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Dark matter
Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the
universe.[1] Dark matter is called "dark" because it does not appear to interact with the electromagnetic field,
which means it does not absorb, reflect, or emit electromagnetic radiation and is, therefore, difficult to detect.
Various astrophysical observations  – including gravitational effects which cannot be explained by currently
accepted theories of gravity unless more matter is present than can be seen – imply dark matter's presence. For
this reason, most experts think that dark matter is abundant in the universe and has had a strong influence on its
structure and evolution.[2]

The primary evidence for dark matter comes from calculations showing that many galaxies would behave quite
differently if they did not contain a large amount of unseen matter. Some galaxies would not have formed at all
and others would not move as they currently do.[3] Other lines of evidence include observations in gravitational
lensing[4] and the cosmic microwave background, along with astronomical observations of the observable
universe's current structure, the formation and evolution of galaxies, mass location during galactic collisions,[5]
and the motion of galaxies within galaxy clusters. In the standard Lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the total
mass–energy content of the universe contains 5% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter, and 68.2% of a form of
energy known as dark energy.[6][7][8][9] Thus, dark matter constitutes 85%[a] of the total mass, while dark energy
and dark matter constitute 95% of the total mass–energy content.[10][11][12][13]

Because no one has directly observed dark matter yet – assuming it exists – it must barely interact with ordinary
baryonic matter and radiation except through gravity. Dark matter is thought to be non-baryonic; it may be
composed of some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particles.[b] The primary candidate for dark matter is some
new kind of elementary particle that has not yet been discovered, particularly weakly interacting massive
particles (WIMPs).[14] Other possibilities include black holes such as primordial black holes. Many experiments
to detect and study dark matter particles directly are being actively undertaken, but none have yet succeeded.[15]
Dark matter is classified as "cold", "warm", or "hot" according to its velocity (more precisely, its free streaming
length). Current models favor a cold dark matter scenario, in which structures emerge by the gradual
accumulation of particles.

Although the scientific community generally accepts dark matter's existence,[16] some astrophysicists, intrigued
by specific observations that are not well-explained by ordinary dark matter, argue for various modifications of
the standard laws of general relativity. These include modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar
gravity, or entropic gravity. These models attempt to account for all observations without invoking supplemental
non-baryonic matter.

History

Early history

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The hypothesis of dark matter has an elaborate history.[17] In the appendices of the book 'Baltimore lectures on
molecular dynamics and the wave theory of light' where the main text was based on a series of lectures given in
1884,[18] Lord Kelvin discussed the potential number of stars around the sun from the observed velocity
dispersion of the stars near the sun, assuming that the sun was 20 to 100 million years old. He posed what
would happen if there were a thousand million stars within 1 kilo-parsec of the sun (at which distance their
parallax would be 1 milli-arcsec). Lord Kelvin concluded "Many of our supposed thousand million stars,
perhaps a great majority of them, may be dark bodies".[19][20] In 1906, Henri Poincaré in "The Milky Way and
Theory of Gases" used the French term matière obscure ("dark matter") in discussing Kelvin's work.[21][20] He
found that the amount of dark matter would need to be less than that of visible matter.

The second to suggest the existence of dark matter using stellar velocities was Dutch astronomer Jacobus
Kapteyn in 1922.[22][23] A publication from 1930 points to Swedish Knut Lundmark being the first to realise
that the universe must contain much more mass than we can observe.[24] Dutchman and radio astronomy
pioneer Jan Oort also hypothesized the existence of dark matter in 1932.[23][25][26] Oort was studying stellar
motions in the local galactic neighborhood and found the mass in the galactic plane must be greater than what
was observed, but this measurement was later determined to be erroneous.[27]

In 1933, Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky, who studied galaxy clusters while working at the California Institute
of Technology, made a similar inference.[28][29] Zwicky applied the virial theorem to the Coma Cluster and
obtained evidence of unseen mass he called dunkle Materie ('dark matter'). Zwicky estimated its mass based on
the motions of galaxies near its edge and compared that to an estimate based on its brightness and number of
galaxies. He estimated the cluster had about 400 times more mass than was visually observable. The gravity
effect of the visible galaxies was far too small for such fast orbits, thus mass must be hidden from view. Based
on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred some unseen matter provided the mass and associated gravitation
attraction to hold the cluster together.[30] Zwicky's estimates were off by more than an order of magnitude,
mainly due to an obsolete value of the Hubble constant;[31] the same calculation today shows a smaller fraction,
using greater values for luminous mass. Nonetheless, Zwicky did correctly conclude from his calculation that
the bulk of the matter was dark.[20]

Further indications of mass-to-light ratio anomalies came from measurements of galaxy rotation curves. In
1939, Horace W. Babcock reported the rotation curve for the Andromeda nebula (known now as the Andromeda
Galaxy), which suggested the mass-to-luminosity ratio increases radially.[32] He attributed it to either light
absorption within the galaxy or modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral and not to the missing
matter he had uncovered. Following Babcock's 1939 report of unexpectedly rapid rotation in the outskirts of the
Andromeda galaxy and a mass-to-light ratio of 50; in 1940 Jan Oort discovered and wrote about the large non-
visible halo of NGC 3115.[33]

1960s

Early radio astronomy observations, performed by Seth Shostak, later SETI Institute Senior Astronomer,
showed a half-dozen galaxies spun too fast in their outer regions - pointing to the existence of dark matter as a
means of creating the gravitational pull needed to keep the stars in their orbits.[34]

1970s

Vera Rubin, Kent Ford, and Ken Freeman's work in the 1960s and 1970s[35] provided further strong evidence,
also using galaxy rotation curves.[36][37][38] Rubin and Ford worked with a new spectrograph to measure the
velocity curve of edge-on spiral galaxies with greater accuracy.[38] This result was confirmed in 1978.[39] An

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influential paper presented Rubin and Ford's results in 1980.[40] They showed most galaxies must contain about
six times as much dark as visible mass;[41] thus, by around 1980 the apparent need for dark matter was widely
recognized as a major unsolved problem in astronomy.[36]

At the same time Rubin and Ford were exploring optical rotation curves, radio astronomers were making use of
new radio telescopes to map the 21 cm line of atomic hydrogen in nearby galaxies. The radial distribution of
interstellar atomic hydrogen (H-I) often extends to much larger galactic radii than those accessible by optical
studies, extending the sampling of rotation curves – and thus of the total mass distribution – to a new dynamical
regime. Early mapping of Andromeda with the 300 foot telescope at Green Bank[42] and the 250 foot dish at
Jodrell Bank[43] already showed the H-I rotation curve did not trace the expected Keplerian decline. As more
sensitive receivers became available, Morton Roberts and Robert Whitehurst[44] were able to trace the rotational
velocity of Andromeda to 30 kpc, much beyond the optical measurements. Illustrating the advantage of tracing
the gas disk at large radii, Figure 16 of that paper[44] combines the optical data[38] (the cluster of points at radii
of less than 15 kpc with a single point further out) with the H-I data between 20–30 kpc, exhibiting the flatness
of the outer galaxy rotation curve; the solid curve peaking at the center is the optical surface density, while the
other curve shows the cumulative mass, still rising linearly at the outermost measurement. In parallel, the use of
interferometric arrays for extragalactic H-I spectroscopy was being developed. In 1972, David Rogstad and Seth
Shostak[45] published H-I rotation curves of five spirals mapped with the Owens Valley interferometer; the
rotation curves of all five were very flat, suggesting very large values of mass-to-light ratio in the outer parts of
their extended H-I disks.

1980s

A stream of observations in the 1980s supported the presence of dark matter, including gravitational lensing of
background objects by galaxy clusters,[46] the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters, and
the pattern of anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background. According to consensus among cosmologists,
dark matter is composed primarily of a not yet characterized type of subatomic particle.[14][47] The search for
this particle, by a variety of means, is one of the major efforts in particle physics.[15]

Technical definition
In standard cosmology, matter is anything whose energy density scales with the inverse cube of the scale factor,
i.e., ρ ∝ a−3. This is in contrast to radiation, which scales as the inverse fourth power of the scale factor ρ ∝ a−4,
and a cosmological constant, which is independent of a. The different scale factors for matter and radiation are a
consequence of radiation redshift: for example, after gradually doubling the diameter of the observable
Universe via cosmic expansion in General Relativity, a has been doubled. The energy of the cosmic background
radiation has been halved (because the wavelength of each photon has doubled);[48] the energy of ultra-
relativistic particles, such as early-era standard-model neutrinos, is similarly halved. (However, in the modern
cosmic era, this neutrino field has cooled and started to behave more like matter and less like radiation.) The
cosmological constant, as an intrinsic property of space, has a constant energy density regardless of the volume
under consideration.[49][c]

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In principle, "dark matter" means all components of the universe which are not visible but still obey ρ ∝ a−3. In
practice, the term "dark matter" is often used to mean only the non-baryonic component of dark matter, i.e.,
excluding "missing baryons". Context will usually indicate which meaning is intended.

Observational evidence

Galaxy rotation curves

The arms of spiral galaxies rotate around the galactic center. The
luminous mass density of a spiral galaxy decreases as one goes from the
center to the outskirts. If luminous mass were all the matter, then we can
model the galaxy as a point mass in the centre and test masses orbiting
around it, similar to the Solar System.[d] From Kepler's Second Law, it is This artist's impression shows the
expected distribution of dark matter
expected that the rotation velocities will decrease with distance from the
in the Milky Way galaxy as a blue
center, similar to the Solar System. This is not observed.[51] Instead, the
halo of material surrounding the
galaxy rotation curve remains flat as distance from the center increases.
galaxy.[50]
If Kepler's laws are correct, then the obvious way to resolve this
discrepancy is to conclude the mass distribution in spiral galaxies is not
similar to that of the Solar System. In particular, there is a lot of non-
luminous matter (dark matter) in the outskirts of the galaxy.

Velocity dispersions

Stars in bound systems must obey the virial theorem. The theorem,
together with the measured velocity distribution, can be used to measure Rotation curve of a typical spiral
the mass distribution in a bound system, such as elliptical galaxies or galaxy: predicted (A) and observed
globular clusters. With some exceptions, velocity dispersion estimates of (B). Dark matter can explain the 'flat'
elliptical galaxies[52] do not match the predicted velocity dispersion from appearance of the velocity curve out
the observed mass distribution, even assuming complicated distributions to a large radius.
of stellar orbits.[53]

As with galaxy rotation curves, the obvious way to resolve the discrepancy is to postulate the existence of non-
luminous matter.

Galaxy clusters

Galaxy clusters are particularly important for dark matter studies since their masses can be estimated in three
independent ways:

From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies within clusters

From X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters. From the X-ray energy spectrum and flux, the gas
temperature and density can be estimated, hence giving the pressure; assuming pressure and
gravity balance determines the cluster's mass profile.
Gravitational lensing (usually of more distant galaxies) can measure cluster masses without
relying on observations of dynamics (e.g., velocity).

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Generally, these three methods are in reasonable agreement that dark matter outweighs visible matter by
approximately 5 to 1.[54]

Gravitational lensing

One of the consequences of general

relativity is massive objects (such as a
cluster of galaxies) lying between a more
distant source (such as a quasar) and an
observer should act as a lens to bend light
from this source. The more massive an
object, the more lensing is observed. Models of rotating disc galaxies in
the present day (left) and ten billion
Strong lensing is the observed distortion
years ago (right). In the present-day
Strong gravitational lensing of background galaxies into arcs when
galaxy, dark matter – shown in red –
as observed by the Hubble their light passes through such a
is more concentrated near the
Space Telescope in Abell gravitational lens. It has been observed center and it rotates more rapidly
1689 indicates the around many distant clusters including (effect exaggerated).
presence of dark matter – Abell 1689.[56] By measuring the
enlarge the image to see distortion geometry, the mass of the
the lensing arcs. intervening cluster can be obtained. In the
dozens of cases where this has been done,
the mass-to-light ratios obtained
correspond to the dynamical dark matter measurements of clusters.[57]
Lensing can lead to multiple copies of an image. By analyzing the
Dark matter map for a patch of sky
distribution of multiple image copies, scientists have been able to deduce
based on gravitational lensing
and map the distribution of dark matter around the MACS J0416.1-2403
analysis of a Kilo-Degree survey.[55]
galaxy cluster.[58][59]

Weak gravitational lensing investigates minute distortions of galaxies,

using statistical analyses from vast galaxy surveys. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the
adjacent background galaxies, the mean distribution of dark matter can be characterized. The mass-to-light
ratios correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements.[60] Dark matter
does not bend light itself; mass (in this case the mass of the dark matter) bends spacetime. Light follows the
curvature of spacetime, resulting in the lensing effect.[61][62]

In May 2021, a new detailed dark matter map was revealed by the Dark Energy Survey Collaboration.[63] In
addition, the map revealed previously undiscovered filamentary structures connecting galaxies, by using a
machine learning method.[64]

Cosmic microwave background

Although both dark matter and ordinary matter are matter, they do not behave in the same way. In particular, in
the early universe, ordinary matter was ionized and interacted strongly with radiation via Thomson scattering.
Dark matter does not interact directly with radiation, but it does affect the cosmic microwave background
(CMB) by its gravitational potential (mainly on large scales) and by its effects on the density and velocity of
ordinary matter. Ordinary and dark matter perturbations, therefore, evolve differently with time and leave
different imprints on the CMB.

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The cosmic microwave background is very close to a perfect blackbody but contains very small temperature
anisotropies of a few parts in 100,000. A sky map of anisotropies can be decomposed into an angular power
spectrum, which is observed to contain a series of acoustic peaks at near-equal spacing but different heights.
The series of peaks can be predicted for any assumed set of cosmological parameters by modern computer
codes such as CMBFAST and CAMB, and matching theory to data, therefore, constrains cosmological
parameters.[65] The first peak mostly shows the density of baryonic matter, while the third peak relates mostly
to the density of dark matter, measuring the density of matter and the density of atoms.[65]

The CMB anisotropy was first discovered by COBE in 1992, though this had too coarse resolution to detect the
acoustic peaks. After the discovery of the first acoustic peak by the balloon-borne BOOMERanG experiment in
2000, the power spectrum was precisely observed by WMAP in 2003–2012, and even more precisely by the
Planck spacecraft in 2013–2015. The results support the Lambda-CDM model.[66][67]

The observed CMB angular power spectrum provides powerful evidence in support of dark matter, as its precise
structure is well fitted by the Lambda-CDM model,[67] but difficult to reproduce with any competing model
such as modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND).[67][68]

Structure formation

Structure formation refers to the period after the Big Bang when density
perturbations collapsed to form stars, galaxies, and clusters. Prior to
structure formation, the Friedmann solutions to general relativity
describe a homogeneous universe. Later, small anisotropies gradually
grew and condensed the homogeneous universe into stars, galaxies and
larger structures. Ordinary matter is affected by radiation, which is the
dominant element of the universe at very early times. As a result, its
density perturbations are washed out and unable to condense into
structure.[70] If there were only ordinary matter in the universe, there
3-D map of the large-scale
would not have been enough time for density perturbations to grow into distribution of dark matter,
the galaxies and clusters currently seen. reconstructed from measurements
of weak gravitational lensing with
Dark matter provides a solution to this problem because it is unaffected
the Hubble Space Telescope.[69]
by radiation. Therefore, its density perturbations can grow first. The
resulting gravitational potential acts as an attractive potential well for
ordinary matter collapsing later, speeding up the structure formation
process.[70][71]

Bullet Cluster

If dark matter does not exist, then the next most likely explanation must be that general relativity – the
prevailing theory of gravity – is incorrect and should be modified. The Bullet Cluster, the result of a recent
collision of two galaxy clusters, provides a challenge for modified gravity theories because its apparent center
of mass is far displaced from the baryonic center of mass.[72] Standard dark matter models can easily explain
this observation, but modified gravity has a much harder time,[73][74] especially since the observational
evidence is model-independent.[75]

Type Ia supernova distance measurements

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Type Ia supernovae can be used as standard candles to measure extragalactic distances, which can in turn be
used to measure how fast the universe has expanded in the past.[76] Data indicates the universe is expanding at
an accelerating rate, the cause of which is usually ascribed to dark energy.[77] Since observations indicate the
universe is almost flat,[78][79][80] it is expected the total energy density of everything in the universe should sum
to 1 (Ωtot ≈ 1). The measured dark energy density is ΩΛ ≈ 0.690; the observed ordinary (baryonic) matter
energy density is Ωb ≈ 0.0482 and the energy density of radiation is negligible. This leaves a missing
Ωdm ≈ 0.258 which nonetheless behaves like matter (see technical definition section above) – dark matter.[81]

Sky surveys and baryon acoustic oscillations

Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are fluctuations in the density of the visible baryonic matter (normal matter)
of the universe on large scales. These are predicted to arise in the Lambda-CDM model due to acoustic
oscillations in the photon–baryon fluid of the early universe, and can be observed in the cosmic microwave
background angular power spectrum. BAOs set up a preferred length scale for baryons. As the dark matter and
baryons clumped together after recombination, the effect is much weaker in the galaxy distribution in the nearby
universe, but is detectable as a subtle (≈1 percent) preference for pairs of galaxies to be separated by 147 Mpc,
compared to those separated by 130–160 Mpc. This feature was predicted theoretically in the 1990s and then
discovered in 2005, in two large galaxy redshift surveys, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the 2dF Galaxy
Redshift Survey.[82] Combining the CMB observations with BAO measurements from galaxy redshift surveys
provides a precise estimate of the Hubble constant and the average matter density in the Universe.[83] The
results support the Lambda-CDM model.

Redshift-space distortions

Large galaxy redshift surveys may be used to make a three-dimensional map of the galaxy distribution. These
maps are slightly distorted because distances are estimated from observed redshifts; the redshift contains a
contribution from the galaxy's so-called peculiar velocity in addition to the dominant Hubble expansion term.
On average, superclusters are expanding more slowly than the cosmic mean due to their gravity, while voids are
expanding faster than average. In a redshift map, galaxies in front of a supercluster have excess radial velocities
towards it and have redshifts slightly higher than their distance would imply, while galaxies behind the
supercluster have redshifts slightly low for their distance. This effect causes superclusters to appear squashed in
the radial direction, and likewise voids are stretched. Their angular positions are unaffected. This effect is not
detectable for any one structure since the true shape is not known, but can be measured by averaging over many
structures. It was predicted quantitatively by Nick Kaiser in 1987, and first decisively measured in 2001 by the
2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.[84] Results are in agreement with the Lambda-CDM model.

Lyman-alpha forest

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In astronomical spectroscopy, the Lyman-alpha forest is the sum of the absorption lines arising from the Lyman-
alpha transition of neutral hydrogen in the spectra of distant galaxies and quasars. Lyman-alpha forest
observations can also constrain cosmological models.[85] These constraints agree with those obtained from
WMAP data.

Theoretical classifications

Composition

There are various hypotheses about what dark matter could consist of, as set out in the table below.

Unsolved problem in physics:

What is dark matter? How was it generated?
(more unsolved problems in physics)

Some dark matter hypotheses[86]

quantum chromodynamics axions

Light bosons axion-like particles

fuzzy cold dark matter

Standard Model
neutrinos
sterile neutrinos
supersymmetry

extra dimensions

weak scale little Higgs

effective field theory

simplified models

Weakly interacting massive particles

other particles self-interacting dark matter

strangelet[87]

superfluid vacuum theory

Dynamical Dark Matter

primordial black holes[88][89][90][91][92][93][94]

macroscopic massive compact halo objects (MACHOs)
Macroscopic dark matter (Macros)

modified Newtonian dynamics (MoND)

modified gravity (MOG) Tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS)

Entropic gravity

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Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars
and planets). Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at
least in part, be made up of standard baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons.

Baryonic matter

Most of the ordinary matter familiar to astronomers, including planets,

brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, visible stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and
black holes, is called baryonic matter (referring to the baryons that
dominate the mass of most ordinary matter).[95][96] Solitary black holes,
neutron stars, burnt-out dwarfs, and other massive objects that that are
Fermi-LAT observations of dwarf
hard to detect are collectively known as MACHOs; some scientists galaxies provide new insights on
initially hoped that baryonic MACHOs could account for and explain all dark matter.
the dark matter.[97][98]

However, multiple lines of evidence suggest the majority of dark matter is not baryonic:

Sufficient diffuse, baryonic gas or dust would be visible when backlit by stars.
The theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts the observed abundance of the chemical
elements. If there are more baryons, then there should also be more helium, lithium and heavier
elements synthesized during the Big Bang.[99][100] Agreement with observed abundances requires
that baryonic matter makes up between 4–5% of the universe's critical density. In contrast, large-
scale structure and other observations indicate that the total matter density is about 30% of the
critical density.[81]
Astronomical searches for gravitational microlensing in the Milky Way found at most only a small
fraction of the dark matter may be in dark, compact, conventional objects (MACHOs, etc.); the
excluded range of object masses is from half the Earth's mass up to 30 solar masses, which
covers nearly all the plausible candidates.[101][102][103][104][105][106]
Detailed analysis of the small irregularities (anisotropies) in the cosmic microwave
background.[107] Observations by WMAP and Planck indicate that around five-sixths of the total
matter is in a form that interacts significantly with ordinary matter or photons only through
gravitational effects.

Non-baryonic matter

Candidates for non-baryonic dark matter are hypothetical particles such as axions, sterile neutrinos, weakly
interacting massive particles (WIMPs), supersymmetric particles, or geons.[108][109] The three neutrino types
already observed are indeed abundant, and dark, and matter, but because their individual masses – however
uncertain they may be – are almost certainly too tiny, they can only supply a small fraction of dark matter, due
to limits derived from large-scale structure and high-redshift galaxies.[110]

Unlike baryonic matter, nonbaryonic matter did not contribute to the formation of the elements in the early
universe (Big Bang nucleosynthesis)[14] and so its presence is revealed only via its gravitational effects, or weak
lensing. In addition, if the particles of which it is composed are supersymmetric, they can undergo annihilation
interactions with themselves, possibly resulting in observable by-products such as gamma rays and neutrinos
(indirect detection).[110]

Dark matter aggregation and dense dark matter objects

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If dark matter is composed of weakly-interacting particles, then an obvious question is whether it can form
objects equivalent to planets, stars, or black holes. Historically, the answer has been it cannot,[111][112][113]
because of two factors:

It lacks an efficient means to lose energy[112]

Ordinary matter forms dense objects because it has numerous ways to lose energy. Losing
energy would be essential for object formation, because a particle that gains energy during
compaction or falling "inward" under gravity, and cannot lose it any other way, will heat up and
increase velocity and momentum. Dark matter appears to lack a means to lose energy, simply
because it is not capable of interacting strongly in other ways except through gravity. The virial
theorem suggests that such a particle would not stay bound to the gradually forming object – as
the object began to form and compact, the dark matter particles within it would speed up and
tend to escape.
It lacks a range of interactions needed to form structures[113]
Ordinary matter interacts in many different ways, which allows the matter to form more complex
structures. For example, stars form through gravity, but the particles within them interact and
can emit energy in the form of neutrinos and electromagnetic radiation through fusion when they
become energetic enough. Protons and neutrons can bind via the strong interaction and then
form atoms with electrons largely through electromagnetic interaction. There is no evidence that
dark matter is capable of such a wide variety of interactions, since it seems to only interact
through gravity (and possibly through some means no stronger than the weak interaction,
although until dark matter is better understood, this is only speculation).

In 2015–2017, the idea that dense dark matter was composed of primordial black holes made a comeback[114]
following results of gravitational wave measurements which detected the merger of intermediate-mass black
holes. Black holes with about 30 solar masses are not predicted to form by either stellar collapse (typically less
than 15 solar masses) or by the merger of black holes in galactic centers (millions or billions of solar masses). It
was proposed that the intermediate-mass black holes causing the detected merger formed in the hot dense early
phase of the universe due to denser regions collapsing. A later survey of about a thousand supernovae detected
no gravitational lensing events, when about eight would be expected if intermediate-mass primordial black
holes above a certain mass range accounted for the majority of dark matter.[115]

The possibility that atom-sized primordial black holes account for a significant fraction of dark matter was ruled
out by measurements of positron and electron fluxes outside the Sun's heliosphere by the Voyager 1 spacecraft.
Tiny black holes are theorized to emit Hawking radiation. However the detected fluxes were too low and did not
have the expected energy spectrum, suggesting that tiny primordial black holes are not widespread enough to
account for dark matter.[116] Nonetheless, research and theories proposing dense dark matter accounts for dark
matter continue as of 2018, including approaches to dark matter cooling,[117][118] and the question remains
unsettled. In 2019, the lack of microlensing effects in the observation of Andromeda suggests that tiny black
holes do not exist.[119]

However, there still exists a largely unconstrained mass range smaller than that which can be limited by optical
microlensing observations, where primordial black holes may account for all dark matter.[120][121]

Free streaming length

Dark matter can be divided into cold, warm, and hot categories.[122] These categories refer to velocity rather
than an actual temperature, indicating how far corresponding objects moved due to random motions in the early
universe, before they slowed due to cosmic expansion – this is an important distance called the free streaming

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length (FSL). Primordial density fluctuations smaller than this length get washed out as particles spread from
overdense to underdense regions, while larger fluctuations are unaffected; therefore this length sets a minimum
scale for later structure formation.

The categories are set with respect to the size of a protogalaxy (an object that later evolves into a dwarf galaxy):
Dark matter particles are classified as cold, warm, or hot according to their FSL; much smaller (cold), similar to
(warm), or much larger (hot) than a protogalaxy.[123][124][125] Mixtures of the above are also possible: a theory
of mixed dark matter was popular in the mid-1990s, but was rejected following the discovery of dark energy.

Cold dark matter leads to a bottom-up formation of structure with galaxies forming first and galaxy clusters at a
latter stage, while hot dark matter would result in a top-down formation scenario with large matter aggregations
forming early, later fragmenting into separate galaxies; the latter is excluded by high-redshift galaxy
observations.[15]

Fluctuation spectrum effects

These categories also correspond to fluctuation spectrum effects and the interval following the Big Bang at
which each type became non-relativistic. Davis et al. wrote in 1985:[126]

Candidate particles can be grouped into three categories on the basis of their effect on the
fluctuation spectrum (Bond et al. 1983). If the dark matter is composed of abundant light particles
which remain relativistic until shortly before recombination, then it may be termed "hot". The best
candidate for hot dark matter is a neutrino ... A second possibility is for the dark matter particles to
interact more weakly than neutrinos, to be less abundant, and to have a mass of order 1 keV. Such
particles are termed "warm dark matter", because they have lower thermal velocities than massive
neutrinos ... there are at present few candidate particles which fit this description. Gravitinos and
photinos have been suggested (Pagels and Primack 1982; Bond, Szalay and Turner 1982) ... Any
particles which became nonrelativistic very early, and so were able to diffuse a negligible distance,
are termed "cold" dark matter (CDM). There are many candidates for CDM including
supersymmetric particles.

— Davis, Efstathiou, Frenk, & White (1985)[126]

Alternative definitions

Another approximate dividing line is warm dark matter became non-relativistic when the universe was
approximately 1  year old and 1  millionth of its present size and in the radiation-dominated era (photons and
neutrinos), with a photon temperature 2.7  million  Kelvins. Standard physical cosmology gives the particle
horizon size as 2  c  t (speed of light multiplied by time) in the radiation-dominated era, thus 2  light-years. A
region of this size would expand to 2 million light-years today (absent structure formation). The actual FSL is
approximately 5  times the above length, since it continues to grow slowly as particle velocities decrease
inversely with the scale factor after they become non-relativistic. In this example the FSL would correspond to
10 million light-years, or 3 megaparsecs, today, around the size containing an average large galaxy.

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The 2.7  million  K photon temperature gives a typical photon energy of 250  electronvolts, thereby setting a
typical mass scale for warm dark matter: particles much more massive than this, such as GeV–TeV mass
WIMPs, would become non-relativistic much earlier than one year after the Big Bang and thus have FSLs much
smaller than a protogalaxy, making them cold. Conversely, much lighter particles, such as neutrinos with masses
of only a few eV, have FSLs much larger than a protogalaxy, thus qualifying them as hot.

Cold dark matter

Cold dark matter offers the simplest explanation for most cosmological observations. It is dark matter composed
of constituents with an FSL much smaller than a protogalaxy. This is the focus for dark matter research, as hot
dark matter does not seem capable of supporting galaxy or galaxy cluster formation, and most particle
candidates slowed early.

The constituents of cold dark matter are unknown. Possibilities range from large objects like MACHOs (such as
black holes[127] and Preon stars[128]) or RAMBOs (such as clusters of brown dwarfs), to new particles such as
WIMPs and axions.

Studies of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and gravitational lensing convinced most

cosmologists[15][129][130][131][132][133] that MACHOs[129][131] cannot make up more than a small fraction of
dark matter.[14][129] According to A. Peter: "...  the only really plausible dark-matter candidates are new
particles."[130]

The 1997 DAMA/NaI experiment and its successor DAMA/LIBRA in 2013, claimed to directly detect dark
matter particles passing through the Earth, but many researchers remain skeptical, as negative results from
similar experiments seem incompatible with the DAMA results.

Many supersymmetric models offer dark matter candidates in the form of the WIMPy Lightest Supersymmetric
Particle (LSP).[134] Separately, heavy sterile neutrinos exist in non-supersymmetric extensions to the standard
model which explain the small neutrino mass through the seesaw mechanism.

Warm dark matter

Warm dark matter comprises particles with an FSL comparable to the size of a protogalaxy. Predictions based
on warm dark matter are similar to those for cold dark matter on large scales, but with less small-scale density
perturbations. This reduces the predicted abundance of dwarf galaxies and may lead to lower density of dark
matter in the central parts of large galaxies. Some researchers consider this a better fit to observations. A
challenge for this model is the lack of particle candidates with the required mass ≈ 300 eV to 3000 eV.

No known particles can be categorized as warm dark matter. A postulated candidate is the sterile neutrino: A
heavier, slower form of neutrino that does not interact through the weak force, unlike other neutrinos. Some
modified gravity theories, such as scalar–tensor–vector gravity, require "warm" dark matter to make their
equations work.

Hot dark matter

Hot dark matter consists of particles whose FSL is much larger than the size of a protogalaxy. The neutrino
qualifies as such a particle. They were discovered independently, long before the hunt for dark matter: they were
postulated in 1930, and detected in 1956. Neutrinos' mass is less than 10−6 that of an electron. Neutrinos interact

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with normal matter only via gravity and the weak force, making them difficult to detect (the weak force only
works over a small distance, thus a neutrino triggers a weak force event only if it hits a nucleus head-on). This
makes them "weakly interacting slender particles" (WISPs), as opposed to WIMPs.

The three known flavours of neutrinos are the electron, muon, and tau. Their masses are slightly different.
Neutrinos oscillate among the flavours as they move. It is hard to determine an exact upper bound on the
collective average mass of the three neutrinos (or for any of the three individually). For example, if the average
neutrino mass were over 50 eV/c2 (less than 10−5 of the mass of an electron), the universe would collapse.[135]
CMB data and other methods indicate that their average mass probably does not exceed 0.3  eV/c2. Thus,
observed neutrinos cannot explain dark matter.[136]

Because galaxy-size density fluctuations get washed out by free-streaming, hot dark matter implies the first
objects that can form are huge supercluster-size pancakes, which then fragment into galaxies. Deep-field
observations show instead that galaxies formed first, followed by clusters and superclusters as galaxies clump
together.

Detection of dark matter particles

If dark matter is made up of subatomic particles, then millions, possibly billions, of such particles must pass
through every square centimeter of the Earth each second.[137][138] Many experiments aim to test this
hypothesis. Although WIMPs have been the main search candidates,[15] axions have drawn renewed attention,
with the Axion Dark Matter Experiment (ADMX) searches for axions and many more planned in the future.[139]
Another candidate is heavy hidden sector particles which only interact with ordinary matter via gravity.

These experiments can be divided into two classes: direct detection experiments, which search for the scattering
of dark matter particles off atomic nuclei within a detector; and indirect detection, which look for the products
of dark matter particle annihilations or decays.[110]

Direct detection

Direct detection experiments aim to observe low-energy recoils (typically a few keVs) of nuclei induced by
interactions with particles of dark matter, which (in theory) are passing through the Earth. After such a recoil the
nucleus will emit energy in the form of scintillation light or phonons, as they pass through sensitive detection
apparatus. To do so effectively, it is crucial to maintain an extremely low background, which is the reason why
such experiments typically operate deep underground, where interference from cosmic rays is minimized.
Examples of underground laboratories with direct detection experiments include the Stawell mine, the Soudan
mine, the SNOLAB underground laboratory at Sudbury, the Gran Sasso National Laboratory, the Canfranc
Underground Laboratory, the Boulby Underground Laboratory, the Deep Underground Science and Engineering
Laboratory and the China Jinping Underground Laboratory.

These experiments mostly use either cryogenic or noble liquid detector technologies. Cryogenic detectors
operating at temperatures below 100  mK, detect the heat produced when a particle hits an atom in a crystal
absorber such as germanium. Noble liquid detectors detect scintillation produced by a particle collision in liquid
xenon or argon. Cryogenic detector experiments include: CDMS, CRESST, EDELWEISS, EURECA. Noble
liquid experiments include LZ, XENON, DEAP, ArDM, WARP, DarkSide, PandaX, and LUX, the Large
Underground Xenon experiment. Both of these techniques focus strongly on their ability to distinguish
background particles (which predominantly scatter off electrons) from dark matter particles (that scatter off
nuclei). Other experiments include SIMPLE and PICASSO.

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Currently there has been no well-established claim of dark matter detection from a direct detection experiment,
leading instead to strong upper limits on the mass and interaction cross section with nucleons of such dark
matter particles.[140] The DAMA/NaI and more recent DAMA/LIBRA experimental collaborations have
detected an annual modulation in the rate of events in their detectors,[141][142] which they claim is due to dark
matter. This results from the expectation that as the Earth orbits the Sun, the velocity of the detector relative to
the dark matter halo will vary by a small amount. This claim is so far unconfirmed and in contradiction with
negative results from other experiments such as LUX, SuperCDMS[143] and XENON100.[144]

A special case of direct detection experiments covers those with directional sensitivity. This is a search strategy
based on the motion of the Solar System around the Galactic Center.[145][146][147][148] A low-pressure time
projection chamber makes it possible to access information on recoiling tracks and constrain WIMP-nucleus
kinematics. WIMPs coming from the direction in which the Sun travels (approximately towards Cygnus) may
then be separated from background, which should be isotropic. Directional dark matter experiments include
DMTPC, DRIFT, Newage and MIMAC.

Indirect detection

Indirect detection experiments search for the products of the self-

annihilation or decay of dark matter particles in outer space. For
example, in regions of high dark matter density (e.g., the centre of our
galaxy) two dark matter particles could annihilate to produce gamma
rays or Standard Model particle–antiparticle pairs.[150] Alternatively, if a
dark matter particle is unstable, it could decay into Standard Model (or
other) particles. These processes could be detected indirectly through an
Collage of six cluster collisions with
excess of gamma rays, antiprotons or positrons emanating from high
dark matter maps. The clusters
density regions in our galaxy or others.[151] A major difficulty inherent in
were observed in a study of how
such searches is that various astrophysical sources can mimic the signal dark matter in clusters of galaxies
expected from dark matter, and so multiple signals are likely required for behaves when the clusters
a conclusive discovery.[15][110]
collide.[149]

A few of the dark matter particles passing through the Sun or Earth may
scatter off atoms and lose energy. Thus dark matter may accumulate at
the center of these bodies, increasing the chance of collision/annihilation.
This could produce a distinctive signal in the form of high-energy
neutrinos.[152] Such a signal would be strong indirect proof of WIMP
dark matter.[15] High-energy neutrino telescopes such as AMANDA,
IceCube and ANTARES are searching for this signal.[153] The detection
by LIGO in September 2015 of gravitational waves opens the possibility
of observing dark matter in a new way, particularly if it is in the form of Video about the potential gamma-
primordial black holes.[154][155][156] ray detection of dark matter
annihilation around supermassive
Many experimental searches have been undertaken to look for such black holes. (Duration 0:03:13, also
emission from dark matter annihilation or decay, examples of which see file description.)
follow.

The Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope observed more gamma rays in 2008 than expected from the
Milky Way, but scientists concluded this was most likely due to incorrect estimation of the telescope's
sensitivity.[157]

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The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is searching for similar gamma rays.[158] In 2009, an as yet
unexplained surplus of gamma rays from the Milky Way's galactic center was found in Fermi data. This
Galactic Center GeV excess might be due to dark matter annihilation or to a population of pulsars.[159] In April
2012, an analysis of previously available data from Fermi's Large Area Telescope instrument produced
statistical evidence of a 130 GeV signal in the gamma radiation coming from the center of the Milky Way.[160]
WIMP annihilation was seen as the most probable explanation.[161]

At higher energies, ground-based gamma-ray telescopes have set limits on the annihilation of dark matter in
dwarf spheroidal galaxies[162] and in clusters of galaxies.[163]

The PAMELA experiment (launched in 2006) detected excess positrons. They could be from dark matter
annihilation or from pulsars. No excess antiprotons were observed.[164]

In 2013 results from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station indicated excess high-
energy cosmic rays which could be due to dark matter annihilation.[165][166][167][168][169][170]

Collider searches for dark matter

An alternative approach to the detection of dark matter particles in nature is to produce them in a laboratory.
Experiments with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) may be able to detect dark matter particles produced in
collisions of the LHC proton beams. Because a dark matter particle should have negligible interactions with
normal visible matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts of) missing energy and momentum that
escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) collision products are detected.[171] Constraints on dark
matter also exist from the LEP experiment using a similar principle, but probing the interaction of dark matter
particles with electrons rather than quarks.[172] Any discovery from collider searches must be corroborated by
discoveries in the indirect or direct detection sectors to prove that the particle discovered is, in fact, dark matter.

Alternative hypotheses
Because dark matter has not yet been identified, many other hypotheses have emerged aiming to explain the
same observational phenomena without introducing a new unknown type of matter. The most common method
is to modify general relativity. General relativity is well-tested on solar system scales, but its validity on galactic
or cosmological scales has not been well proven.[173] A suitable modification to general relativity can in
principle conceivably eliminate the need for dark matter. The best-known theories of this class are MOND and
its relativistic generalization tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS),[174] f(R) gravity,[175] negative mass, dark
fluid,[176][177][178] and entropic gravity.[179] Alternative theories abound.[180][181]

A problem with alternative hypotheses is that observational evidence for dark matter comes from so many
independent approaches (see the "observational evidence" section above). Explaining any individual
observation is possible but explaining all of them in the absence of dark matter is very difficult. Nonetheless,
there have been some scattered successes for alternative hypotheses, such as a 2016 test of gravitational lensing
in entropic gravity[182][183][184] and a 2020 measurement of a unique MOND effect.[185][186]

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The prevailing opinion among most astrophysicists is that while modifications to general relativity can
conceivably explain part of the observational evidence, there is probably enough data to conclude there must be
some form of dark matter present in the Universe.[187]

In popular culture
Dark matter regularly appears as a topic in hybrid periodicals that cover both factual scientific topics and
science fiction,[188] and dark matter itself has been referred to as "the stuff of science fiction".[189] Mention of
dark matter is made in works of fiction. In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical
properties, thus becoming inconsistent with the hypothesized properties of dark matter in physics and
cosmology. For example, dark matter serves as a plot device in the X-Files episode "Soft Light",[190] in a
manner that one reviewer found reliant upon the audience's ignorance.[191] A dark-matter-inspired substance
known as "Dust" features prominently in Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy,[192] and beings made of
dark matter are antagonists in Stephen Baxter's Xeelee Sequence.[193]

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More broadly, the phrase "dark matter" is used metaphorically to evoke the unseen or invisible.[194]

Gallery

DM map by the Cosmic DM map by the CFHT DM map by the Kilo-Degree

Evolution Survey (COSMOS) Lensing Survey (CFHTLenS) Survey (KiDS) using the VLT
using the Hubble Space using the Canada–France– Survey Telescope
Telescope (2007).[195][196] Hawaii Telescope (2015). [199][200]
(2012). [197][198] (COSMOS
map at the center)

DM map by the Hyper DM map by the Dark Energy

Suprime-Cam Survey Survey (DES) using the
(HSCS) using the Subaru Victor M. Blanco Telescope
Telescope (2018).[201][202] (2021).[203][204]

See also
Related theories

Dark energy – Unknown property in cosmology that causes the expansion of the universe to
accelerate
Conformal gravity – Gravity theories that are invariant under Weyl transformations

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Density wave theory – A theory in which waves of compressed gas, which move slower than the
galaxy, maintain galaxy's structure
Entropic gravity – Theory in modern physics that describes gravity as an entropic force
Dark radiation – Postulated type of radiation that mediates interactions of dark matter
Massive gravity – Theory of gravity in which the graviton has nonzero mass
Unparticle physics – Speculative theory that conjectures a form of matter that cannot be explained
in terms of particles

Experiments

DEAP, a search apparatus

LZ experiment – experiment in South Dakota, United States, large underground dark matter
detector
Dark Matter Particle Explorer (DAMPE) – nicknamed Wukong, a Chinese science satellite, a
space mission
General antiparticle spectrometer
MultiDark, a research program
Illustris project – Computer-simulated universes, astrophysical simulations
Future Circular Collider – Proposed post-LHC particle accelerator at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland,
a particle accelerator research infrastructure

Dark matter candidates

Feebly Interacting Particles

Light dark matter – Dark matter weakly interacting massive particles candidates with masses less
than 1 GeV
Mirror matter – Hypothetical counterpart to ordinary matter
Exotic matter – Any kind of non-baryonic matter
Neutralino – Neutral mass eigenstate formed from superpartners of gauge and Higgs bosons
Dark galaxy – A hypothesized galaxy with no, or very few, stars
Scalar field dark matter – Classical, minimally coupled, scalar field postulated to account for the
inferred dark matter
Self-interacting dark matter – Hypothetical form of dark matter consisting of particles with strong
self-interactions
Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMP) – Hypothetical particles that are thought to constitute
dark matter
Weakly interacting slim particle (WISP) – Low-mass counterpart to WIMP
Strongly interacting massive particle (SIMP) – Hypothetical particle
Chameleon particle – Hypothetical scalar particle that couples to matter more weakly than gravity

Other

Galactic Center GeV excess – Unexplained gamma-ray radiation in the center of the Milky Way
galaxy
Luminiferous aether – A once theorized invisible and infinite material with no interaction with
physical objects, used to explain how light could travel through a vacuum (now disproven)

Notes
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a. Since dark energy does not count as matter, this is 4.926.8

+ 26.8
= 0.845.
b. A small portion of dark matter could be baryonic and/or neutrinos. See Baryonic dark matter.
c. Dark energy is a term often used nowadays as a substitute for cosmological constant. It is
basically the same except that dark energy might depend on scale factor in some unknown way
rather than necessarily being constant.
d. This is a consequence of the shell theorem and the observation that spiral galaxies are spherically
symmetric to a large extent (in 2D).

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Works cited
Randall, Lisa (2015). Dark Matter and the Dinosaurs: The Astounding Interconnectedness of the
Universe. New York: Ecco / Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-232847-2.

Further reading
Hossenfelder, Sabine; McGaugh, Stacy S. (August 2018). "Is dark matter real?". Scientific
American. Vol. 319, no. 2. pp. 36–43.

External links
Dark matter (https://curlie.org/Science/Astronomy/Cosmology/Dark_Matter) at Curlie
"A history of dark matter" (https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/02/a-history-of-dark-matter/). Ars
Technica. February 2017.
"What is dark matter?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151120074531/http://archive.cosmosmaga
zine.com/features/what-dark-matter/). CosmosMagazine.com. Archived from the original (http://ar
chive.cosmosmagazine.com/features/what-dark-matter/) on 20 November 2015.
“Missing Dark Matter” in a far-away galaxy (https://www.techexplorist.com/new-hubble-data-explai
ns-missing-dark-matter/36391/), Tech Explorer news item, from a 2020 Astrophysical Journal
article, doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abc340 (https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fabc340)
Kroupa, Pavel (18 August 2010). "The Dark Matter Crisis" (http://www.scilogs.com/the-dark-matter
-crisis/2010/08/18/is-lambdacdm-or-standard-cosmology-a-4th-order-speculation-and-ought-it-be-f
urther-researched/). posted in General. scilogs.com.
"Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics" (http://www.hap-astroparticle.org/). 26 January 2018.
"NASA finds direct proof of dark matter" (http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/aug/HQ_06297
_CHANDRA_Dark_Matter.html) (Press release). NASA. 21 August 2006.
Tuttle, Kelen (22 August 2006). "Dark Matter Observed" (http://today.slac.stanford.edu/feature/dar
kmatter.asp). SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center) Today.
"Astronomers claim first 'dark galaxy' find" (https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7056-astronom
ers-claim-first-dark-galaxy-find/). New Scientist. 23 February 2005.
Sample, Ian (17 December 2009). "Dark Matter Detected" (https://www.theguardian.com/science/
2009/dec/17/dark-matter-detected). Guardian. London. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
Tremaine, Scott. lecture on dark matter (http://video.ias.edu/the-fifth-element) (Video). IAS.
"Astronomers' doubts about the Dark Side ..." (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/10
0613212708.htm) Science Daily.
Gray, Meghan; Merrifield, Mike; Copeland, Ed (2010). Haran, Brady (ed.). "Dark Matter" (http://ww
w.sixtysymbols.com/videos/darkmatter.htm). Sixty Symbols. University of Nottingham.
Carmeli, Oded (27 February 2017). "The physicist who denies that dark matter exists" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20180316165847/http://cosmos.nautil.us/short/144/the-physicist-who-denies-th
at-dark-matter-exists). Cosmos on Nautilus. Archived from the original (http://cosmos.nautil.us/sho
rt/144/the-physicist-who-denies-that-dark-matter-exists) on 16 March 2018. Retrieved 28 February
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Sukriti Atrey et al., "What is Dark Matter – Puzzling Missing Mass of the Universe (https://www.evi
ncism.com/what-is-dark-matter-puzzling-missing-mass-of-the-universe/)", Evincism, April 25,
2023, https://www.evincism.com/what-is-dark-matter-puzzling-missing-mass-of-the-universe/

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