GENERAL ORGANIC

CHEMISTRY
Course Outcome 6

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 LESSON OBJECTIVES
• Understand general principles of structure and bonding applied
to organic compounds
• Classify organic compounds based on formula and structure
• Draw structures of molecules, given the name and/or the
formula, and name organic compounds using standard
nomenclature rules.

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

THE CARBON ATOM

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 CARBON ATOM
• Carbon belongs to the group IV of the periodic table.
• It has four electrons in its outermost orbit, so its valency is four.
• Carbon is a non-metal.
• Compounds of carbon are widely distributed in nature
• Carbon Compounds are the basis of all living species on this
planet
• Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and other molecules that distinguish
living matter are all composed of carbon compounds

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• It is the study of carbon containing compounds except elemental
carbon (diamond, graphite, coal), CO2, CO, carbonates (CO32-
group) and cyanides (CN- group).

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

HYDROCARBONS

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 HYDROCARBONS
• Hydrocarbon compounds made only of carbon and hydrogen and
divided into several compounds
• Alkanes
• Alkenes
• Alkynes

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ALKANES
• Contain single bond C―C
• General Formula: CnH2n+2 C≡C
• Suffix: -ane
• Often called as saturated compounds

Propane Butane Pentane

CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
1. Selecting the Parent Chain – identify the longest chain (the one
with the most number of carbon atoms connected with each
other)

- When naming the parent of the chain of a compound, the names in

the table are used.
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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• If there is a competition between two chains of equal length, then
choose the chain with the greater number of substituents.
• Substituents are branches connected to the parent chain:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• Example: Identify and provide the name for the parent n the
following compound:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• Solution: Locate the longest chain. In this case, there are two
choices that have 10 carbon atoms. Either way, the parent will be
decane, but we must choose the correct parent chain. The correct
parent is the one with the greatest number of substituents:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
2. Naming the Substituents – once the parent has been identified, list all of
the substituents:

- Substituents are named with the same terminology used in naming parents,
only we add the letters “yl”. For example, a substituent with only one carbon
atom (CH3 group) is called a methyl group. A substituent with two carbon
atoms is called a ethyl group. These groups are generally called alkyl groups.
A list of alkyl groups is given in the table below.
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NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
Number of Carbon Atoms In Terminology
Substituent
1 Methyl
2 Ethyl
3 Propyl
4 Butyl
5 Pentyl
6 Hexyl
7 Heptyl
8 Octyl
9 Nonyl
10 Decyl
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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
In the example above, the name of the substituents would be the
following:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
Example: Identify and name all substituents in the following
compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
Solution: First identify the parent by looking or the longest chain. In
this case, the parent has 10 carbon atoms (decane). Everything
connected to the chain is a substituent , and we use the names
from the table above to name each substituent:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
3. Assembling the Systematic Name of an Alkane – In order to
assemble the systematic name of an alkane, the carbon atoms
of the parent chain are numbered, and these numbers are used
to identify the location of each substituent. As an example,
consider the following two compounds:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• In each cases, the location of the methyl group is clearly
identified with a number, called a locant. In order to assign the
correct locant, we must number the parent chain properly, which
can be done by following just a few rules

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• If one substituent is present, it should be assigned the lower
possible number. In this example, we place the numbers so that
the methyl group is at Carbon-2 rather than Carbon-6: :

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• When multiple substituents are present, assign numbers so that
the first substituent receives the lower number. In the following
case, we number the parent chain so that the substituents are
2,5,5 rather than 3,3,6 because we want the first locant to be as
low as possible:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• If there is a tie, then the second locant should be as low as
possible:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• If the previous rule does not break the tie, such as in the case
below, then the lowest number should be assign alphabetically:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• When a substituent appears more than once in a compound, a
prefix is used to identify how many times that substituent
appears in the compound (di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4, penta = 5, and
hexa = 6). Use hyphens (“-“) to separate numbers from letters,
and commas (“,”) to separate numbers from each other.
• Once all substituents have been identified and assigned the
proper locants, they are placed in alphabetical order. Prefixes
(di, tri, tetra, penta, and hexa) are NOT included as part of the
alphabetization scheme.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
• Alkane Systematic Name General Form:
• Locant/s – Substituent name/s (in alphabetical) – Parent Chain + “ane”

• If a substituent appears more than once in the compound, add a

prefix (di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa) before the substituent name to
indicate how many times that substituent appears in the
compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
In summary, four discrete steps are required when assigning the
name of an alkane:
1. Identify the parent chain: Choose the longest chain. For two chains of
equal length, the parent chain should be the chain with the greater
number of substituents.
2. Identify and name the substituents.
3. Number the parent chain and assign a locant to each substituent: Give
the first substituent the lower possible number. If there is a tie, choose
the chain in which the second substituent has the lower number.
4. Arrange the substituent alphabetically. Place the locants in front of
each substituent. For identical substituents, use di, tri, or tetra, which
are ignored when alphabetizing.
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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
Example: Provide the systematic name of the following compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
Solution: Assembling a systematic name requires four discrete
steps. The first two steps are to identify the parent and the
substituents. Then, assign a locant to each substituent and arrange
the substituents alphabetically.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ALKENES
• Contain double bonds C=C
• General Formula: CnH2n
• Suffix: -ene
• Often called as unsaturated compounds

Propene Butene Pentene

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
• Alkenes are named using the same four steps in naming alkanes,
with the additional steps.
• Recall: that naming an alkane requires four discrete steps:
1. Identify the parent.
2. Identify the substituents.
3. Assign a locant to each substituent.
4. Arrange the substituents alphabetically.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
The additional steps in naming alkenes are the following:
1. When naming the parent, replace the suffix “ane” with “ene” to
indicate the presence of C═C double bond:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
The additional steps in naming alkenes are the following:
2. When choosing the parent of an alkene, use the longest chain
that includes the double bond.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
The additional steps in naming alkenes are the following:
3. When numbering the parent chain of an alkene, the double bond
should receive the lowest number possible, despite the presence of
alkyl substituents:

The position of the double bond is indicated using a single locant, rather
than two locants. In this case, the position of the double bond is
indicated with the number 2.
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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
Note: The IUPAC rules published in 1979 dictate that the locant of
the double bond be placed immediately before the parent, while
IUPAC recommendations released in 1993 (and subsequently)
allow for the locant to be placed before the suffix “ene”. Both
names are acceptable:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
• Alkene Systematic Name General Form:
• Locant/s of the Substituent/s – Substituent name/s (in alphabetical) – Locant/s
of the Double Bond/s – Parent Chain + “ene”
• Locant/s of the Substituent/s – Substituent name/s (in alphabetical) – Parent
Chain – Locant/s of the Double Bond/s – “ene”
• If a substituent appears more than once in the compound, add a prefix
(di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa) before the substituent name to indicate how
many times that substituent appears in the compound.
• If a double bond appears more than once in the compound, add “a”
after the parent chain name, and then add a prefix (di, tri, tetra, penta,
hexa) before the suffix “ene” to indicate how many times the double
bond appears in the compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
Example:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
Practice Exercise: Provide the systematic name of the following
compound.

4-methyl-3-hexene
or
4-methylhex-3-ene
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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ALKYNES
• Contain triple bonds C≡C
• General Formula: CnH2n-2
• Suffix: -yne
• Often called as unsaturated compounds

Propyne Butyne Pentyne

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYNES
• Alkynes are named using the same four steps in naming alkanes
and alkenes, with following additional rules:
1. When naming the parent, the suffix “yne” is used to indicate the
presence of a C≡C bond:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYNES
2. The parent of an alkyne is the longest chain that includes the
C≡C bond:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYNES
3. When numbering the parent chain of an alkyne, the triple bond
should receive the lowest number possible, despite the
presence of alkyl substituents:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYNES
• Alkyne Systematic Name General Form:
• Locant/s of the Substituent/s – Substituent name/s (in alphabetical) – Locant/s
of the TripleBond/s – Parent Chain + “yne”
• Locant/s of the Substituent/s – Substituent name/s (in alphabetical – Parent
Chain – Locant/s of the Triple Bond/s – “yne”
• If a substituent appears more than once in the compound, add a prefix
(di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa) before the substituent name to indicate how
many times that substituent appears in the compound.
• If a triple bond appears more than once in the compound, add “a” after
the parent chain name, and then add a prefix (di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa)
before the suffix “yne” to indicate how many times the double bond
appears in the compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYNES
Example:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYNES
Practice Exercise: Provide the systematic name of the following
compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ALKYL HALIDES
• General Formula: R – X where R is the parent chain and X is the
halogen (F, Cl, Br, I)
• Alkyl Halides are named using the same four steps in naming
alkanes. All rules discussed for naming alkanes are also applied
here with some additional rules:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYL HALIDES
1. Halogens are simply treated as substituents and receive the
following names: fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-. If a halogen
substituent and an alkyl group substituent is present in the
compound, the first substituent should receive the lowest
number possible.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYL HALIDES
2. If there is more than one type of halogen present in the
compound, arrange the halogen prefixes in alphabetical order,
that is, bromo-chloro-fluoro-iodo. The first halogen should
receive the lowest number possible.
5 3
4 2
6
1
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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYL HALIDES
3. If halogens are located in parallel locations, the most
electronegative halogen should receive the lowest number
possible.

2 4
1 3 5

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 EXAMPLES
1. 2. 3,

4. 5,

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
• Many organic molecules can be considered to be derived from
hydrocarbons by substituting a functional group for a hydrogen
atom.
• The functional group can be nonmetal atom or small group of
atoms that is bonded to carbon. A table below lists the types of
functional groups commonly found in organic compounds.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ALCOHOL
• General structural formula of an alcohol: R – O – H where R is an
alkyl group and –OH is an hydroxyl group
• Alcohols are named using the same four steps in naming
alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes and applying the following rules:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALCOHOL
1. When naming the parent, replace the suffix “e” with “ol” to
indicate the presence of hydroxyl group (-OH group):

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALCOHOL
2. When choosing the parent of an alcohol, identify the longest
chain that includes the carbon atom connected to the hydroxyl
group.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALCOHOL
3. When numbering the parent chain of an alcohol, the hydroxyl
group should receive the lowest possible number, despite the
presence of alkyl substituents, halogens, or double bonds.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALCOHOL
4. The position of the hydroxyl group is indicated using a locant.
The locant can be placed immediately before the parent OR
before the suffix “ol”. Both names are acceptable IUPAC names.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF ALCOHOL
Example: Provide the systematic name of the following compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 ALDEHYDE
O
• structural formula of an aldehyde: R C H
• Aldehydes are named using the four discrete steps required to
name most classes of organic compounds (alkanes, alkenes,
alkynes, and alcohols) and with the addition of the following
guidelines:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALDEHYDE
1. When naming the parent, the suffix “e” is replaced by “al” to
indicate the presence of an aldehyde group:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALDEHYDE
2. When choosing the parent of an aldehyde, identify the longest
chain that includes the carbon atom of the aldehydic group:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALDEHYDE
3. When number the parent chain of an aldehyde, the aldehydic
carbon is assigned number 1, despite the presence of alkyl
substituents, halogens, double bonds, or hydroxyl groups:

Note: It is not necessary to include this locant in the name, because

it is understood that the aldehydic carbon is the number 1 position.
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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF ALDEHYDE
Example: Provide the systematic name of the following compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 KETONE
O
• structural formula of an ketone: R C R′
• Ketones are named just like aldehydes with only few differences:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF KETONE
1. When naming the parent, the suffix “e” is replaced by “-one” to
indicate the presence of a ketone group:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF KETONE
1. The position of the ketone group is indicated using a locant. The
locant can be placed immediately before the parent name OR
before the suffix “-one”. Both names are acceptable IUPAC
names:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 NOMENCLATURE OF KETONE
Example: Provide the systematic name of the following compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 CARBOXYLIC ACID
O
• General structural formula of a carboxylic acid:R C OH
• Compounds containing one carboxylic acid group are named
using the following guidelines:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF CARBOXYLIC ACID
1. When naming the parent, the suffix “e” is replaced by “oic acid”
to indicate the presence of the carboxylic group:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF CARBOXYLIC ACID
2. When choosing the parent of a carboxylic acid, identify the
longest chain that includes the carbon atom of the carboxylic
acid group. That carbon atom is always assigned number 1
when number the parent and the locant is not necessarily
indicated:

3
4 2
1 3 1
2

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF CARBOXYLIC ACID
compounds containing two carboxylic acid groups are named with
the suffix “dioc acid”; for example:

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

NOMENCLATURE OF CABORXYLIC ACID
Example: Provide the systematic name of the following compound.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

FUNCTIONAL GROUP PRIORITIES
1. Carboxylic Acid
2. Aldehyde / Ketone
3. Alcohol
4. Alkyl Halide, Alkane, Alkene, Alkyne

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

POLYMERS &
BIOMOLECULES

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 POLYMERS
• The word polymer comes from a Greek word “poly” meaning
many and “meros” meaning parts.
• A long molecule made up from lots of small molecules called
monomers.
• Polymers can be classified in several different ways such as
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics
• Thermoplastics – soften and flow when they are heated and harden
when they are cooled.
• Thermosetting plastics – initially soft but to set to a solid when heated
and cannot be softened.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 POLYMERS
• Monomers are made into polymers via dehydration reactions
• Polymers are broken down into monomers via hydrolysis
reactions

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 MACROMOLECULES
• Macro – “large”
• Biological polymers
• The are 4 categories of macromolecules
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic Acid

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 CARBOHYDRATES
• General Formula: Cn(H2O)n
• The main functions of carbohydrates are primary energy source,
cell structure, and storage of energy (plants)
• Building Blocks: Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
• Monomers: Monosaccharides
• Polymers: Polysaccharides
• It has three major classification:
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Simplest carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolysed into simpler
carbohydrates
• Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 DISACCHARIDES
• Carbohydrates that undergo hydrolysis to produce only two
molecules of monosaccharides
• Examples: Maltose, Lactose, Sucrose

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 POLYSACCHARIDES
• Long polymer of sugars
• Results when a large number of sugar molecules are joined by
glycosidic bonds.
• Examples: Cellulose Chitin, Glycogen, Starch

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 LIPIDS
• General Formula: Cn(H2O)n
• Long chain of Carbon (12-20 carbon atom)
• The main functions of lipids are storage of energy and cell
membrane for animals and leaf coating for plants
• Polymer: Fats and Oils
• Fats – Animal Source
• Oil – Plants Source
• Bound to 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 LIPIDS
• Saturated Fats - carbon to carbon single bonds, it is FULL of
hydrogens.
• solids at room temperature
• Unsaturated Fats- Some double bonds between carbons. Not full
to hydrogen.
• liquid at room temperature

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 PROTEINS
• Extremely large and consist of long chains of amino acids
chemically combined
• Contains of carboxyl and amine group and central carbon.
• Building blocks: Amino Acids
• Monomers: Amino Acids
• Polymers: Polypeptides
• It has 20 amino acids.

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 PROTEINS
• Proteins has 7 main functions:
• Enzyme catalysts
• Defense
• Transport
• Support
• Motion
• Regulation
• Storage

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

PROTEINS

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CHM01 – General Chemistry 1

 PROTEINS
• Four levels of protein structure
• Primary = sequence of aa’s
• Secondary = forms pleated sheet, helix, or coil
• Tertiary = entire length of aa’s folded into a shape
• Quaternary = several aa sequences linked together

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 NUCLEIC ACID
• Monomers are Nucleotides
• Polymers are Nucleic Acids
• The main functions are protein synthesis and hereditary
information.
• DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid
• It is a double polymer (chain) and 2 chains bond together to form a helix
• Each chain is made of nucleotides
• RNA = ribonucleic Acid
• Single strand

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 NUCLEIC ACID
• Each nucleotide in DNA contains:
• 5-C sugar
(deoxyribose)
• Phosphate
• Nitrogen base
-adenine (A)
-guanine (G)
-cytosine (C)
-thymine (T)
 REFERENCES
• Klein, D. R. (2017). Organic Chemistry: Third Edition. Hoboken:
John Wiley & Sons.
• Kotz, J.C., Treichel, P. M., Townsend, J., & Treichel, D. A. (2015).
Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity 9th Edition. Pasig City,
Philippines: Cengage Learning Asia Pte.