Buoyancy and Floatation

3.1. INTRODUCTION

When a body is immersed in a fluid it is subjected to two forces, namely gravitational force (or
body force) and buoyant force (or an up thrust or surface forces). The gravitational force is due
to the weight of the body and it acts vertically downwards. The buoyant force is exerted by the
liquid (fluid) on the body and it acts vertically upwards. A body placed on the free surface of a
liquid will either sink or float. In this note, the equilibrium of floating as well as submerged
bodies has been described. The concept of floating and submerged bodies is used in various
practical applications, such as boats, ships, submarines and toys. The necessary conditions
required for the body to float and for its stability are also discussed in this material.

3.2. BUOYANCY, BUOYANT FORCE AND CENTRE OF BUOYANCY

3.2.1 Buoyancy

A body feels lighter and it weighs less in water (liquid) than it does in air which suggests that
water exerts an upward force. Therefore, when a body is immersed in fluid (water) either wholly
or partially, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body which tends to lift up. This
tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid is known as buoyancy.

3.2.2 Buoyant Force

The force tending to lift up an immersed body against the gravitational force is called buoyant
force (or force of buoyancy) and it is denoted by 𝐹𝐵 . It is also known as upthrust which is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

3.2.3 Centre of Buoyancy

The point of application of the buoyant force on the body is known as centre of buoyancy and it
is denoted by 𝐵. The centre of buoyancy will be the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced. The
buoyant force exerted by the fluid on the body can be calculated by Archimedes’ principle.

3.3. ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

The Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is immersed in a fluid either wholly or
partially, it is lifted up by a force which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
It is due to this upward force acting on an immersed body in a fluid, where the body experiences
an apparent weight loss. Thus, a body has less weight in a liquid than outside.
 Figure 3.1 Archimedes principle

Since liquids are heavier than gases (air), we are conscious about their buoyant forces. However,
air also exerts buoyancy on anybody immersed in it. Therefore, in the design of balloons and
blimps, the buoyant force of air (instead of being negligible) is the controlling factor.

3.3.1 Proof

Consider a body completely immersed in a liquid of density ρ as shown in Figure 3.1(a). Let 𝑑𝐴
be the cross sectional area of a small vertical element 𝑑𝑣 be the volume of the small element, 𝑃₁
and 𝑃₂ be the intensity of pressures at depths ℎ₁ and ℎ₂, respectively.

The force acting on the top face of the element is equal to, 𝑃₁ 𝑑𝐴 = ρ g ℎ₁𝑑𝐴 which acts
vertically downwards. The force on the bottom face of the element is equal to, 𝑃₂ 𝑑𝐴 = ρ g ℎ₂𝑑𝐴
which acts vertically upwards. The net force on the element is equal to the buoyant force
𝑑𝐹𝐵 which acts upwards ( ∵ ℎ₂ > ℎ₁) and it is given below

𝑑𝐹𝐵 = ρ g ℎ₂𝑑𝐴 - ρ g ℎ₁𝑑𝐴 = ρ g X ( ℎ₂ − ℎ₁)𝑑𝐴 = ρg X 𝑑𝑣

The total buoyant force is given by,

𝐹𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹𝐵 = ∫ ρg 𝑑𝑣 = ρg 𝑣 = 𝑊𝑑

Example 3.1.A cuboidal wooden block (specific gravity = 0.65) that is 3.5 m long, 1.3 m wide
and 2 m deep floats horizontally in sea water (specific gravity = 1.025). Determine (i) the volume
of liquid displaced and (ii) the position of centre of buoyancy.

Example 3.2 (a) Calculate the buoyant force on 10,000 metric tons (1x107 𝑘𝑔) of solid steel
completely submerged in water, and compare this with the steel weight.

(b) What is the maximum buoyant force that water could exert on this same steel if it were
shaped into a boat that could displace 1.00 × 105 𝑚3
Example 3.3 A metallic body weighs 500 KN in air and 250 KN in water. Determine the volume
of body and its specific gravity.

3.4 METACENTRE

Metacentre (M) is defined as the point about which a floating body starts oscillating when it is
given a small angular displacement. A floating body in static equilibrium is acted upon by two
forces, namely the weight of the body W acting at G and the buoyant force FB acting at B as
shown in Figure 3.2(a). These two forces are equal and opposite and the points G and B lie along
the same vertical line which is the normal axis.

When this body is given a small angular displacement (or angle of heel), such as α in clockwise
direction, the centre of buoyancy moves to a new position B1 and thus, the buoyant force acts in
a vertical upward direction at this new point. Now if a vertical line is drawn through the new
centre of buoyancy B1, then it intersects the normal axis of the body through BG at point M,
which is called the metacentre.

Thus, metacentre may also be defined as the point of intersection between the normal axis of the
floating body which passes through the points B and G and a vertical line passing through the
new centre of buoyancy B1. The position of the metacentre practically remains constant for
small values of angular displacement.

3.5 METACENTRIC HEIGHT AND METHODS OF ITS DETERMINATION

Metacentric height is the distance between the centre of gravity G and the metacentre M of a
floating body. In Figure 3.2(b), GM is the metacentric height. The normal ranges of metacentric
heights for different ships are (i) sailing ships: 0.45 to 1.25 m, (ii) battle ships: 1 to 1.5 m, (iii)
merchants ships: 0.3 to 1 m and (iv) river crafts: up to 3.5 m.

The metacentric height of a floating body can be determined by either of the methods, such as (i)
analytical method and (ii) experimental method.
 Figure 3.2 Metacentre and metacentric height

3.5.1 Experimental Method

The Figure 3.2(a) illustrates a floating body (a vessel or a ship or a boat) in equilibrium at the
water surface in which points G and B lie on the normal vertical axis and the top surface of the
body is horizontal. Let w1 be a movable weight placed centrally on the floating body and W be
the total weight of the body including the movable weight w1.

Figure 3.3 Experimental methods for metacentric height of a floating body

Now the weight 𝑤₁ is moved transversely through a distance 𝑥 so that the body tilts through a
small angle α and attains a new equilibrium position. The angle α can be measured with the help
of a plumb line and a protractor provided on the floating body. The movement of w1 through
distance 𝑥 to the right of the axis changes the centre of gravity of the body from G to G1 and the
centre of buoyancy from B to B1 as shown in Figure 3.3(b). Under equilibrium, the moment due
to change in position of 𝑤₁ and the moment due to change of G to G1 will be equal.

Thus 𝑤₁ × 𝑥 = 𝑊 × 𝐺𝐺₁ = 𝑊 × 𝐺𝑀 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼

𝑤₁ × 𝑥
∴ 𝐺𝑀 =
𝑊 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
Example 3.4 If a wooden block (specific gravity = 0.65) of size 4 m × 2 m × 1.6 m floats in
water, then determine (i) the weight of the wooden block and (ii) its metacentric height

Example 3.5 A rectangular barge of dimensions 10 m × 3 m weighs 75 tons and its centre of
gravity lies 1.3 m above the bottom. Determine the metacentric height when it floats in fresh
water.
Figure3.4

3.6 STABILITY OF SUBMERGED AND FLOATING BODIES

The stability of a submerged or a floating body means the tendency of the body to return to its
original position after a slight displacement caused by any external force. A submerged or a
floating body may have any of the following three equilibrium conditions.

1. Stable equilibrium: The body will have stable equilibrium when a small angular displacement
of the body sets up a restoring couple tending to bring back the body to its original equilibrium
position.

2. Unstable equilibrium: The body will have unstable equilibrium when a small angular
displacement of the body sets up a couple that tends to displace the body further and thereby, not
allowing the body to its original equilibrium position.

3. Neutral equilibrium: The body will have neutral equilibrium when a small angular
displacement of the body does not set up couple of any kind and the body takes new position
without either returning to its original position or increasing the displacement.

3.6.1 Stability of a Submerged Body

The stability of a submerged body such as a balloon submerged in air or a submarine submerged
in water is determined by the relative position of the centre of gravity G and centre of buoyancy
B of the body. The centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy of a wholly submerged body
remain fixed. The conditions for stability of a submerged body are listed below.

1. The body remains in stable equilibrium when G lies below B.

2. The body remains in unstable equilibrium when G lies above B.

3. The body remains in neutral equilibrium when G coincides with B.

The Figure 5.16(a) shows a balloon fully submerged in air whose lower portion contains a
heavier material, so that its centre of gravity is lower than its centre of buoyancy. The balloon is
in equilibrium due to its weight W acting at G is equal to the buoyant force FB acting at B. When
a clockwise angular displacement is given to the balloon, W and FB makes an anticlockwise
couple (or restoring couple) that brings the balloon to its original position as shown in Figure
3.16(a). Thus, the balloon has a stable equilibrium.

The Figure 3.16(b) shows a test tube fitted with a heavy stopper and immersed in a liquid. In this
case, the centre of gravity lies above the centre of buoyancy. When a small displacement is given
to the body, an overturning couple is formed which tends to tilt the tube further. Thus, the body
has unstable equilibrium.

The Figure 3.16(c) shows a homogeneous spherical body submerged in a liquid whose centre of
gravity and centre of buoyancy coincide. When a small displacement is given to the body, it
assumes a new position. Thus, the body has neutral equilibrium.

3.6.2 Stability of a Floating Body

The stability of a floating body is determined by the relative position of the centre of gravity G
and the metacentre M of the body. Thus, the stability of a floating body differs from the stability
of a submerged body, where the body may be in stable equilibrium even when its centre of
gravity lies above the centre of buoyancy. The conditions for stability of a floating body are
listed below.

1. The body remains in stable equilibrium when G lies below M.

2. The body remains in unstable equilibrium when G lies above M.

3. The body remains in neutral equilibrium when G coincides with M.

Figure 3.16
 Figure 3.17

Figure 3.17(a) shows a floating body which has undergone a small angular displacement in the
clockwise direction so that its new centre of buoyancy B1 is such that the metacentre M lies
above the centre of gravity G of the body. The body weight W and the buoyant force FB make an
anticlockwise couple (or restoring couple) that brings the body to its original position as shown
in Figure 3.17(a). Thus, the body has a stable equilibrium.

Figure 3.17(b) shows a floating body in which the centre of gravity lies above the metacentre of
the body. When a small displacement is given to the body, an overturning couple is formed
which tends to tilt the body further. Thus, the body has unstable equilibrium.

For a floating body when the centre of gravity coincides with metacentre of the body, there will
be neither a restoring couple nor an overturning couple formed when a small angular
displacement is given to the body. Thus, the body will adapt to new position and it will have
neutral equilibrium.

Fluid Kinematics