Module 7: hear which picture he wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/.

Remedial Reading Instruction Part 3 of 3 Which picture?"

Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/. Which
F.Remediation through Phonemic Awareness picture?" (This is a more advanced model that should
The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness skills be used later.)
students should learn c. When students are first learning the
1. Sound Isolation. Example: The first sound task, use materials that reduce memory
in sun is /ssss/. load and to represent sounds.
Example Instruction: In sound isolation use Example: Use pictures to help them remember the
conspicuous strategies. words and to focus their attention. Use a 3-square strip
a. Show students how to do all the steps in or blocks to represent sounds in a word.
the task before asking children to do the Non-example: Provide only verbal activities.
task. d. As students become successful during
Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin with initial learning, remove scaffolds by
different sounds and say the names of the pictures.) using progressively more difficult
"My turn to say the first sound in man, /mmm/. examples. As students become
Mmman begins with /mmm/. Everyone, say the first successful with more difficult
sound in man, /mmm/." examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as
Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in pictures.
these pictures?" Example: Move from syllable or onset-rime blending
b. Use consistent and brief wording. to blending with all sounds in a word (phoneme
Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/. blending). Remove scaffolds, such as pictures.
Everyone say the first sound in man, /mmm/." "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/ - /p/. Which picture?" "Listen, /s/ -
Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as the /t/ - /o/ - /p/. What word?"
first sounds in mountain, mop, and Miranda. Does Non-example: Provide instruction and practice at only
anyone know other words that begin with the same the easiest levels with all the scaffolds.
sound as man?"
c. Correct errors by telling the answer and 3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are
asking students to repeat the correct /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme segmentation
answer. Example: "The first sound in instruction, strategically integrate familiar
Man is /mmm/. Say the first sound in and new information.
mmman with me, /mmm/. /Mmmm/." a. Recycle instructional and practice
Non-example: Asking the question again or asking examples used for blending. Blending
more questions. "Look at the picture again. What is the and segmenting are sides of the same
first sound?" coin. The only difference is whether
students hear or produce a segmented
2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/ is word. Note: A segmenting response is
sun). In blending instruction, use scaffold more difficult for children to
task difficulty. reproduce than a blending response.
a. When students are first learning to Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to say the
blend, use examples with continuous sounds in words. The sounds in mom are /mmm/ -
sounds, because the sounds can be /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom with us. "
stretched and held. b. Concurrently teach letter-sound
Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a correspondences for the sounds
broken way. When he says /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/ he students will be segmenting in words.
means mom." Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and sit. Put
Non-example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk in a down letter cards for familiar letter-sounds. Then, have
broken way. When he says /b/ - /e/ - /d/ he means them place pictures by the letter that begins with the
bed." same sound as the picture.
b. When students are first learning the Non-example: Use letter-sounds that have not been
task, use short words in teaching and taught when teaching first sound in pictures for
practice examples. Use pictures when phoneme isolation activities.
possible. c. Make the connections between sounds
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words and say: in words and sounds of letters.
"My lion puppet wants one of these pictures. Listen to Example: After students can segment the first sound,
have them use letter tiles to represent the sounds.
Non-example: Letters in mastered phonologic activities account for about 50 % of all printed materials. The
are not used. Explicit connections between alphabetic 300 words on this list account for about 65 % of all
and phonologic activities are not made.
d. Use phonologic skills to teach more printed materials. These are the words most frequently
advanced reading skills, such as used to generate text in basal readers and other
blending letter-sounds to read words.
narrative materials.
Example: (Give children a 3-square strip and the letter
tiles for s, u, n.) Have them do familiar tasks and 3. “Adult Basic Word list” - contains the 385 words
blending to teach stretched blending with letters. that adults beginning to read most frequently use to

Word Analysis Skills generate written text. Note: Inadequate development of

- These are the skills that students use when concepts of print, poor visual discrimination and lack

identifying words as they are reading. These are used of phonic decoding skills may be possible causes of

automatically by proficient readers. This automatic use poor sight vocabulary. Practice makes word

of word analysis skills allows readers to focus on recognition more accurate and faster.

comprehension
– interacting with text and attaching meaning to Explicit instruction: Teaching Using Predictable

printed symbols. big book

- It is the goal of educators to have students who are B. Picture Clues

independent in their skills of word analysis. If students -The use of picture clues is an emergent literacy skill

have not developed sufficient skills in word analysis in that assists students in identifying words in the text and

the early childhood grades, they will have difficulty predicting story content. They are useful in developing

encountering the high density of vocabulary presented sight vocabulary.

to them in grades four and above (Taylor 1996). -Heilman (1998) says, “It is true that pictures may

- Materials read by students in high school contain provide clues to unknown words. Pictures may

over 100, 000 different words (Nagy and Anderson suggest words. They have high motivational value and

1984). Having good word analysis skills or developing will often lure the child into reading. Pictures help

automaticity in decoding words is not sufficient to be a focus attention on meaning. They serve as stimuli for

proficient reader. This must be combined with fluency oral language use in group discussion.

and comprehension. -Gunning (2003) identifies a second level of text and

Terms picture clues. There is a simple text that is

Sight words – are words that can be recognized illustrated. Most, but not all of the words can be

instantly and pronounced without resorting to the use identified by the picture.

of word analysis.
High Frequency or Basic Sight Words – are words
most frequently used in written text.
3 basic sight word lists: Explicit instruction: Using book walls
1. “Dolch Basic Sight Words”  - account for C. Phonic Analysis
approximately 70 % of the words children encounter in The process of using the relationships between spelling
grades 1 through 3, and approximately 40% of the and pronunciation at the letter, syllable, and word
words that appear in adult text. levels to figure out unfamiliar words.
2. Edward Fry’s “Instant word list” - is a second high- D. Syllabic Analysis
frequency word list. The first 100 words on the list
The process of dividing words into pronounceable G. Remedial Vocabulary Instruction
units that contain a vowel-like sound. The way the Vocabulary is
story is written encourages the student to drum out the initially acquired
syllables, or beats, like playing a drum. in four ways:

Vocabulary Incidentally,
- As defined in Webster’s New World Dictionary, is all through
the words of a language. Our knowledge of words and reading
our ability to use them are essential to comprehension. and conversation
- “Reading instruction that focuses on the growth of  Through direct instruction, as when a teacher
children’s vocabulary results in enhancing their or auto-instructional program is used
abilities to infer meanings and to better comprehend intentionally build vocabulary power
what they read” (Rupley, Logan, and Nichols 1998  Through self-instruction, as when words are
– 1999). looked up in a dictionary or their meaning are
- The basic vocabulary of 6th grade students is sought from others in a conscious manner.
estimated to be about 32,000 words, and that of 12th  Through mental manipulation while
grade students is 47, 000 (Smith 1991). thinking, speaking ,and writing
- Graves (1986) estimated that the listening vocabulary
of first-grade students is 10,000 words. Pavio (1971), 1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary
Wolpert (1972), Reynolds and Flagg (1977), and instruction
Jiganti and Tindall (1986) provided research Connect vocabulary instruction to the natural processes
supporting the promotion of mental imagery in of word learning. The literature on vocabulary
learning words. acquisition tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary
Four main principles of instruction by Blanchowicz into five phases. These are:
and Fisher (2000): a. Disposition – opening the student’s mind
1. Students should be actively involved in learning and will to engage new words.
new words. b. Integration – establishing ties between
2. They should make personal connections to new the meaning of a new word and the
words. student’s existing knowledge.
3. They should be surrounded – immersed – in learning c. Repetition – provisions for practice
new words. distributed over time, as well as
4. They should see the words in multiple contexts and opportunities for frequent encounters
have many repeated exposures to them. with the word in similar and differing
contexts.
Note: The goal of vocabulary instruction is not to d. Interaction and meaningful use – social
have students memorize a list of words and write situations conducive to using new words
definitions. Rather, it is to provide opportunities for in interactions with others and, thus,
students to understand and use words. Wide reading mentally referencing new words in
provides many opportunities for students to encounter listening, reading, writing, and speaking.
new words in multiple contexts beyond the classroom.
 e. Self-instruction – maintaining an d. The teacher talks to the student through
awareness of new words outside the this personal search for meaning by
classroom. asking further clarifying questions, and in
group situations by pointing out those
2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary images suggested that seem most vivid.
Building The teacher may add his or her own
a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant images. Students are then directed to
features of the concept in question. write some “subjective” or personal
b. Provide examples of the concept. associations for the new word under the
c. Provide examples of irrelevant but previously written dictionary definition in
loosely related concepts with which it their journals. Drawings can be added.
might be compared. e. Silent reading follows next when SAV is
d. Relate the concept by some possible used as pre-reading vocabulary
smaller or subordinating concepts. development. When it is being used for
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some general vocabulary development, students
possible larger or superordinating are given 5 to 10 minutes to study and
concepts. rehearse the new and previously recorded
f. Relate or categorize the concept words.
alongside equal or coordinating terms. f. The teacher let the student close the Word
Study Journal and asks him/her the
3. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV) meanings of the words studied that day
a. Identify two to four words to be taught or and a few others from previous days. This
pre-taught if SAV is used as a pre- step can be tied to seat exercises in
reading activity. If a word list is used, be conventional workbooks such as
sure to include as many words as possible crossword puzzles, category games, etc.
that impart concepts and feelings that you This manipulation and reinforcement step
would wish students to learn. can be made easier by selecting the words
b. The teacher tells the student the full to be taught from the exercise material.
meaning of a word, much as it might be
found in a dictionary. It is recorded in a 4. Motor Imaging
Word Study Journal as the “objective” or It appears that even the highest forms of vocabulary
dictionary meaning. and concept learning have psychomotor foundations,
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does or equivalents. Hence, motor movements associated
this word remind you of?” or “What do with certain stimuli can become interiorized as a
you picture or think of when you hear this “symbolic meaning” (Piaget, 1963 in Manzo and
word?” Explain that discussion of a Manzo1993). There are three considerable advantages
personal association with a word can be to knowing this where remediation is concerned:
very helpful in remembering and a. First, since physical-sensory or
clarifying its meaning. proprioceptive learning can be
interiorized, they also can be self-
 stimulating, and as such, they are easier 7. Try to use the pantomime casually
to rehearse and recall with the slightest whenever the word is used for a short
mental reminder, as well as from external time thereafter.
stimulation. A. Graphic Organizers
b. Second, proprioceptive learning is so Terms:
basic to human learning that it is common Graphic organizers – provide visual representation
to all learners, fast and slow, and hence, of the relationships among words. Usually
ideal for heterogeneously grouped geometric shapes and lines are used to slow these
classes. relationships. They provide opportunities for
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting students to develop a more thorough understanding of
out a word becomes a life experience in words by seeing relationships and being
itself with the word – a value that active in the learning process (Blanchowicz and Fisher
Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980) in Manzo 2000).
and Manzo (1993) demonstrated when he Definition word maps – help students see visual
successfully taught youngsters words via representations of definitions (Schwarts and
the “experiential” approach. Raphael 1985). The concept is presented, and students
organize information to which concept
PROCEDURE belongs, its properties, examples, or illustrations of the
1. Take a difficult word from the text, write concept.
it on the chalkboard, pronounce it, and Logo and pictomaps – at the emergent literacy stage,
tell what it means. students may not have developed the skills
2. Ask students to imagine a simple needed to decode words. A pictorial representation of
pantomime for the word meaning (“How the words and their relationships is presented.
could you show someone what this word Semantic feature analysis – is a grid that assists
means with just your hands or a students in identifying similarities and differences
gesture?”) among concepts that are related to each other. It helps
3. Tell students that when you give a students make comparisons.
signal, they will do their gesture Semantic maps - are a diagrammatic way of showing
pantomimes simultaneously. relationships among concepts, ideas, by using circles
4. Select the most common pantomime and lines.
observed. Demonstrate it all to the Word walls – are working bulletin boards (Padak
students, saying the word while doing 2001). It is a chart with a theme or focus
the pantomime. determined by the teacher. These charts are posted
5. Repeat each new word, this time around the room and used as a way of studying
directing the class to do the pantomime word patterns and word relationships.
while saying a brief meaning or simple Explicit Instruction:
synonym. Word walls can be created for any topic or skill being
6. Let the students encounter the word in studied in class. The use of word walls is limitless.
the assigned reading material. Logo and Pictomaps
Semantic Maps
Definition Word maps taught how to arrive at meanings that are unknown to
Semantic Feature analysis them.

B. Morphology - Students taught through a strong decoding approach

Terms with heavy reliance on phonics may not use
Morphology – is the study of word formations that context. Students taught with a strong meaning
include compound words, contractions, and approach, such as whole language, may tend to
affixes. Knowledge of morphemes helps children overuse context.
expand their vocabulary beyond root words and FACT: Better readers who view reading as “getting
aids in comprehension of printed materials. meaning” use context. Less able readers tend to view
Affix – a prefix, suffix, or inflectional ending that is reading as “decoding” or pronouncing words.
added to a root word to change the function of the Six types of context clues:
word or to add its meaning. 1. Direct definitions and explanations. Words such
Compound word – a word that is formed by combing as is and means give clues that a definition or
two or more words. explanation will follow.
Contraction – formed by omitting one or more letters 2. Explanation through example. Sometimes, writers
or sounds from an expression and replacing us explanations to help the reader understand a word’s
the omitted letters with an apostrophe. meaning. “The car has rust spots; these are reddish
Root word – the word that is left after you take away brown spots that have decayed.”
all affixes. 3. Words in a series. The reader can get an idea about
Description of compound words a word’s meaning if it is included among other words
- Usually do not create much difficulty because that belong to the same category. “We visited Hirosaki,
students already know each of the smaller words that Tokyo, and Toyota.”
make up the compound word. Students who have 4. Synonym or restatement. Unknown words may be
difficulty with compound words may not have identified because different words with similar
recognized that the words are made by combining meanings are used in conjunction with it.
already known words. Attention should be 5. Comparison or contrast. Words are compared or
drawn to the compound words’ makeup. contrasted with words that are known already.
Description of Contractions 6. Familiar expressions or figures of speech. At
- Usually do not create problems because they times metaphors and similes may be used to convey
maintain the same meaning and often have similar meaning.
structures. Directing students’ attention to the “lazy
way of writing” is often sufficient during silent Explicit instruction: Teacher Modeling, Student
or oral reading. Modeling
D. Word Relationships
C. Context Words have many different relationships to each other
- Words that surround a particular word and help that students should be aware of in order to
identifying it. understand differences in meanings. Understanding
NOTE: If students are to use context clues, they must these differences in meaning helps students
be given specific instruction in their use. They must be
use the dictionary and comprehend material they read Fluency instruction has been found to result in
(Crawley and Mountain 1995). improved reading comprehension (Dowhower 1987).
Terms Blachman (2000) concluded that “without accuracy
Antonyms – words that are opposite in meaning. and fluent word recognition, there will always be
Figurative language – words that contain meanings constraints in comprehension.
that are different from their literal meanings.
Connotative rather than denotative meanings. Round Robin oral reading instruction is used as a
Homophones (homonyms) – words that have the same method of fluency. It involves having students turning
sound but are spelled differently and have a page in their textbooks and selecting a student to
different meanings. begin reading orally.
Homographs – words that have the same spelling but Problems with fluency may stem from a variety of
are pronounced differently. causes: inadequate sight vocabulary, poor decoding
Multiple meanings – the various meanings and shades skills, an overdependence on word analysis skills, or
of meaning words can have. inattention to punctuation.
Synonyms – words that have the same meanings.
A. Major Fluency Strategies
Explicit instruction: Explicit instruction: Synonyms, Antiphonal Reading – groups of students are assigned
Homophones, Synonyms, Homophones, Homographs, to read parts of a selection or text in unison.
Multiple meaning Homographs, Multiple meanings, Choral reading - students read together text in unison
figurative language s, figurative language and the selection is not divided into parts for different
groups of students to read.
E. Extending an Interest in Vocabulary Echo reading – fluency is modeled. Students
Vocabulary development is an ongoing activity, and immediately echo a phrase read by a skilled reader.
many opportunities should be provided to Paired reading – a capable reader and a student who
encourage its expansion. is having difficulty reading materials written at an
Reinforcement Activities instructional level are paired or partnered together.
Providing real experiences Radio reading – students are asked to think back to
Providing vicarious experiences the days when people sat around the living
Encouraging wide reading room in anticipation of stories being told on the radio.
Word histories In radio reading, one student is the
announcer. This promotes listening skills and audience
FLUENCY reading.
Fluency – Being able to decode words automatically, Readers’ theater – students practice reading their
group them meaningfully, and read with expression. script parts. After practicing their parts, they
Being fluent in reading allows students to focus on present the script to an audience of parents or peers
comprehension – interacting with text and attaching without memorizing the script.
meaning to printed symbols. It also helps students Repeated readings – students practice reading a
develop more positive self-image as readers. selection until it is read perfectly.
Oral Reading – communicating an author’s message Tape – assisted reading – students read along in
by reading aloud to an individual or an audience. their books as they listen to an audiotaped
recording of their book by a fluent reader. This has
been called “talking books”.