Gas flow in orifice Page 1 of 11 M.

Golan
3/20/2003

Orifice Valve Equation ( Thornhill Carver Equation)

The momentum equation for steady state flow along a stream line for an ideal frictionless flow
can be stated as:
1
dp + ρ du 2 + ρ gdz = 0 1
2
Dividing both sides by ρ and integrating yield
dp1
∫ + u 2 + gz = constant
ρ 2
2

The steam line momentum equation can be applied to a sharp-edge (sudden) restriction.

For single phase incompressible liquid horizontal flow, assuming that upstream velocity is
negligible compared to the maximum restriction velocity, the momentum equation gives the
orifice velocity as
2∆p
u= ,
ρ
and the corresponding volumetric rate as
2∆p
q = cA
ρ
where:
A =Cross section of the restriction
∆p =Pressure loss across the restriction
ρ =Liquid density (constant)
q =Volumetric flow rate
c =restriction coefficient
The restriction coefficient is an empirical factor that account for all irreversibilities such as
friction, and Eddy current losses. The coefficient can be determined empirically and depends
primarily on the type of restriction (i.e. Venturi, nozzle, orifice, choke, etc), the ratio of the
restriction diameter to pipe diameter and the Reynolds number.

For gas flow through an orifice, the flow equation is more complicated and need to account
for the compressibility of the gas and for relevant thermodynamically conditions.
Gas flow in orifice Page 2 of 11 M.Golan
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An orifice is a very short flow conduit. Thus, flow along an orifice can be assumed adiabatic as
there is not enough time and area for significant heat losses to the environment.
For adiabatic gas flow process the pressure density relationships are:
p
= C = constant
ρk
1 1
ρ = pkC-k 3
1
1 pk
C =
k
ρ
cp
where the adiabatic gas constant , k = , is the ratio of the specific heats (in constant pressure
cv
and constant volume). Substituting the adiabatic density-pressure relationships to the pressure
integral of the momentum equation and integrating between upstream and downstream pressure
yields:
p2
 dp 
p2  dp   
 = C k  k  ( p2 ) k - ( p1 ) k  =  k   p 2 - p 1 
1 k -1 k -1
 1
∫p  ρ  = ∫p  - 1   k - 1     k - 1  ρ ρ
 2 1
4
1 1  pkC k 

Neglecting the elevation effect and substituting the pressure integral in the momentum equation
(Eq.2) we obtain an expression relating the upstream and downstream velocities in a short
adiabatic expansion process:

1 2 2  k   p2   p1  
( u1 -u2 ) =     -    5
2  k - 1   ρ 2   ρ1  
p2
It is convenience to express the expansion in the choke in terms of the expansion ratio, y = .
p1
This can be done by substituting the pressure-density relationship of the adiabatic process
1
 p k
ρ 2 = ρ 1 2  6
 p1 
into the momentum equation. The result is
 k −1

1 2 2 p 1  k   p 2  k 
( u 1 -u 2 ) =     − 1 7
2 ρ 1  k - 1   p 1 
 

m 1 pM g
The equation of state of the gas is: pv = ZnRT = Z RT ,or , =ρ= , where M g is
Mg v ZRT
the molecular weight of the gas.
Substituting the density from the equation of stat into the momentum equation:
Gas flow in orifice Page 3 of 11 M.Golan
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 k −1

1 2 2  R   k   p 2  k 
( u 1 -u 2 ) = 
  Z1T1     − 1 8
2  Mg   k - 1   p1 
 
In the case of an orifice or any other sudden restriction, it is common to assume that U2, the
maximum velocity in the Vena-Contracta, is much larger than u1, we may neglect u1, or
substituting, u1=0, giving an expression for the downstream velocity:

 k   p1 p 2 
u2 = 2   -  9
 k -1  ρ1 ρ2 
or

 k −1

 R   k    p2  k 
u 2 = 2   Z1T1   1-  10
 Mg   k - 1    p1  
 
Converting the volumetric flow rate to mass flow rate;
1
 p k
m = c d A2 ρ 2u 2 = c d A2 ρ 1 2  u 2 11
 p1 
The constant cd, the orifice discharge coefficient, to compensate for the fact that the restriction
cross section area A2 is not measured exactly where u2 is considered (in the Vena Contracta).
This is an empirical correction factor that depends on the configuration of the restriction.

When substituting u2 into the mass flow rate expression gives

2
 k −1

 p k  R   k    p2  k 
m = cd A2 ρ1  2  2   Z1T1   1-   12
  k - 1    p1  
 p1   M g   
Expressing the mass flow rate in volumetric flow rate terms
m
q1 = 13
ρ1
For practical calculations, the gas flow rate is expressed in standard conditions rates
 p   T  m  p   T 
q sc = q 1  1   sc  =  1   sc  14
 Z1T1   psc  ρ 1  Z1T1   psc 
This gives
Gas flow in orifice Page 4 of 11 M.Golan
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2  2 k +1

T   R   k   p1   2 p  k p  k

q sc = cd A2  sc  2   Z1T1    - 2  15

 psc   M g  k - 1   Z1T1   p1   p1  
  
or

 2 k +1

 T sc  R  k   p2  k p  k

q sc = c d A2 p 1   2     - 2  16
 p sc  M g Z1T1  k - 1   p1   p1  
 
p
In terms of the pressure ratio y = 2
p1
T  R  k   k2 k +1

q sc = c d A2 p 1  sc  2   ( y ) - ( y ) k 
 p sc  M g Z1T1  k - 1   

This is the orifice equation at sub critical conditions, where the maximum flow is less than the
sonic velocity. The sub critical flow becomes critical flow at a critical ratio
k
 p   2  k −1
yc =  2  =  
 p1 c  k + 1 
The equation for critical flow is the same as the sub critical equation. However, the varying
pressure ratio, y, is substituted by the critical pressure ratio, y = yc . This implies that for critical
velocity the flow rate is proportional to the upstream pressure, p1 .

Substituting the SI constants in the equation

Psc=(1.01) 105 Pa
Tsc=288.75 oK,
R= 8314
, and expressing the gas molecular weight in terms of gas gravity and air molecular weight, the
equation becomes:
 288.75  8314  k   k2 k +1

q sc = cd A2 p1  5
2   ( y ) - ( y ) k

1.01(10)  28.97γ G Z1T1  k - 1  
and finally
cd A2  k   k2 k +1

q sc = 6.85(10) −2 p1   ( y ) - ( y ) k 
Z1T1γ g  k -1  

SPE Monograph 17 “ Multiphase flow in Wells “ by Brill and Mukherjee lists the choke
equation in oilfield units as follows
Gas flow in orifice Page 5 of 11 M.Golan
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Cndch2 
 k   y k2 - y k +k 1
- 1  ( ) ( ) 
q SC = P   
γ gT1Z1 1  k
 

T 
where Cn = Cs Cd  sc 
 psc 

Symbol Field Units SI units

qsc Mscf/D m3/d
dch in mm
p psia kPa
T R kPa
Cs 27.611 1.6259
CD 0.865 0.865
psc 14.696 psia 101.325 kPa
Tsc 519.68 R 273.16 K
cn 844.57 3.7915

Note that k value of air and other diatomic gases is approximately 1.4, and the critical ratio is
0.53. For hydrocarbon gases at low pressure, k values are typically between 1.25 and 1.3 and
critical ratio is in the range of 0.47 to 0.5.

Comments on critical flow conditions

In critical flow, the flow velocity of the gas in the throat is the sonic velocity. In general, the
sonic velocity, a, in fluids is defined as the velocity of a pressure wave through an elastic fluid of
bulk modulus Ev, and a mass density ρ,

a = Ev 17
ρ
where the bulk modulus definition is
pressure stress intensity  dp  dp
Ev = = -V  = ρ 18
Volumetric strain  dV  dρ

In adiabatic process of gas, using the adiabatic pressure and density relationships, we can express
the bulk modulus as
 dp 
E v = -V   = kp 19
 dV 
Substituting the bulk modulus in the sonic velocity equation
Gas flow in orifice Page 6 of 11 M.Golan
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kp ZRT
a= = k 20
ρ Mg

The maximum mass flow rate in the throat is the sonic velocity giving
pth M g ZRT M gk
m max = Athuth ρth = Ath k = Ath pth 21
ZRT Mg Z th RTth

At sonic conditions, the prevailing pressure and temperatures are designated as; pth=p*, and
Tth=T*. Thus
M gk
m max = Ath p* 22
Z * RT *

From classical thermodynamics or fluid mechanics of compressible fluid, the throat conditions
can be calculated under the assumption that there is a stagnation state the upstream the
restriction. That is, knowing the stagnation pressure and temperature upstream the orifice we can
obtain the corresponding critical conditions at the throat. This procedure however, is beyond the
scope of this set of notes.
Gas flow in orifice Page 7 of 11 M.Golan
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Note on the adjustable choke equation

The choke stems from the fix orifice equation for single phase flow
2∆p
q = Cd A
ρ
For valve with adjustable trim (moving stem) the constants of the equation are changes

∆p
q = Cv f (l )
ρ
Where Cv is the valve coefficient, and f(l) is valve characteristics function
Valve characteristics function is normally of one of the following type:

• Linear:: f (l ) = l
• Quick Opening f = l
• Equal Percentage: f = R ( l −1)
The equal percentage valve is given that name because the slope of the f versus l curve, df/dl,
is constant fraction of f, leading to an equal percentage change in flow for a particular change
in l anywhere in the range.

Critical- flow in fixed wellhead chokes with multiphase flow

Field observations by Gilbert (Drilling and Prod. Prac.1954) suggest that multiphase flow in
wellhead chokes behaves like a dry gas mixture when flow though a fixed wellhead choke.
That is, the flow rate across the choke increases with decreasing pressure ratio y=p2/p3, up to
a certain critical ratio called the critical ratio, y=yc. Below the critical ratio the rate remains
constant regardless of reducing the pressure ratio and we have a critical flow. The critical
ratio marks the separation between sub-critical and critical flow. Furthermore, they observed
that, like in a gas flow, the critical rate depends linearly on the upstream pressure. The linear
Gas flow in orifice Page 8 of 11 M.Golan
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dependency between the rate and the upstream pressure has been investigated by several
investigators that report the following (Brill SPE monograph 17)
bqLsc R pc
p1 =
d cha
where the constants in the equations obtained empirically, in field unit system as follows;
Equation Constants-Critical Flow in fixed choke
Investigator a b c
Ros 2 4.25E-03 0.50
Gilbert 1.89 3.83E-03 0.55
Baxendel 1.93 3.12E-03 0.55
Achong 1.88 1.54E-03 0.65

Where
Upstream pressure, p1, psi
Stock tank liquid rate, qLsc STBL/D
Production Gas-Liquid- Ratio, GLR=Rp, scf/STBL
Choke opening (diameter) , dch, inch.
Note: in the book Well Performance, the same equation is given with dch is in 1/64 of an
inch. Therefore the constants a, b, c, are different.

Multiphase flow through a fixed restrictions

Sachdeva et. al equation (SPE 15675)

Background
Sachdeva et.al (SPE 15675) developed an equation for a multiphase flow across a fixed
choke. The equation relates the flow rate through the choke to the upstream and downstream
pressures. The equation calculates the total mass flow rate, or the volumetric rate at standard
conditions. With the exception of the pressure ratio that refers to both upstream and
downstream conditions, the equation uses parameters and properties that can be evaluated
using upstream conditions only (in combination with the pressure ratio).

The main feature of the equation is that it calculates both critical and sub-critical flow rates
using a single equation. However, the equation is used somewhat differently in sub critical
and critical flow. Thus, in order to use the equation, it is necessary to determine first if the
flow is above or below the critical ratio.
Sachdeva et al provided also an expression to calculate the critical ratio that marks the
transition between sub-critical and critical flow.

Assumptions used in developing the equation

• The flow is one dimensional
• The two phase velocities are equal at the throat, no slip between the gas and liquid
• The predominant pressure term is acceleration and frictional term is negligible
• The quality (gas fraction) is constant for the high speed process (no changes in
quality or no evolution evaporation during the process)
• The liquid phase is incompressible
Gas flow in orifice Page 9 of 11 M.Golan
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• Gas expand adiabatically (negligible heat losses)

Critical ratio
Given a ratio, y, of downstream to upstream pressures
p p
y= 2 = d
p1 pu
This ratio becomes critical rati, ycr, at the transition from sub critical to critical flow, or
y ≤ yc → Critical flow
y>yc → Sub Critical flow
The critical ratio is calculated as
k
 N  k −1
ycr =  
 D
where k=Cp/Cv=ratio of gas specific heats and N and D are dimensionless expressions
expressed in terms of upstream flow condition (all subscripts are 1).

N=
k
+
(1 − xg1 ) ρ g1 (1 − yc )
k −1 xg 1 ρl
k n n (1 − xg1 ) ρ g 2 n  (1 − xg1 ) ρ g 2 
D= + + +  =
k −1 2 xg 1 ρ L 2  xg1 ρ L 

n n (1 − xg1 ) ρ g1 ( yc ) n  (1 − xg1 ) ρ g1 ( yc ) 
1/ k 1/ k
k
= + + +  
k −1 2 xg 1 ρ L 2 xg 1 ρ L 


where:
xg1 (C pg − Cvg )
n = Polytropic index = 1 + (developed in Ros paper, 1960)
xg1Cvg + 1 − xg1CL
C pg =Gas specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/lbm-F, J/kg-C
Cvg = Gas specific heat at constant volumr, Btu/lbm-F, J/kg-C
CL =Liquid specific heat capacity
xg1 =Upstream gas mass fraction (gas mass to total mass)= wg1 / ( wg1 + wL1 )
ρ L =Liquid density (does not change across the choke), lbm/ft3, kg/m3
ρ g1 =Upstream gas density, lbm/ft3, kg/m3
ρ g 2 = Downstream gas density, lbm/ft3, kg/m3

The critical ratio equation is an implicit equation and has to be solved by iterative process. It
can be solved using Excel/Solver.
The value of the critical ratio is between 0.5-0.6. The equation indicates that the critical ratio
decreases with decreasing amount of free gas. When the upstream gas fraction is zero, that is
the upstream pressure is above the bubble point pressure and only liquid is present upstream,
the critical ratio is 0. In single phase liquid, the flow is always modeled as subcritical.
Gas flow in orifice Page 10 of 11 M.Golan
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The equation that relates the flow rate to the upstream and downstream pressure is, in British
engineering system:

(1 − xg1 ) (1 − y )
0.5
 x g 1k  k −1 

mT = mg + mL = Ac Cd ρ m 2  2 g c 144 p1 + 1 − y  
k

 ρL ( k − 1) ρ g1   

The downstream mixture density can be calculated from upstream conditions as follows
(1 − xg1 ) 
−1
 x
ρm2 =  g11/ k +
 ρ g1 y ρ L 
and
mg =gas mass flow rate lbm/sec
mL = Liquid mass flow rate lbm/sec
Ac =Choke area, ft2
Cd =Discharge coefficient
p1 =upstream pressure, psia

The equation has been converted to SI system by HuBin (2001). The conversion needs to be
verified.
 (1 − xg1 ) (1 − y )
0.5
k −1 
x g 1k  
mT = mg + mL = 0.447 f (l ) Ac Cd ρ m 2  p1 + 1 − y  
k

 ρL ( k − 1) ρ g1   
where the SI units used are, kg/s , Pa, m2, kg/m3, J/kg-oC. Ac is the maximum choke
opening and f (l ) is the value of the choke characteristic function (between 0 and 1.0)
depending on the displacement or the stem or choke (0<l<1.0) or the choke opening in
percent.

The downstream pressure is implicit in the equation through the pressure ratio, y,.
For subcritical flow conditions, substitute the prevailing y in the equation.
For critical flow conditions, substitute y=yc .Then, the flow rate becomes proportional to the
upstream pressure and independent of the downstream pressure.
Gas flow in orifice Page 11 of 11 M.Golan
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Comments: More information on choke calculations as part of a production system modeling,

and in linking reservoir simulator, wells and gathering systems and process simulators you
can read in
• Eclipse/VFPI user manual
• SPE 26308 Schiozer and Aziz (1994)
• PhD Thesis Bamshad Nazarian , NTNU (2003)