Satellite Orbit Dynamics

Dr Ugur GUVEN
 Apoapsis - Periapsis
• Apoapsis is the furthest position in an orbit
around a primary (apogee, aphelion etc)

• Periapsis is the nearest position in an orbit

around a primary (perigee, perihelion etc)
 Vernal Equinox – Equatorial Plane
• The vernal equinox
is an imaginary
point in space which
lies along the line
representing the
intersection of the
Earth's equatorial
plane and the plane
of the Earth's orbit
around the Sun or
the ecliptic. Sun
passes through the
vernal equinox,
about March 21,
marking the
beginning of spring
in the Northern
Hemisphere
Heliocentric Coordinate System
 Epoch
• Epoch is a moment in time used as a reference point for some
time-varying astronomical quantity, such as the celestial
coordinates or elliptical orbital elements of a celestial body,
because these are subject to perturbations and vary with time.

• 86 50.28438588 as Epoch in Julian time is:

• The epoch year (1986) and 50.28438588 as the Julian day fraction
meaning a little over 50 days after January 1, 1986. The resulting
time of the vector would be 1986/050:06:49:30.94.

• Start with 50.28438588 days (Days = 50)

50.28438588 days - 50 = 0.28438588 days
0.28438588 days x 24 hours/day = 6.8253 hours (Hours = 6)
6.8253 hours - 6 = 0.8253 hours
0.8253 hours x 60 minutes/hour = 49.5157 minutes (Minutes = 49)
49.5157 - 49 = 0.5157 minutes
0.5157 minutes x 60 seconds/minute = 30.94 seconds (Seconds =
30.94)
 Orbital Eccentricity
• The orbital eccentricity of
an astronomical object is a
parameter that determines
the amount by which its
orbit around another body
deviates from a
perfect circle. A value of 0
is a circular orbit, values
between 0 and 1 form
an elliptical orbit, 1 is
a parabolic escape orbit,
and greater than 1 is a
hyperbola.
Energy and Eccentricity
 Major-Minor-Semimajor Axis
• The longest and shortest
lines that can be drawn
through the center of an
ellipse are called the major
axis and minor axis,
respectively
• The semi-major axis (a) is
one-half of the major axis
and represents a satellite's
mean distance from its
primary. 2a is major axis.
 Semimajor Axis
• We can express the semimajor axis in terms of the
distance from the center of the Earth to apogee
(Rapogee) and perigee (Rperigee). It expresses the size
of the orbit. The semimajor axis can be found using:

• a = semimajor axis (km)

Rapogee = Distance from center of Earth to apogee
(km)
Rperigee = Distance from center of Earth to perigee
(km)
 Size of the Orbit
• Hence the semimajor axis actually tells us the
size of the orbit.
 True Anomaly
• It is the angle, measured positive in the direction of
motion, between perigee and the satellite's
position. It changes continuously during the orbit of
the satellite.
 Ascending Node
• We measure how an orbit is twisted by locating
its ascending node, the point where the satellite
crosses the equator moving south to north.
 Argument of Perigee
• The argument of perigee, is the angular
distance between the ascending node and
perigee.
 Mean Anomaly and Eccentric
Anomaly
• Mean Anomaly (M): The angle
measured since perigee that
would be swept out by the
satellite if its orbit were perfectly
circular. The Mean Anomaly
indicates where the satellite was
in its orbit at a specific time.

• Eccentric Anomaly (E): The angle,

measured since perigee, based
on the hypothetical position on
the circular orbit defined by a
line perpendicular to the major
axis that passes through the true
position of the satellite and
intersects with the circular orbit
Orbital Parameters
Summary of Orbital Elements
Two Line Element Set Coordinate
System
 Sample Orbital Information for a
Satellite
• Sat Name: CARTOSAT-2
• CAT No. 37838
• DRAG 0.00001006
• BSTAR 14407-3
• Inclination 19.7947
• Right Ascension 62.7084
• Eccentricity 0.0060638
• Argument of perigee 17.8079
• Mean Anomaly 342.4581
• Mean Motion 14.2066792
• Element Set 2742
• Rev No. 25724Epoch Time 11289.8779
• SemiMajor Axis 7201.23183
• Height above Equator 823.09
• Period ( in seconds ) 6081.646441
• Epoch Year ------------------> 2011
• Epoch Day of year---------> 289
• EpochTime ------------------> 21:04:10
 Sample Satellite Orbits
• The orbit of a satellite launched by the simple
means of pushing it out of the bay of the
Space Shuttle would have Orbital period 90
minutes, semi-major axis about 6500 km
• The motion of a spacecraft that is always
located over the same part of the Earth would
have Semi-major axis 22,000 miles (35,000
km), eccentricity 0
 Circular Orbital Equation
• Circular velocity of an orbit around an object is
defined as:
2
k GM
V 
r r
• Where for Earth
k  GM  3.98605x10 m / s
2 14 3 2

r = 6.378 x 10 ^ 6 m
Hence for escape from earth into circular orbit you
would need a velocity of 7.9 km / sec
 Escape Orbital Equation
• For any vehicle to escape the Earth completely, it
would need to have a parabolic or a hyperbolic
trajectory.
• A parabolic / hyberbolic trajectory would have the
least required potential and kinetic energy. Hence,
the equation for parabolic orbital velocity will give
the minimum escape velocity of 11.2 km/sec.

2
2k
V
r
 Problem 1
• Calculate the velocity of an artificial satellite
orbiting the Earth in a circular orbit at an altitude of
200 km above the Earth's surface.
• ANSWER
Radius of Earth = 6,378.14 km
GM of Earth = 3.986005×1014 m3/s2
Given: r = (6,378.14 + 200) × 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
v= SQRT[ GM / r ]
v = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 / 6,578,140 ]
v = 7,784 m/s
 Period Calculation of a Satellite
• The most simple equation for the period of a
satellite is given by:
3
T  (2r ) /( k )
2

where k=1.9965x10^7
• The velocity of a satellite for circular orbit is:

2 k
  3
T
r2
 Problem 2
• Calculate the period of revolution for the
satellite in problem 1
• ANSWER
Given: r = 6,578,140 m
3
T  (2r ) /( k )
2

where k=1.9965x10^7
T= 5,310 s
 Problem 3
• Calculate the radius of orbit for a Earth satellite in a
geosynchronous orbit, where the Earth's rotational
period is 86,164.1 seconds.
• ANSWER
T = 86,164.1 s
3
T  (2r ) /( k )
2

r = [ T2 × GM / (4 × ∏ 2) ]1/3
r = [ 86,164.12 × 3.986005×1014 / (4 × ∏2) ]1/3
r = 42,164,170 m
Velocity at Elliptical Orbit
2GMRa
Vp 
R p ( Ra  R p )

2GMRp
Va 
Ra ( Ra  R p )
 Problem 4
• An artificial Earth satellite is in an elliptical orbit which brings it to an
altitude of 250 km at perigee and out to an altitude of 500 km at
apogee. Calculate the velocity of the satellite at both perigee and
apogee.
ANSWER
Rp = (6,378.14 + 250) × 1,000 = 6,628,140 m
Ra = (6,378.14 + 500) × 1,000 = 6,878,140 m

Vp = SQRT[ 2 × 3.986005×1014 × 6,878,140 / (6,628,140 × (6,878,140 +

6,628,140)) ]
2GMRa
Vp = 7,826 m/s Vp 
R p ( Ra  R p )
Va = SQRT[ 2 × 3.986005×1014 × 6,628,140 / (6,878,140 × (6,878,140 +
6,628,140)) ]
Va = 7,542 m/s 2GMRp
Va 
Ra ( Ra  R p )
 Problem 5
• A satellite in Earth orbit passes through its perigee point at an
altitude of 200 km above the Earth's surface and at a velocity
of 7,850 m/s. Calculate the apogee altitude of the satellite.
• ANSWER
Rp = (6,378.14 + 200) × 1,000 = 6,578,140 m \
Vp = 7,850 m/s
2GMRa
Solve for Ra by equation: V p 
R p ( Ra  R p )

Ra = Rp / [2 × GM / (Rp × Vp2) - 1]
Ra = 6,578,140 / [2 × 3.986005×1014 / (6,578,140 × 7,8502) - 1]
Ra = 6,805,140 m
Altitude @ apogee = 6,805,140 / 1,000 - 6,378.14 = 427.0 km
 Eccentricity of an Orbit
• Eccentricity of an orbit is given by the relation
below as:

2
R pV
e 1
p

GM
 Problem 6
• Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit for the
satellite in problem 5
• ANSWER
Rp = 6,578,140 m and Vp = 7,850 m/s
With equation:
2
R pV
e 1
p

GM
e = Rp × Vp2 / GM - 1
e = 6,578,140 × 7,8502 / 3.986005×1014 - 1
e = 0.01696
Periapsis and Apoapsis Calculation
• If the semi-major axis a and the
eccentricity e of an orbit are known, then the
periapsis (perigee) and apoapsis (apogee)
distances can be calculated by:
R p  a(1  e)

R a  a(1  e)

R p  Ra  2a
 Problem 7
• A satellite in Earth orbit has a semi-major axis of 6,700
km and an eccentricity of 0.01. Calculate the satellite's
altitude at both perigee and apogee.
• ANSWER
a = 6,700 km and e = 0.01
Rp = a × (1 - e)
Rp = 6,700 × (1 - .01)
Rp = 6,633 km
Altitude @ perigee = 6,633 - 6,378.14 = 254.9 km
Ra = a × (1 + e)
Ra = 6,700 × (1 + .01)
Ra = 6,767 km
Altitude @ apogee = 6,767 - 6,378.14 = 388.9 km
 Sample Orbit Determination
• If the space shuttle is in an altitude of 250 km in a
circular orbit, then calculate the period of the orbit
and its speed.
• The radius of the orbit= 6378.14 km + 250 =6628.14
• The period of the orbit is :
2 6628.143 / 2
T  5370.30s  89 min 30 sec
k

• The velocity of the Shuttle is:

k 2 3.956 x1014 m3 / s 2
V  6
 7.72km / s
r 6.62814 x10
 Orbit Determination
• A space vehicle's orbit may be
determined from the position and
the velocity of the vehicle at the
beginning of its free flight. A vehicle's
position and velocity can be
described by the variables r, v, and ,
where r is the vehicle's distance from
the center of the Earth, v is its
velocity, and is the angle between
the position and the velocity vectors,
called the zenith angle .
• If we let r1, v1, and 1 be the initial
(launch) values of r, v, and, then we
may consider these as given
quantities. If we let
point P2 represent the perigee,
 Launch of a Space Vehicle
• As based upon the launch of a space vehicle, it is
possible to determine its orbit parameters:
 Eccentricity of an Orbit
• Eccentricity of an orbit by the initial launch
parameters can be defined as:
 Problem 9
• Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit for the
satellite with the following parameters?
Given: r1 = 6,628,140 m
v1 = 7,900 m/s = 89º
With the eccentricity equation:

e = SQRT[ (6,628,140 × 7,9002 / 3.986005×1014 -

1)2 × sin2(89) + cos2(89) ]
e = 0.0416170
 True Anomaly
• To pin down a satellite's orbit in space, we
need to know the angle , the true anomaly,
from the periapsis point to the launch point.
This angle is given by:
 Problem 10
• A satellite is launched into Earth orbit where its launch
vehicle burns out at an altitude of 250 km. At burnout the
satellite's velocity is 7,900 m/s with the zenith angle equal
to 89 degrees. Calculate the angle from perigee point to
launch point for the satellite.
• ANSWER
r1 = 6,628,140 m v1 = 7,900 m/s = 89º

tan = (6,628,140 × 7,9002 / 3.986005×1014) × sin(89) × cos(89) /

[(6,628,140 × 7,9002 / 3.986005×1014) × sin2(89) - 1]
tan = 0.48329
= arctan(0.48329) = 25.794o
 Flight Path Angle
• In most calculations, the complement of the
zenith angle is used, denoted by Φ. This angle
is called the flight-path angle, and is positive
when the velocity vector is directed away from
the primary as shown:
Eccentricity and True Anomaly by
Flight Path Angle
 Problem 11
• A satellite is launched into Earth orbit where its
launch vehicle burns out at an altitude of 250 km.
At burnout the satellite's velocity is 7,900 m/s with
the zenith angle equal to 89 degrees. Calculate the
semi-major axis of the orbit for the satellite.
• ANSWER

a = 1 / ( 2 / 6,628,140 - 7,9002 / 3.986005×1014) )

a = 6,888,430 m
Locating the Satellite in Orbit
a(1  e ) 2
ro 
1  e cos
Where:
e : eccentricity of the orbit
a : measure from the foci to the apogee
r : radius from the foci of the planet
 : True anomaly (measure of the angle from the perigee to the
position of the satellite

The Rectangular Coordinates of a Satellite are:

xo  ro cos o yo  ro sin o
 Locating the Satellite in Orbit
• We can further calculate the flight path angle
and the velocity of the spacecraft by the
following relations:
 Problem 12
• A satellite is in an orbit with a semi-major axis of 7,500 km and an
eccentricity of 0.1 Calculate the length of its position vector, its flight-path
angle, and its velocity when the satellite's true anomaly is 225 degrees.
• ANSWER
Given: a = 7,500,000 m e = 0.1  = 225 degrees
a(1  e 2 )
ro 
1  e cos

r = 7,500,000 × (1 - 0.12) / (1 + 0.1 × cos(225))

r = 7,989,977 m
= arctan[ 0.1 × sin(225) / (1 + 0.1 × cos(225))] =
= -4.351 degrees
v = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 × (2 / 7,989,977 - 1 / 7,500,000)]
v = 6,828 m/s
 Orbital Perturbations
• There are other forces acting on a satellite that perturb
it away from the nominal orbit. These perturbations, or
variations in the orbital elements, can be classified
based on how they affect the Keplerian elements.
• Secular variations represent a linear variation in the
element, short-period variations are periodic in the
element with a period less than the orbital period,
and long-period variations are those with a period
greater than the orbital period. Because secular
variations have long-term effects on orbit prediction
(the orbital elements affected continue to increase or
decrease)
 Third Body Perturbations
• The gravitational forces of the Sun and the Moon cause
periodic variations in all of the orbital elements, but
only the longitude of the ascending node, argument of
perigee, and mean anomaly experience secular
variations.
• These secular variations arise from a gyroscopic
precession of the orbit about the ecliptic pole. The
secular variation in mean anomaly is much smaller
than the mean motion and has little effect on the orbit,
however the secular variations in longitude of the
ascending node and argument of perigee are
important, especially for high-altitude orbits.
 Moon and Sun Perturbations
• For nearly circular orbits the equations for the secular rates of change
resulting from the Sun and Moon are
• Longitude of the ascending node:

• Argument of perigee:

where i is the orbit inclination, n is the number of orbit revolutions per day,
and and are in degrees per day
 Problem 13
• Calculate the perturbations in longitude of the ascending node and
argument of perigee caused by the Moon and Sun for the
International Space Station orbiting at an altitude of 400 km, an
inclination of 51.6 degrees, and with an orbital period of 92.6
minutes.
• i = 51.6 degrees n = 1436 / 92.6 = 15.5 revolutions/day
==-0.00338 × cos(51.6) / 15.5 = -0.000135 deg/day

= -0.00154 × cos(51.6) / 15.5 = -0.0000617 deg/day

= 0.00169 × (4 - 5 × sin2 51.6) / 15.5 = 0.000101 deg/day

= 0.00077 × (4 - 5 × sin2 51.6) / 15.5 = 0.000046 deg/day

 Perturbations due to Non-Spherical
Earth
• In fact, the Earth is neither homogeneous nor spherical.
The most dominant features are a bulge at the equator, a
slight pear shape, and flattening at the poles. For a
potential function of the Earth, we can find a satellite's
acceleration by taking the gradient of the potential
function. The most widely used form of the geopotential
function depends on latitude and geopotential
coefficients, Jn, called the zonal coefficients.
• The potential generated by the non-spherical Earth causes
periodic variations in all the orbital elements. The
dominant effects, however, are secular variations in
longitude of the ascending node and argument of perigee
because of the Earth's oblateness, represented by the
J2 term in the geopotential expansion.
 Perturbations due to Non-Spherical
Earth

• where n is the mean motion in degrees/day, J2 has the value

0.00108263, RE is the Earth's equatorial radius, a is the semi-major
axis in kilometers, i is the inclination, e is the eccentricity,
and and are in degrees/day. For satellites in GEO and below, the
J2 perturbations dominate; for satellites above GEO the Sun and
Moon perturbations dominate.
• Molniya orbits are designed so that the perturbations in argument of
perigee are zero. This conditions occurs when the term 4-5sin2i is
equal to zero or, that is, when the inclination is either 63.4 or 116.6
degrees.
 Problem 14
• A satellite is in an orbit with a semi-major axis of 7,500 km,
an inclination of 28.5 degrees, and an eccentricity of 0.1.
Calculate the J2 perturbations in longitude of the ascending
node and argument of perigee.
ANSWER
Given: a = 7,500 km i = 28.5 degrees e = 0.1
14 -7/2 × (cos i) × (1 - e2)-2
J2 = -2.06474×10 × a
= -2.06474×1014 × (7,500)-7/2 × (cos 28.5) × (1 - (0.1)2)-2
= -5.067 deg/day

= 1.03237×10 14 × a-7/2 × (4 - 5 × sin2 i) × (1 - e2)-2

J2
= 1.03237×1014 × (7,500)-7/2 × (4 - 5 × sin2 28.5) × (1 - (0.1)2)-2
= 8.250 deg/day
 Perturbations from Atmospheric Drag
• Drag is the resistance offered by a gas or liquid to a body
moving through it. A spacecraft is subjected to drag forces
when moving through a planet's atmosphere. This drag is
greatest during launch and reentry, however, even a space
vehicle in low Earth orbit experiences some drag as it moves
through the Earth's thin upper atmosphere. In time, the
action of drag on a space vehicle will cause it to spiral back
into the atmosphere, eventually to disintegrate or burn up. If
a space vehicle comes within 120 to 160 km of the Earth's
surface, atmospheric drag will bring it down in a few days,
with final disintegration occurring at an altitude of about 80
km. Above approximately 600 km, on the other hand, drag is
so weak that orbits usually last more than 10 years - beyond a
satellite's operational lifetime. The deterioration of a
spacecraft's orbit due to drag is called decay.
 Drag Force on a Body
• The drag force FD on a body acts in the opposite
direction of the velocity vector and is given by the
equation:

• where CD is the drag coefficient, is the air

density, v is the body's velocity, and A is the area
of the body normal to the flow. The drag
coefficient is dependent on the geometric form of
the body and is generally determined by
experiment.
• Earth orbiting satellites typically have very high
drag coefficients in the range of about 2 to 4.
 Satellite Decay Due to Drag
• The region above 90 km is the Earth's thermosphere where
the absorption of extreme ultraviolet radiation from the Sun
results in a very rapid increase in temperature with altitude.
At approximately 200-250 km this temperature approaches a
limiting value, the average value of which ranges between
about 600 and 1,200 K over a typical solar cycle.
• Solar activity also has a significant affect on atmospheric
density, with high solar activity resulting in high density.
Below about 150 km the density is not strongly affected by
solar activity; however, at satellite altitudes in the range of
500 to 800 km, the density variations between solar
maximum and solar minimum are approximately two orders
of magnitude.
• The large variations imply that satellites will decay more
rapidly during periods of solar maxima and much more slowly
during solar minima.
 Decay Analysis for Circular Orbits
• For circular orbits we can approximate the changes in semi-
major axis, period, and velocity per revolution using the
following equations:

• where a is the semi-major axis, P is the orbit period,

and V, A and m are the satellite's velocity, area, and mass
respectively. The term m/(CDA), called the ballistic coefficient,
is given as a constant for most satellites. Drag effects are
strongest for satellites with low ballistic coefficients, this is,
light vehicles with large frontal areas.
 Satellite Lifetime Due to Drag
• A rough estimate of a satellite's lifetime, L,
due to drag can be computed from:

• where H is the atmospheric density scale

height.
Atmospheric Properties
 Problem 15
A satellite is in a circular Earth orbit at an altitude of 400 km. The satellite has
a cylindrical shape 2 m in diameter by 4 m long and has a mass of 1,000 kg.
The satellite is traveling with its long axis perpendicular to the velocity vector
and it's drag coefficient is 2.67. Calculate the perturbations due to
atmospheric drag and estimate the satellite's lifetime.

SOLUTION,
Given:
a = (6,378.14 + 400) × 1,000 = 6,778,140 m
A = 2 × 4 = 8 m2
m = 1,000 kg
CD = 2.67
• From Atmosphere Properties,
ρ = 2.62×10-12 kg/m3
H = 58.2 km

• V = SQRT[ GM / a ]
V = SQRT[ 3.986005×1014 / 6,778,140 ]
V = 7,669 m/s
Use Equations given for decay analysis in circular orbit
Δarev = (-2 × π× CD × A × ρ × a2) / m
Δ arev = (-2 × π × 2.67 × 8 × 2.62×10-12 × 6,778,1402) / 1,000
Δ arev = -16.2 m

Δ Prev = (-6 × π 2 × CD × A × ρ × a2) / (m × V)

Δ Prev = (-6 × π 2 × 2.67 × 8 × 2.62×10-12 × 6,778,1402) / (1,000 × 7,669)
Δ Prev = -0.0199 s

Δ Vrev = (π × CD × A × ρ × a × V) / m
Δ Vrev = (π × 2.67 × 8 × 2.62×10-12 × 6,778,140 × 7,669) / 1,000
Δ Vrev = 0.00914 m/s

Equation (4.56),
L ~ -H / Δarev
L ~ -(58.2 × 1,000) / -16.2 (x1000 because of meter conversion)
L ~ 3,600 revolutions
 Perturbations from Solar Radiation
• Solar radiation pressure causes periodic variations in all
of the orbital elements. The magnitude of the
acceleration in m/s2 arising from solar radiation
pressure is:

• where A is the cross-sectional area of the satellite

exposed to the Sun and m is the mass of the satellite in
kilograms.
• For satellites below 800 km altitude, acceleration from
atmospheric drag is greater than that from solar
radiation pressure; above 800 km, acceleration from
solar radiation pressure is greater.