
d
3.
d ()=cl=c 20.

4. d
21.
du
5.
22. L(Sink) =Cos hx
du
6. 23. d
(Cashr)=Sinbe
7. 24.
Tanhr)=Sechi'x
8. 25.
Tant')
d
9. 26. (Cot ha)=-Cosch'x
10.
(Sinx)=Cosx 27.
Sech)=SechrTanhx
11,
Cosx)=-Sinx 28.
Cosech-CoscchrCotht
d
12.
Tans)= Seci 29.

13.
cor)=-cose'x 30.

d
14. Sec)-See xTanx 31 d
d.

d -1
15. C(Cosecx)=-Cosec xCotx . 32.
-(Sechz)i
de

16.

33
17.
-1 dr
 INTEGRATION 3

Definitions
1, Interration or Antlderivative: Rwp 2016
Inverse process of diferentiation is called integration.
2. df=f'() dx ,f') is called differential co-efficient hr 2019
3. Bundamental Theorenm of CalculuS:
Hfis continuous on (e, b] and o' =fw then ff) de =p(b) -p (o)
Differental Equatlons: Guj 2018
An equation containing at least one derivation of a dependent variable w.r.t. an independent variable. es
dy2x= 0
Order of a diierential equation: The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative in the
equation.
6 Intal Condtlons:
The arbitrary constants involving in the solution of differential equation.can be determined by the given
condition. Such conditlons are called initial value conditions.

Important Formulas
Derivative Comparison Integration
1,

2.

3. 3.

4.

5. 5.

6. 6.

7 dy(Sin) =Cosx 7. Sinx dr= -Cosr

8 (Cos«) -Sinx 8 fCosr dr =Sine
9. Tanx) =Sec'x 9.
10. 10. (Coseexás=-Cotr
11. d (Secx) =Secr Tanx 11 Ssecx Tan du =Secx
12. (Cosecr) =-Cosecx Cotx 12. Cosecr Cotr dr=Cosecx

13. 13.

14. Sin(n x) =Coslnx). n 14 Sinnxdy=Cos nx

15. 15. n

16.

1
17.

18.
a d c t

1
19.

20.
n+1

21.
 Introduction to Analytic 4
Geometry
Definitions:
1 Co-ordinate system:
Drawthe planetwo mutualy perpendicular lines intersect at origin divides plane in four equal parts. These lines
are called axes and system is called co-ordinate system.
Translation:
Let xy-co-ordinat system be given and O'(h, k) is any point in plane. Through 0, draw new perpenidicular lines
'xand 0'y parallel to Ox and Oy. New axes O'x and O'y are called translation of Ox and Oy.
Slop or Gradient: Rwp 2019
Th¹ measure ofsteepness (ratio of rise to run] is termed as slope or gradient denoted by m=Tana
Trapezium: Lhr 2019
Aquadrilaterals having two paralel and two non-paralel sides.
Homogeneous Equation:
Equation f(x,y) = 0 is called homogeneous equation

Important Formulas

1. Distance d=(r,-+;-y)' (point A

(uYa)topoint B(KY) (Sgd 2010)

2 Distance =d (from one point to linel= lar +by, +

va'+b
3 Ratio (divide internally] =
kj +k, k+k,
Ration (Divide externally)

5. Mid Point =
)
6. Centrold ; +bx, +ecx, y, +by,+)
a+b+c atb+c

7. Equation of Translation
X=x-h
Y=y-k]
X=Cos+ ySinO)
Equation of Rotation
Y= Cos0-Sine
9 Slope = m=Tuna
 10 me22(f two polnts are glven)

11. mne (ar+by +c =0) is glven

12. Two lines are parallel if , =m,also ab, -a,b, =0
13. Two lines are perpendicular |mm, =-1| aso 4a, +hb, =0|
14. Colinear; slope of AB =slope of AC
15. Slope intercept form y= x+c
16. Two intercept fom +
17. Equation of Line (y-y)= m(*-x)
18. Symmetric f o m 4 _ ,
Cosa Sina
19. Normal form xCosa +ySina =p

20. Area of Triange

Tan= -m
a2.
21.
1+M,m,

23. -Tan = 2V-oh

a+b
24. h- ab =0 then lines are coincident
,25. a+h=0 then =90
26. Joint equation a +2hry +by' 0
 Linear Inequalities and Linear
5
Programming

Definitions:

Linear nrquaities

Inequalities are expressed by following symbols <, >, S, with one or two variables are called linear
Inequalities.
linear programming (Rwp 2017, Shwi 2017,2019, Fsd 2018)
Unear programming deals with the optimization (madmization or minimization) of tha function
Boundary of half plane
ax+ by <c is called half plane region and line ax +by =cis called. Boundary of haif plane.
Left, Right, Upper, Lov er Half Plane: Lhr 2019
Vertlcal line divides the plane into left or right and non-vertical line divides nto lower and upper half plane.
Vertex or Corner Point: (Guj 2019,Awp 2016,2019, Bahl 2016, Fsd 2017, Shwl 2010, Dgk 2018)
Apoint of a solution region where two of its boundary lines intersect is called vertex.
Non Ne;ative Constraints

The variable used in the system of linear inequalitles relating to the problem of every day life are non
negative and are called non-negative constraints.
Desion Variaoles: (Sargodha 2012, Lhr 2019)
The non-negative constraints play an important role for taking decision. So these variables are also
called Decision Variables.
Soluron region: (Sargodha 2015)
We draw sraph of each inequality in the system of the same coordinates axes and then take
intersection of the graph. The common region so obtained is called the solution region.
9 feas1ble Region (Sgd 2010, 2015,2017, Fsd 2015, Mul 2016, DGK 2016, AJK 2016)
Areglon which is restrited to the first quadrant is called feasible regjon.
10. Fpasible Solution: (Guj 2019, Bhwi 2019, Sgd 2014,2019, Fsd 2015, Shw 2016, AJK 2016, Lhr 2018, Mul 2018)
Each pajnt of feasible region is called feasible solution.
11 Optima' Solution: (Fsd 2015, Lhr 2018)
The feasible solution which maximize or minimize the objective function is called the optimal solution.
12. Obj ctive Function. (Fsd 2016, Sgd 2016,2018, Guj 2016, Mul 2016, Shwd 2019)
Afunction which Is to be maximized or minlmlzed is called an objective function.
Probicm (onstrants: (Fsd 2015, Lhr 2019)
The system of linear inequalities involved in the problem concemed are called problemconstraints.
14. Convex (Rwp 2015, Lhr 2016, Dgk 2018, Bhwi 2018)
If the line segment obtained by joining any two points of a reglon liles entirely within the region then
the region is called convex.
 Conic Sections 6

Definitions
Nappes
Two parts of cone are called nappes
Vertex or Apex

Meeting point of two parts of cone is called vertex or apex.

Circle: (Sargodha 2011, Fsd 2019)
If cone is cut by aplane perpendicular to the axis of cone, then resulting section is circle.
We can also define circle as:
Alocus ofa point which remains at a fxed distance from a certain point. The point is called cerntre of the
cirde and fxed distance is called radius of the circde.
Parabola: (Sargodha 2008, 11, Lhr 2019)
If the intersecting plane is parallel to a generator of thecone but cuts one nape only is called parabola.

Ellpse: Bhwl 2019

If the cone is cut by a plane and the cutting plane is slightly tited and cuts only one nappe of cone then
resulting section is an ellipse.
Hvpertola: (Sargodha 2011, Shw 2016)
If the cohe is cut by a plane and the cutting plane is parallel to the axis of cone and intersect both its
nappes, then curve of intersection is Hyperbola.
PGint crcle: (Sargodha 2008, Lhr 2012)
If the plane passes through vertex of cone, the intersection is a single point or point dirde or if r= 0.
Parameti cuations (Sargodha 2010)
x=rCoso y= rSin® are parametric equations of cirde.
Tangent
Aline that touch the curve without cutting through it.
10. Normal:
Aline perpendicuiar to Tangent is called normal.
11 Tanpential distarnce

Length of targent is called tangential distance and its formula is V*i yË* 2g%, +26, tc
12. Chord of contact:
The ine joining points of contact of chord.
13 Cunic section:
PF =e (tve con[tant) is called conic section if e <1 then Ellipse, if e =1then parabola, if e>1 then
|PM|
hyperbola.
14. ELcentricity: Fsd 2019

Th¹ number e is called eccentrlcity. Where e

PM
15. fquation of parabola
y= Aox is called equation of parabola, F(o, 0) is focus, Aline at equal distance from vertex opposite to
focus is directrix. The point where axis meet the parabola is called vertex (0, 0). The line through focus
and perpendicular to directrix is called ais of parabola and focal chard perpendicular to axis Is called
latusrectum.
16. Vertices

For ellipseä = ,a> b points A, A' are called vertices and AA' =2a is called Major axis, B, B' are
covertices and BB' = 2b is minor axis.
|7 Trensverse or Focal axis Ajk2019
The line segment AA' = 2a is called Transverse or Focalof Hyperbola and BB (line segment) is called
conjugate axls.
18 Central Conics
Ellipse and hyperbola are called central conics.
Ce'nefocil chordofpar :3o (Sgd 2015)
Aline joining two distint point on parabola and passing through Focus is called focal Chord.
20. Degenerate Conic:
Under certain condition equatic ax? + 2hxy +by2+ 2gx + 2fy + c=0 not represent as conic. In such case
this is called degenerate conic.
 Vectors 7

Definitions
1
Scalar Aphysical quantity whch is defined only by its magnitude. For example mass, time, length
2 Vecter Aphysical quantity defined by its magnitude and direction also. For example force, weight, velocity.

Magnitude or Lenzth or Norm Absolute value of vector is called magnitude or length or Nom |AB| Fsd 2018
4
Unit Vector Avector whose magnitude is unity or 1, P= Lhr 2009,2018

Equal Vectcs Two vectorsAB and Co are equalif they have same magnitude and direction [AB| |CD|
Lhr 2009
Parallel Vectors. Two vectors are parallel if and only if they are non-zero scalar multiple of each other g =

Triangutar law IfAB, BC and ACare three sides of triangle then AB +BC =AC is called triangular law.
8 Position Vecter The vector of whose iniial point is the origin O terminalpoint is P: (gd-4, Ajk-09, Mut19, hu-19)
f mggntude of a vtosis zero then it is called zero vector.
10. Direction angles and Direction Cosines Let r= xË + yË + zk be non-zerQ veçtor and a, B, y are angle formed
between and iL krespectively then a, B, yare Direction angles and cosa,, cosß, cosy are Direction Cosines.
(Mipure 2009, Lhr 2018, Mul 201,2019, Fd 2019, Mhad 2019, uj 2019)
11
Scalar or Dot Prucst Ify and yare non-zero vectors in a plane with same intial line then their dot product is
( r 2004, Dgk 2019, Guj 2019, Bhd 2019)
12. Cross or Vector Product Ifu& vare non zero vectors then
u*y-(lul Iyl Sin) (Sargodha 2008, Shwl 2019)
1: Work done Ifaconstant force Fapplied to a bÍdy act at an angle to the direction of motion then work done
is defined as work done =Ed (shwl 2017)

Important ornulae

.1, Vector = AB or 2. Scalar =AB or Uor |ABI

3, Magnitude =JAB| Unit Vector =ý =
Triangular Law of addftion AB +BC =AC
6. Equal Vectors |AB| = |cD| 7. Position Vector =OP
-Ratio Formula = qg+ p2 Direction angles a, B,r
ptg
 Direction Cosines cos =Cosß=
a ,Cosy=
11
Triples can be direction angle Cos Cos?B+ Cosy=1
12
Scalar product or Dot produckofgand y uy= lul lyl Cos®
3 Perpendicular if u.y=0
14 Parallel if u=y or "gxy=0
15 Vector product or Cross Product =xYl l Sint #
16 uxy="1 2 3|, where

17. Area of parallel gram ABCD = |AB x AC|

1
-Area of Triangle ABC=1AB xAC|
Volume of parallelepiped =u.yx
20 LYNare coplanarif u.yxw0
21. Volume of Tetrahedron u.y*w)
22 Work done = E. D 23 Moment of Force =(xE

24 V3 25 u.yxw=y.wxs *W.yxy
W1 W2 w3