DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

EXIT EXAM MODULE

MODULE -I

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND MECHANICS

Assigned Instructor Assigned course Module Combiner

Tigistu A. Engineering Material -I

Wondimu D. Engineering Material -II

Habtamu D. Strength of Materials -I Amar Y.

Dagmawi T. Strength of Materials-II

March 22,2023

Debre Berhan, Ethiopia

 Engineering Materials I
Chapter - 1
Introduction:
✓ Materials are probably more deep seated in our culture than most of us realize.
✓ Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production; virtually
every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials.
✓ Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been intimately tied to the
ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs.
✓ In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development
(Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age).
✓ The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been
intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials.
✓ Advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the indication to the stepwise
progression of a technology.
✓ For example, automobiles would not have been possible without the availability of inexpensive
steel or some other comparable substitute.
✓ In the contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made from
what are called semiconducting materials.
Material Science and Engineering:
✓ Materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and
properties of materials.
✓ Materials engineering involves, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing
or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
✓ From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new
materials, whereas a materials engineer is to create new products or systems using existing
materials and/or to develop techniques for processing materials.
Structure:
✓ In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components.
✓ Subatomic level structure involves the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei.
✓ Atomic level structure includes the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another.
✓ Microscopic level structure is the next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of
atoms that are normally agglomerated together. Meaning that which is subject to direct
observation using some type of microscope.
✓ Macroscopic level structure is a structural element that can be viewed with the naked eye.

Property:
✓ Property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed
stimulus.
✓ Properties are independent of material shape and size.
✓ Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories:
✓ Mechanical properties- relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic
modulus (stiffness), strength, and toughness.
 ✓ Electrical properties - such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an
electric field.
✓ Thermal properties - can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity.
✓ Magnetic properties - demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic
field.
✓ Optical properties - index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.
✓ Deteriorative properties - relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.
✓ In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the
science and engineering of materials; namely, processing and performance.
✓ With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material depends on
how it is processed.
✓ Furthermore, a material’s performance is a function of its properties.

Why we study materials?

✓ In order to answer design problem for engineers; but a problem is on selecting the right material
from the thousands available and option.
Selection Criteria
✓ First, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these dictate the properties required of
the material.
✓ Second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur during
service operation.
✓ Finally, the overriding consideration is that of economics:
➢ Product cost
Classification of materials:
✓ Engineering materials are classified into the following broad groups:

Metals:
✓ Metals are usually characterized by a well-defined crystal structure.
✓ They are bonded together by means of metallic bonds which maintain an electron cloud.
This electron cloud is crucial for the high electrical and thermal conductivity characteristic to
metals.
Properties:
✓ Luster and non-transparent
✓ Hard/ stiff
✓ Thermal and electrical conductive
✓ Malleable & ductile
✓ Magnetic
✓ Denser than ceramic & polymer
 ✓ Used in structural application

Ceramics:
✓ Are amorphous or complex crystalline structures with strong ionic bonds (metallic & non-
metallic). Due to this, they do not have an electron community. In absence of this, the electrical
conductivity and thermal conductivities take a toll. With the strong ionic bonds between them, it
takes a lot of energy to activate and displace atoms from bonds. Hence ceramics are extremely
heat resistant.
Properties:
✓ Brittle
✓ High thermal and electrical resistance
✓ High resistance to corrosion
✓ Transparent, translucent and Opaque
✓ High temperature stability

Polymer:
✓ Are long chain organic macro-molecules with covalent bonded. Each molecule is formed from a
large number of unitary molecules known as Monomer. For this reason, the polymers can be bent
and stretched easily. In certain polymers some of the molecules are cross link with each other
thereby increasing the strength across the molecules.

Properties:

✓ Ductile / soft
✓ Translucency
✓ Low thermal stability
✓ Lightweight (But high molecular weight)
✓ Poor conductor of heat and electricity (With
exception of PPV,

Composite:
✓ Composite is composed of two or more individual materials that come from the categories
previously discussed; metals, ceramics, and polymers.
✓ The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by
any single material and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component
materials.
Example:
✓ Fiberglass
✓ Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite
Advanced materials:
✓ Materials utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed
advanced materials.
 ✓ By high technology, we mean a device or product that operates or functions using relatively
intricate and sophisticated principles, including electronic equipment, computers, fiber-optic
systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry.
✓ They may be of all materials types (metal, ceramic and polymer)
✓ Advanced materials include:
➢ Semiconductors
➢ Biomaterials
➢ Smart materials
➢ Nano-materials
Semiconductors:
✓ Have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical conductors (i.e.,
metals and metal alloys) and insulators (i.e., ceramics and polymers)
Biomaterial:
✓ Are employed in components implanted into the human body to replace diseased or
damaged body parts.
✓ These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body
tissues.
✓ A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for
a medical purpose, either a therapeutic (treat, augment, repair, or replace a tissue function of
the body) or a diagnostic one.
✓ The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering.
Smart Materials:
✓ Smart materials, also called intelligent or responsive materials, are designed materials that have
one or more properties that can be significantly changed in a controlled fashion by external
stimuli, such as stress, moisture, electric or magnetic fields, light, temperature, pH, or chemical
compounds.
✓ Smart materials are the basis of many applications, including sensors and actuators, or artificial
muscles, particularly as electro active polymers.
Types:
✓ Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce a voltage when stress is applied. Since this
effect also applies in a reverse manner, a voltage across the sample will produce stress within
sample. Suitably designed structures made from these materials can, therefore, be made that bend,
expand or contract when a voltage is applied.
✓ Shape-memory alloys and shape-memory polymers are materials in which large deformation can
be induced and recovered through temperature changes or stress changes (pseudo elasticity). The
shape memory effect results due to respectively martensitic phase change and induced elasticity
at higher temperatures.
✓ Photovoltaic materials or optoelectronics convert light to electrical current.
✓ Electro active polymers (EAPs) change their volume by voltage or electric fields.
✓ Magnetostrictive materials exhibit a change in shape under the influence of magnetic field and
also exhibit a change in their magnetization under the influence of mechanical stress.
✓ Magnetic shape memory alloys are materials that change their shape in response to a significant
change in the magnetic field.
✓ Smart inorganic polymers showing tunable and responsive properties.
 ✓ PH-sensitive polymers are materials that change in volume when the pH of the surrounding
medium changes.
✓ Temperature-responsive polymers are materials which undergo changes upon temperature.
✓ Halo chromic materials are commonly used materials that change their colour as a result of
changing acidity. One suggested application is for paints that can change colour to indicate
corrosion in the metal underneath them.
✓ Chromogenic systems change colour in response to electrical, optical or thermal changes. These
include electro chromic materials, which change their colour or opacity on the application of a
voltage (e.g., liquid crystal displays), thermo chromic materials change in colour depending on
their temperature, and photochromic materials, which change colour in response to light.
o For example, light-sensitive sunglasses that darken when exposed to bright sunlight.
✓ Ferro fluids are magnetic fluids (affected by magnets and magnetic fields).
✓ Photomechanical materials change shape under exposure to light.
✓ Polycaprolactone (polymorph) can be moulded by immersion in hot water.
Nano-materials:
✓ Nano-materials are chemical substances or materials consisting of very small particles of
different shapes and sizes no larger than hundred nanometres, or about one thousand times
less than the thickness of a human hair. They occur in nature, may be an incidental product of
human activity (e.g. welding fumes) or deliberately manufactured and engineered to exh ibit novel
characteristics such as increased strength, chemical reactivity or conductivity compared to the
same material without Nano scale features.
CHAPTER – 2
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Introduction:
✓ Properties of solid materials depend on geometric atomic arrangements and the interactions
that exist among constituent atoms or molecules.
Atomic structure
✓ Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons and is
encircled by moving electrons.
✓ Electrons and protons are electrically charged,
✓ The charge magnitude being 1.602 × 10 −19 C, which is negative in sign for electrons and
positive for protons; neutrons are electrically neutral.
✓ Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, 1.67 × 10 −27 kg, while electron
have 9.11 × 10 −31 kg.
✓ Atomic Number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus or number of electrons for
electrically neutral or complete atom.
✓ Atomic Mass (A) - expressed as the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons within the
nucleus.
✓ Number of protons is the same for all atoms of a given element, the number of neutrons (N)
may be variable.
✓ Atoms of some elements have two or more different atomic masses, which are called
isotopes.
 ✓ Atomic weight - the weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom’s naturally occurring
isotopes.
Electrons in Atoms
Atomic Models:
✓ Is used to describe the structure and composition of the atom. The atom as a component of the
universe has been under extensive study to understand how atoms make up the universe.
Quantum mechanics:
✓ A set of principles and laws that govern systems of atomic and subatomic entities.
✓ An understanding of the behaviour of electrons in atoms and crystalline solids necessarily
involves the discussion of quantum-mechanical concepts.
Bohr atomic model:
✓ It is one of quantum mechanics models in which electrons are assumed to revolve around the
atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of any particular electron is more or less
well defined in terms of its orbital. This Bohr model was eventually found to have some
significant limitations because of its inability to explain several phenomena involving in
electrons.
Wave-mechanical model:
✓ In which the electron is considered to exhibit both wave like and particle-like characteristics.
✓ With this model, an electron is no longer treated as a particle moving in a discrete orbital; rather,
position is considered to be the probability of an electron being at various locations around the
nucleus.
Quantum Numbers
✓ In wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is characterized by four parameters called
quantum numbers.
✓ The size, shape, and spatial orientation of an electron’s probability density (or orbital) are
specified by three of these quantum numbers.
✓ Four quantum numbers can describe an electron in an atom completely:
▪ Principal quantum number (n)
▪ Azimuthal quantum number (ℓ)
▪ Magnetic quantum number (mℓ)
▪ Spin quantum number (m s )
Principal quantum number:
✓ Assigned to each electron in an atom to describe that electron's state.
✓ Its values are natural numbers (from 1) making it a discrete variable.
Azimuthal quantum number:
✓ Determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital.
✓ Describe the unique quantum state of an electron.
✓ It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number,
subsidiary quantum number, or second quantum number, and is symbolized as ℓ.
Magnetic quantum number:
✓ Describe the unique quantum state of an electron.
✓ Distinguishes the orbitals available within a subshell, and is used to calculate the azimuthal
component of the orientation of orbital in space.
✓ Electrons in a particular subshell (such as s, p, d, or f) are defined by values of ℓ (0, 1, 2, or 3).
 ✓ Takes integer values in the range from − ℓ to +ℓ, including zero. Thus the s, p, d, and f subshells
contain 1, 3, 5, and 7 orbitals each, with values of m l within the ranges 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 respectively.
Each of these orbitals can accommodate up to two electrons (with opposite spins), forming the
basis of the periodic table.
Spin quantum number:
✓ Which describes the intrinsic angular momentum (or spin angular momentum, or simply spin) of
an electron or other particle.
✓ The name comes from a physical spinning of the electron about an axis.
✓ The value of m s is the component of spin angular momentum parallel to a given direction (the z–
axis), which can be either +1/2 or –1/2.
✓ The electrons to rotate faster than the speed of light. It was therefore replaced by a more abstract
quantum-mechanical description. This description technically involves two spin quantum
numbers m s and s.
▪ Where s is related to the magnitude of the electron spin, and s is always +1/2 for an
electron, so it is not necessary to include its value in the set of quantum numbers
describing the state of each electron in an atom.
▪ At an elementary level, m s is described as the spin quantum number, and s is not
mentioned since its value 1/2 is a fixed property of the electron. At a more advanced level
where quantum mechanical operators are introduced, s is referred to as the spin quantum
number, and ms is described as the spin magnetic quantum number or as the z-component
of spin sz.
BONDING FORCES AND ENERGIES
Bonding Force:
✓ An understanding of many of the physical properties of materials is enhanced by knowledge of
the interatomic forces that bind the atoms together.
✓ The principles of atomic bonding are best illustrated by considering how two isolated atoms
interact as they are brought close together from an infinite separation.
▪ At large distances, interactions are negligible because the atoms are too far apart to have
an influence on each other; however,
▪ At small separation distances, each atom exerts forces on the others.
✓ These forces are of two types, attractive (FA ) and repulsive (FR ),
✓ The magnitude of each depends on the separation or interatomic distance (r);
✓ The origin of an attractive force FA depends on the particular type of bonding that exists between
the two atoms,
✓ Repulsive forces arise from interactions between the negatively charged electron clouds for the
two atoms and are important only at small values of r as the outer electron shells of the two atoms
begin to overlap (see fig a below)
✓ The net force FN between the two atoms is just the sum of both attractive and repulsive
components; which is also a function of the interatomic separation, as also plotted in Figure a.
𝐹𝑁 = 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝑅 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)

✓ When FA and FR are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, there is no net force and a state of
equilibrium exists. that is,
𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝑅 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
 ✓ The centres of the two atoms remain separated by the equilibrium spacing r0 , as indicated in
Figure (a).
✓ For many atoms, r0 is approximately 0.3 nm.
✓ Once in this position, any attempt to move the two atoms farther apart is counteracted by the
attractive force, while pushing them closer together is resisted by the increasing repulsive force.
Bonding Energies:
✓ Sometimes it is more convenient (suitable) to work with the potential energies between two
atoms instead of forces.
✓ Mathematically, energy (E) and force (F) are related as
𝐸 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
✓ And, for atomic systems,
∞
𝐸𝑁 = ∫ 𝐹𝑁 𝑑𝑟 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
𝑟

∞ ∞
= ∫ 𝐹𝐴 𝑑𝑟 + ∫ 𝐹𝑅 𝑑𝑟 … … … … … … … … … … . (5)
𝑟 𝑟

= 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝑅 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (6)

✓ In which EN, EA , and ER are, respectively, the net, attractive, and repulsive energies for two
isolated and adjacent atoms.
✓ From Equation 6, the net curve is the sum of the attractive and repulsive curves. The minimum in
the net energy curve corresponds to the equilibrium spacing, r0 .
✓ Furthermore, the bonding energy for these two atoms, E0 , corresponds to the energy at this
minimum point; it represents the energy required to separate these two atoms to an infinite
separation.
✓ Although the preceding treatment deals with an ideal situation involving only two atoms, a
similar yet more complex condition exists for solid materials because force and energy
interactions among atoms must be considered. Nevertheless, a bonding energy, analogous to E0
above, may be associated with each atom.
✓ The magnitude of this bonding energy and the shape of the energy–versus–interatomic separation
curve vary from material to material, and they both depend on the type of atomic bonding.
✓ Furthermore, a number of material properties depend on E0 , the curve shape, and bonding type.
✓ Force in Equation 3 may also be expressed as
𝑑𝐸
𝐹= … … … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
𝑑𝑟

✓ Likewise, the force equivalent of Equation 2.8a is as follows:

𝐹𝑁 = 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝑅 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (8)

𝑑𝐸𝐴 𝑑𝐸𝑅
= + … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (9)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

✓ For example, materials having large bonding energies typically also have high melting
temperatures; at room temperature, solid substances are formed for large bonding energies,
 ✓ Whereas for small energies, the gaseous state is favoured; liquids prevail when the energies are of
intermediate magnitude.
PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Ionic Bonding
✓ It is composed of both metallic and non-metallic elements, elements situated at the horizontal
extremities of the periodic table.
▪ Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the non-metallic
atoms.
▪ Sodium chloride (𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑙) is the classic ionic material.
✓ Sodium atom can assume the electron structure of neon by a transfer of its one valence 3s
electron to a chlorine atom.

✓ After such a transfer, the chlorine ion acquires a net negative charge, an electron configuration
identical to that of argon; it is also larger than the chlorine atom.

✓ The attractive bonding forces are coulombic that is, positive and negative ions, by virtue of their
net electrical charge, attract one another.
▪ Coulombic force is defined as the force of attraction or repulsion between two like and
unlike charges, respectively.
✓ For two isolated ions, the attractive energy EA is a function of the interatomic distance according
to
𝐴
𝐸𝐴 = − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (10)
𝑟

✓ Theoretically, the constant A is equal to

1
𝐴= (|𝑍 |𝑒)(|𝑍2 |𝑒) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (11)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 1

✓ Here 𝜀 0 is the permittivity of a vacuum (8.85 × 10−12 F/m), |Z1 | and |Z2 | are absolute values of the
valences for the two ion types, and e is the electronic charge (1.602 × 10−19 C).
✓ The value of ‘A’ in Equation 11 assumes the bond between ions 1 and 2 is totally ionic;
✓ The value of A is normally determined from experimental data rather than computed using
Equation 11.
✓ An analogous equation for the repulsive energy is
𝐵
𝐸𝑅 = 𝑛 … … … … … … … … … … … (12)
𝑟

✓ In this expression, B and n are constants whose values depend on the particular ionic system.
✓ The value of n is approximately 8.
✓ Ionic bonding is termed non-directional that is, the magnitude of the bond is equal in all
directions around an ion. It follows that for ionic materials to be stable, all positive ions must
have as nearest neighbours negatively charged ions in a three-dimensional scheme, and vice
versa.
 ✓ Bonding energies, which generally range between 600 and 1500 kJ/mol, are relatively large, as
reflected in high melting temperatures.
✓ Table 2 below contains bonding energies and melting temperatures for several ionic materials.
✓ Interatomic bonding is typified by ceramic materials, which are characteristically hard and brittle
and, furthermore, electrically and thermally insulative.
Covalent Bonding
✓ Covalent bonding is found in materials whose atoms have small differences in electronegativity
that is, that lie near one another in the periodic table.
✓ For these materials, stable electron configurations are assumed by the sharing of electrons
between adjacent atoms.
✓ Two covalently bonded atoms will each contribute at least one electron to the bond, and the
shared electrons may be considered to belong to both atoms.
✓ The hydrogen atom has a single 1s electron. Each of the atoms can acquire a helium electron
configuration (two 1s valence electrons) when they share their single electron (right side of
Figure 5).

✓ Furthermore, there is an overlapping of electron orbitals in the region between the two bonding
atoms. In addition, the covalent bond is directional that is, it is between specific atoms and may
exist only in the direction between one atom and another that participates in the electron sharing.

✓ Many non-metallic elemental molecules (e.g., Cl2, F2), as well as molecules containing
dissimilar atoms, such as CH4, H2O, HNO3, and HF, are covalently bonded.
✓ Furthermore, this type of bonding is found in elemental solids such as diamond (carbon), silicon,
and germanium and other solid compounds composed of elements that are located on the right
side of the periodic table, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb), and silicon
carbide (SiC).
✓ Covalent bonds may be very strong, as in diamond, which is very hard and has a very high
melting temperature, >3550°C (6400°F), or they may be very weak, as with bismuth, which
melts at about 270°C (518°F).
✓ Bonding energies and melting temperatures for a few covalently bonded materials are presented
in table above.
✓ Inasmuch as electrons participating in covalent bonds are tightly bound to the bonding atoms,
most covalently bonded materials are electrical insulators, or, in some cases, semiconductors.
✓ Mechanical behaviours of these materials vary widely:
▪ Some are relatively strong, others are weak; some fail in a brittle manner, whereas
others experience significant amounts of deformation before failure.
▪ It is difficult to predict the mechanical properties of covalently bonded materials on
the basis of their bonding characteristics.
Metallic Bonding
✓ Metallic bonding is found in metals and their alloys. A relatively simple model has been proposed
that very nearly approximates the bonding scheme. With this model, these valence electrons are
not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or less free to drift throughout the
entire metal. They may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or forming a “sea of
electrons” or an “electron cloud.”
 ✓ The remaining non valence electrons and atomic nuclei form what are called ion cores, which
possess a net positive charge equal in magnitude to the total valence electron charge per atom.
✓ The free electrons shield the positively charged ion cores from the mutually repulsive
electrostatic forces that they would otherwise exert upon one another; consequently, the metallic
bond is non-directional in character.
✓ In addition, these free electrons act as a “glue” to hold the ion cores together.
▪ Bonding energies and melting temperatures for several metals are listed in Table 2.
✓ Bonding may be weak or strong; energies range from 62 kJ/mol for mercury to 850 kJ/mol for
tungsten, and their respective melting temperatures are −39°C and 3414°C (−39°F and 6177°F).
✓ Metallic bonding is found in the periodic table for Group IA and IIA elements and, in fact, for all
elemental metals.
✓ Metals are good conductors of both electricity and heat as a consequence of their free electrons.
✓ At room temperature, most metals and their alloys fail in a ductile that is, fracture occurs after the
materials have experienced significant degrees of permanent deformation.
✓ This behaviour is explained in terms of a deformation mechanism which is indirectly related to
the characteristics of the metallic bond.
SECONDARY BONDING OR VAN DER WAALS BONDING
✓ Secondary bonds, or van der Waals (physical) bonds, are weak in comparison to the primary or
chemical bonds; bonding energies range between about 4 and 30 kJ/mol.
✓ Secondary bonding exists between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its presence may be
hidden if any of the three primary bonding types is present.
✓ Secondary bonding is evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable electron structures.
✓ In addition, secondary (or intermolecular) bonds are possible between atoms or groups of atoms,
which themselves are joined together by primary (or intermolecular) ionic or covalent bonds.
✓ Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles. In essence, an electric dipole
exists whenever there is some separation of positive and negative portions of an atom or
molecule.
✓ The bonding results from the coulombic attraction between the positive end of one dipole and the
negative region of an adjacent one, as indicated in Figure 8.
✓ Dipole interactions occur between induced dipoles, between induced dipoles and polar molecules
(which have permanent dipoles), and between polar molecules.
✓ Hydrogen bonding, a special type of secondary bonding, is found to exist between some
molecules that have hydrogen as one of the constituents.
Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds
✓ A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally electrically
symmetric that is, the overall spatial distribution of the electrons is symmetric with respect to the
positively charged nucleus, as shown in Figure 9a.
✓ All atoms experience constant vibrational motion that can cause instantaneous and short-lived
distortions of this electrical symmetry for some of the atoms or molecules and the creation of
small electric dipoles.
✓ One of these dipoles can in turn produce a displacement of the electron distribution of an adjacent
molecule or atom, which induces the second one also to become a dipole that is then weakly
attracted or bonded to the first (Figure 10b); this is one type of van der Waals bonding. These
 attractive forces, which are temporary and fluctuate with time, may exist between large numbers
of atoms or molecules.
✓ The liquefaction and, in some cases, the solidification of the inert gases and other electrically
neutral and symmetric molecules such as H 2 and Cl2 are realized because of this type of bonding.
✓ Melting and boiling temperatures are extremely low in materials for which induced dipole
bonding predominates. (Bonding energies and melting temperatures for argon, krypton, methane,
and chlorine are also tabulated in Table 2).
Polar Molecule–Induced Dipole Bonds
✓ Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of
positively and negatively charged regions; such molecules are termed polar molecules.
✓ A permanent dipole moment arises from net positive and negative charges that are respectively
associated with the hydrogen and chlorine ends of the HCl molecule.
✓ Furthermore, the magnitude of this bond is greater than for fluctuating induced dipoles.
Permanent Dipole Bonds
✓ Columbic forces also exist between adjacent polar molecules as in Figure 8. The associated
bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving induced dipoles.
✓ The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a special case of polar molecule
bonding. It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to fluorine (as in
HF), oxygen (as in H 2 O), or nitrogen (as in NH 3 ). For each H-F, H-O, or H-N bond, the single
hydrogen electron is shared with the other atom. Thus, the hydrogen end of the bond is essentially
a positively charged bare proton unscreened by any electrons. This highly positively charged end
of the molecule is capable of a strong attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent
molecule, as demonstrated in Figure 13 for HF.
✓ In essence, this single proton forms a bridge between two negatively charged atoms. The
magnitude of the hydrogen bond is generally greater than that of the other types of secondary
bonds and may be as high as 51 kJ/mol, as shown in Table 2.3. Melting and boiling temperatures
for hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, and water are abnormally high in light of their low molecular
weights, as a consequence of hydrogen bonding.
✓ In spite of the small energies associated with secondary bonds, they nevertheless are involved in a
number of natural phenomena and many products that we use on a daily basis.
▪ Examples of physical phenomena include the solubility of one substance in another,
surface tension and capillary action; vapour pressure, volatility, and viscosity.
✓ Common applications that make use of these phenomena include adhesives van der Waals bonds
form between two surfaces so that they adhere to one another;
▪ Eurfactants compounds that lower the surface tension of a liquid and are found in soaps,
detergents, and foaming agents;
▪ Emulsifiers substances that, when added to two immiscible materials (usually liquids),
allow particles of one material to be suspended in another (common emulsions include
sunscreens, salad dressings, milk, and mayonnaise); and
▪ Desiccants materials that form hydrogen bonds with water molecules (and remove
moisture from closed containers
▪ e.g., small packets that are often found in cartons of packaged goods); and
finally, the strengths, stiffness’s, and softening temperatures of polymers, to
some degree, depend on secondary bonds that form between chain molecules.
MOLECULES
✓ Many common molecules are composed of groups of atoms bound together by strong covalent
bonds, including elemental diatomic molecules (F2, O2, H2, etc.), as well as a host of compounds
(H2O, CO2, HNO3, C6H6, CH4, etc.).
✓ In the condensed liquid and solid states, bonds between molecules are weak secondary ones.
Consequently, molecular materials have relatively low melting and boiling temperatures.
✓ Most materials that have small molecules composed of a few atoms are gases at ordinary, or
ambient, temperatures and pressures.
✓ However, many modern polymers, being molecular materials composed of extremely large
molecules, exist as solids; some of their properties are strongly dependent on the presence of van
der Waals and hydrogen secondary bonds.

Chapter -3
Imperfection in Solids
Introduction
Why study imperfection in solids (materials)?

Because:
❖ The properties of some materials are profoundly influenced by the presence of imperfections.
❖ Consequently, it is important to have knowledge about the types of imperfections that exist and
the roles they play in affecting the behavior of materials.
❖ Thus far it has been argue that perfect order exists throughout crystalline materials on an atomic
scale. However, such an idealized solid does not exist; all contain large numbers of various
crystalline defects or imperfections.
❖ Crystalline defect/imperfection refers to a lattice irregularity having one or more of its
dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter.
❖ Defect does not necessarily imply a bad thing rather; it can be desirable or undesirable.
❖ For example:
• Addition of C to Fe to make steel hard;
• Addition of Cu to Ni to make thermocouple wires;
• Addition of Ge to Si to make thermoelectric materials;
• Addition of Cr to Fe for corrosion resistance;
Classification of crystalline imperfection
• Classification of crystalline imperfections is made according to geometry or dimensionality of the
defect.
• Those are:
• Point defect (those associated with one or two atomic positions)
• Line defect (one dimensional)
• Interfacial defect or boundaries (two dimensional)
• Bulk or volume defects
Point Defect
• Point defect can be Vacancies and Self-interstitials
❖ Vacancy (vacant lattice site):
▪ Is the simplest types of point defect which is occurred when an atom is missing.
 • All crystalline solids contain vacancies, and, in fact, it is not possible to create such a material
that is free of these defects.
• The necessity and existence of vacancies is explained using principles of thermodynamics; in
which, the presence of vacancies increases the entropy (i.e., the randomness) of the crystal.
Mathematically;
• The equilibrium number of vacancies 𝑵𝒗 for a given quantity of material depends on and
increases with temperature according to
𝑄𝑉
𝑁𝑣 = 𝑁 exp (− )
𝑘𝑇
Where: N is the total number of atomic sites, Qv is the energy required for the formation of a vacancy,
T is the absolute temperature1 in kelvins, and k is the gas or Boltzmann’s constant the value of K is
1.38 1.38 ∗ 10 −23 J/atom.K, or 8.62 ∗ 10 −5 eV/atom.K.
Self-interstitial

• A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that is crowded into an interstitial site, a small void
space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied.
• Self-interstitial introduces relatively large distortions in the surrounding lattice because the atom
is substantially larger than the interstitial position in which it is situated.
• Consequently, the formation of this defect is not highly probable, and it exists in very small
concentrations.
Impurities in Solids

• It is difficult to refine metals to purity in excess of 99.9999%. At this level, on the order of
1022 to 1023 impurity atoms will be present in one cubic meter of material.
• Most familiar metals are not highly pure; rather, they are alloys, in which impurity atoms have
been added intentionally to impart specific characteristics to the material.
• Thus alloying in metal is used to improve mechanical strength and corrosion resistance.
• Addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result in the formation of a solid solution and/or a new
second phase
• Several terms relating to impurities and solid solutions deserve mention. With regard to alloys,
solute and solvent are terms that are commonly employed.
• “Solvent” (host atoms) - represents the element or compound that is present in the greatest
amount
• “Solute” - denotes an element or compound present in a minor concentration.
Solid solutions
• A solid solution forms when the solute atoms are added to the host material, the crystal structure
is maintained and no new structures are formed.
• In a solid solution impurity atoms are randomly and uniformly dispersed within the solid
(compositionally homogeneous)
• Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of which there are two types:
1. Substitutional - solute or impurity atoms replace or substitute for the host atoms
2. Interstitial - solute or small impurity atoms occupy interstitial site among the
host atoms
Factors for the formation of substitutional solid solution
 •Atomic size factor: atomic radii difference should be less than +/-15%. Otherwise, the solute
atoms create substantial lattice distortions and a new phase forms.
• Crystal structure: for both atom types must be the same.
• Electronegativity factor: If the electro-negativities are very different then a compound may form
instead of a solution
• Valences: a metal has more of a tendency to dissolve another metal of higher valency than to
dissolve one of a lower valency.
• In interstitial solid solutions impurity atoms fill the voids or interstices
• For metallic materials that have relatively high atomic packing factors, these interstitial positions
are relatively small
• The atomic diameter of an interstitial impurity must be smaller. Maximum allowable
concentration of interstitial impurity atoms is low (less than 10%).
• Carbon forms an interstitial solid solution when added to iron; the maximum concentration of
carbon is about 2%.
• The atomic radius of the carbon atom is much less than that for iron: 0.071 nm versus 0.124 nm.
Composition

• It is often necessary to express the composition (or concentration) of an alloy in terms of its
constituent elements.
• The two most common ways to specify composition are weight (or mass) percent and atom
percent.
• The basis for weight percent (wt%) is the weight of a particular element relative to the total alloy
weight.
• For an alloy that contains two hypothetical atoms denoted by 1 and 2, the concentration of 1 in
𝑚1
wt%, C1, is defined as 𝐶1 = ∗ 100
𝑚1+𝑚2
• where m1 and m2 represent the weight (or mass) of elements 1 and 2, respectively. The
concentration of 2 is computed in an analogous manner.
• The basis for atom percent (at%) calculations is the number of moles of an element in relation
to the total moles of the elements in the alloy. The number of moles in some specified mass of a
hypothetical element 1, 𝑛𝑚1, may be computed as follows:
𝑚′1
𝑛𝑚1 =
𝐴1
• Here, m’1 and A1 denote the mass (in grams) and atomic weight, respectively, for element 1.
• Concentration in terms of atom percent of element 1 in an alloy containing element 1 and element
2 atoms, C’1 is defined by
𝑛𝑚1
𝐶′1 = ∗ 100
𝑛𝑚1 + 𝑛𝑚2
Dislocation - Linear Defect
• Dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are misaligned.
• Two types of dislocation
1. Edge dislocation; it is a linear defect that centers on the line that is defined along the end of the
extra half-plane of atoms. This is sometimes termed the dislocation line, which, for the edge
dislocation in Fig. below.
 2. A screw dislocation, may be thought of as being screw dislocation formed by a shear stress that
is applied to produce the distortion shown in Figure.
• Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are probably neither pure edge nor pure screw but
exhibit components of both types; these are termed mixed dislocation.
• All three dislocation types are represented schematically in Figure below;
• The lattice distortion that is produced away from the two faces is mixed, having varying degrees
of screw and edge character.
• At point A, the dislocation is pure screw, while at point B, it is pure edge. For regions in between
where there is curvature in the dislocation line, the character is mixed edge and screw.

Interfacial Defects
• Interfacial defects are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions of the
materials that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations.
• These imperfections include:
• External surfaces,
• Grain boundaries,
• Phase boundaries,
• Twin boundaries, and
• Stacking faults.
External Surfaces defects
• One of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along which the crystal structure
terminates.
• Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors and are therefore in a
higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions.
Grain boundary defects
• Occurs due to the crystallographic mismatch when two grain meet
• When disorientation is large
• High angle grain boundary
• When disorientation is small,
• Low angle grain boundary
• Atoms are less bonded and the atomic packing is lower than in the grain (lower coordination)
• Grain boundary energy is a function of miss orientation
• Grain boundaries are more chemically reactive
• Segregation of impurities due to higher energy
• Total grain boundary area smaller in coarse grained than fine grained material.
• Low angle grain boundary is described as an array (group) of dislocations.
• Examples:
• Tilt boundary (edge dislocation )
• Twist boundary (screw dislocation)
Phase Boundaries defects

• Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials, in which a different phase exists on each side of
the boundary;
• Each of the constituent (basic) phases has its own distinctive physical and/or chemical
characteristics.
 • Phase boundaries play an important role in determining the mechanical characteristics of some
multiphase metal alloys.
Twin Boundaries defects

• A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific mirror
lattice symmetry; (which mean that, atoms on one side of the boundary are located in mirror-
image positions to those of the atoms on the other side).
• The region of material between these boundaries is appropriately termed a twin.
• Twins result from atomic displacements that are produced from applied mechanical shear forces
and also during annealing heat treatments following deformation.
• Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific direction, both of which
depend on the crystal structure.
• Annealing twins are typically found in metals that have the FCC crystal structure,
• Mechanical twins are observed in BCC and HCP metals.
Stacking faults defects
• Stacking faults are found in FCC metals when there is an interruption in the ABCABCABC . . .
stacking sequence of close packed planes.
• For ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, the boundary that separates regions having
different directions of magnetization is termed a domain wall,

Bulk or Volume Defects

• They are normally presented during processing and fabrication steps.
• These include:
• pores,
• cracks,
• foreign inclusions,
• Pits
• Grooves
• Precipitates
• Voids
Atomic Vibration

• Every atom in a solid material is vibrating very rapidly about its lattice position within the crystal.
• These atomic vibrations may be thought of as imperfections or defects.
• At any instant of time, not all atoms vibrate at the same frequency and amplitude or with the
same energy.
• At a given temperature, there exists a distribution of energies for the constituent atoms about an
average energy.
• Over time, the vibrational energy of any specific atom also varies in a random manner.
• With rising temperature, this average energy increases, and, in fact, the temperature of a solid is
really just a measure of the average vibrational activity of atoms and molecules.
• At room temperature, a typical vibrational frequency is on the order of 1013 vibrations per second,
whereas the amplitude is a few thousandths of a nano-meter.
• Many properties and processes in solids are manifestations of this vibrational atomic motion.
• For example, melting occurs when the vibrations are vigorous enough to rupture large numbers
of atomic bonds.
Diffusion

• Diffusion is one of the most important phenomena in fields such as biology, chemistry, geology,
engineering and physics.
• Diffusion can take place in gases, liquids, or solids.
• In solids, diffusion occurs due to thermally-activated random motion of atoms.
• The net effects of diffusion is that atoms move from high concentration regions to low
concentration regions, until the concentration is equal throughout the system.
Mechanism of diffusion

• There are two types of diffusion mechanism:

• Vacancy diffusion
• Interstitial diffusion
• Vacancy diffusion - which is caused by missing atoms in the metal crystal.
• The locations, of the missing atoms are often called vacancies.
• Therefore, this type of diffusion mechanism is referred to as "vacancy diffusion".
• Interstitial Diffusion – occur when atoms migrate from an interstitial position to a
neighbouring one that is empty.
▪ This mechanism is found for inter-diffusion of impurities; such as hydrogen, carbon,
nitrogen, and oxygen, which have atoms that are small enough to fit into the interstitial
positions.
▪ Host or substitutional impurity atoms rarely form interstitials and do not normally diffuse
via this mechanism.
• In most metal alloys, interstitial diffusion occurs much more rapidly than diffusion by the
vacancy mode, because the interstitial atoms are smaller and thus more mobile.

• Furthermore, there are more empty interstitial positions than vacancies; hence, the probability of
interstitial atomic movement is greater than for vacancy diffusion.

Chapter 4
DISLOCATION AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS

Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals

✓ Metallurgical and materials engineers are often called on to design alloys having high strengths yet
some ductility and toughness; typically, ductility is sacrificed when an alloy is strengthened.
Several hardening techniques are at the disposal of an engineer, and frequently alloy selection
depends on the capacity of a material to be tailored with the mechanical characteristics required for
a particular application.
✓ Important to the understanding of strengthening mechanisms is the relation between dislocation
motion and mechanical behaviour of metals.
✓ Macroscopic plastic deformation corresponds to the motion of large numbers of dislocations, the
ability of a metal to deform plastically depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
 ✓ Hardness and strength (both yield and tensile) are related to the ease with which plastic deformation
can be made to occur, by reducing the mobility of dislocations, the mechanical strength may be
enhanced that is, greater mechanical forces are required to initiate plastic deformation.
✓ All strengthening techniques rely on: Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a
material harder and stronger.

The present discussion is confined to strengthening mechanisms for single -phase metals by grain size
reduction, solid-solution alloying, and strain hardening.

STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION

✓ The size of the grains, or average grain diameter, in a polycrystalline metal influences the
mechanical properties. Adjacent grains normally have different crystallographic orientations and,
of course, a common grain boundary.
✓ A fine-grained material is harder and stronger than one that is coarse grained because the former
has a greater total grain boundary area to impede dislocation motion.
✓ Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in interfering with the slip process because of the
slight crystallographic misalignment across the boundary.

SOLID-SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
✓ Another technique to strengthen and harden metals is alloying with impurity atoms that go into
either substitutional or interstitial solid solution. Accordingly, this is called solid -solution
strengthening.
✓ High-purity metals are almost always softer and weaker than alloys composed of the same base
metal.
✓ Increasing the concentration of the impurity results in an attendant increase in tensile and yield
strengths.
✓ Alloys are stronger than pure metals because impurity atoms that go into solid solution typic ally
impose lattice strains on the surrounding host atoms.
✓ Lattice strain field interactions between dislocations and these impurity atoms result, and,
consequently, dislocation movement is restricted.

STRAIN HARDENING
✓ Strain hardening is the phenomenon by which a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is
plastically deformed. Sometimes it is also called work hardening, or, because the temperature at
which deformation takes place is “cold” relative to the absolute melting temperature of the metal,
cold working. Most metals strain hardens at room temperature.
✓ It is sometimes convenient to express the degree of plastic deformation as percent cold work
rather than as strain.
✓ The price for this enhancement of hardness and strength is in the ductility of the metal.

Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth

✓ As outlined earlier in this chapter, plastically deforming a polycrystalline metal specimen at
temperatures that are low relative to its absolute melting temperature produces microstructural and
property changes that include
o a change in grain shape,
o strain hardening, and
 o an increase in dislocation density
✓ Some fraction of the energy expended in deformation is stored in the metal as strain energy, which
is associated with tensile, compressive, and shear zones around the newly created dislocations.
✓ Furthermore, other properties, such as electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance, may be
modified as a consequence of plastic deformation.
✓ These properties and structures may revert back to the pre-cold-worked states by appropriate heat
treatment (an annealing treatment).
o Such restoration results from two different processes that occur at elevated temperatures:
▪ Recovery and recrystallization, which may be followed by grain growth.

RECOVERY
✓ During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation
motion (in the absence of an externally applied stress), as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at
the elevated temperature.
✓ There is some reduction in the number of dislocations, and dislocations are produced having low
strain energies.
✓ In addition, physical properties such as electrical and thermal conductivities recover to their
precold-worked states.

RECRYSTALLIZATION
✓ Even after recovery is complete, the grains are still in a relatively high strain energy state.
✓ Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains (i.e., having
approximately equal dimensions in all directions) that have low dislocation densities and are
characteristic of the precold-worked condition.
✓ The driving force to produce this new grain structure is the difference in internal energy between
the strained and unstrained material. The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until they
completely consume the parent material, processes that involve short-range diffusion.
✓ Several stages in the recrystallization process are represented; in these photomicrographs, the small
speckled grains are those that have recrystallized.
✓ Thus, recrystallization of cold-worked metals may be used to refine the grain structure.
✓ Also, during recrystallization, the mechanical properties that were changed as a result of cold
working are restored to their precold-worked values.
✓ The metal becomes softer and weaker, yet more ductile.

GRAIN GROWTH
✓ After recrystallization, strain-free grains can continue to grow at elevated temperatures in a
phenomenon called grain growth.
✓ This process occurs in all polycrystalline materials, metals, and ceramics alike.
✓ The reduction in total energy due to the decrease in total boundary area is the driving force for grain
growth.
✓ Large grains grow at the expense of small ones through the migration of grain boundaries, resulting
in an increase in average grain size over time.

✓ Grain growth is the enlargement of strain-free grains at elevated temperatures and occurs through
the migration of grain boundaries.
 ✓ As grain size increases, the total energy decreases, leading to the driving force for grain growth.
✓ The rate of grain growth is enhanced with rising temperature due to the enhancement of diffusion
rate.
✓ The mechanical properties of fine-grained metals are typically superior to those of coarse-grained
ones, and refinement can be achieved by subjecting the material to a recrystallization heat treatment
after plastic deformation.

Chapter 5: Failure
Introduction
✓ Failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable event for several reasons; these
may cause:
▪ Human lives in jeopardy;
▪ Economic losses;
▪ Interrupting the availability of products and services.
Causes of failure
✓ Improper materials selection and processing;
✓ Inadequate design of the component or its misapplication;
N.B
✓ Causes of failure and the behaviour of materials may be known but prevention of failures is difficult
to guarantee.
✓ Damage can occur to structural parts during service and regular inspection and repair or
replacements are critical to safe design. It is the responsibility of the engineer to anticipate and
plan for possible failure and, in the event that failure does occur, to assess its cause and then take
appropriate preventive measures against future incidents.
Fracture:
Fundamentals of fracture
✓ Fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an imposed stress that is
static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at temperatures that are low relative to the
melting temperature of the material.
✓ Fracture occur from fatigue (when cyclic stresses are imposed) and creep (time-dependent
deformation, normally at elevated temperatures); and applied stresses (tensile, compressive, shear,
or torsional (or combinations of these)).
✓ For metals, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and brittle. Classification is based on the
ability of a material to experience plastic deformation.
✓ Ductile metals typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high energy absorption
before fracture. Whereas, there is normally little or no plastic deformation with low energy
absorption in a brittle fracture.
✓ Ductility may be quantified in terms of percent elongation and percent reduction in area.
✓ Ductility is a function of temperature of the material, the strain rate, and the stress state.
✓ Any fracture process involves two steps crack formation and propagation in response to an
imposed stress.
✓ The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the mechanism of crack propagation.
✓ Ductile fracture is characterized by:
▪ Extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack.
 ✓ Such a crack is often said to be stable that is, it resists any further extension unless there is an
increase in the applied stress.
▪ Evidence of appreciable gross deformation at the fracture surfaces (e.g., twisting and
tearing).
✓ For brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little accompanying plastic
deformation.
✓ Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack propagation, once started, continues
spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of the applied stress.
N.B:
✓ Ductile fracture is almost always preferred to brittle fracture for two reasons:
▪ First, brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any warning; this is a
consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack propagation. However, for ductile
fracture, the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that failure is imminent,
allowing preventive measures to be taken.
▪ Second, more strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture inasmuch as these
materials are generally tougher.
▪ Under the action of an applied tensile stress, many metal alloys are ductile, whereas
ceramics are typically brittle, and polymers may exhibit a range of behaviours.
Ductile fracture
✓ Ductile fracture surfaces have distinctive features on both macroscopic and microscopic levels.
Figure 8.1 shows schematic representations for two characteristic macroscopic fracture profiles.
The configuration shown in Figure 8.1a is found for extremely soft metals, such as pure gold and
lead at room temperature, and other metals, polymers, and inorganic glasses at elevated
temperatures. These highly ductile materials neck down to a point fracture, showing virtually 100%
reduction in area.
✓ The most common type of tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is that represented in Figure
8.1b, where fracture is preceded by only a moderate amount of necking.
✓ First, after necking begins small cavities, or micro voids, form in the interior of the cross section,
as indicated in Figure 8.2b.
✓ Next, as deformation continues, these micro voids enlarge, come together, and coalesce to form an
elliptical crack, which has its long axis perpendicular to the stress direction. The crack continues to
grow in a direction parallel to its major axis by this micro void coalescence process (Figure 8.2c).
✓ Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid propagation of a crack around the outer perimeter of the neck
(Figure 8.2d) by shear deformation at an angle of about 45 o with the tensile axis the angle at which
the shear stress is a maximum.
✓ Sometimes a fracture having this characteristic surface contour is termed a cup-and-cone fracture
because one of the mating surfaces is in the form of a cup and the other like a cone. In this type of
fractured specimen (Figure 8.3a), the central interior region of the surface has an irregular and
fibrous appearance, which is indicative of plastic deformation.
Brittle fracture
✓ Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation and by rapid crack propagation.
✓ The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied tensile
stress and yields a relatively flat fracture surface, as indicated in Figure 8.1c.
 ✓ Fracture surfaces of materials that fail in a brittle manner have distinctive patterns; any signs of
gross plastic deformation are absent.
✓ Brittle fracture in amorphous materials, such as ceramic glasses, yields a relatively shiny and
smooth surface.
✓ For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the successive and repeated
breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes (Figure 8.6a); such a process is
termed cleavage.

✓ This type of fracture is said to be trans-granular (or trans-crystalline) because the fracture cracks
pass through the grains.
✓ Macroscopically, the fracture surface may have a grainy or faceted texture (Figure 8.3b) as a result
of changes in orientation of the cleavage planes from grain to grain.
✓ This cleavage feature is shown at a higher magnification in the scanning electron micrograph of
Figure 8.6b.
✓ In some alloys, crack propagation is along grain boundaries (Figure 8.7a); this fracture is termed
inter-granular.
✓ Figure 8.7b is a scanning electron micrograph showing a typical inter-granular fracture, in which
the three-dimensional nature of the grains may be seen. This type of fracture normally results
subsequent to the occurrence of processes that weaken or embrittle grain boundary regions.
PRINCIPLES OF FRACTURE MECHANICS
What is fracture mechanics?
✓ Fracture mechanics is the field of mechanics concerned with the study of the propagation of cracks
in materials.
▪ It uses methods of analytical solid mechanics to calculate the driving force on a crack
and those of experimental solid mechanics to characterize the material's resistance to
fracture.
✓ This subject allows quantification of the relationships among material properties, stress level, the
presence of crack-producing flaws, and crack propagation mechanisms.
❖ Design engineers are now better equipped to anticipate, and thus prevent, structural failures.
Stress Concentration
✓ The measured fracture strengths for most materials are significantly lower than those predicted by
theoretical calculations based on atomic bonding energies.
✓ This discrepancy is explained by the presence of microscopic flaws or cracks that always exist
under normal conditions at the surface and within the interior of a body of material.
✓ These flaws are a detriment to the fracture strength because an applied stress may be amplified or
concentrated at the tip, the magnitude of this amplification depending on crack orientation and
geometry.
✓ This phenomenon is demonstrated in Figure 8.8a stress profile across a cross section containing an
internal crack.
✓ As indicated by this profile, the magnitude of this localized stress decreases with distance away
from the crack tip. At positions far removed, the stress is just the nominal stress s0, or the applied
load divided by the specimen cross-sectional area (perpendicular to this load).
 ✓ Because of their ability to amplify an applied stress in their locale, these flaws are sometimes called
stress raisers.
✓ If it is assumed that a crack is similar to an elliptical hole through a plate and is oriented
perpendicular to the applied stress, the maximum stress, 𝜎𝑚, occurs at the crack tip and may be
approximated by
❖ Note that stress amplification is not restricted to these microscopic defects; it may occur at
macroscopic internal discontinuities (e.g., voids or inclusions), sharp corners, scratches, and
notches.
▪ Furthermore, the effect of a stress raiser is more significant in brittle than in ductile
materials.
▪ For a ductile metal, plastic deformation ensues when the maximum stress exceeds the
yield strength.
✓ This leads to a more uniform distribution of stress in the vicinity of the stress raiser and to the
development of a maximum stress concentration factor less than the theoretical value.
✓ Such yielding and stress redistribution do not occur to any appreciable extent around flaws and
discontinuities in brittle materials; therefore, essentially the theoretical stress concentration results.
✓ Using principles of fracture mechanics, it is possible to show that the critical stress 𝜎𝑐 required for
crack propagation in a brittle material is described by the expression
✓ All brittle materials contain a population of small cracks and flaws that have a variety of sizes,
geometries, and orientations.
✓ When the magnitude of a tensile stress at the tip of one of these flaws exceeds the value of this
critical stress, a crack forms and then propagates, this results in fracture.
✓ Very small and virtually defect-free metallic and ceramic whiskers have been grown with fracture
strengths that approach their theoretical values.
Fracture Toughness
✓ Using fracture mechanical principles, an expression has been developed that relates this critical
stress for crack propagation (𝜎𝑐) and crack length (𝑎) as
✓ In this expression 𝐾𝑐 is the fracture toughness, a property that is a measure of a material’s
resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present.
✓ Kc has the unusual units of MPa √𝑚 or psi√𝑖𝑛. (Alternatively, ksi√𝑖𝑛.).
✓ Here, Y is a dimensionless parameter or function that depends on both crack and specimen sizes
and geometries as well as on the manner of load application.

✓ Several different testing techniques are used to measure KIc (see Section 8.6). Virtually any
specimen size and shape consistent with mode I crack displacement may be utilized, and accurate
values will be realized, provided that the Y scale parameter in Equation 8.5 has been determined
properly.

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING

✓ A number of different standardized tests have been devised to measure the fracture toughness
values for structural materials.
✓ In the United States, these standard test methods are developed by the ASTM. Procedures and
specimen configurations for most tests are relatively complicated, and we will not attempt to
provide detailed explanations.
 ✓ In brief, for each test type, the specimen (of specified geometry and size) contains a pre -existing
defect, usually a sharp crack that has been introduced.
✓ The test apparatus loads the specimen at a specified rate, and also measures load and crack
displacement values.
✓ Data are subjected to analyses to ensure that they meet established criteria before the fracture
toughness values are deemed acceptable.
✓ Most tests are for metals, but some have also been developed for ceramics, polymers, and
composites.
Impact Testing Techniques
✓ As a scientific discipline, impact testing techniques were established to find out the fracture
characteristics of materials at high loading rates.
✓ It was realized that the results of laboratory tensile tests (at low loading rates) could not be
extrapolated to predict fracture behaviour.
Impact test conditions were:
1. Deformation at a relatively low temperature,
2. A high strain rate (i.e., rate of deformation), and
3. A triaxial stress state (which may be introduced by the presence of a notch).
✓ Two standardized impact tests, the Charpy and the Izod, are used to measure the impact energy
(sometimes also termed notch toughness).
✓ Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique is used in the United States.
✓ For both the Charpy and the Izod, the specimen is in the shape of a bar of square cross section,
into which a V-notch is machined.
✓ The apparatus for making V-notch impact tests is illustrated schematically in Figure 8.12b.

✓ The load is applied as an impact blow from a weighted pendulum hammer released from a cocked
position at a fixed height h.
✓ The specimen is positioned at the base as shown.
✓ Upon release, a knife edge mounted on the pendulum strikes and fractures the specimen at the
notch, which acts as a point of stress concentration for this high-velocity impact blow.
✓ The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum height h, which is lower than h.
✓ The energy absorption, computed from the difference between h and h’, is a measure of the impact
energy.
✓ The primary difference between the Charpy and the Izod techniques lies in the manner of specimen
support, as illustrated in Figure 8.12b. These are termed impact tests because of the manner of load
application.
✓ Several variables, including specimen size and shape as well as notch configuration and depth,
influence the test results.

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition
✓ One of the primary functions of the Charpy and the Izod tests is to determine whether a material
experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition with decreasing temperature and, if so, the range of
temperatures over which it occurs.
✓ As may be noted in the chapteropening photograph of the fractured oil tanker for this chapter (also
the transport ship shown in Figure 1.3),
 ✓ widely used steels can exhibit this ductile-to-brittle transition with disastrous consequences.
✓ The ductile-to-brittle transition is related to the temperature dependence of the measured impact
energy absorption.
✓ This transition is represented for steel by curve A.

✓ At higher temperatures, the CVN energy is relatively large, corresponding to a ductile mode of
fracture.
✓ As the temperature is lowered, the impact energy drops suddenly over a relatively narrow
temperature range, below which the energy has a constant but small value that is, the mode of
fracture is brittle.

FATIGUE
✓ Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses
(e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine components).
✓ Under these circumstances, it is possible for failure to occur at a stress level considerably lower
than the tensile or yield strength for a static load.
✓ The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period of
repeated stress or strain cycling.
✓ Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to be
involved in approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics (except for glasses)
are also susceptible to this type of failure.
✓ Furthermore, fatigue is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and without warning.

✓ Fatigue failure is brittle-like in nature even in normally ductile metals in that there is very little, if
any, gross plastic deformation associated with failure.
✓ The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks, and typically the fracture surface is
perpendicular to the direction of an applied tensile stress.
Cyclic Stresses
✓ The applied stress may be:
▪ Axial (tension–compression),
▪ Flexural (bending),
▪ Torsional (twisting) in nature.
✓ Three different fluctuating stress–time modes are possible.
1. Reversed stress cycle:
▪ Sinusoidal time dependence, in which the amplitude is symmetrical about a mean
zero stress level,
▪ For example, alternating from a maximum tensile stress (𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥) to a minimum
compressive stress (𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛) of equal magnitude;

2. Repeated stress cycle

▪ The maxima and minima are asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level.

3. Random Stress cycle

▪ The stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and frequency,
 ✓ Parameters used to characterize the fluctuating stress cycle.
▪ The stress amplitude alternates about a mean stress 𝜎𝑚, defined as the average of the
maximum and minimum stresses in the cycle, or

▪ The range of stress 𝜎𝑟 is the difference between smax and smin, namely,

▪ Stress amplitude 𝜎𝑎 is one-half of this range of stress, or

▪ Finally, the stress ratio R is the ratio of minimum and maximum stress amplitudes:

NB:

✓ By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compressive stresses are negative.
▪ For example, for the reversed stress cycle, the value of R is -1.
Crack Initiation and Propagation
✓ Fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:
1. Crack initiation - a small crack forms at some point of high stress concentration;
2. Crack propagation - this crack advances incrementally with each stress cycle; and
3. Final failure - occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack, has reached a critical size.
✓ Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a
component at some point of stress concentration.
✓ Crack nucleation sites include:
▪ Surface scratches,
▪ Sharp fillets,
▪ Keyways,
▪ Threads,
▪ Dents,
✓ Cyclic loading can produce microscopic surface discontinuities resulting from dislocation slip steps
that may also act as stress raisers and therefore as crack initiation sites.

✓ During the crack propagation step there may be two types of markings.
▪ Beachmarks
▪ Striations
✓ Both features indicate the position of the crack tip at some point in time and appear as concentric
points that expand away from the crack initiation site(s), frequently in a circular or semi-circular
pattern.
Beachmarks:
✓ Beachmarks (sometimes also called clamshell marks) are of macroscopic dimensions (Figure 8.22),
and may be observed with the unaided eye.
 ✓ These markings are found for components that experienced interruptions during the crack
propagation stage.
✓ For example, a machine that operated only during normal work shift hours.
✓ Each beachmark band represents a period of time over which crack growth occurred.
Striations:
✓ Fatigue striations are microscopic in size and subject to observation with the electron microscope.
(Either TEM or SEM).
✓ Each striation is thought to represent the advance distance of a crack front during a single load
cycle.
▪ Striation width depends on, and increases with, increasing stress range.
✓ During the propagation of fatigue cracks and on a microscopic scale,
▪ There is much localized plastic deformation at crack tips, even though the maximum
applied stress to which the object is exposed in each stress cycle lies below the yield
strength of the metal.
▪ This applied stress is amplified at crack tips to the degree that local stress levels exceed the
yield strength.
✓ The geometry of fatigue striations is a manifestation of this plastic deformation.
✓ Both beachmarks and striations are fatigue fracture surface features having similar appearances,
they are nevertheless different in both origin and size. There may be thousands of striations within
a single beachmark.
✓ Striations are not observed for all metals that experience fatigue.
✓ The possibility of the appearance of striations may depend on stress state.
✓ Striation detectability decreases with the passage of time because of the formation of surface
corrosion products and/or oxide films.
✓ During stress cycling, striations may be destroyed by abrasive action as crack mating surfaces rub
against one another.
CREEP
✓ Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static mechanical
stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses;
high-pressure steam lines). Deformation under such circumstances is termed creep.
✓ Defined as the time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a
constant load or stress, creep is normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting
factor in the lifetime of a part.
✓ It is observed in all materials types; for metals, it becomes important only for temperatures greater
than about 0.4Tm, where Tm is the absolute melting temperature.

GENERALIZED CREEP BEHAVIOR

✓ A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress while maintaining
the temperature constant; deformation or strain is measured and plotted as a function of elapsed
time.
✓ Most tests are the constant-load type, which yield information of an engineering nature; constant-
stress tests are employed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of creep.
✓ Upon application of the load, there is an instantaneous (rapid) deformation, as indicated in the
figure, which is totally elastic.
✓ The resulting creep curve consists of three regions, each of which has its own distinctive strain time
feature.
✓ Primary or transient creep occurs first,
▪ Typified by a continuously decreasing creep rate that is, the slope of the curve decreases
with time.
▪ This suggests that the material is experiencing an increase in creep resistance or strain
hardening deformation becomes more difficult as the material is strained.
✓ Secondary creep (steady-state creep),
▪ The rate is constant that is, the plot becomes linear.
▪ The constancy of creep rate is explained on the basis of a balance between the competing
processes of strain hardening and recovery,
▪ Recovery being the process by which a material becomes softer and retains its ability to
experience deformation.
✓ Tertiary creep,
▪ There is an acceleration of the rate and ultimate failure.
▪ This failure is frequently termed rupture and results from microstructural and/or
metallurgical changes.
▪ For example,
• Grain boundary separation
• Formation of internal cracks
• Cavities and voids
• Neck for tensile test
▪ These all lead to a decrease in the effective cross-sectional area and an increase in strain
rate.
✓ For metallic materials,
▪ Creep tests are conducted in uniaxial tension using a specimen having the same geometry
as for tensile tests.
▪ But, uniaxial compression tests are more appropriate for brittle materials; these provide a
better measure of the intrinsic creep properties because there is no stress amplification and
crack propagation, as with tensile loads.
✓ Compressive test specimens are usually right cylinders or parallelepipeds having length to diameter
ratios ranging from about 2 to 4.
✓ For most materials,
✓ Creep properties are virtually independent of loading direction.
✓ The most important parameter from a creep test is the slope of the secondary portion of the creep
curve (∆∈⁄∆𝑡); this is often called the minimum or steady-state creep rate ∈𝒔̇ .
✓ It is the engineering design parameter that is considered for long-life applications, such as:
▪ Nuclear power plant component that is scheduled to operate for several decades, and when
failure or too much strain is not an option.
✓ For short-life creep situations (e.g., turbine blades in military aircraft and rocket motor nozzles),
time to rupture, or the rupture lifetime (𝑡𝑟), is the dominant design consideration;
✓ Creep tests must be conducted to the point of failure; these are termed creep rupture tests.
✓ Thus, knowledge of these creep characteristics of a material allows the design engineer to determine
its suitability for a specific application.
STRESS AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
✓ Both temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep characteristics.

✓ At a temperature substantially below 0.4Tm, and after the initial deformation, the strain is virtually
independent of time.
✓ With either increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted:
1. The instantaneous strain at the time of stress application increases,
2. The steady-state creep rate increases, and
3. The rupture lifetime decreases.
✓ The results of creep rupture tests are most commonly presented as the logarithm of stress versus
the logarithm of rupture lifetime.

✓ In which a set of linear relationships can be seen to exist at each temperature.

✓ For some alloys and over relatively large stress ranges, nonlinearity in these curves is observed.
✓ Empirical relationships have been developed in which the steady-state creep rate as a function of
stress and temperature is expressed.
✓ A plot of the logarithm of ∈̇ versus the logarithm of 𝜎 yields a straight line with slope of n;

✓ Clearly, one or two straight-line segments are drawn at each temperature.

✓ Now, when the influence of temperature is included,
✓ Mechanisms to explain the creep behavior for various materials involve
▪ Stress-induced vacancy diffusion,
▪ Grain boundary diffusion,
▪ Dislocation motion, and
▪ Grain boundary sliding.

Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of materials

Introduction
✓ The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or deformation in relation to an
applied load or force.
✓ Key mechanical design properties are stiffness, strength, hardness, ductility, and toughness.
✓ The mechanical properties of materials are determined by performing carefully designed
laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service conditions.
✓ Factors to be considered include the nature of the applied load and its duration, Service
temperature , as well as the environmental conditions.
✓ The load to be tensile, compressive, shear, or torsion and its magnitude may be constant with
time, or it may fluctuate continuously.
✓ If a load is static or changes relatively with time and is applied uniformly over a cross section or
surface of a member, the mechanical behavior may be expressed by a simple stress-strain test.
▪ Thus are:
▪ Tensile test
▪ Compression test
▪ Shear test
▪ Torsion test
Tensile Test
✓ One of the most common mechanical stress–strain tests is performed in tension.
✓ The tension test can be used to determine several mechanical properties of materials that are
important in design.

✓ A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile lo ad that is

applied axially along the long axis of a specimen.
✓ The output of such a tensile test is recorded (usually on a computer) as load or force versus
elongation (engineering stress and engineering strain).
✓ Engineering stress (σ) is the Force (F) per original area (Ao).
𝑭
𝝈=
𝑨𝒐
✓ Engineering strain (ε) is the change in length per original length.
𝒍𝒇 − 𝒍 𝒐 𝜟𝒍
𝜺= =
𝒍𝒐 𝒍𝒐
✓ Engineering stress and strain uses initial dimensions .

Stress - Strain Behaviour

✓ Elastic Deformation - deformation in which stress and strain are proportional; i.e. deformation is
nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is released, the piece returns to its original
shape
✓ The slope of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus of elasticity E.
✓ This modulus may be thought of as stiffness, or a material’s resistance to elastic deformation.
✓ Modulus is an important design parameter for computing elastic deflections.

Plastic Deformation

✓ For most metallic materials, elastic deformation continues only to strains of about 0.005. As the
material is deformed beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to strain and
permanent, non-recoverable, or plastic deformation occurs.

Tensile Properties

Yielding and Yield Strength

✓ Yielding is the stress level at which plastic deformation begins.

✓ For metals, it is the gradual elastic–plastic transition point or it may be the initial departure from
linearity of the stress–strain curve;
✓ This is sometimes called the proportional limit, as indicated by point P in Figure above, and
represents the beginning of plastic deformation on a microscopic level.
✓ A convention has been established by which a straight line is constructed parallel to the elastic
portion of the stress–strain curve at some specified strain offset, usually 0.002.
 ✓ The stress corresponding to the intersection of this line and the stress–strain curve as it bends
over in the plastic region is defined as the yield strength (𝜎𝑦 ).
✓ The magnitude of the yield strength for a metal is a measure of its resistance to plastic
deformation.
✓ Yield strengths may range from 35 MPa (5000 psi) for a low-strength aluminum to greater than
1400 MPa (200,000 psi) for high-strength steels.

Tensile Strength (ultimate tensile strength)

✓ After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation in metals increases to a
maximum, point M as shown in Figure below, and then decreases to the eventual fracture, point
F.
✓ The tensile strength (TS) is the stress at the maximum on the engineering stress–strain curve.

Ductility:

✓ Ductility - is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been continued until
fracture.
✓ A metal that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed as brittle.
✓ Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent reduction in
area.
𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙 𝑜
%𝐸𝐿 = ( ) × 100
𝑙𝑜
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
%𝑅𝐴 = ( ) × 100
𝐴𝑜
✓ Knowledge of the ductility of materials is important for at least two reasons.
✓ First, it indicates to a designer the degree to which a structure will deform plastically before
fracture.
✓ Second, it specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication operations.

Resilience

✓ Resilience - is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.

Toughness:

✓ Is a property that is indicative of a material’s resistance to fracture when a crack (or other
stress-concentrating defect) is present.
✓ The ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before fracturing.
✓ For dynamic (high strain rate) loading conditions and when a notch (or point of stress
concentration) is present, notch toughness is assessed by using an impact test.

True stress and true strain

✓ True stress (𝜎𝑇 ) - is defined as the load F divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional
area Ai over which deformation is occurring (i.e., the neck, past the tensile point).
𝐹
𝜎𝑇 =
𝐴𝑖
✓ True strain (𝜀 𝑇 ) is defined by
𝑙𝑖
𝜀 𝑇 = ln
𝑙𝑜
✓ True stress and strain uses instantaneous dimensions.
✓ If no volume change occurs during deformation i.e.
𝐴𝑖 𝑙 𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑙 𝑜
✓ Then true and engineering stress and strain are related according to
𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎(1 + 𝜀)
𝜀 𝑇 = 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝜀)
 Engineering Materials-II

1. Phase Diagram
A phase is some portion of a body of material throughout which the physical and chemical characteristics
are homogeneous. Much of the information about the control of the phase structure of a particular system
is conveniently and concisely displayed in what is called a phase diagram, also often termed an equilibrium
diagram. Three externally controllable parameters affect phase structure temperature, pressure, and
composition and phase diagrams are constructed when various combinations of these parameters are plotted
against one another.

Of all binary alloy systems, the one that is possibly the most important is that for iron and carbon. Iron-
Carbon phase diagram is defined as a map of the temperature at which different phase changes occur on
very slow heating and cooling in relation to carbon content. It is isothermal and continuous cooling
transformation diagrams for plain carbon and alloy steels. These Iron- Carbon diagram shows the type of
alloys formed under very slow cooling, proper or suitable heat-treatment temperature and the properties of
steels and cast irons can be depend on changed by heat-treatment.

Both steels and cast irons, primary structural materials in every technologically advanced culture, are
essentially iron–carbon alloys. In iron–carbon phase diagram various phases are appeared. These are ferrite,
austenite, pearlite, cementite and martensite. But iimportant phases found on the iron–iron carbide phase
diagram is 𝛼-ferrite (BCC), 𝛾-austenite (FCC) and the intermetallic compound iron carbide or cementite
(Fe3C). On the basis of composition, ferrous alloys fall into three classifications: Irons (<0.008 wt.% C)
Steels (0.008 to 2.14 wt.% C) and Cast irons (>2.14 wt.% C).

Pure iron, upon heating, experiences two changes in crystal structure before it melts. At room temperature,
the stable form, called ferrite, or 𝛼-iron, has a BCC crystal structure. Ferrite is known as α solid solution.
It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved in α (BCC) iron and stable form of
iron below 912°C. The maximum solubility is 0.022 % C at 723°C and it dissolves only 0.008 % C at room
temperature. It is the softest structure that appears on the diagram. The general property of ferrite is ductile,
highly magnetic and it has a low tensile strength and also the softest of iron-carbon phases. The 𝛿-ferrite is
virtually the same as 𝛼-ferrite, except for the range of temperatures over which each exists. 𝛿-ferrite is
stable at relatively high temperatures.

At 912°C the ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation from BCC crystal structure to FCC
austenite, or 𝛾-iron. Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon dissolved in 𝛾 (F.C.C.) iron. The
maximum solubility in austenite phase is 2.14 % C at 1147°C. High formability, most of heat treatments
begin with this single phase. Austenite is normally not stable at room temperature but under certain
conditions it is possible to obtain austenite at room temperature. The general property of austenite is
generally soft, ductile, non- magnetic and it is denser than ferrite.

Pearlite is a structure (i.e. consists of two phases) consists of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. It is
formed from austenite at eutectoid temperature 727°C upon slow cooling. Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture
containing 0.76 % C and is formed at 727°C on very slow cooling. It is a very fine plate like or lamellar
mixture of ferrite and cementite. Pearlite has properties intermediate between those of the soft, ductile
ferrite and the hard, brittle cementite.
Cementite or iron carbide, is very hard, brittle intermetallic compound of iron & carbon, as Fe3 C, contains
6.7 % C. It is found in steel containing over 0.76% carbon when it cools. It is the hardest structure that
appears on the diagram, exact melting point unknown. The amount of cementite increases with increasing
the percentage of carbon in iron. Its property is low tensile strength, but high compressive strength.
Cementite is only metastable that is it remains as a compound indefinitely at room temperature.

Martensite is a super-saturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite. It is formed when steel is cooled so rapidly
that the change from austenite to pearlite is suppressed. The interstitial carbon atoms distort the BCC ferrite
into a BC-tetragonal structure (BCT); responsible for the hardness of quenched steel.

The development of microstructure for many iron–carbon alloys and steels depend on a eutectoid reaction
in which the austenite phase of composition 0.76 wt.% C transforms isothermally (at 727°C) into 𝛼-ferrite
(0.022 wt.% C) and cementite (i.e., 𝛾 → 𝛼 + Fe3C). The microstructural product of an iron–carbon alloy of
eutectoid composition is pearlite, a microconstituent consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite.
The microstructures of alloys having carbon contents less than the eutectoid (i.e., hypo eutectoid alloys) are
composed of a proeutectoid ferrite phase in addition to pearlite. Pearlite and proeutectoid cementite
constitute the microconstituents for hypereutectoid alloys those with carbon contents in excess of the
eutectoid composition.

Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys are: -

✓ Martensitic steels are the hardest and strongest, yet most brittle.
✓ Tempered martensite is very strong but relatively ductile.
✓ Bainite has a desirable strength-ductility combination but is not as strong as tempered
martensite.
✓ Fine pearlite is harder, stronger, and more brittle than coarse pearlite.
✓ Spheroidite is the softest and most ductile of the microstructures discussed.
✓ Embrittlement of some steel alloys results when specific alloying and impurity element are
present and upon tempering within a definite temperature range.
2. Iron and Steel Production
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. By mass it is the most common element
on Earth, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. Pure iron is soft (softer than Aluminum). The
material is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon, from the smelting
process. A certain proportion of carbon (between 0.002% and 2.1%) produces steel, which may be up to
1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by
coke to pig iron, which has high carbon content. Further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content
to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and low carbon iron alloys along with other metals (alloy
steels) are the most common metals in industrial use, due to their great range of desirable properties and
the abundance of iron.

The process of manufacturing iron from iron ore is called iron making with in the Blast Furnace. Blast
furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace equipment used for smelting to produce industrial metals,
generally iron, but also others such as lead or copper. The input material in iron production are iron ores,
limestone, coke coal and hot gases. Iron is the 4th most abundant element and makes up more than 5% of
the earth’s crust. Typically, a deposit must contain at least 25% iron to be considered economically
recoverable. Iron exists naturally in iron ore (sometimes called ironstone). Over 300 minerals contain iron
but five are the primary sources of iron-ore minerals. These are Magnetite (𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4), Hematite (𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ),
Siderite (𝐹𝑒 𝐶𝑂3 ), Goethite (𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 𝐻2 𝑂) and Pyrite (𝐹𝑒 𝑆2 ). The first three are the major ores used in the
production of iron and steel; because of their occurrence in large economically minable deposits. Among
the three ores hematite (𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 ) is the most principal ore source of iron. Limestone (CaCO3) is used as a
flux to reacts with coke to remove the impurities in the molten iron as slag. Coke coal is burns and produces
the heat to melt the iron ore and used as a reducing agent. Hot gases which are (𝐶𝑂, 𝐻2 , 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝐻2 𝑂, 𝑁2 , 𝑂2 ,
and fuels) used to burn coke.

The process of producing iron by blast furnace is the ore, together with coke as a fuel, and limestone to
make a fusible slag with the gangue or waste material, is charged to the top of the furnace and a high -
pressure blast of hot air is blown into the furnace through a series of jets, or tuyeres, situated just above the
hearth. The coke is partially burnt and the hot carbon monoxide produced reduces the oxides of iron to the
metal. Liquid iron collects in the hearth and the waste material collects as a liquid slag which floats on top
of the iron. The iron from the blast furnace may be cast into molds to give small ingots, or pigs, or
transferred in liquid form to the steel-making furnaces as hot metal.

Pig iron is the impure product of the blast furnace when cast into small ingots, or pigs. Cast iron is selected
grades of pig iron re-melted in a cupola and cast into shapes in sand molds. Wrought iron is refined iron
containing a certain amount of slag. Wrought iron was made by the puddling process, in which molten iron
from the blast furnace was refined by oxidation, using a slag rich in iron oxide as an oxidizing agent. Ingot
iron is the purest commercial form of iron. It is made by giving iron from the blast furnace the maximum
possible refining in a steel-making furnace.

Cast iron is basically an alloy of iron and carbon that is obtained by re-melting pig-iron with coke, limestone
and steel scrap in a cupola furnace. Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the
amount ranging from 2.1 wt.% to 4-5 wt.% and 1–3 wt.%, respectively. It also contains small amounts of
manganese, phosphorus and Sulphur in form of impurities elements. The property of cast iron is, it tends to
be brittle except for malleable cast irons. With its relatively low melting point, good fluidity, good casting
characteristics, high compressive strength, low cost poor machinability, resistance to deformation and wear
resistance, and weak in tension. It cannot be used for making bolts and machine parts which are liable to
tension. Since the cast iron is a brittle material and therefore, it cannot be used in those parts of machines
which are subjected to shocks. The compressive strength of cast iron is much greater than the tensile
strength. Cast iron classified as grey cast iron, white cast iron, ductile cast iron, malleable cast iron and
alloy cast iron.

Gray cast iron accounts for the largest tonnage among the cast irons. It has a composition in the range
2.5%–4% carbon and 1%–3% silicon. This chemistry results in the formation of graphite (carbon) flakes
distributed throughout the cast product upon solidification. The structure causes the surface of the metal to
have a gray color when fractured; hence the name gray cast iron. White cast iron has less carbon and silicon
than gray cast iron. It is formed by more rapid cooling of the molten metal after pouring. When fractured,
the surface has a white crystalline appearance that gives the iron its name. Owing to the cementite, white
cast iron is hard and brittle, and its wear resistance is excellent. Ductile cast iron is an iron with the
composition of gray iron in which the molten metal is chemically treated before pouring to cause the
formation of graphite spheroids rather than flakes. Malleable cast iron is formed when castings of white
cast iron are heat-treated to separate the carbon out of solution and form graphite aggregates, the resulting
metal is called malleable iron. Alloy cast irons are cast irons can be alloyed for special properties and
applications.

Steel is defined as an iron–carbon alloy containing a high proportion of iron with some carbon content
usually 0.1 to 2.14 %. Steels are widely used in construction and other applications because of their high
tensile strength and low cost. Steel with 0.1% and 2.1% carbon is harder than wrought iron, yet malleable
and flexible, unlike cast iron. Cast iron contain carbon from 2.14% C up to about 4% or 5%, hard but brittle
and nonmalleable Wrought iron contain carbon less than 0.08 %, hard without losing its malleability.

In production of steels, the main raw material used for production are either hot metal from the blast furnace
(pig iron) or steel scrap, or a mixture of both. Several methods of processing steels among them cementation
process, Bessemer process, open-hearth furnace, basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and electric-arc furnace
(EAF). Cementation process is the first equipment used to make steel from bars of wrought iron would be
packed in powdered charcoal, layer upon layer, in tightly covered stone boxes and h eated. After several
days of heating, the wrought iron bars would absorb carbon; to distribute the carbon more evenly, the metal
would be broken up, re-bundled with charcoal powder, and reheated. The result of this process is blister
steel and then heated again and brought under a forge hammer to give it a more consistent texture. In
Bessemer process, the mass-production of cheap steel only became possible. In this type of steel making
process the carbon in molten pig iron bonds freely with oxygen, so a strong blast of air through molten pig
iron was added for reducing its carbon content. In the Bessemer process a charge of iron could be converted
into steel, but the presence of nitrogen rendered the steel unsuitable for some applications involving deep
drawing or some other cold forming processes. The open-hearth process gave a better-quality product, but
the length of the refining process was much greater, increasing the cost of the steel. In addition, in this
furnace where excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out from pig iron to produce steel and it allows
for the production of larger batches of steel than the Bessemer process and the recycling of scrap metal.

Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) is depend upon injection of pure oxygen into the melt of the hot metal in
order to burn impurities. The oxygen burns out the carbon as carbon monoxide 𝐶𝑂 and carbon dioxide 𝐶𝑂2
gas. It provides a high productivity of steel with low levels of impurities. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is
another equipment next to BOF in which it is used to convert ferrous scrap into steel. Pig iron was originally
used as the charge in this furnace, scrap iron & scrap steel are the primary raw materials today. Electric arc
furnaces are available in several designs; the direct arc type is currently the most economical type. These
furnaces have removable roofs for charging from above; tapping is accomplished by tilting the entire
furnace. Scrap iron and steel selected for their compositions, together with alloying ingredients and
limestone (flux), are charged into the furnace. They are heated by an electric arc that flows between large
electrodes and the charge metal.

Many alloy steels are made in electric furnaces. The direct arc type of furnace is generally used for the
production of low-alloy steels containing nickel and chromium, while high-alloy and special steels are made
by crucible methods, usually using high-frequency induction furnaces.

A plain carbon steel is a steel containing up to 1.5 per cent of carbon, together with not more than 0.5
percent of silicon and not more than 1.5 percent of manganese, and with only traces of other elements. An
alloy steel is one that contains either silicon or manganese in amounts in excess of those quoted above, or
that contains any other element, or elements, as the result of deliberately made alloying additions.
The hardness and strength of steels vary very considerably with both carbon content and type of heat
treatment. Depending upon the carbon content, a plain carbon steels can divide in to dead carbon steel (0.05
to 0.15% carbon), low carbon or mild steel (0.2% to 0.45% carbons), medium carbon steel (0.45% to 0.8%
carbon) and high carbon steel (0.8% to 1.5% carbon). Dead carbon steel possesses very low percentage of
carbon varying from 0.05 to 0.15%. They have a tensile strength of 390 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and hardness of about 115
BHN. They applied for Steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws, pipes, nail, chain, camshafts, fan blades, welded
turbine, forgings, stamping, automobile body etc. Low carbon steel is sometimes known as mild steel.
Contains 0.2 to 0.45% C which has tensile strength of 555𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and hardness of 140 BHN. Possesses
bright fibrous structure. It is tough, malleable, ductile and more elastic than wrought iron. They can be
easily forged, welded and absorb shocks. Its melting point is about 1410°C and rusts easily(disadvantage).
It is used for making angle, channels, case hardening steel, rods, tubes, valves, gears, crankshafts,
connecting rods, railway axles, fish plates, small forgings, free cutting steel shaft and forged components
etc. Medium carbon steel contains carbon from 0.45 to 0.8%, possesses having bright fibrous structure
when fractured. It is tough and more elastic in comparison than wrought iron. It can be easily forged,
welded, elongated due to ductility and beaten (flattened) into sheets due to its good malleability. Its tensile
strength is better than cast iron and wrought iron but compressive strength is better than wrought iron but
lesser than cast iron. It is used for making railway coach axles, crank pins, crankshafts, axles, spline shafts,
loco tires, drop forging dies, die blocks, bolt heading dies, self-tapping screws, valve spring, lock washers,
hammers, cold chisels, hacksaws, jaws for vices etc. High carbon steels (HCS) contain carbon from 0.8 to
1.5%. Because of their high hardness, these are suitable for wear resistant parts. Spring steel is also high
carbon steel. It is available in annealed and pre-tempered strips and wires. It loses their hardness at
temperature from 200°C to 250°C. They may only be used in the manufacture of cutting tools operating at
low cutting speeds.

Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by
weight to improve its mechanical properties. Every steel is truly an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy
steels". Even the simplest steels are iron (Fe) (about 99%) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%,
depending on type). The term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to steels with other alloying
elements in addition to the carbon. It is possible to improve the properties of steels greatly by alloying with
other elements. The general effects of alloying elements in steels are as follows: -

✓ An alloying element entering into solid solution will increase the strength of the steel.
✓ Alloying elements reduce critical cooling velocities and, so, increase the hardenability of a steel
✓ The alloying element could form stable carbides
✓ The alloying element may confer some property, characteristic of itself, on the steel.
✓ The alloying element could cause the breakdown of cementite, resulting in the appearance of
graphite in the structure of the steel. Nickel and silicon have this effect.
3. Ceramics
A ceramic is an inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or semimetal) and one or more nonmetals.
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements; they are most frequently oxides,
nitrides, and carbides. The general properties that make ceramics useful in engineered products are high
hardness, good electrical and thermal insulating characteristics, chemical stability, and high melting
temperatures. Some ceramics are translucent window glass being the clearest example. They are also brittle
and possess virtually no ductility, which can cause problems in both processing and performance of ceramic
products. Ceramics generally have low toughness, although combining them in composites can dramatically
improve this property.

Most ceramic materials fall into an application–classification scheme that includes the following groups:
glasses, clay products, refractories, abrasives, cements, carbons and advanced ceramics.

Glasses are typical application for containers, lenses, and fiberglass. They are optically transparent and easy
to fabrication. The process of transformation of glasses from a noncrystalline state into crystalline state by
the proper high-temperature heat treatment is called crystallization, the product is a fine-grained
polycrystalline material that is Glass-Ceramic. A nucleating agent (frequently titanium dioxide) is often
added to the glass to promote crystallization. The presence of a nucleating agent shifts the begin and end
transformation curves to shorter times. Glass-ceramic have the property of relatively high mechanical
strengths, low coefficients of thermal expansion (to avoid thermal shock), good high -temperature
capabilities and good biological compatibility. They are applied for ovenware, tableware, oven windows,
and range tops.

Clay products are formed by mixing clay and water in the proper proportion form a plastic mass that is very
amenable to shaping. Clay is inexpensive ingredient and naturally abundant raw material. The formed piece
clay products are dried to remove some of the moisture, after which it is fired at an elevated temperature to
improve its mechanical strength. Clay products are classified as structural clay products and whiteware
ceramics. The former is needed for structural integrity and it is important for e.g. bricks, tiles, and sewer
pipes. The later one which is become white after high-temperature firing e.g. porcelain, pottery, tableware,
china, and sanitary ware.

Refractories has the capacity to withstand high temperatures without melting or decomposing and the
capacity to remain unreactive and inert when exposed to severe environments (e.g., hot and corrosive
fluids). They also provided as thermal insulation, support mechanical loads and resistance to thermal shock.
Most common refractories are made from natural materials: for example, refractory oxides such as SiO2 ,
Al2 O3, MgO, CaO, Cr2 O3, and ZrO2. Its application are linings for furnaces smelters that refine metals,
furnaces used for glass manufacturing and metallurgical heat treatments, cement kilns and power
generators.

Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material. The primary requisite for such
materials is their hardness or wear resistance. Application of abrasives are grinding, polishing, lapping,
drilling, cutting, sharpening, buffing, and sanding. Abrasive materials are classified as naturally occurring
and manufactured. Diamond is fall into both classifications. Factors that influence the rate of surface
removal and the abraded surface smoothness are difference in hardness between abrasive and work -piece,
grain size and contact force.

Cements are when mixed with water, they form a paste that subsequently sets and hardens. Some of cement
materials act as a bonding phase that binds particulate aggregates into a single cohesive structure. One of
cement materials is Portland cement, which is consumed largest tonnage and produced by calcination
process. Calcination is a process of grinding and intimately mixing clay and lime-bearing minerals in the
proper proportions and then heating the mixture to about 1400°C in a rotary kiln. Portland cement is termed
a hydraulic cement since hardness develops by chemical reactions with water. It is used in mortar and
concrete to bind aggregates of inert particles.
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above which melting occurs.
There are five different forming methods are used to fabricate glass products.

✓ Pressing is used in the fabrication of relatively thick-walled pieces such as plates and dishes.
✓ Blowing: is done by hand for art objects, the process has been completely automated for the
production of glass jars, bottles, and light bulbs.
✓ Drawing: is used to form long glass pieces that have a constant cross section, such as sheet,
rod, tubing, and fibers.
✓ Sheet Forming: the molten glass passes (on rollers) from one furnace onto a bath of liquid tin
located in a second furnace.
✓ Glass fiber forming: Fibers are formed by drawing the molten glass through many small
orifices at the chamber base
Clay minerals has hydroplasticity property (when mix with water they become very plastic) and a dense
and strong ceramic piece may be produced by firing with range of temperature without melting the desired
shape can be maintained. Clays are aluminosilicates composed of alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2) that
contain chemically bound water. The fabrication technique of clay products is by hydroplastic forming and
slip casting.

4. Polymers
Polymers are long chain organic molecules assembled from many smaller molecules called monomers.
Most polymers are organic, meaning that they are carbon-based (hydrocarbon composed of carbon and
hydrogen bonded covalently); however, polymers can be inorganic (e.g., silicones based on a Si -O
network). Generally, polymeric materials are composed of very large molecular chains with side groups of
various atoms (O, Cl, etc.) or organic groups such as methyl, ethyl, or phenyl groups. Polymerization is the
process by which small molecules consisting of one unit (known as a monomer) or a few units (known as
oligomers) are chemically joined to create these giant molecules. Polymerization normally begins with the
production of long chains in which the atoms are strongly joined by covalent bonding.

Polymers classified as based on origin of source of material as natural polymers and synthetic polymers;
based on the molecular structure as linear polymers, branched polymers, crosslinked polymers and network
polymers; and based on the behavior with rising temperature as thermoplastics (thermoplastic polymers)
and thermosets (thermosetting polymers). Natural polymers are polymers which are derived from plants
and animals such as wood, cotton, wool, leather and silk. Synthetic polymers are developed by synthesizing
small molecules. e.g. Plastics, rubber fiber materials etc. Linear polymers are polymers in which the mer
units(monomers) are connected together end to end along the whole single length of a chain. These
polymers are often quite flexible. There is an extensive van der Waals and hydrogen bonding between the
chains. Some examples are polyethylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylon, and the fluorocarbons. Branched
polymers are polymers may be synthesized in which side-branch chains are connected to the main ones.
The branches result from side reactions that occur during the synthesis of the polymer. The chain packing
efficiency is reduced because of branches which lowers the polymer density. Examples are high -density
polyethylene (HDPE) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE). In the crosslinked polymers the adjacent linear
chains are joined one to another at various positions by covalent bonds. Crosslinking is accomplished by
additive atoms or molecules that are covalently bonded to the chains. Examples: rubber elastic materials:
for rubber the process is called vulcanization. Network polymers the multifunctional monomers forming
three or more active covalent bonds make three dimensional networks. A highly crosslinked polymer also
classified as network polymer. Examples: Epoxies, Polyurethanes and Phenol-formaldehyde.
Thermoplastic polymers also known as thermoplastics are solid materials at room temperature, but they
become viscous liquids when heated to temperatures of only a few hundred degrees. This characteristic
allows them to be easily and economically shaped into products. They can be subjected to this heating and
cooling cycle repeatedly without significant degradation. Because of the weak attractive forces between
chains, they are broken by heat. Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures with
flexible chains are thermoplastic. Examples of thermoplastic polymers include PE, PS, PVC etc.
Thermosetting polymers or thermosets, cannot tolerate repeated heating cycles as thermoplastics can; when
initially heated, they soften and flow for molding, but the elevated temperatures also pro duce a chemical
reaction that hardens the material into an infusible solid. If reheated, Thermosetting polymers degrade and
char rather than soften. They are network polymers in which there is covalent crosslinks between adjacent
molecular chains (10-50% of the chain repeat units are cross-linked). Thermoset polymers are generally
harder, stronger and better dimensional stability than thermoplastics. Examples of thermoset polymers are
Vulcanized Rubbers, Epoxies, Phenolics and Polyester resins.

Polymers have lower density compared to other type of engineering materials. Besides their mechanical
property of polymers are dissimilar to those of the metallic and ceramic materials. In addition, many of the
polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex
shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments.
One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures,
which, in some instances, limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are
nonmagnetic They are not as stiff or strong as other material types. The mechanical characteristics of
polymers are highly sensitive to the rate of deformation (strain rate), the temperature, and the chemical
nature of the environment (the presence of water, oxygen, organic solvents, etc.). For example: increasing
the temperature produces: - a decrease in elastic modulus, a reduction in tensile strength and an
enhancement of ductility.

Based on the application of polymeric materials, they are classified as plastics, elastomers, fibers, coatings,
adhesives, foams, and films. Plastics are materials that are composed principally of naturally occurring and
modified or artificially made polymers often containing additives such as fibers, fillers, pigments, and the
like that further enhance their properties. Plastics include thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers
(natural or synthetic). They are materials that have some structural rigidity under load and are used in
general-purpose applications. Polymers classified as plastics are: - Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl
chloride), polystyrene, and the fluorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters. Elastomers sustain elastic
deformations greater than 200%. They may be thermoplastics or lightly cross-linked thermosets. The
polymer chains consist of coil-like molecules that can reversibly stretch by applying a force. Elastomers
are often referred to as rubbers. Fiber polymers are capable of being drawn into long filaments having at
least a 100:1 length-to-diameter ratio. They are used in the textile industry, being woven or knit into cloth
or fabric. They must have a high tensile strength and a high modulus of elasticity, as well as abrasion
resistance because they are subject to stretching, twisting, shearing, and abrasion. Coating is needed for the
following function: - to protect the item from the environment, to improve the item’s appearance and to
provide electrical insulation. An adhesive is a substance used to bond together the surfaces of two solid
materials (termed adherends) Natural adhesives (animal glue, casein, starch, and rosin) and synthetic
adhesives (polyurethanes, polysiloxanes (silicones), epoxies, polyimides, acrylics, and rubber materials).
Films are fabricated and used extensively as bags for packaging food products. Polymers such as
polyethylene, polypropylene, cellophane, and cellulose acetate can be used for films.

Polymer additives like fillers are materials which are added to polymers to improve tensile and compressive
strengths, abrasion resistance, toughness, dimensional and thermal stability. Plasticizers are used to
improve flexibility, ductility, and toughness of polymers. They are generally liquid and used PVC and
acetate copolymers. Stabilizers are additives that counteract deteriorative processes which may be by
ultraviolet radiation (UV) and oxidation. Colorants are used to impart the color of polymer. They are added
in the form of dyes (dissolve in polymer) or pigment (filler materials that don't dissolve by polymer). Flame
retardants: most polymers are flammable in their pure form therefore the flammability property of polymer
enhanced by flame retardant additive.

Forming techniques of polymer materials depends on material type (thermoplastic or thermosetting), the
temperature, the atmospheric stability of the material being formed and final product geometry and size.
Compression molding is process in which a metered amount of polymer and additives is placed in a heated
die and compressed to the desired dimensions. It is used for fabrication of both thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers but appropriate for thermosets. Transfer molding is, a modified version of
compression molding, a process in which material is fed into the pot of a transfer mold, heated, and then
forced under pressure into an adjoining cavity of the same mold. Injection molding is most widely used
technique for fabricating thermoplastic materials. In injection molding the polymer is fed into a heated
injection chamber, melted, and then forced by a ram into the mold cavity. Extrusion is similar to metal
extrusion in which the polymer is forced through a nozzle with the desired cross-sectional configuration.
The technique is used to producing continuous lengths having constant cross-section such as rods, tubes,
hose, sheets, and filaments. Blow molding is a process in which a gob of plastic is formed and then blown
into a mold of the desired shape. Calendering is essentially a rolling operation in which a putty-like mass
of thermoplastic material is passed through heated rolls, which work it into a sheet of uniform thickness.

5. Composite Materials
Composite is defined as two or more chemically distinct (differ in shape) materials are combined; which
have improved properties over the individual materials and are insoluble in each other. Composite materials
may be selected to give unusual combinations of stiffness, strength, density, high -temperature performance,
corrosion resistance, hardness, or conductivity. Composites are combinations of two materials in which one
of the materials is called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded
in the other material called the matrix phase. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities
while the matrix is usually a ductile or tough material. If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly,
it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve combination of
desirable properties not available in any single conventional materials. Composites created to improve
combinations of mechanical characteristics such as stiffness, toughness, and ambient and high-temperature
strength. Generally, the essence of a composite is that take two or more very different materials and put
them together to form a product with some properties greater than those of the original materials. A
composite material consists of two phases: primary phases: forms the matrix within which the secondary
phase is imbedded. and secondary phases: referred to as the imbedded phase or called the reinforcing agent;
serves to strengthen the composite. The phases are generally insoluble in each other, but strong adhesion
must exist at their interface(s).
The functions of a matrix are to holds the fibers together, protects the fibers from environment, distributes
the loads evenly between fibers so that all fibers are subjected to the same amount of strain, d etermine the
processability of composites, improves impact and fracture resistance of a component, helps to avoid
propagation of crack growth and provide a barrier against an adverse environment. Composite materials
are classified based on the matrix material as metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic matrix composites
(CMC), polymer matrix composites (PMC), carbon-carbon matrix (CCM) and hybrid composites. MMCs
are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and embedded or
dispersed phase: a ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase. CMCs are
composed of a ceramic matrix and imbedded or dispersed phase are: fibers of other ceramic material. They
can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in general and in few cases
covalent bonding. PMCs are composed of two main kinds of polymer matrix which thermoset (Unsaturated
polyester (UP), Epoxy), they have an application for chopped fiber composites and thermoplastic (PVC,
Nylon, Polystyrene) and embedded or dispersed phase: fibers of glass, carbon, steel or Kevlar. CCCs are
composed of a carbon matrix into which reinforcing carbon fibers are embedded. Carbon and graphite have
highly resistance to high temperature. Their dimensional stability makes them the oblivious choice in the
applications related to military industry and space technology. Concrete is a ceramic matrix composite,
while asphalt and wood polymer matrix composites. Hybrid composites are relatively new fiber-reinforced
composite is the hybrid, which is obtained by using two or more different kinds of fibers in a single matrix;
Hybrids have a better all-around combination of properties than composites containing only a single fiber
type. The principal applications for hybrid composites are lightweight land; water, and air transport
structural components; and sporting goods, and lightweight orthopedic components.

The purpose of reinforcing phase material is to reinforce the primary phase. There are five basic secondary
phases of composite materials; fiber, flake, filled composites, particle and laminar or layered composites.
Fibers are filaments of reinforcing material, generally circular in cross-section, alternative shapes are
sometimes used (e.g., tubular, rectangular, hexagonal). They satisfy the desired conditions and transfer
strength to the matrix. the most common fibers used in composites are: glass, graphite (carbon) boron and
Kevlar 49 ceramics and metal. Glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) is most widely used fiber in polymer
composites. Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites are made into high-modulus fibers.
They have stiffness, low-density and low-thermal expansion and their tensile strength is three to five times
stronger than steel as well as a density of one-fourth of that of steel. Particles composites is a second
common shape of the embedded phase is particulate, ranging in size from microscopic to macroscopic.
Particles are an important material form for metals and ceramics. In flakes composites, flakes are often used
in place of fibers as can be densely packed. Metal flakes that are in close contact with each other in polymer
matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes and glass can resist both. They are basically two-
dimensional particles- small flat platelets. Filled composites are result from the addition of filer materials
to plastic matrices to replace a portion of the matrix, and enhance or change the properties of the composites.
The fillers also enhance strength and reduce weight. Laminar composites consist of two or more layers
bonded together to form an integral piece. The layers are often of different materials, but not necessarily.
Examples of laminar composites are automotive tires, honeycomb sandwich, plywo od, snow skis,
windshield glass and fiber reinforced polymers.

6. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials

The destruction of a material by a chemical or electrochemical process through interaction with its
environment. Typically, this is a transfer of electrons from one metal to another which is an oxidation-
reduction reaction. The corrosion of a metal is a chemical process by which the metal is oxidized. Changes
in properties due to the interaction (mechanical – ductility or strength, physical properties, or appearance).
Corrosion causes deterioration of all types of materials. Deteriorative mechanisms are different for the three
material types. In metals there is actual material loss either by dissolution (corrosion) or by the formation
of nonmetallic scale or film (oxidation). Ceramic materials are relatively resistant to deterioration, which
usually occurs at elevated temperatures or in rather extreme environments; the process is frequently also
called corrosion. For polymers, mechanisms and consequences differ from those for metals and ceramics,
and the term degradation is most frequently used. Polymers may dissolve when exposed to a liquid solvent,
or they may absorb the solvent and swell; also, electromagnetic radiation (primarily ultraviolet) and heat
may cause alterations in their molecular structures. There are eight common type of corrosion, these are
uniform (rust), galvanic, crevice, pitting, intergranular, selective leaching, erosion-corrosion and stress
corrosion. Uniform corrosion is a form of electrochemical corrosion that occurs with equivalent intensity
over the entire exposed surface and often leaves behind a scale or deposit. It is probably the most common
form of corrosion. Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals or alloys having different compositions are
electrically coupled while exposed to an electrolyte. The less noble or more reactive metal in the particular
environment experiences corrosion; the more inert metal, the cathode, is protected from corrosion. Crevice
and pitting corrosion both are forms of localized corrosion. Occurs from concentration differences of ions
forming a concentration cell. Oxidation takes places with in the pits or space between two metals.
Intergranular corrosion occurs preferentially along grain boundaries for specific metals/alloys (e.g., some
stainless steels). Selective leaching is found in solid solution alloys and occurs when one element or
constituent is preferentially removed as a consequence of corrosion processes. Erosion–corrosion arises
from the combined action of chemical attack and mechanical abrasion or wear as a consequence of fluid
motion. Virtually all metal alloys, to one degree or another, are susceptible to erosion –corrosion. Stress
corrosion, sometimes termed stress corrosion cracking, results from the combined action of an applied
tensile stress and a corrosive environment; both influences are necessary. It is the formation and propagation
of cracks (and possible failure) resulting from the combined effects of corrosion and the application of a
tensile stress.

Several measures may be taken to prevent, or at least reduce, corrosion. These include material selection,
environmental alteration, the use of inhibitors, design changes, application of coatings, and cathodic
protection.

7. Heat Treatment of Metals

Heat Treatment is the heating and cooling operations of metals and alloys; for the purpose of obtaining
certain desirable properties. There are three stages of heat treatment. These are heating, soaking and cooling.
The primary objective in the heating stage is to maintain uniform temperatures. After the metal is heated
to the proper temperature, soaking (holding) the metal at a given temperature for a given period of time
until the desired internal structural changes take place. Cooling in heat treatment is after a metal has been
soaked, it must be cooled the metal to room temperature to complete the heat-treating process. The rate of
cooling depends on the medium; therefore, the choice of a cooling medium has an important influence on
the desired properties.

There are several types of heat treatment, some of the are: -

✓ Annealing is a type of heat treatment process that is used for the primary purpose of softening
the metal and to relieve internal stresses, in order to make them more ductile, and refine their
grain structures, improve machinability and eliminate structural in-homogeneity.
✓ Normalizing is a defined as softening process in which iron base alloys are heated 40 to 50°C
above the upper-critical temperature for both hypo and hyper eutectoid steels and held there
for a specified period and followed by cooling in still /motionless/ air up to room temperature.
✓ Hardening is a hardness inducing kind of heat treatment process in which steel is heated to a
temperature above the critical point and held at that temperature for a definite time and then
quenched rapidly in water, oil or molten salt bath. It is done to increase the strength and wear
properties.
✓ Tempering is used to reduce the undesired needs by reheating and cooling at constant bath
temperature after it is hardened. Since after hardening steels becomes extra hard, extra brittle
and has unequal distribution of internal stresses and strain.
✓ Casehardening is the process of surface hardening of metal, often a low carbon steel, by
infusing elements into the material's surface, forming a thin layer of a harder alloy.
✓ Surface hardening is used to impart desirable properties in the surface of the component that
are not needed (or achievable) through the part.
 Strength of Material I

Simple Stress and Strain

Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts in mechanics that are essential for understanding
the behaviour of materials under external forces.
In mechanical engineering, stress refers to the internal forces acting within a material due to an
applied load, while strain is the deformation or elongation of the material resulting from the stress.
Simple stress refers to the stress induced in a material due to external force acting on it in one
direction.

✓ The stress is measured as the force per unit area (F/A) and is denoted by the Greek letter sigma
(σ).

➢ The unit of stress is Pascal (Pa) or Newton per square meter (N/m^2).

✓ The stress can be compressive or tensile, depending on the direction of the force relative to the
material.
✓ There are three main types of stress:

1- Tensile stress: This occurs when the force applied to a material causes it to elongate or stretch.
2- Compressive stress: This occurs when the force applied to a material causes it to compress or
shorten.
3- Shear stress: This occurs when the force applied to a material causes it to twist or deform in a
parallel manner.

✓ Strain is a measure of the amount of deformation of a material due to stress. Simple strain is
the change in length per unit length (ΔL/L) of a material due to an applied force in one direction.

➢ It is denoted by the Greek letter epsilon (ε).

➢ Strain has no unit as it is a dimensionless quantity.

✓ There are three main types of strain:

1- Tensile strain: This occurs when a material is stretched and elongated.

2- Compressive strain: This occurs when a material is compressed and shortened.
3- Shear strain: This occurs when a material is twisted or deformed in a parallel manner.

Normal Strain under Axial Loading:

Normal strain is the change in length of a material per unit length under an axial load.

✓ It is expressed as ε = ΔL/L,
✓ Where ΔL is the change in length and L is the original length
Stress-Strain Diagram:
A stress-strain diagram is a graph that represents the relationship between stress and strain for a
material. Stress is the force per unit area applied to a material, while strain is the deformation per unit
length of the material. The stress-strain diagram shows the behavior of the material under different
types of loading conditions, including elastic, plastic, and failure regions.

Strain is defined as the change in length per unit length of a material that results from an applied stress.
Strain is typically expressed as a percentage or a fraction of the original length. For example, if a
material is stretched by 5% under a given load, its strain would be 0.05.

The stress-strain diagram typically shows stress on the y-axis and strain on the x-axis. The diagram
typically starts at the origin (0,0) and extends to a point of failure. The shape of the curve depends on
the material properties and the loading conditions. The diagram can be divided into several distinct
regions:

✓ Elastic Region: In the elastic region, the material behaves elastically, meaning that it returns
to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. The slope of the stress-strain curve
in this region is called the elastic modulus or Young's modulus. The elastic modulus is a
measure of a material's stiffness, and it is expressed in units of stress divided by strain.
✓ Yield Point: The yield point marks the beginning of the plastic deformation of a material.
At this point, the material undergoes permanent deformation when stress is applie d. The
stress at the yield point is called the yield strength, and it is a measure of the maximum stress
that a material can withstand without undergoing plastic deformation.
✓ Plastic Region: In the plastic region, the material continues to deform plastically, meaning
that it undergoes permanent deformation even when the applied stress is removed. The slope
of the stress-strain curve in this region is called the plastic modulus.
✓ Ultimate Strength: The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand before it fails. At this point, the material undergoes significant deformation and
may fracture.
✓ Fracture Point: The fracture point marks the end of the stress-strain curve. At this point,
the material undergoes catastrophic failure, and it can no longer withstand any stress.
Shearing strain refers to the deformation that occurs when a material is subjected to shear stress,
which is a type of stress that acts parallel to a surface. When a material is subjected to a shear stress,
the material undergoes a deformation that results in the distortion of the material's shape, but
without any change in volume.
The shearing strain can be defined as the angular deformation between two lines originally
perpendicular to each other within the material. It is represented by the symbol γ (gamma) and is
calculated as the ratio of the displacement or deformation of the material along the direction of the
shear stress to the original length or distance between the two lines.
✓ There are different formulas that can be used to calculate the shearing strain depending on the
type of deformation and the geometry of the material. However, the most common formula used
to calculate shearing strain is:
γ = tan θ

➢ Where θ is the angle of deformation or shear angle between two lines originally
perpendicular to each other within the material.
Another formula that is commonly used to calculate shearing strain is:

γ = δ/L

✓ Where δ is the displacement or deformation of the material along the direction of the shear stress,
and L is the original length or distance between the two lines.

Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law states that the stress and strain in a material are proportional to each other within the
elastic region of the material.

✓ Mathematically, it is expressed as σ = Eε, where σ is the stress, E is the modulus of

elasticity, and ε is the strain.
Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity, also known as Young's modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
It is defined as the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic region of the material. The modulus of
elasticity is an important parameter for designing structures and determining their deformation under
load.

The stress applied to a material to the strain produced. It is also known as Young's modulus, named
after the British physicist Thomas Young.

✓ The formula for modulus of elasticity is:

E=σ / ε

where

E = modulus of elasticity (Pa or N/m²)

σ = stress (Pa or N/m²)

ε = strain (unitless)

✓ In this formula, stress is defined as the force applied per unit area of the material, while
strain is the ratio of the change in length or deformation of the material to its original length
or size. The modulus of elasticity measures the material's resistance to deformation under
stress and is a fundamental property of materials used in engineering and construction.

Elastic versus Plastic Behavior of a Material

Elastic behavior refers to the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size after the load
is removed. Plastic behavior refers to the permanent deformation of a material beyond its elastic limit.
In the elastic region of the stress-strain curve, the material behaves elastically, while in the plastic
region, it behaves plastically.
 ✓ Elastic behavior: When a material is subjected to a stress, it deforms or stretches in
proportion to the amount of stress applied. However, when the stress is removed, the
material returns to its original shape and size. This is called elastic behavior, and the
material is said to behave elastically.
The formula for elastic behavior is:

σ =E×ε

Where

σ = stress (Pa or N/m²)

E = modulus of elasticity (Pa or N/m²)

ε = strain (unitless)

✓ Plastic behavior: If the stress applied to a material exceeds a certain level, it will cause the
material to deform permanently. In this case, when the stress is removed, the material will
not return to its original shape and size. This is called plastic behavior, and the material is
said to have undergone plastic deformation.
✓ There is no one formula to describe plastic behavior as it depends on the specific material
and the conditions of the deformation. However, some common measures of plastic
behavior include yield strength, ultimate strength, and strain hardening. These properties
can be determined through tensile testing or other methods.
Deformations of Members under Axial Loading

When a member is subjected to an axial load, it will deform or stretch along the axis of the load. The
deformation is measured by the axial strain, which is defined as the ratio of the change in length to the
original length of the member. The formula for axial strain is:

ε = ΔL / L

Where:

ε = axial strain (unitless)

ΔL = change in length (m or in)

L = original length (m or in)

The axial load also creates stress within the member, which is defined as the force per unit area of the
member. The formula for axial stress is:

σ = P/ A

where:

σ = axial stress (Pa or N/m²)

 P = axial load (N or lb)

A = cross-sectional area of the member (m² or in²)

The axial deformation or change in length of the member can be calculated using the formula:

ΔL = (P × L) / (A × E)

Where:

ΔL = change in length (m or in)

P = axial load (N or lb)

L = original length (m or in)

A = cross-sectional area of the member (m² or in²)

E = modulus of elasticity (Pa or N/m²)

This formula is based on the assumption that the material behaves elastically and that the deformation
is uniform along the length of the member. If the material undergoes plastic deformation, this formula
may not apply. Additionally, if the load is not perfectly aligned with the axis of the member, additional
calculations may be necessary to determine the deformation

If the axial loading is compressive, the material undergoes a decrease in length, resulting in a negative
value of axial strain. Conversely, if the axial loading is tensile, the material undergoes an increase in
length, resulting in a positive value of axial strain.

In addition to axial strain, axial loading can also result in other types of deformations, such as lateral or
transverse strains, shear strains, and volumetric strains. These deformations depend on the material's
Poisson's ratio, which relates the axial strain to the lateral strain, and the shear modulus, which relates
the shear strain to the shear stress.

The total deformation of a material under axial loading is the sum of all these different types of strains.
The formula for the total strain is:

εtotal = εaxial + νεlateral + γshear + εvolumetric

➢ Where ν is Poisson's ratio, γ is the shear strain, and εvolumetric is the volumetric strain.
Statically Indeterminate Problems.

Statically indeterminate problems refer to situations in which a structure or system cannot be analyzed
using only the equations of static equilibrium, but requires additional equations or information to fully
determine the internal forces and deformations. These problems arise in many engineering applications,
such as in the design of bridges, buildings, and other structures.
The most common method for solving statically indeterminate problems is the method of superposition,
which involves breaking the problem down into simpler parts that can be analyzed using static
equilibrium equations.

The superposition method assumes that the total deformation or internal force in the structure is equal
to the sum of the deformations or internal forces from each individual load or support condition.

The formula for calculating the total deformation or internal force using the method of superposition
is:

Δtotal = ΣΔi

where:

Δtotal = total deformation or internal force

Δi = deformation or internal force caused by each individual load or support condition

To apply the method of superposition, the structure or system is broken down into simpler parts, each
with a known load or support condition. The deformation or internal force caused by each part is then
calculated using static equilibrium equations, and the results are added together to determine the total
deformation or internal force.

Problems Involving Temperature Changes

Problems involving temperature changes can cause thermal expansion or contraction of materials,
leading to changes in their dimensions and stress levels. The coefficient of thermal expansion is a
material property that determines the extent of the dimensional changes under temperature variations.

✓ When materials are exposed to changes in temperature, they can expand or contract due to
the change in their internal energy. This change in size can cause stress on the material,
which can potentially cause damage or deformation.
✓ The amount of expansion or contraction that a material undergoes depends on its coefficient
of thermal expansion, which is a measure of how much the material's size changes in
response to a change in temperature. Materials with a higher coefficient of thermal
expansion will expand or contract more in response to temperature changes.
✓ Thermal expansion and contraction can be important considerations in many engineering
and construction applications, as it can lead to changes in the dimensions and stress levels
of structures and components. Engineers and designers must take these effects into account
when designing and constructing buildings, bridges, pipelines, and other structures that are
exposed to temperature changes
✓ The formula for thermal expansion is:
ΔL = αLΔT

➢ where ΔL is the change in length of the material, α is the coefficient of linear

expansion, L is the original length of the material, and ΔT is the change in
temperature.
 ✓ The coefficient of linear expansion, α, is a material-specific constant that describes how
much a material expands or contracts when its temperature changes. It is typically measured
in units of per degree Celsius (or per degree Fahrenheit).
The relationship between temperature change and thermal expansion is proportional, meaning that
as the temperature of a material increases, the amount of thermal expansion also increases.
Conversely, as the temperature of a material decreases, the amount of thermal contraction also
increases.
The stress levels induced by thermal expansion or contraction depend on the material's stiffness
and the magnitude of the temperature change.
Poisson’s Ratio:
Poisson's ratio is a measure of the amount of lateral contraction that occurs when a material is
compressed. It is defined as the ratio of the relative transverse strain (lateral contraction) to the
relative axial strain (longitudinal compression) within the elastic limit of the material.
Mathematically, Poisson's ratio is expressed as:
ν = -ε-t/ε-l

➢ Where ν is Poisson's ratio, ε-t is the transverse strain, and ε-l is the longitudinal
strain.

✓ The value of Poisson's ratio ranges between -1 and 0.5; with values closer to 0 indicating
that the material is relatively incompressible, while values closer to -1 indicate that the
material is more easily compressed.
Multi-axial Loading

Multi-axial loading refers to the application of more than one type of loading to a material, such as
axial, bending, and shear loads. The behavior of a material under multi-axial loading can be complex
and requires a thorough understanding of the material properties and loading conditions.

Multi-axial loading refers to a situation in which an object is subjected to stresses from multiple
directions. This can occur in a variety of situations, such as in the case of a structural element that is
supporting a load from different angles.

Stress is a measure of the internal forces that are acting on an object, and it is typically expressed in
units of force per unit area. In the case of multi-axial loading, the stresses that are acting on an object
will be different in different directions, and the maximum stress that the object can withstand will
depend on the combination of these stresses.

Strain is a measure of the deformation that occurs in an object in response to stress. It is typically
expressed as the ratio of the change in length to the original length of the object. In the case of multi-
axial loading, the strain that occurs in an object will also be different in different directions.

Here are some more details on the three commonly used yield criteria for multi-axial loading:
✓ Von Mises yield criterion: This criterion assumes that yielding (or failure) occurs when
the distortion energy exceeds a certain value. It is also known as the maximum distortion
energy theory. The formula for Von Mises stress is:
σv = √(3/2) * σd
 ➢ where σv is the Von Mises stress, and σd is the deviatoric stress.
✓ Tresca yield criterion: This criterion assumes that yielding (or failure) occurs when the
maximum shear stress exceeds a certain value. It is also known as the maximum shear
stress theory. The formula for Tresca stress is:
σt = σ1 - σ3

✓ where σt is the Tresca stress, σ1 is the maximum principal stress, and σ3 is the minimum
principal stress.
✓ Mohr-Coulomb criterion: This criterion is used for materials that have a non-linear
relationship between stress and strain. It assumes that yielding (or failure) occurs when
the shear stress exceeds a certain value that depends on the normal stress. The formula for
Mohr-Coulomb stress is:
τ = c + σ * tan(φ)

➢ Where τ is the shear stress, σ is the normal stress, c is the cohesion of the material,
and φ is the angle of internal friction.
Generalized Hooke’s Law

The generalized Hooke’s Law is an extension of Hooke’s Law that accounts for the anisotropic
behavior of materials, where the material properties depend on the direction of loading. The generalized
Hooke’s Law is expressed in matrix form, where the stress and strain vectors are related by a stiffness
matrix.

Generalized Hooke's Law describes the relationship between stress and strain in a material that
undergoes deformation, and can be extended to materials that deform in two or three dimensions.

✓ In one dimension, the law states that stress is proportional to strain, and can be expressed
as:
σ = Eε

➢ where σ is the stress, E is the Young's modulus of elasticity, and ε is the strain.
✓ In two dimensions, the relationship between stress and strain is described by a 2x2 matrix
known as the stiffness matrix:
[σx σy] = [E11 E12] [εx εy]

➢ Where σx and σy are the stresses in the x and y directions, respectively, E11 and
E12 are the elastic constants, and εx and εy are the strains in the x and y directions,
respectively.
✓ In three dimensions, the relationship between stress and strain is described by a 3x3 matrix
known as the stiffness matrix:
[σx σy σz] = [E11 E12 E13][εx εy εz]

➢ where σx, σy, and σz are the stresses in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, E11,
E12, and E13 are the elastic constants, and εx, εy, and εz are the strains in the x, y,
and z directions, respectively.
 In concert, the generalized Hooke's Law can be expressed as:

σ = Cε

➢ Where σ is the stress, C is the stiffness tensor (a matrix that describes the material's
elastic properties), and ε is the strain. This equation is valid for materials that deform
in any number of dimensions and exhibit linear elastic behavior within their elastic
limit.
Shearing Strain: Shearing strain is the deformation of a material in response to a shear stress. Shearing
strain is measured as the ratio of the change in the angle between two perpendicular

Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural element, such as a circular shaft, under the application
of a torque or moment. This twisting causes deformations in the shaft, which can result in stresses
within the material.
When a circular shaft is subjected to torsion, it undergoes deformation in the f orm of a twist. The
amount of twist is proportional to the applied torque and the length of the shaft. The angle of twist
is given by the expression:
θ = (T * L)/(G * J)

➢ where θ is the angle of twist, T is the applied torque or moment, L is the length of
the shaft, G is the shear modulus of elasticity of the material, and J is the polar
moment of inertia of the shaft cross section.
stresses in the Elastic Range
✓ In the elastic range, the stress in a shaft subjected to torsion is proportional to the distance
from the axis of the shaft. The maximum stress occurs at the surface of the shaft and is given
by the expression:
τ = (T * r)/J

➢ where τ is the shear stress, r is the radial distance from the center of the shaft to the
point at which the stress is being calculated, and J is the polar moment of inertia.

✓ The relationship between stress and strain is characterized by the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus (E).

➢ Young's modulus is the ratio of stress to strain and is a measure of the stiffness of the material.
➢ Young's modulus = Stress / Strain
➢ The higher the Young's modulus, the stiffer the material. It is expressed in the
same unit as stress.

The formula for Young's modulus is:

✓ Engineers use stress-strain curves to analyze the mechanical behavior of materials, especially in
the design of structures and machines.
✓ Hooke's Law states that within the elastic region of a material, the stress is proportional to the
strain. This means that if you double the load applied to a material, the resulting strain will also
double, and the stress will increase proportionally.
✓ Yield Strength: Yield strength is the point at which a material begins to deform plastically (i.e.,
permanently). It is the stress at which the material exhibits a specified amount of plastic
deformation. Yield strength is typically expressed in Pascals (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi).
✓ Ultimate Strength: Ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand before
it fails (i.e., breaks or fractures). Ultimate strength is typically expressed in Pascals (Pa) or pounds
per square inch (psi).

Torsion refers to the twisting or rotational force applied to an object. In the context of materials
science and engineering, torsion is an important mechanical property that describes how materials
respond to twisting forces.
Torsion is measured in units of torque, which is the product of the force applied and the distance
from the point of application to the axis of rotation. The response of a material to torsion can be
described by its torsional stiffness, which is the ratio of the applied torque to the resulting angular
deformation.
Torsion can cause materials to deform, and in extreme cases, it can lead to fracture. Materials with
high torsional stiffness are more resistant to deformation and fracture when subjected to twisting
forces. Torsional stiffness is an important consideration in the design of many mechanical and
structural components, such as drive shafts, axles, and beams.

.Circular shafts in torsion are commonly used in engineering applications. The stresses in a shaft
due to torsion can be calculated using the following formula:

T/J = τ/R

Where:

T = Applied torque

J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft cross-section

τ = Shear stress in the shaft

R = Radius of the shaft

The polar moment of inertia can be calculated using the formula:

 J = π*d^4/32

where d is the diameter of the shaft.

✓ The deformation in a circular shaft due to torsion can also be calculated using the following
formula:

θ = TL/GJ

Where:

θ = Angle of twist

T = Applied torque

L = Length of the shaft

G = Shear modulus of the material

J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft cross-section

✓ The stresses in the elastic range of the material can be calculated using the following formula:

τ = (T/J) * (r/a)

Where:

r = Radial distance from the center of the shaft

a = Radius of the shaft

✓ In the elastic range, the stress in a circular shaft is proportional to the strain, which is given by the
formula:

γ = r*θ/L

where γ is the shear strain at a radial distance r from the center of the shaft.
 Pure bending is a type of deformation that occurs in a beam when a load is applied perpendicular
to its longitudinal axis, causing it to bend without any accompanying twisting or shear. This type
of bending is characterized by a combination of tensile and compressive stresses in the material,
which vary in magnitude along the length of the beam.
In pure bending, the neutral axis of the beam remains straight and does not deform, while the outer
fibers are stretched or compressed. The maximum tensile and compressive stresses occur at the
extreme fibers of the beam, and their magnitudes are related to the bending moment and the cross-
sectional geometry of the beam.

In pure bending, the internal moment and stress relations in a symmetric member are as follows:

✓ Internal moment: The internal moment in a symmetric member is constant along the length of the
member. This means that the bending moment at any point along the length of the member is the
same as the bending moment at any other point.
✓ Internal stress: The internal stress in a symmetric member is also constant along the length of the
member. This means that the stress at any point along the length of the member is the same as the
stress at any other point.
✓ The internal moment and internal stress are related by the following equation:

σ = My/I

✓ where σ is the stress, M is the internal moment, y is the distance from the neutral axis to the point
where the stress is being calculated, and I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the
member.

In a symmetric member, the neutral axis is located at the centroid of the cross-section, which
is also the axis of symmetry. Therefore, y is zero and the equation simplifies to:

σ = M/I

✓ This equation shows that the stress is directly proportional to the internal moment and inversely
proportional to the moment of inertia. This means that a larger moment of inertia will result in
lower stress for a given bending moment

This equation can be used to determine the maximum bending stress in the beam, which occurs
at the extreme fibers of the cross-section, using the following formula:

𝜎 = 𝑀𝑧/𝐼

✓ where 𝜎 is the bending stress, 𝑀 is the bending moment, 𝑧 is the distance from the neutral axis to
the extreme fiber, and 𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area.

When a symmetric member is subjected to pure bending, it experiences deformations that can
be characterized by the curvature and the normal strain.
 The curvature of the member is defined as the change in angle between two tangents drawn to
the member at any two points on the member. The curvature is denoted by the symbol "k" and
is measured in units of inverse length, such as 1/m. The curvature is positive when the member
is in a state of bending convex upwards (like a smile), and negative when the member is in a
state of bending convex downwards (like a frown).

✓ The normal strain in a symmetric member undergoing pure bending is given by the formula ε = -
ky
✓ where ε is the normal strain, k is the curvature, and y is the perpendicular distance from the neutral
axis of the member to any point on the member. The normal strain is negative when the member is
in compression (i.e., y is positive for points below the neutral axis), and positive when the member
is in tension (i.e., y is negative for points above the neutral axis).

The equation that governs pure bending in a beam is known as the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation,
which relates the bending moment, shear force, and deflection of the beam as follows:

𝑀 = −(𝑑²𝑦/𝑑𝑥²)

✓ where 𝑀 is the bending moment, 𝐸 is the modulus of elasticity of the material, 𝐼 is the moment of
inertia of the beam's cross-sectional area, and 𝑦 is the vertical displacement of the beam at a given
point along its length.

In pure bending, the shear force is zero throughout the beam, and the bending moment varies
linearly along its length. This means that the curvature of the beam is constant and can be
expressed as:

𝜃 = 𝜃₀ + (𝑀𝑥/𝐸𝐼)

✓ Where 𝜃 is the curvature of the beam, 𝜃₀ is the initial curvature of the beam, 𝑀 is the bending
moment, 𝑥 is the distance along the beam's length, 𝐸 is the modulus of elasticity, and 𝐼 is the
moment of inertia of the beam's cross-sectional area.

When members are made of several materials, the bending behavior can be complex. To
analyze the bending of such members, the following steps can be followed:

1- Determine the cross-sectional properties of the member: The cross-sectional properties of the
member, such as the moment of inertia and the section modulus, can be determined by summing
the contributions from each material.
2- Calculate the stresses in each material: The stresses in each material can be calculated using the
appropriate stress-strain relationships for each material.
3- Calculate the strain distribution: The strain distribution across the cross section can be determined
by combining the stresses in each material with their respective Young's moduli.
4- Determine the neutral axis: The neutral axis is the location in the cross section where the strain is
zero. It can be determined by setting the sum of the moments of the stresses about an axis equal to
zero.
5- Calculate the bending stress: The bending stress can be calculated using the formula sigma = M *
y / I, where M is the bending moment, y is the distance from the neutral axis to the point of interest,
and I is the moment of inertia.
6- Check for failure: The calculated bending stress should be compared to the yield strength of each
material to ensure that the member is safe.

In addition to these steps, it is important to consider the interface between the different
materials. If the materials are not bonded well, then additional stresses may be introduced at
the interface. These stresses should be taken into account in the analysis
Eccentric axial loading in a plane of symmetry refers to the application of an axial load on a
structural member, such as a column or beam, that is not concentric with its geometric center
or axis of symmetry. This type of loading can result in bending moments, which can cause the
member to deform and potentially fail.
To analyze the behavior of a member under eccentric axial loading, engineers use principles of
mechanics and materials science. The analysis involves determining the magnitude and
direction of the bending moments that are induced in the member, as well as the stresses and
strains that develop in different regions of the member.
In general, eccentric axial loading in a plane of symmetry is more challenging to analyze than
pure axial loading or pure bending. This is because it involves both axial and bending effects,
which interact in complex ways. As a result, engineers must use advanced computational
methods, such as finite element analysis, to accurately predict the behavior of a structure under
eccentric axial loading.
It's important to note that the consequences of eccentric axial loading can be severe, particularly
in structures such as columns that are designed to resist compressive forces. In extreme cases,
the member can buckle or collapse, leading to catastrophic failure. Therefore, engineers must
carefully consider the effects of eccentric loading when designing and analyzing structural
members

The state of stress in a body is described by the stress components. In this article, we will
discuss plane stress, transformation of plane stress, principal stresses, maximum shearing
stress, Mohr's circle for plane stress, and the application of Mohr's circle to the three-
dimensional analysis of stress.

Plane stress is a type of stress state that exists in a thin two-dimensional object subjected to
forces that act in the plane of the object.
 The forces can be tensile or compressive, and they cause deformation in the plane of the object.
In plane stress, the stress components in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the object
are assumed to be zero. This assumption simplifies the stress analysis, as it reduces the number
of stress components to two. In this article, we will discuss various aspects of plane stress,
including its transformation, principal stresses, maximum shearing stress, Mohr’s circle for
plane stress, and its application to three-dimensional stress analysis.

Transformation of Plane Stress:

✓ The transformation of plane stress involves finding the values of the normal and shear stresses in a
new coordinate system that is rotated at an angle θ to the original coordinate system. The
transformation equations are:

➢ σx' = σx cos²θ + σy sin²θ + 2τxy sinθ cosθ

➢ σy' = σx sin²θ + σy cos²θ - 2τxy sinθ cosθ
➢ τx'y' = (σx - σy) sinθ cosθ + τxy (cos²θ - sin²θ)

✓ where σx, σy, and τxy are the normal and shear stresses in the original coordinate system, and σx',
σy', and τx'y' are the normal and shear stresses in the new coordinate system. The angle θ is
measured counterclockwise from the x-axis to the new coordinate system.

In real-world applications, the direction of the applied loads may not be aligned with the coordinate
system of the structure. In such cases, it is necessary to transform the stress components from one
coordinate system to another. The transformation equations for plane stress can be derived using
the principles of vector algebra. The transformed normal stresses (σ1 and σ2) and shear stress (τ12)
can be calculated using the following equations:

➢ σ1 = (σx + σy)/2 + sqrt[((σx - σy)/2)^2 + τxy^2]

➢ σ2 = (σx + σy)/2 - sqrt[((σx - σy)/2)^2 + τxy^2]
➢ τ12 = (σx - σy)/2 + τxy

✓ where σ1 and σ2 are the principal stresses and τ12 is the maximum shear stress. The principal
stresses are the normal stresses acting in the directions of maximum and minimum shear stresses.
The maximum shear stress is the magnitude of the shear stress acting on a plane oriented at 45
degrees to the principal stresses.

Principal Stresses:

✓ The principal stresses are the maximum and minimum normal stresses in a given plane stress state.
They occur when the shear stress is zero. The principal stresses are given by:

➢ σ1,2 = (σx + σy)/2 ± √[(σx - σy)/2]² + τxy²

✓ where σ1 and σ2 are the principal stresses, and σx, σy, and τxy are the normal and shear stresses in
the original coordinate system. The maximum shear stress occurs at a 45 -degree angle to the
principal stresses and is given by:

➢ τmax = (σ1 - σ2)/2

Maximum Shearing Stress:

✓ The maximum shearing stress occurs when the normal stresses are equal and opposite, and the
shear stress is at its maximum value. This occurs when the plane of analysis is at a 45-degree angle
to the principal stresses. The maximum shearing stress is given by:

➢ τmax = (σx - σy)/2

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress:

✓ Mohr’s circle is a graphical method used to determine the principal stresses and maximum shearing
stress in a plane stress state.
✓ Mohr’s circle is a graphical method used to represent the stresses in a two-dimensional stress state.
Mohr’s circle is a circle drawn in the plane of the stresses, where the abscissa and ordinate are the
normal and shear stresses, respectively. The center of the circle represents the average normal stress
(σavg) and the radius of the circle represents the maximum shear stress (τmax)
✓ To construct Mohr’s circle, the normal and shear stresses are plotted on the horizontal and vertical
axes, respectively. The center of the circle is located at (σx + σy)/2, 0. The radius of the circle is
given by √[(σx - σy)/2]² + τxy². The two points where the circle intersects the horizontal axis
represent the principal stresses, and the point where the circle intersects the vertical axis represents
the maximum shearing stress.

Application of Mohr's Circle to the Three-Dimensional Analysis of Stress:

✓ Mohr’s circle can be extended to three-dimensional stress analysis by constructing a set of Mohr’s
circles for each plane that passes through a point of interest. The normal and shear stresses on each
plane are then plotted on its respective Mohr’s circle, and the principal stresses and maximum
shearing stress are

Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending:

✓ Beams are structural elements that are used to support loads and transfer them to the supports. They
are commonly used in bridges, buildings, and other structures.
✓ In the analysis and design of beams for bending, there are certain concepts that must be understood.
These concepts include internal reactions in beams, shear forces, bending moments, sign
conventions, shear and bending moment diagrams, and the design of prismatic beams for bending.

Internal Reactions in Beams:

➢ When a beam is loaded, it undergoes internal reactions that resist the applied loads. These internal
reactions are called shear forces and bending moments. Shear forces are forces that act parallel to
the cross-section of the beam and perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
➢ Bending moments are moments that act perpendicular to the cross-section of the beam and
perpendicular to the axis of the beam.

Shear Forces, Bending Moments, and Sign Conventions:

✓ Shear forces and bending moments are calculated at different points along the length of the beam.
The sign convention for shear forces and bending moments is as follows:

Positive shear force is upward and to the right.

✓ Positive bending moment causes tension on the bottom of the beam and compression on the top of
the beam.

Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams:

✓ Shear and bending moment diagrams are graphical representations of the internal reactions in a
beam. They are used to determine the maximum shear force and bending moment at different points
along the length of the beam.
✓ Shear and bending moment diagrams are also used to determine the location of points of zero shear
and bending moment.

Relations Among Load, Shear, and Bending Moment:

✓ There are certain relationships among load, shear, and bending moment that must be understood.
The following are the relationships:
✓ The shear force at any point along the length of the beam is equal to the slope of the bending
moment curve at that point.
✓ The change in the bending moment between two points along the length of the beam is equal to the
area under the shear force curve between those two points.
✓ The bending moment at any point along the length of the beam is equal to the algebraic sum of the
moments of all the forces and moments acting on the beam to the left or right of that point.
✓ The relationship between load, shear, and bending moment can be described by the following
equations:

➢ dV/dx = w(x) - S(x)

➢ dM/dx = V(x)

✓ where w(x) is the distributed load, S(x) is the shear force, V(x) is the bending moment, and x is the
distance along the beam.

Design of Prismatic Beams for Bending:

✓ The design of prismatic beams for bending involves determining the size and shape of the beam
that can resist the applied loads without failing.
✓ The design process involves the determination of the maximum shear force and bending moment
at different points along the length of the beam, and the selection of the appropriate material and
size of the beam to meet the required strength and stiffness.
✓ The design of prismatic beams for bending is based on the principles of strength of materials and
structural mechanics
✓ The design process involves calculating the maximum shear force and bending moment that the
beam will be subjected to and selecting a beam that can resist these forces and moments without
exceeding the allowable stress and deflection limits. Commonly used cross-sectional shapes for
beams include rectangular, circular, and I-shaped beams.
✓ The design process also involves selecting appropriate supports and connections to ensure that the
beam is stable and can safely transfer the loads to the supports.

Some important concepts related to transmission shaft design include stress concentration factors,
fatigue strength, and shaft deflection under load. There are various formulas and standards available
for designing transmission shafts, depending on the specific application and requirement
✓ Stress Concentration Factors
➢ Stress concentration occurs at points where the stress is amplified due to the
presence of holes, fillets, keyways, etc. Stress concentration factor (Kt) is a
dimensionless factor that expresses the degree of stress concentration at a particular
location on the shaft. It is used to calculate the stress concentration effect on a shaft
and helps to determine the critical locations where cracks may form. The stress
concentration factor can be calculated using various empirical equations, and it
varies depending on the geometry and material of the shaft.
✓ Fatigue Strength
➢ Fatigue strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand for a specified
number of cycles before failure occurs. When a shaft is subjected to repetitive
loading, it can fail due to fatigue, even though the stress applied is below the yield
strength of the material. The fatigue strength of a material depends o n various
factors such as the number of cycles, stress amplitude, mean stress, and material
properties. The design of a transmission shaft must ensure that the maximum stress
amplitude is below the fatigue strength of the material to avoid failure due to
fatigue.
✓ Shaft Deflection under Load
➢ Shaft deflection is the bending of a shaft when it is subjected to a load. The
deflection of a shaft depends on the load applied, the material properties, the shaft
geometry, and the support conditions. The deflection of a shaft must be limited to
prevent damage to the components that are coupled to the shaft. The deflection can
be calculated using various analytical equations and finite element analysis.
✓ Formula for Designing Transmission Shafts
➢ Various formulas and standards are available for designing transmission shafts. The
most commonly used formulas include the torsion formula, bending formula, and
combined stress formula. The torsion formula is used to calculate the maximum
 shear stress in a shaft due to torsional loading. The bending formula is used to
calculate the maximum bending stress in a shaft due to transverse loading. The
combined stress formula is used to calculate the maximum stress in a shaft due to
both torsional and transverse loading. These formulas are based on assumptions and
simplifications, and their accuracy depends on the assumptions made. Therefore, it
is essential to use the appropriate formula for a specific application, considering the
actual loading conditions and material properties.
✓ Standards for Designing Transmission Shafts
➢ There are several standards available for designing transmission shafts, such as
AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association) and ISO (International
Organization for Standardization). These standards provide guidelines for designing
transmission shafts, including materials, dimensions, load capacity, and
manufacturing tolerances. The standards also provide recommended stress limits
and safety factors to ensure the reliability and durability of the shafts.
Deflection of beams is a common engineering concept that refers to the bending or deformation of
a beam when subjected to a load. It is an important consideration in the design and analysis of
structures, as excessive deflection can lead to failure or instability.
The deflection of a beam depends on a variety of factors, including the material properties of the
beam, the shape and dimensions of the beam, the magnitude and distribution of the load, and the
boundary conditions of the beam. Engineers use various methods, including analytical, numerical,
and experimental techniques, to calculate and predict the deflection of beams.
One of the most common methods for calculating the deflection of beams is the Euler-Bernoulli
beam theory, which assumes that the beam is a slender rod with a constant cross-section and that
the deflection is small compared to the beam's length. This theory provides a mathematical equation
for the deflection of the beam as a function of the applied load, the beam's geometry, and the
material properties of the beam.
Other factors that can affect the deflection of beams include temperature changes, moisture content,
and the presence of cracks or other defects in the beam. In addition to calculating the deflection of
beams, engineers also consider other factors such as stress, strain, and fatigue when designing and
analysing structures
Deformation of a beam under transverse loading refers to the amount of bending or deflection
experienced by the beam when a load is applied perpendicular to its axis. This deformation can be
described by the equation of the elastic curve, which relates the deflection of the beam to the load
applied.
✓ The equation of the elastic curve is given by:
y = (wx^2)/(2EI) + C1x + C2
✓ where y is the deflection at a given point on the beam, w is the transverse load, x is the
distance along the beam, E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam material, and I is the
moment of inertia of the beam's cross-sectional area. C1 and C2 are constants of integration
that depend on the boundary conditions of the beam.
Statically indeterminate beams are those that cannot be analyzed using only the equations of statics.
To solve such beams, the method of superposition is often used. This involves breaking down the
beam into simpler, statically determinate components and analyzing them separately, before
combining their results to determine the overall deflection of the beam.
There are several methods for determining the deflection of a beam, including the integration
method and the moment area method. The integration method involves integrating the equation of
the elastic curve to determine the deflection at a given point on the beam. The moment area method
involves calculating the area of the moment diagram for the beam and using this to determine the
deflection at a given point.
Both methods require knowledge of the moment and shear force diagrams for the beam, which can
be determined using the equations of equilibrium and compatibility
Stability of Structures
Stability of a structure refers to its ability to withstand the forces and loads applied to it without
collapsing or failing. The stability of a structure depends on various factors such as the material
used, the design, and the loading conditions. Proper design and construction techniques can ensure
the stability and safety of a structure.
Euler’s Formula for Pin-Ended Columns
Euler’s formula for pin-ended columns is a mathematical equation that predicts the critical load
required to buckle a long, slender column with both ends pinned. The formula is expressed as:
Pcr = (π²EI) / L²

Where:

Pcr = Critical buckling load

E = Modulus of elasticity

I = Moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the column

L = Length of the column

Extension of Euler’s Formula to Columns with Other End Conditions

Euler’s formula can be extended to columns with other end conditions such as fixed, hinged, and
free. The critical buckling load for these columns can be calculated using modified formulas that
take into account the end conditions. For example, the critical buckling load for a fixed-ended
column is 4 times greater than that of a pin-ended column.
In mechanical engineering, columns refer to structural elements that are used to resist compressive
forces. They are commonly used in machine design, where they provide support and stability to a
variety of different components, including shafts, bearings, and gears.
Columns in mechanical engineering can be made from a variety of different materials, including
metals, plastics, and composites. The specific material chosen for a column will depend on the load
that the column is expected to bear, as well as the conditions under which it will be used.
The design of a column in mechanical engineering must take into account factors such as the cross-
sectional shape of the column, the length of the column, and the material properties of the column.
The goal of the design process is to ensure that the column can withstand the expected compressive
forces without buckling or failing.
Overall, columns play an important role in mechanical engineering, providing support and stability
to a wide range of different components and structures. Proper design and selection of columns are
critical to ensuring the safe and reliable operation of machines and equipment
Design of Columns under a Centric Load
 ✓ The design of columns under a centric load involves determining the size and shape of the
column to withstand the applied load without buckling. The design process includes
calculating the maximum stress in the column and comparing it to the allowable stress for
the material used. The maximum stress can be calculated using Euler’s formula or other
design equations. The column’s size and shape can be adjusted until the maximum stress is
within the allowable stress limit.
Design of Columns under an Eccentric Load
✓ The design of columns under an eccentric load involves determining the size and shape of
the column to resist bending and buckling due to the applied load. The design process
includes calculating the maximum bending moment in the column and comparing it to the
bending capacity of the column. The maximum bending moment can be calculated using
the principle of superposition or other methods. The column’s size and shape can be adjusted
until the maximum bending moment is within the bending capacity limit.
Deflection of Beams

In practically all engineering applications limitations are placed upon the performance and be-
haviour of components and normally they are expected to operate within certain set limits of,
for example, stress or deflection. The stress limits are normally set so that the component does
not yield or fail under the most severe load conditions which it is likely to meet in service. In
certain structural or machine linkage designs, however, maximum stress levels may not be the
most severe condition for the component in question. In such cases it is the limitation in the
maximum deflection which places the most severe restriction on the operation or design of the
component. It is evident, therefore, that methods are required to accurately predict the deflec-
tion of members under lateral loads since it is this form of loading which will generally produce
the greatest deflections of beams, struts and other structural types of members.

The following relationships exist between loading, shearing force (S.F), bending moment (B.M),
slope and deflection of a beam:
def lection = y(δ) (1)

dy
slope = θ = (2)
dx
d2 y
Bending moment = M = EI (3)
dx2
d3 y
Shear f orce = V or Q = EI 3 (4)
dx
d4 y
Loading = w = EI (5)
dx4

Where E = elastic modulus of the material, I = second moment of area.

Using the above formulae the following standard values of maximum slope and deflections of
simply supported beams are obtained in Table below. (This assume that the beam is uniform,
i.e. EI is constant throughout the beam.)

1
 Here L is the length of span, EI is known as the flexural rigidity of the member and x for the
cantilevers is measured from the free end.

The determination of beam slopes and deflections by simple integration or Macaulay’s meth-
ods requires a knowledge of certain conditions for various loading systems in order that the
constants of integration can be evaluated. They are as follows:

1. Deflections at supports are assumed zero unless otherwise stated.

2. Slopes at built-in supports are assumed zero unless otherwise stated.

3. Slope at the center of symmetrically loaded and supported beams is zero.

4. Bending moments at the free ends of a beam (i.e. those not built-in) are zero.

Energy Method

A further, alternative, procedure for calculating deflections of beams or structures is based upon
the application of strain energy considerations.

2
The energy stored within a material when work has been done on it is termed the strain
energy or resilience,
strain energy = work done (6)

In general there are four types of loading which can be applied to a material

1. Direct load (tension or compression)

P 2 ds P 2L
Z
Strain energy = U = or (7)
2AE 2AE

σ 2 AL σ2
U= = × volume of bar
2E 2E

2. Shear load
Q2 ds Q2 L
Z
Strain energy = U = or (8)
2AG 2AG
τ 2 AL σ2
U= = × volume of bar
2G 2E

3. Bending

M 2 ds M 2L
Z
Strain energy = U = or if M is constant (9)
2EI 2EI

4. Torsion
T 2 ds T 2L
Z
Strain energy = U = or if T is constant (10)
2GJ 2GJ

3
From 1 above,the strain energy or resilience when the tensile stress reaches the proof stress σp ,
i.e. the proof resilience, is
σp2
× volume of bar (11)
2E

and the modulus of resilience is

σp2
2E

The strain energy per unit volume of a three-dimensional principal stress system is

1  2
σ1 + σ22 + σ32 − 2v (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3 σ1 )

U= (12)
2E

The volumetric or “dilatational” strain energy per unit volume is the

(1 − 2v)
(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )2 (13)
6E

and the shear, or “distortional”, strain energy per unit volume is

1 
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2

(14)
12G

The maximum instantaneous stress in a uniform bar caused by a weight W falling through a
distance h on to the bar is given by

s 2
W W 2W Eh
σ= ± + (15)
A A AL

The instantaneous extension is then given by

σL
δ= (16)
E

Castigliano’s first theorem for deflection states that:

If the total strain energy expressed in terms of the external loads is partially differentiated with
respect to one of the loads the result is the defection of the point of application of that load and

4
in the direction of that load.

dU
Def lection in direction of W = =δ (17)
dW

In applications where bending provides practically all of the strain energy,

M 2 ds
Z Z
d M dM
δ= = ds (18)
dW 2EI EI dW

Complex Stresses

The normal stress σ and shear stress τ on oblique planes resulting from direct loading are

σ = σy sin2 θ and (19)

1
τ = σy sin 2θ (20)
2

The stresses on oblique planes owing to a complex stress system are:

Figure 1: Bar subjected to direct stress, showing stresses acting on any inclined plane.

1 1
N ormal stress = (σx + σy ) + (σx − σy ) cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ (21)
2 2
1
Shear stress = (σx − σy ) sin 2θ − τxy cos 2θ (22)
2

5
The principal stresses (i.e. the maximum and minimum direct stresses) are then

1 1
q
σ1 = (σx + σy ) + (σx − σy )2 + 4τxy
2 (23)
2 2
1 1
q
σ2 = (σx + σy ) − (σx − σy )2 + 4τxy
2 (24)
2 2

and these occur on planes at an angle 0 to the plane on which a, acts, given by either

2τxy σp − σx
tan 2θ = or tan θ = (25)
σx − σy τxy

where σp = σ1 or σ2 , the planes being termed principal planes. The principal planes are always
at 90o to each other, and the planes of maximum shear are then located at 45o to them.
The maximum shear stress is:

1 1
q
τmax = (σx − σy )2 + 4τxy
2 = (σ1 − σ2 ) (26)
2 2

In problems where the principal stress in the third dimension u3either is known or can be as-
sumed to be zero, the true maximum shear stress is then

1
(greatest principal stress − least principal stress)
2

Normal stress on plane of maximum shear

1
(σx + σy ) (27)
2

Shear stress on plane of maximum direct stress (principal plane) = 0

Most problems can be solved graphically by Mohr’s stress circle.All questions which are capa-
ble of solution by this method have been solved both analytically and graphically.

6
 Figure 2: Mohr’s stress circle.

Unsymmetrical Bending

Our analysis of pure bending has been limited so far to members possessing at least one plane
of symmetry and subjected to couples acting in that plane. Because of the symmetry of such
members and of their loadings, we concluded that the members would remain symmetric with
respect to the plane of the couples and thus bend in that plane.

We found that the flexure formula may be used, provided that the couple vector M is directed
along one of the principal centroidal axes of the cross section.

7
 M can be resolved into components along the principal axes and superposed the stresses due
to the component couples
Mz y My z
σx = − + (28)
Iz Iy

For the couple M shown in Fig. above, we determined the orientation of the neutral axis
(N.A) by writing
Iz
tan φ = tan θ (29)
Iy

Thin cylinders and shells

The stresses set up in the walls of a thin cylinder owing to an internal pressure p are:

pd
circumf erential or hoop stress , σH =
2t
pd
longitudinal or axial stress, σL =
4t

8
Figure 3: Half of a thin cylinder subjected to internal pressure showing the hoop and longitudi-
nal stresses acting on any element in the cylinder surface

where d is the internal diameter and t is the wall thickness of the cylinder.
Then,

1
Longitudinal strain, L = (σL − vσH ) (30)
E
1
hoop strain, H = (σH − vσL ) (31)
E

• Change of internal volume of cylinder under pressure

pd
(5 − 4v) V (32)
4tE

• change of volume of contained liquid under pressure

pV
(33)
K

where K is the bulk modulus of the liquid.

For thin rotating cylinders of mean radius R the tensile hoop stress set up when rotat-
ing at ω rad/s is given by
σH = ρω 2 R2 (34)

9
 • For thin spheres:

– circumferential or hoop stress

pd
σH = (35)
4t

– change of volume under pressure given by

3pd
(1 − v) V (36)
4tE

Note – Effects of end plates and joints-add “joint efficiency factor” ‘1 to denominator of stress
equations above.

10
Thick cylinders

The hoop and radial stresses at any point in wall cross-section of a thick cylinder at radius r are
given by the Lame’ equations:

B
hoop stress, σH = A + (37)
r2
B
radialstress, σr = A − 2 (38)
r

11
With internal and external pressures P1 and P2 and internal and external radii R1 and R2 re-
spectively, the longitudinal stress in a cylinder with closed ends is

P1 R12 − P2 R22
σL = 2 2
= Lame0 constantA (39)
R2 − R1

• Changes in dimensions of the cylinder may then be determined from the following strain
formulae:
circumferencial or hoop strain = diameteral strain

σH σr σL
hoop strain = −v −v (40)
E E E
σL σr σH
longitudinal strain = −v −v (41)
E E E

For compound tubes the resultant hoop stress is the algebraic sum of the hoop stresses resulting
from the shrinkage and the hoop stresses resulting from internal and external pressures.

For force and shrink fits of cylinders made of different materials, the total interference or shrink-
age allowance (on radius) is

(Ho − Hi ) r (42)

where Ho and Hi are the hoop stress existing in the outer and inner cylinders respectively at
the common radius r. For cylinders of the same material this equation reduced to

r
(σHo − σHi ) (43)
E

Plastic yielding of thick cylinders

For initial yield, the internal pressure P1 is given by:

σy
R22 − R12


P1 = 2
(44)
2R2

12
For yielding to a radius Rp ,

 
R1 1 2 2


P1 = σy loge − R2 − Rp (45)
Rp 2R2

and for complete collapse

 
R1
P1 = σy loge (46)
R2

13