Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

Continuity And
Differentiability
Notes

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

Introduction to Continuity
The meaning of the term continuity is same as we use in our daily life. For
example the water flow in the rivers is continuous. The flow of time in human
life is continuous i.e. we are getting older continuously and so on. Similarly, in
mathematics, we have the notion of the continuity of a function.
When we say that a function f(x) is continuous at a point x = a it means that
the point (a, f(a)), the graph of the function has no holes or gaps. In simple
words, a function is said to be continuous if we can sketch its curve on a graph
without lifting your pen even once.
Definition 1. Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and
let c be a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if limx-> c f(x) = f(c)
Problem:
Prove that the function f(x) = 5x – 3 is continuous at x = 0, x = -3 and x = 5

Solution:
The given function is f(x) = 5x – 3
At x = 0, f(0) = 5 * 0 – 3 = -3
limx->0 f(x) = limx->0 (5x - 3) = 5 * 0 – 3 = -3
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 0
At x = -3, f(-3) = 5 * (-3) – 3 = -15 – 3 = -18
limx->-3 f(x) = limx->-3 (5x - 3) = 5 * (-3) – 3 = -15 – 3 = -18
Therefore, f is continuous at x = −3
At x = 5, f(5) = 5 * 5 – 3 = 25 – 3 = 22
limx->5 f(x) = limx->5 (5x - 3) = 5 * 5 – 3 = 25 – 3 = 22
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 5

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

Definition 2. If the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function
at x = c exist and equal to each other, then f is said to be continuous at x = c.
i.e.
limx-> c- f(x) = f(c) = limx-> c+ f(x) = f(c)
Again if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c coincide, then we say that
the common value is the limit of the function at x = c. So, we may also
represent the definition of continuity as follows:

Definition 3. A function is continuous at x = c if the function is defined at x = c

and if the value of the function at x = c equals the limit of the function at x = c.
If f is not continuous at c, we say f is not continuous at c and c is called a point
of discontinuity of f.
Problem:
Is the function f defined by
f(x) = x, if x ≤ 1
5, if x > 1
continuous at x = 0? At x = 1? At x = 2?
Solution:
The given function f is
f(x) = x, if x ≤ 1
5, if x > 1
At x = 0,
It is evident that f is defined at 0 and its value at 0 is 0.
limx->0 f(x) = limx->0 x = 0
So, limx->0 f(x) = f(0)
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 0
At x = 1, f is defined at 1 and its value at 1 is 1.

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

The left hand limit of f at x = 1 is,

limx->1- f(x) = limx->1- x = 1
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is,
limx->1+ f(x) = limx->1+ (5) = 5
So, limx->1- f(x) = limx->1+ f(x)
Therefore, f is not continuous at x = 1
At x = 2, f is defined at 2 and its value at 2 is 5.
limx->2 f(x) = limx->2 (5) = 5
So, limx->2 f(x) = f(2)
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 2
Definition 4. Definition 2 A real function f is said to be continuous if it is
continuous at every point in the domain of f.
Let f is a function defined on a closed interval [a, b], then for f to be
continuous, it needs to be continuous at every point in [a, b] including the end
points a and b.
Problem:
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined by
f(x) = x3 - 3, if x ≤ 2
x2 + 1, if x > 2
Solution:
The given function f is
f(x) = x3 - 3, if x ≤ 2
x2 + 1, if x > 2
The given function f is defined at all the points of the real line.
Let c be a point on the real line.
Case I:
If c < 2, then f(c) = c3 - 3

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

And limx->c f(x) = limx->c (x3 - 3) = c3 - 3

So, limx->c f(x) = f(c)
Therefore, f is continuous at all points x, such that x < 2
Case II:
If c = 2, then f(c) = f(2) = 23 - 3 = 8 – 3 = 5
The left hand limit of f at x = 2 is,
limx->2- f(x) = limx->2- (x3 - 3) = 23 - 3 = 8 – 3 = 5
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is,
limx->2+ f(x) = limx->2+ (x2 + 1) = 22 + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 2
Case III:
If c > 2, then f(c) = c2 + 1
limx->c f(x) = limx->c (x2 + 1) = c2 + 1
So, limx->c f(x) = f(c)
Therefore, f is continuous at all points x, such that x > 2
Thus, the given function f is continuous at every point on the real line.
Hence, f has no point of discontinuity.
Algebra of continuous functions:
Let f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c. Then
1. f + g is continuous at x = c.
2. f - g is continuous at x = c.
3. f * g is continuous at x = c.
4. f/g is continuous at x = c, where g(c) ≠ 0.
Problem:
Discuss the continuity of the functions:
(a) f(x) = sin x + cos x
(b) f (x) = sin x - cos x

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

(c) f (x) = sin x * cos x

Solution:
It is known that if g and h are two continuous functions, then
g + h, g – h and g * h are also continuous.
It has to proved first that g (x) = sin x and h (x) = cos x are continuous functions.
Let g (x) = sin x
It is evident that g (x) = sin x is defined for every real number.
Let c be a real number. Put x = c + h
If x -> c, then h -> 0
g(c) = sin c
limx->c g(x) = limx->c sin x
= limh->0 sin (c + h)
= limh->0 [sin c * cos h + cos c * sin h]
= limh->0 [sin c * cos h] + limh->0 [cos c * sin h]
= sin c * cos 0 + cos c * sin 0
= sin c * 1 + cos c * 0
= sin c + 0
= sin c
So, limx->c g(x) = g(c)
Therefore, g is a continuous function.
Let h (x) = cos x
It is evident that h (x) = cos x is defined for every real number.
Let c be a real number. Put x = c + h
If x ->c, then h >0
h (c) = cos c
limx->c h(x) = limx->c cos x
= limh->0 cos (c + h)

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

= limh->0 [cos c * cos h - sin c * sin h]

= limh->0 [cos c * cos h] - limh->0 [sin c * sin h]
= cos c * cos 0 + sin c * sin 0
= cos c * 1 + sin c * 0
= cos c + 0
= cos c
So, limx->c h(x) = h(c)
Therefore, h is a continuous function.
Therefore, it can be concluded that
(a) f (x) = g (x) + h (x) = sin x + cos x is a continuous function
(b) f (x) = g (x) − h (x) = sin x − cos x is a continuous function
(c) f (x) = g (x) * h (x) = sin x * cos x is a continuous function

Differentiability
A differentiable function of one real variable is a function whose derivative
exists at each point in its domain. As a result, the graph of a differentiable
function must have a tangent line at each point in its domain. It should be
relatively smooth, and cannot contain any breaks, bends, or cusps.
Let f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative of f at c is
defined by
d(f(x))/dx|c = f’(c) = limh->0 {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h
provided this limit exists.
dy/dx is also written as y’ and it read as differentiation of y with respect to x.
If limit limh->0 {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h does not exist, we say that f is not differentiable
at c.
In other words, we say that a function f is differentiable at a point c in its
domain if both

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

limh->0- {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h and limh->0+ {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h are finite and equal.
i.e. limh->0- {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h = limh->0+ {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h
A function is said to be differentiable in an interval [a, b] if it is differentiable at
every point of [a, b].
Similarly, a function is said to be differentiable in an interval (a, b) if it is
differentiable at every point of (a, b).

Problem:
Prove that the function f given by f(x) = |x - 1|, x є R is not differentiable at x
= 1.
Solution:
The given function is f(x) = |x - 1|, x є R
It is known that a function f is differentiable at a point x = c in its domain if
both
limh->0- {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h and limh->0+ {f(c + h) – f(c)}/h are finite and equal.
To check the differentiability of the given function at x = 1,
Consider the left hand limit of f at x = 1
limh->0- {f(1 + h) – f(1)}/h
= limh->0- {|1 + h - 1| – |1 - 1|}/h
= limh->0- {|h| – 0}/h
= limh->0- (-h)/h [Since h < 0 => |h| = -h]
= -1
Consider the right hand limit of f at x = 1
limh->0+ {f(1 + h) – f(1)}/h
= limh->0+ {|1 + h - 1| – |1 - 1|}/h
= limh->0+ {|h| – 0}/h
= limh->0+ (h)/h [Since h > 0 => |h| = h]

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

=1
Since the left and right hand limits of f at x = 1 are not equal, therefore f is not
differentiable at x = 1.
Algebra of Derivatives:
1. (u ± v)’ = u’ ± v’
2. (uv)’ = u’v + uv’ [Leibnitz or product rule]
3. (u/v)’ = (uv’ – uv’)/v2, where v ≠ 0 [Quotient rule]
Theorem: If a function is differentiable at a point, it is necessarily continuous
at that point. But the converse is not necessarily true.
OR
f(x) is differentiable at x = c => f(x) is continuous at x = c.
Proof: Let f(x) be a function differentiable at x = c. Then
limx->c {f(x) – f(c)}/(x - c) = f’(c)
But for x ≠ c, we have
f(x) – f(c) = [{f(x) – f(c)}/(x - c)] * (x - c)
Now, limx->c [f(x) – f(c)] = limx->c [[{f(x) – f(c)}/(x - c)] * (x - c)]
=> limx->c [f(x)] – limx->c [f(c)] = limx->c [{f(x) – f(c)}/(x - c)] * limx->c (x - c)
=> limx->c [f(x)] – limx->c [f(c)] = f’(c) * (c - c)
=> limx->c [f(x)] – limx->c [f(c)] = f’(c) * 0
=> limx->c [f(x)] – limx->c [f(c)] = 0
=> limx->c [f(x)] = limx->c [f(c)]
=> limx->c [f(x)] = f(c)
Hence, f is continuous at x = c.

Converse: The converse of the above theorem is not necessarily true i.e. a
function may be continuous at a point but may not be differentiable at that
point.

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

For example, the function defined by f(x) = |x| is a continuous function at x = 0

but it is not differentiable at x = 0.
Consider the left hand limit
limh->0- {f(0 + h) – f(0)}/h = (-h)/h = -1
The right hand limit
limh->0+ {f(0 + h) – f(0)}/h = h/h = 1
Since the above left and right hand limits at 0 are not equal, limh->0 {f(0 + h) –
f(0)}/h does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 0. Thus f is not a
differentiable function.

Derivatives of composite functions:

Chain Rule: Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of two
functions u and v;
i.e., f = v o u. Let t = u(x) and if both dt/dx and dv/dt exist, we have
df/dx = dv/dt * dt/dx
Again let f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then
df/dx = d(w o u)/dt * dt/dx = dw/ds * ds/dt * dt/dx
Problem:
Find the derivative of tan (2x + 3).
Solution:
Let f(x) = tan (2x + 3), u(x) = 2x + 3 and v(t) = tan t. Then
(v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(2x + 3) = tan (2x + 3) = f(x)
Thus f is a composite of two functions.
Put t = u(x) = 2x + 3
Then dv/dt = sec2 t and dt/dx = 2 exist.
Hence, by chain rule
df/dx = dv/dt * dt/dx = 2 sec2 (2x + 3)

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

Alternatively,
Let y = tan (2x + 3)
Now, dy/dx = d[tan (2x + 3)]/dx
= sec2 (2x + 3) * d(2x + 3)/dx
= 2 sec2 (2x + 3)

Derivatives of implicit functions:

When a relationship between x and y is expressed in a way that it is easy to
solve for y and write y = f(x), we say that y is given as an explicit function of x.

Problem:
Find dy/dx of the function: 2x + 3y = sin x
Solution:
Given, 2x + 3y = sin x
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
=> d(2x + 3y)/dx = d(sin x)/dx
=> d(2x)/dx + d(3y)/dx = d(sin x)/dx
=> 2 + 3 * dy/dx = cos x
=> 3 * dy/dx = cos x – 2
=> dy/dx = (cos x – 2)/3
Alternatively,
Given, 2x + 3y = sin x
=> 3y = sin x – 2x
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

d(3y)/dx = d(sin x – 2x)/dx

=> 3 * dy/dx = d(sin x)/dx – d(2x)/dx
=> 3 * dy/dx = cos x – 2
=> dy/dx = (cos x – 2)/3

Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions:

Problem:
Find dy/dx of the function: y = tan-1{(3x – x3)/(1 - 3x2)}, -1/√3 < x < 1/√3
Solution:
Given, y = tan-1{(3x – x3)/(1 - 3x2)}
=> tan y = (3x – x3)/(1 - 3x2) ……..1
It is know that tan y = (3 * tan y/3 – tan3 y/3)/(1 – 3 tan2 y/3) …….2
Comparing equation 1 and 2, we get
x = tan y/3 ………….3
Differentiating it w.r.t. x, we get
d(x)/dx = d(tan y/3)/dx
=> 1 = sec2 y/3 * d(y/3)/dx
=> 1 = sec2 y/3 * (1/3) * dy/dx
=> dy/dx = 3/(sec2 y/3)
=> dy/dx = 3/(1 + tan2 y/3)
=> dy/dx = 3/(1 + x2) [From equation 3]

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is the function
y = f(x) = bx
Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say logarithm of a to base b is x if

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

bx = a
Logarithm of a to base b is denoted by logb a.
Hence, logb a = x if bx = a.
Properties of ‘log’ functions:
1. loga p = logb p/ logb a
2. logb pq = logb p + logb q
3. logb pn = n logb p
4. logb p/q = logb p/logb q
Problem:
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x: ex/sin x
Solution:
Let y = ex/sin x
Differentiate w.r.t. x, we get
dy/dx = d(ex/sin x)/dx
By using the quotient rule, we obtain
dy/dx = {sin x * d(ex)/dx - ex * d(sin x)/dx}/(sin x)2
=> dy/dx = {sin x * ex - ex * cos x}/sin2 x
=> dy/dx = ex(sin x - cos x)/sin2 x, x ≠ nπ, n є Z

Logarithmic Differentiation:
Let we have a function in the form y = f(x) = [u(x)]v(x)
Taking logarithm (to base e) on both sides, we get
log y = log [u(x)]v(x)
log y = v(x) * log [u(x)]
Differentiate w.r.t. x using chain rule, we get
(1/y) * dy/dx = v(x) * 1/u(x) * u’(x) + v’(x) * log[u(x)]
=> dy/dx = y[{v(x)/u(x)} * u’(x) + v’(x) * log u(x)]

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

Here, f(x) and u(x) must always be positive otherwise their logarithms are not
defined. This process of differentiation is known as logarithms differentiation.
Problem:
Differentiate the given function w.r.t. x
cos x * cos 2x * cos 3x
Answer:
Let y = cos x * cos 2x * cos 3x
Taking logarithm on both the sides, we obtain
log y = log(cos x * cos 2x * cos 3x)
=> log y = log cos x + log cos 2x + log cos 3x
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
=> (1/y) * dy/dx = 1/cos x * d(cos x)/dx + 1/cos 2x * d(cos 2x)/dx + 1/cos 3x *
d(cos x3)/dx
=> (1/y) * dy/dx = 1/cos x * (-sin x) + 1/cos 2x * (-sin 2x) * d(2x)/dx + 1/cos 3x *
(-sin 3x) * d(3x)/dx
=> (1/y) * dy/dx = -sin x /cos x – 2 * sin 2x /cos 2x – 3 * sin 3x/cos 3x
=> dy/dx = y[-sin x /cos x – 2 * sin 2x /cos 2x – 3 * sin 3x/cos 3x]
=> dy/dx = -cos x * cos 2x * cos 3x [tan x + 2 tan 2x + 3 tan 3x]

Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms

When a relationship between 2 variables is established with a link of third
variable, then this third variable is called parameter.
Suppose x = f(t), y = g(t)
This relationship between x and y is said to be of parametric form with t as a
parameter.
To find the derivative of a function in this form, we use the chain rule.

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

i.e dy/dx = dy/dt * dt/dx

=> dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt), where dx/dt ≠ 0
=> dy/dx = [d{g(t)}/dt]/ [d{f(t)}/dt]
=> dy/dx = g’(t)/f’(t)
Here d{g(t)}/dt] = g’(t), [d{f(t)}/dt = f’(t) and f’(t) ≠ 0
Problem:
Find the derivative of the function x = sin t, y = cos 2t
Solution:
The given equations are: x = sin t, y = b cos 2t
Now, dx/dt = d(sin t)/dt
=> dx/dt = cos t
and dy/dt = d(cos 2t)/dt
=> dy/dt = -sin 2t * d(2t)/dt
=> dy/dt = -2 sin 2t
Now, dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt)
=> dy/dx = (-2 sin 2t)/cos t
=> dy/dx = (-2 * 2 * sin t * cos t)/cos t
=> dy/dx = -4 sin t
Second Order Derivative
Let y = f(x)
Differentiate w.r.t. x, we get
dy/dx = f ′(x) ……….1
If f ′(x) is differentiable, we may again differentiate equation 1 w.r.t. x.
d[dy/dx]/dx = d[f ′(x)]/dx
=> d2y/dx2 = f’’(x) ……….2
Here, the left hand side d[dy/dx]/dx is called the second order derivative of y
w.r.t. x and is denoted by

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

d2y/dx2. The second order derivative of f(x) is denoted by f ″(x). It is also

denoted by D2 y or y″ or y2.
Problem:
Find the second order derivatives of the given function: x2 + 3x + 2
Solution:
Let y = x2 + 3x + 2
Differentiate w.r.t. t, we get
dy/dx = d(x2 + 3x + 2)/dx
=> dy/dx = d(x2)/dx + d(3x)/dx + d(2)/dx
=> dy/dx = 2x + 3 + 0
=> dy/dx = 2x + 3
Again, differentiate w.r.t. t, we get
d2y/dx2 = d(2x + 3)/dx
=> d2y/dx2 = d(2x)/dx + d(3)/dx
=> d2y/dx2 = 2 + 0
=> d2y/dx2 = 2
Mean Value Theorem
There are two fundamental results in Calculus. We will discuss both of them
and also learn the geometric interpretation of these theorems.
Rolle’s Theorem:
Let f be a real valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) It is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(ii) It is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists a real number c є (a, b) such that f′(c) = 0.

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

In each of the above graph, the slope becomes zero at least at one point. That
is precisely the claim of the Rolle’s theorem as the slope of the tangent at any
point on the graph of y = f (x) is nothing but the derivative of f(x) at that point.
Problem:
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function f(x) = x2 + 2x – 8, x ∈ [-4, 2]
Solution:
The given function f(x) = x2 + 2x – 8 being a polynomial function, is continuous
in [−4, 2] and is differentiable in (−4, 2).
f(-4) = (-4)2 + 2 * (-4) – 8 = 16 – 8 – 8 = 0
f(2) = 22 + 2 * 2 – 8 = 4 + 4 – 8 = 0
So, f (−4) = f (2) = 0
=> The value of f (x) at −4 and 2 coincides.
Rolle’s Theorem states that there is a point c ∈ (−4, 2) such that f’(c) = 0
Now, f(x) = x2 + 2x – 8
f’(x) = 2x + 2
Now, f’(c) = 0
=> 2c + 2 = 0
=> c = -1, where c ∈ (−4, 2)
Hence, Rolle’s Theorem is verified for the given function.

Mean Value Theorem:

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

Let f be a real valued function defined on the closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) It is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(ii) It is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists a real number c є (a, b) such that f′(c) = {f(b) – f(a)}/(b - a)

This theorem is an extension of Rolle’s theorem. From the graph, it is clear that
{f(b) – f(a)}/(b - a) is the slope of the secant drawn between (a, f(a)) and (b,
f(b)). The theorem stats that there is a point c in (a, b) such that the tangent at
(c, f(c)) is parallel to the secant between (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)).

Problem:
Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f(x) = x2 – 4x – 3 in the interval [a, b], where a
= 1 and b = 4.
Solution:
The given function is f(x) = x2 – 4x – 3
The polynomial function f is continuous in [1, 4] and is differentiable in (1, 4)
whose derivative is 2x − 4.
f(1) = 12 – 4 * 1 – 3 = 1 – 4 – 3 = -6
f(4) = 42 – 4 * 4 – 3 = 16 – 16 – 3 = -3
So, {f(b) –f(a)}/(b - a) = {f(4) –f(1)}/(4 - 1) = {-3 – (-6)}/3 = (-3 + 6)/3 = 3/3 = 1

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Class 12 Mathematics | Continuity And Differentiability | Notes

Mean Value Theorem states that there is a point c ∈ (1, 4) such that f’(c) = 1
=> 2c – 4 = 1
=> 2c = 5
=> c = 5/2, where c = 5/2 ∈ (1, 4)
Hence, Mean Value Theorem is verified for the given function.

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