Biological molecules

ARE MOLECULES always contains carbon bonded with other atoms ex. H, O, N

The 3 main biological molecules present in our body

are

Carbohydrate proteins lipids

1-proteins

Structure
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen , nitrogen and sometimes sulphur
The basic unit (monomer) is amino acids
• Proteins are made of long chain of amino acids, there are 20
different amino acid
• Each type of protein has its amino acids arranged in a particular
sequence
any sequence make different proteins types
Importance
1. Growth and tissue repair
2. Formation of enzymes , hormones and haemoglobin
4. Antibodies are made of proteins
5. source of energy (1gm protein releases 17 KJ energy)l

Structure
2-lipids
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but oxygen is less than that in
carbohydrates.
• The basic unit is fatty acids and glycerol . (one glycerol and 3
fatty acids)
(Insoluble in water)
Lipids are either:
1. Solids at room temperature, called fats such as butter
2. Liquids at room temperature, called oil Structure
Importance
1. Source of energy but double the amount of energy released by carbohydrates. (34 KJ)
Carbohydrates are commonly used as a source of energy (especially for athletes) although it releases
lower amount of energy than fats? As the metabolism of fats takes a much longer time
2. Form a part of cell membrane 3. forms a water proof layer for the skin
Carbohydrate
 Carbohydrates groups

Monosaccharides Disaccharides polysaccharides

A) Monosaccharides : Made of a single unit.

Ratio of C:H:0 is 1:2:1.
ex. glucose, fructose, galactose.

All are sweet, water soluble and reducing sugars.

B) Disaccharides Made of 2 units,

C 12 H 22 0 11
ex. maltose, sucrose, lactose.

All are sweet , soluble and reducing,except sucrose (

soluble, but non reducing. )

c) polysaccharides
(C 6 H 10 0 5 ) n
Ex; Starch glycogen and cellulose

All are Non sweet , Non soluble and Non reducing

• Subunits are monosaccharides joined together
• Importance of polysaccharides:
I Starch and glycogen act as energy storage molecules,

II Cellulose; Cellulose has a structural function, where it builds up the cell wall due to its high tensile
strength( capable of stretching).

Cell structure
All typical cells have the following structures Structure
Structure Properties Function
Cell membrane Semi (partially) permeable - Controls the movement of
different molecules in and out
plasma membrane • made of fat and of the cell
proteins - Surrounds the cell content

Cytoplasm Mostly water with dissolved - Many metabolic reactions

substances Jelly like structure take place in the cytoplasm
- Support organelles Has
stored food
Nucleus QQ . Controls the cell activities •
• Controls cell division

Mitochondria • Called powerhouse. Releases energy by

E/M only – present in Cells the aerobic respiration
with high rate of process
(Q) (Q) metabolism
-- double folded wall
Rough endoplasmic •Network of flattened • producing,
reticulum (RER)
organelle transporting and .
•It emerges from storing proteins
nuclear membrane
•The membrane
holds ribosomes,
giving its surface a
rough appearance.

Ribosomes found on RER or free site of protein

in the cytoplasm synthesis
By instructions carried
on DNA in the
nucleus
Only plant cells have the following structures; (Q) (Q)
Structure Properties Function
• Fully permeable •Protects and supports the
cell
Cell wall • Made of cellulose
• Gives the plant cell a
(Q) definite shape
• It stops the plant cell
from bursting when it
absorbs water by osmosis

Large cell vacuole • A space in the cell •Helps in supporting the

containing fluid Cell by pressing outward
(Q) Called Sap;(salty against the cell wall when
solution) turgid (Q) (Q)
and surrounded by a
membrane • Regulates the absorption
of water by osmosis
•Animal cells might have •Stores some substances
much smaller vacuoles
called vesicls

Chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll •Chlorophyll absorb light

making the green color of energy and convert it to
. (Q) (Q) the plant. chemical energy in
photosynthesis
• Often contain starch
grains made by
photosynthesis
Stores starch
 Types of cells

There are two basic types of cells, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.

Example of prokaryotic organism is Bacteria
They are cells without true nuclei (DNA lies freely in the cytoplasm) but Eukaryotic cells! have true nuclei
enclosed in membranes. Prokaryotic cells contain no organelles that are surrounded by membranes
. Examples of Eukaryotic organisms are animal, plant, Fungi and protoctists.
They are cells;contain organelles surrounded by membranes.

ANIMAL & PLANT CELLS

 Plant and animal cells differ in size, shape and structure (plants cells are usually larger
than animal cells).

Differences between plant and animal cells Animal cell (Q) (Q)
Animal cell Plant cell
Irregular shape Regular shape
Has no cell wall Has a cell wall made of cellulose
No chloroplasts Usually contains chloroplasts
No or small temporary cell sap or Large permanent sap vacuole
vacuole usually called vesicles

Usually contains stored glycogen (Q) Usually contains stored starch (Q)

The Living organisms are classified into 6 main

groups:
A. Plants: (Eukaryotic)
B. Animals: Eukaryotic
C. Fungi: (Eukaryotic) QQ
Their body is organized into a thread like hyphae
hyphae cytoplasm contain many neucli QQ
They have cell wall made of chitin and cellulose. QQ
They QQ feed saprotrophically where their hyphae secrete extracellular enzymes onto
large food molecules & digest them to small & soluble molecules then they absorb the
organic products.
They store carbohydrates as glycogen. QQ
They are not able to carry out photosynthesis.
Some are single celled e.g. yeast.
Multicellular ;Mucor is a fungus with the typical fungal hyphal structure.
D. Protoctists: (Eukaryotic)
o Microscopic single celled organisms.
Some as amoeba live in pond water, have animal features.
Others like chlorella have chloroplasts more like plants,
O Some are pathogenic like plasmodium which causes malaria.
E. Bacteria: (Prokaryotic)
o Microscopic single celled organisms.
o They have cell wall (made from murein), QQ
cell membrane, cytoplasm, they lack a nucleus,
but contain circular DNA,
some may have plasmids, capsules
(for protection against viruses and antibiotics)
Have flagella (single flagellum and used in movement).
Some can carry out photosynthesis, but most feed off other living or dead organisms.
Examples: lactobacillus bulgaricus (rod shaped) used in the production of yoghurt from
milk, Pneumococcus (spherical) is a pathogen (can cause a disease) and causes
pneumonia.
F. Viruses: QQ
o These are small particles, smaller than bacteria.
They are parasitic & can reproduce only inside living cells and
can infect all other organisms.
They have no cellular structure, but have a protein coat
contain one type of nucleic acid either DNA/RNA.
o Examples: tobacco mosaic virus which causes discolouration
of leaves of tobacco plant by
preventing the formation of chloroplasts,
the influenza virus which causes flu in humans and HIV which causes AIDS (The virus
attacks the white blood cells of the immune system causing weakened immunity

Differences and similarities between plant cells and Bacteria (Q) (Q)
 Bacteria Plant cell
Has cell wall made of murein Has a cell wall made of cellulose
Has vacules Has vacules
No chloroplasts Usually contains chloroplasts
No or small temporary cell sap or Neucli
vacuole usually called vesicles Mitochondria ,RER
Usually contains stored glycogen and
Usually contains stored starch (Q)
lipid granules (Q)

Differences between Animal cell and Bacteria (Q) (Q)

Animal cell Bacteria
Irregular shape Regular shape
Has no cell wall Has a cell wall made of murein
No chloroplasts No chloroplasts
Contain cytoplasm DNA Ribosom Contain cytoplasm DNA Ribosom
(Q)Usually contains stored glycogen (Q)Usually contains stored glycogen
and lipid granules

Characteristics of living organisms:

QQ
A. Nutrition: Taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions containing energy or raw
material for growth and tissue repair.
B. Excretion: Removal from organisms of, toxic materials, waste products of metabolism
(chemical reactions inside the cells) and substances in excess of requirements.
C. Respiration: The chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy
D. Sensitivity QQ: Ability to detect/sense changes in the environment (stimulus) to make responses.
E. Reproduction: Process that makes more offspring of the same kind of organism.
F. Growth and development: QQ growth is a permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase
in cell number or cell size or both, but development is the increase in complexity of an organism as it matures.
G. Movement: an action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change in position or place.
H. The ability to control the internal conditions

Levels of Organisation of a living organism:

QQ
Organelles  Cells  Tissues  Organs  Systems of living organisms

Some organisms consist of one cell and are called unicellular or single celled
. Other organisms consist of many cells and are known as multicellular
In most multicellular organisms the cell is the building unit and there are several levels of organization
1. Cell: Consists of many small structures called organelles e.g. Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
2. Tissue: is a group of similar cells, all working together to perform a shared function.
Eg. Muscles, blood and bones in animals. Xylem, epidermis and palisade in plants.
3. Organ: Group of different tissues arranged together in a way to perform specific functions
E.R. Stomach, liver, Kidney and brain in animal. Leaf, Stem and Flower in plants.
4. Organ system: Group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body functions.
E.g. Digestive, Circulatory and respiratory systems in animals. Shoot and root systems in plants.

Experiment:
looking at plant cells:
1. Cut a small piece of onion bulb and use the forceps to peel a small piece of epidermis from
the inside of it.
2. Put a drop of iodine solution or any other stain onto the center of a clean microscope slide.
Put the piece of epidermis into it and spread it flat. Cover slip
3. Gently lower a cover slip onto it.
4. Use filter paper to clean up the slide and look at the low power of the microscope.

QQ Magnification:

. Magnification worked examples:

Example 1: The nucleus in a photograph of a cell measures 3 mm across. If the
magnification in the photograph is x 500, what is the actual size of the nucleus?
measured size = 3 mm = 0.006 mm

actual size = measured size = 3 mm = 0.006 mm

magnification 500

Example 2: A plant cell in a photograph measures 15 mm across. If the actual size of

the cell is 0.015 mm, what is the magnification in the photograph?
magnification = measured size 15 mm =X 1000
actual size 0.015 mm