1 A mini-review on microplastic pollution and its solution

2 Aqsa kanwal1, Faisal Sharaf1

3 1
College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Shaanxi University of Science & Technology, Xi’an 710021,
4 China).
5 Correspondence to: Dr. Aqsa Kanwal (e-mail: draqsakanwal4@gmail.com).

6 ABSTRACT
7 Plastic pollution is recognized as a severe anthropogenic issue of marine ecosystems that
8 has increased to an alarming stage due to the single-use of plastic products that are being dumped
9 into the natural environment and reach the respective water sources to disturb the structure and
10 function of aquatic ecosystems. Land and sea-based sources are the primary sources of plastic
11 pollutants that enter the ocean. In this review paper, we focused on highlighting different aspects
12 related to plastic pollution in coastal and marine environments and the importance of
13 biodegradable polymers to overcome this issue. Different sizes of plastic pollutants are
14 distributed in the ecosystems such as mega plastic, macroplastic, mesoplastic, and microplastic.
15 Microplastics are widely spread in the water, sediment, and biota of marine and coastal
16 environments due to improper disposal of plastic waste. Upon ingestion, plastics can cause many
17 negative impacts on ecology like predicament, noxious effects by plastic assimilation, asphyxia,
18 famishment, dispersion, and propelling of organisms, provision of new habitats, and introduction
19 of invasive species are significant ecological effects with increasing pressures on biodiversity.
20 To overcome this problem there is a need to develop a reliable and efficient remediation
21 technique. One solution is either prevention of plastics from entering the water or the removal of
22 plastic debris from the water and another one is the use of biodegradable polymers that can
23 degrade naturally in an environment without harming the ecosystem. Plastic identification,
24 extraction, and separation are among some methods for removing plastics from the marine
25 environment. Hence scientists around the globe are working on a biodegradable polymer that can
26 mitigate this issue. Existing and adopted policies, legislations, regulations, and initiatives at the
27 global, regional, and national levels play a vital role in reducing plastic debris in marine and
28 coastal zones. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates the current status of plastic pollution in the
29 marine ecosystem to spread awareness for a plastic-free and healthy Blue Ocean soon.
30 Keywords: Marine plastic pollution, microplastic disposal, biodegradable polymers,

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31 Polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT)

32 Graphical Abstract

33

34

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35 1. Introduction
36 The Marine and coastal environments are extremely prolific zone consisting of various types
37 of subsystems, such as coral reefs and seagrasses. Various primitive to advanced organisms are
38 present in a marine environment. The marine environment covers nearly 71% of the earth's
39 surface (Wang et al, 2019). Based on historical, cultural, geographical, and scientific
40 characteristics, and size the global ocean system is divided into five major oceans and many seas.
41 The major oceans are the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic. The International
42 Hydrographic Organization divided the Southern Pole (Antarctic) as the fifth ocean basin. All
43 systems are ecologically and economically important. Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are
44 interconnected and affect each other. Anthropogenic activities along with other factors had been
45 affecting the coastal and marine environment for a long time (Ruggero et al, 2019). Compared
46 with other debris, plastic debris is tenacious in ocean basins due to its distinctive features. More
47 than 260,000 tons of plastic are floating over the world's ocean surface due to inappropriate
48 waste disposal techniques. At present, plastic pollution has become a serious concern in almost
49 all parts of ocean basins regardless of developed or underdeveloped regions in the world
50 (Meereboer et al, 2020).
51 The oceans had become a massive trash bin for all kinds of plastics. Environmental and
52 health concerns related to plastic reefs of the Northwest Hawaiian Island Marine National
53 Monument pollution are a long-documented global issue (Barrier et al, 2020). Approximately
54 10% of all solid waste is plastic and up to 80% of the total waste is accumulated. Plastics are
55 indispensable materials that are being widely used in agriculture, industry, national defense, and
56 transportation due to excellent properties like low density, high strength, good wear, and
57 corrosion resistance that make them resistant to degradation (He et al, 2020). Hence, recycling is
58 desirable to avoid adverse effects on plants and animals and harm to the natural ecosystem. After
59 the Second World War, plastic began to be manufactured and consumed widely but already the
60 mass of all plastic ever produced is twice as high as the overall mass of all terrestrial and marine
61 animals combined. The highest production rate was observed during 2003-2016 (Li et al, 2021).
62 By 2020, 80% of all plastic ever produced had already become waste, a significant part of which
63 has ended up in the ocean. It was reported that by now 86-150 million metric tons (MMT) of
64 plastic had accumulated in the oceans at a constantly increasing rate. In 2010, it was estimated

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65 that 4.8-12.7 million metric tons of plastic waste entered the ocean from land which increased
66 from 19-23 million metric tons in 2016 (Wang, 2021). The microplastic level of different marine
67 ecosystems is 0.001-140 particles/m3 in water and 0.2-8766 particles/m3 in sediments in different
68 marine environs. Oceanic plastic pollution is not evenly distributed. Planetary hotspots include
69 the five large ocean gyre systems (where the ‘garbage patches’ accumulate floating plastic
70 debris), coastal and ocean areas near major emission points such as the deltas of large rivers that
71 run through urban centers, coral reefs, mangroves, and the deep seafloor, especially canyons
72 (Kanwal et al, 2022b). In 2015, it was reported that plastic used for packaging contributed 50%
73 of total plastic waste which is responsible for 60-95% of marine debris. Communities residing
74 near the coasts contribute the most to marine pollution. According to an estimate, every year
75 Europe releases 82% of plastic debris into the oceans (Kanwal et al, 2022 c). Another report
76 suggested that fisheries contribute 22% to marine plastic pollution. The wear of vehicle tyres and
77 brakes, wind abrasion from plastic-coated surfaces, waste processing, roads, and agriculture are
78 major sources of microplastic emissions. White pollution has become a public hazard in the
79 world, posing a potential hazard to the ecological environment (Kanwal et al, 2022a). Animals
80 that have eaten discarded plastic films are prone to intestinal obstruction. Synthetic fiber fishing
81 nets and fishing lines that are lost or discarded into the ocean have caused considerable harm to
82 marine life. Managing white pollution and seeking new environmentally friendly polymers has
83 become a global problem to be solved. Improper disposal of plastics can cause serious
84 environmental pollution. Plastics’ buoyancy means they can be simply passed by ocean currents
85 and ecstatic across ocean basins, their pollution extends from the coastlines to the deep parts of
86 the sea, from the poles to the Equator, and the most remote of islands. Stewart Island’s Mason
87 Bay, a sandy shore open to the Southern Ocean fouled with 2 to 3 tons of plastic pollution
88 (Jambeck et al, 2015). Most of this stuff comes from Korea, Japan, Argentina, Australia,
89 Belgium, Chile, France, Norway, Poland, Russia, Spain, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.
90 Suspended upside down and freely drifting past a deep-sea submersible at depths of 2,000 m, as
91 an assemblage of ghosts (Chnurr et al, 2018). This problem can be solved by treating
92 conventional plastic waste and using biodegradable plastics. Landfilling, incineration, blending
93 with new materials after granulation, chemical degradation, and recycling is among the few
94 methods used for treating polymer waste (Bai and Li, 2020). Among them, some methods are

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 95 very costly, while others can cause secondary pollution problems. To overcome this problem
96 biodegradable polymers can be the best solution. Using plastics that can degrade naturally in the
97 environment by the action of different microorganisms are termed as biodegradable (Dussud et
98 al, 2018). Therefore, scientists started to design a plastic that possesses all the beneficial
99 properties like consistency and resilience as well as being more vulnerable to microbial
100 degradation in nature without harming the environment (Barboza et al, 2018). Using these
101 plastics instead of conventional polymers can be an effective way of solving plastic problems as
102 compared to treating polymer waste. The waste of biodegradable plastics is utilized by microbes
103 as a carbon source (Xanthos et al, 2017). Considering this, biodegradable plastics have now been
104 widely researched, manufactured, and used in almost every country. Since the 1980s,
105 biodegradable polymers have been widely manufactured and used in every field of life. In 2019,
106 biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers account for 941,000 metric tons and 1.17 million
107 metric tons, respectively. European plastic statistics showed that global bioplastic production
108 capacity will probably increase from around 2.1 million tons in 2019 to 2.4 million tons in 2024
109 (Yang et al, 2019). Biodegradable polymers have the advantage materials of conserving fossil
110 resources as well as reducing environmental pollution. Microorganisms can degrade
111 biodegradable polymers either aerobically or anaerobically and convert them to bio-decomposed
112 products including CH4, H2O, and some inorganic compounds. It may also involve hydrolysis,
113 photodegradation, oxidation, etc (Bagheri et al, 2017). Besides household applications,
114 biodegradable polymers are also being widely used in the biomedical industry for various
115 purposes like drug delivery, implants, a few medical devices, etc. Sutures are materials that had
116 been used for wound healing for many centuries. It contributes the largest share among other
117 biomedical materials (Faltstrom and Anderberg, 2020). Previously, metals, alloys, and ceramics
118 were widely used as biomaterials but nowadays biodegradable polymers have taken their place
119 due to their unique properties (Shah et al, 2013). The biomedical application includes tissue
120 engineering and regeneration, enzyme immobilization, wound dressing, controlled drug and gene
121 delivery, medical implants, and devices (Shah et al, 2014).
122 2. Consequences of marine plastic accumulation
123 Plastics are being widely used in every field of life, from microneedles to high machinery
124 used in the medical field, kitchen utensils, chairs, tables, packaging boxes, lunch boxes, furniture,
125 toys, and pipes all are made up of polymers (Sevim and Pam, 2018). Unluckily, increasing plastic
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126 production increases plastic waste and due to high durability and lightweight plastics are
127 resistant to degradation in the natural environment (Iundo et al, 2016). Of the total plastic
128 manufactured one-third is being used for packaging and the same in making building materials.
129 Disposable items make life easy in one way but when these plastics are thrown away they cause
130 environmental pollution, when this plastic waste is not treated properly it may reach the sea and
131 floats over the surface due to low density. It badly pollutes the water and is harmful to aquatic
132 life (Luyt and Malik, 2019). The number of plastics that end up in the ocean each year in million
133 kg is presented in Figure 1. Repeated use of non-biodegradable polymers results in the
134 accumulation of plastic residues in soil. Plastic waste could cause many harmful diseases in
135 plants and animals. The release of harmful substances from plastic enters the groundwater and
causes serious harm to the species that utilize them (Zheng et al, 2005).
Plastic entering the oceans (m illion kg)

136

120 Plastic entering the oceans

100

80

60

40

20

0 India China Indonesia Brazil Thailand Mexico Egypt united states Japan UK

137 Top contributors of marine plastic pollution

138 Figure 1 Amount of plastics that end up in the ocean each year in million kg
139 Approximately 800 marine species are being affected by the debris of which 80 percent are
140 plastic debris. Every year approximately 13 million metric tons of plastic enter the oceans which
141 is a serious threat to marine animals like fish, sea birds, sea turtles, etc. (Rudnik et al, 2019).
142 Plastic ingestion causes many harmful effects on marine species. According to previous research,
143 208 species encountered species related to ingestion and 243 species suffer due to the
144 entanglement of plastic residues. Animals that have eaten discarded plastic films are prone to
145 intestinal obstructions and hormonal imbalances. Synthetic fiber fishing nets and fishing lines
146 that are lost or discarded into the ocean have caused considerable harm to marine life (Arthur et
147 al, 2012). Non-biodegradable polymers reside in the soil for a longer time even centuries as
148 compared to biodegradable polymers which readily degrade under natural conditions. So non-
149 biodegradable polymers must be disposed of properly to avoid pollution as it badly harms plants
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150 and animals (Widenfalk et al, 2015). Among the top ten plastic-producing countries, the United
151 States is at the top producing about 42 billion kg, India is second producing 26.3 billion kg and
152 China is third producing about 21.5 billion kg, whereas, Brazil, Indonesia Russian Federation,
153 Germany, the United Kingdom, Mexico, and Japan produce 10.6, 9.1, 8.4, 6.6, 6.4, 5.9, and 4.8
154 billion kg, respectively (Yuan et al, 2017). A forecast of plastic accumulation in oceans is
155 presented in Figure 2. The number of microplastic per cubic meter of the ocean is increasing
156 every year.
600

3
500 No. of MPs/m (N/m3)
N o . o f M P s/m
3

400

300

200

100

0
2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
157 Year

158 Figure 2 Forecast of microplastic accumulation in oceans

159 3. Biodegradable polymers and biodegradation to tackle marine pollution

160 Reducing plastic waste through proper treatment can control marine pollution. Landfills,
161 recycling, incineration, and composting are the ways by which plastic is treated to minimize
162 marine pollution (Wahyuni et al, 2018). But due to some limitations, these methods cannot fully
163 stop the discharge of pollutants into water. Waste materials from landfills get their way into the
164 water and affect aquatic life badly (Yin et al, 2017). About 80% of plastic enters the oceans
165 from land resources. Another option to reduce plastic marine debris is to recycle it but it results
166 in poor mechanical properties of the polymer and generated waste can cause secondary pollution
167 (Huo et al, 2017). Incineration and composting can be possible alternatives but also present some
168 limitations. Hence, Scientists around the world are trying to find an alternate method to halt this
169 problem. Plastic composting is done in industries where plastic waste is subjected to heat (∼58
170 °C) and microbes that easily degrade them e.g. Poly (butylene adipate terephthalate) (PBAT),
171 Polylactic acid (PLA), Thermoplastic starch (TPS), Poly (butylene succinate) (PBS) are among
172 some compostable plastics (Jia et al, 2021). Nowadays scientists around the globe are working

173 on biodegradable polymers that are the solution to plastic problems. European standards further

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174 define a polymer as a biodegradable polymer if after 6 months over 90% of the polymer
175 breakdown into its products i.e. Carbon dioxide, H2O, and biomass (Singh et al, 2019).
176 Microorganisms secrete enzymes for possible degradation of enzymes on-site. Aliphatic
177 polyesters are biodegradable due to the presence of ester bonds so they cannot be consumed in
178 every field thus limiting their application (Arastoo et al, 2021). Various type of lipase enzymes
179 hydrolyzes their ester bonds thus easing the biodegradation process. Many factors like pH, O.M,
180 soil structure, soil texture, radiations, temperature, moisture, and the activity of macro and
181 microorganisms all influence biodegradation. The molecular weight of the polymer gets reduced
182 by irradiation hence favoring the biodegradation mechanism. Likewise, temperature increases the
183 enzyme activity hence increasing the biodegradation rate, the presence of water is also favorable
184 as it is important for enzyme activity and enzymes can effectively hydrolyze the polymers.
185 Marine biodegradation, as the name suggests marine biodegradation is the type of biodegradation
186 that occurs in water. There are three standards for the biodegradation of marine plastic (Figure
187 3). Floating plastics can be studied at 28-30 °C or underwater buried plastic sediments. There are
188 currently no standards to define the degradation of plastic at the depth of water. Plastic that is
189 either on the surface of water or at the bank is degraded (Xu et al, 2020).

190
191 Figure 3 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards for marine biodegradation.
192 Polymers are used in agriculture for littering, soil improvement, mulching, and many other
193 purposes. Hence makes its way into the soil and results in soil pollution. Biodegradable polymers
194 reduce the cost of waste management and reduce the accumulation of plastic in an environment
195 which ultimately reduces the emission of greenhouse gases (Qu et al, 2017).
196 The main problem with using biodegradable polymers is their poor mechanical properties.
197 There is a great difference between biodegradable and bio-based polymers. Polymers that
198 undergo complete deterioration when exposed to microbes are termed as biodegradable (Costa et

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199 al, 2018). The final products of biodegradation are carbon dioxide, water, and methane. But not
200 all bio-based polymers are biodegradable. Bio-based polymers contribute less than 1 percent of
201 the total global market. In the biodegradation process, the activity of microorganisms is a key
202 factor (Gan et al, 2005). Generally, there are two types of biodegradation mechanisms, abiotic
203 and biotic degradation. Polymers when exposed to weathering, aging, etc. they get altered. Due
204 to this performance of biodegradable polymers is highly affected significant reduction in the
205 performance of the biodegradable polymers occurred (Wang et al, 2019). Continuous exposure
206 of polymers to light, temperature, and other environmental conditions results in the weakening of
207 their molecular structure hence favoring the biodegradation process. These factors are very
208 beneficial for the initiation of the biodegradation process (Barboza et al, 2018). Their importance
209 cannot be ignored. The Biotic degradation mechanism is a complex process (Figure 4). It
210 involves a combination of physical, chemical, and physicochemical processes. It consists of
211 physical, chemical, and biological processes (Mintenig et al, 2017). During physical
212 biodegradation, microorganisms degrade the polymers by attacking their surface. Chemical
213 biodegradation is the microbes depolymerize the polymer chains by direct action on polymers.
214 Biotic degradation involves two main steps. Firstly, microorganisms secrete special exoenzymes
215 that get attached to the surface of polymers and break them into small molecular-weight
216 compounds. In the second step, microbes assimilate these low molecular weight compounds and
217 transform them into biomass, carbon dioxide, methane, and water (Ruggero et al, 2019).

218
219 Figure 4 Biodegradation mechanism
220 4. Efforts to tackle marine pollution
221 For the continuing expansions in the ocean, marine pollution had been documented as a risk
222 to governance. These threats can be addressed by the work of the International Maritime
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223 Organization (IMO) which documented the problematic plastic pollution in marine ecosystems.
224 The IMO is accountable for the management of the International Convention for the Prevention
225 of Pollution from Ships 1973/78 (MARPOL), the Convention on the Prevention of Marine
226 Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972, and its 1996 Protocol (London
227 Convention/Protocol) (Shah et al, 2014). In 1967, the world community took revolutionary steps
228 to save the common heritage of the world ‘The oceans’. In late 2017, the United Nations
229 Environment Assembly resolution on marine plastic pollution serves a similar purpose (Wang et
230 al, 2019). International agreements had been made to save the oceans and reduce plastic
231 pollution. Plastics are being disposed of in oceans via water or land-based sources. Water-based
232 disposal includes the Ship disposal of plastics and is banned in the MARPOL agreement. The
233 implementation of MARPOL requires a high check, regulations, and investigation schemes to
234 guarantee actual agreement from the tiniest fishing container to huge supertankers (Emadian et
235 al, 2017). Land-based sources are the major contributor that required similar monitoring and
236 control systems. Scientists around the globe are trying to reduce plastic marine pollution through
237 different techniques. About 50 years ago, Arvid Pardo, (Malta’s Ambassador to the UN) called
238 for combined actions to save the oceans, a common heritage of a human (Bagheri et al, 2017).
239 An important preliminary opinion is to build on pledges prepared at Nairobi, endorsing the
240 ideologies enclosed in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development in 19924, and the
241 modern obligations prepared in 2015 by world leaders in approving the 2030 Agenda for
242 Sustainable Development that contains 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Steinmetz et
243 al, 2016) Among them, SDG 14, ‘Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
244 resources for sustainable development, offers an emphasis on the continuing act on marine
245 plastic pollution. The Oceans conference or United Nations conference organized by the United
246 Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) held in New York in June 2017 pledges to implement
247 SDG 14 (Kakadellis and Harris, 2020). The greatest achievement of this conference was the
248 formation of societies of Ocean Action that manage and control the marine pollution
249 acknowledged in SDG Target 14.1as the clear motivation. The UNEA also organized side events
250 at all forums to get new ideas and solutions to grab this issue. The Joint Group of Experts on the
251 Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) also works on understanding
252 and combating marine pollution (Pinheiro et al, 2017).

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253 Conclusion
254 Conventional plastics can cause momentous ecological difficulties that do not damage
255 obviously and continue in the soil even after eras so they are a boundless danger to the environs.
256 The marine ecosystem is an intricate system that provides ecological and commercial values with
257 facilities by safeguarding human security. At this time, all oceans and numerous shorelines are
258 unfavorably pretentious through diverse natural and manmade actions. Automation and
259 expansion are known as chief issues for anthropogenic contamination, as well as plastic remains
260 buildup in the oceanic and shore locales. Estuaries are unique seaside ecosystems pretentious by
261 plastic contamination. Plastic contaminants are divided into metaplastic, macroplastic,
262 mesoplastic, and microplastic based on their size. The use of biodegradable polymers can be an
263 actual tactic to deal with marine pollution. There is a need to manufacture novel biodegradable
264 polymers having similar mechanical possessions to conventional polymers to exchange
265 conventional polymers without giving any damage to the ecosystem. The main objectives of our
266 paper were to acme the modern indication of plastic pollution effects on the marine environment,
267 and to highlight the importance of biodegradable polymers for combating plastic accumulation in
268 the marine environment.
269 Ethical Statement
270 Hereby, all the authors consciously assure that:
271 1) This material is the author's original work, which has not been previously published
272 elsewhere.
273 2) The paper is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere.
274 3) The paper reflects the author's research and analysis truthfully and completely.
275 4) The paper properly credits the meaningful contributions of co-authors and co-researchers.
276 5) The results are appropriately placed in the context of prior and existing research.
277 6) All sources used are properly disclosed (correct citation). Copying of text must be indicated as
278 such by using quotation marks and giving proper references.
279 7) All authors have been personally and actively involved in substantial work leading to the
280 paper and will take public responsibility for its content.
281 Consent to participate
282 I consent to participate in the research project and the following has been explained to me:
283 the research may not be of direct benefit to me, my participation is completely voluntary, and my
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284 right to withdraw from the study at any time without any implications to me.
285 Consent to publish
286 I give my consent for the publication of identifiable details, which can include a photograph(s)
287 and/or videos and/or case history and/or details within the text (“Material”) to be published in
288 this Journal.
289 Authors contribution
290 Aqsa Kanwal reviewed the previous paper, analyze the data, and prepared the draft of the
291 manuscript while Faisal Sharaf revised and polished the manuscript. All the authors have
292 approved the final draft of the manuscript
293 Funding
294 The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.
295 Competing Interests
296 The authors declare no conflict of interest. The authors declare that they have no known
297 competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the
298 work reported in this paper.
299 Availability of data and materials
300 The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the
301 corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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