ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGEADVANCED MARINE ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE VOILUME I Vikram Gokhale N. Nanda NG ENGEE ENTERPRISESFirst Published March 1999 Reprinted June 1999 Reprinted September 1999 Second edition September 2000 Third edition June 2001 © NG ENGEE ENTERPRISES Mumbai, India. Printed in Mumbai, India. Price: Rs. 320/- All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopy or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transtently or incidentally to some other use of this publication), without the written permission of the copyright holder.S.Mukhopadya Marine Engineering & Research Institute, CEng, F..MarE Calcutta. Extra First Class Engineer. February 1999 Foreword ‘re Marine Engineer today, has to deal with the complete spectrum of marine engineering technology found on board all modern vessels. As a ‘general practitioner’, he cannot have a Specialist’s knowledge in all areas. Thus two things are essential. First, that he understands the language of the Specialist, so that effective communication can be made if required, especially when trouble-shooting problems. Second, that he must have available good reference material, especially of the Specialist’s fields. This book covers the requirements outlined above, in the field of Marine Engineering, especially for candidates appearing for MEO Certificate of Competency examinations. It provides the understanding of the terminology and strives to be ‘the standard reference book’, both for the shipboard engineer, as well as for the superintendent ashore, who is a vital link in the chain This has only been possible because the authors have varied experience, not only as Specialists in the marine field, but also as ship-board engineers tackling a variety of problems. They have the necessary background, training and practical experience, that makes a Marine Engineer so unique. Thope that this will be setting new standards for training, and proving that India now provides the most efficient and also the best quality man-power to all the merchant fleets of the world. I wish the authors, Mr. Vikram Gokhale and Mr. N.Nanda, both ex- students of this Institute, the best of success in this book, which I know must have taken them a lot of, hard work and patience to complete. I hope there will be many more books to follow. Alana aibtpehepaeysy, Director, Marine Engineering and Research Institute (MERI), Calcutta - 700 088Preface This book has been thoroughly updated and revised, to suit the recent changes made in the syllabus. All this has been possible only because of the overwhelmingly good response received to the earlier edition Marine Engineers should find this book invaluable, not only as a work of reference, but also as a complete text book, while preparing for MEO Certificate of Competency exams The object of this text-book is to present the subject matter in a concise, informative and lucid manner, Many changes have occurred in the field of Marine Engineering, which are basically of an evolutionary nature. Thus it is important to grasp the basic principles, before an attempt is made to understand the present generation of marine engines and auxiliaries. The topics, which have been covered in this book have been carefillly selected, and the extent of coverage of certain topics has been substantially expanded, to do adequate justice to the subject. It is earnestly hoped that this text-book will serve the needs of students & teachers alike Any constructive suggestions for this book are always welcome. We would be thankful for any feedback, especially concerning possible errors and omissions. If these are brought to our notice, the required changes could be incorporated in revised editions, and help provide our readers with the best quality of technical literature, that they should always get We wish to thank all our colleagues, friends and well-wishers, especially those from the faculty of the Lal Bahadur Shastri College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research, Mumbai, without whose support and encouragement, this would not have been possible. Vikram Gokhale . N.Nanda LBS College of Advanced Maritime Studies & Research, Mumbai, India.Acknowledgements T. authors gratefully acknowledge the help, information obtained and contributions from various members of the Marine engineering fraternity, including the faculty of the Lal Bahadur Shastri College of ‘Advanced Maritime Studies & Research, Mumbai Weare particularly appreciative of the information obtained through various books, technical magazines and other articles, which helped to cover the subject at an advanced level. We would also like to thank Mr. A.K Ramanujam, Principal of Varun Maritime School, Mumbai and Mr. V.P.Dater, of MAN B&W Diesel A/s, who were extremely helpful. We would not attempt to enumerate all those who have contributed in some measure to this effort, since the list would be endless. This is more the result of anindustry effortTable of comtemts Chapter I Internal Combustion Engines 1. Engine Types 2. Engine Matching and Selection 3. Tests and Trials 4. Fuel pumps, Adjustment & Injection 5. Fuel combustion 6. Fuel Characteristics and Variable Injection Timing, 7. Indicator Diagrams 8. Power balancing ‘Combustion monitoring Chapter Ir Scavenging & Pressure Charging 1 3. Scavenging, ‘Turbocharger design, fouling, and_ maintenance 2 ‘Types of Turbocharging Surging Latest developments in engine components - 2 stroke and 4 stroke. Chapter I1I Lubricating oil systems Applications - Bearing and cylinder lubrication Additives Indication of additive starvation Cylinder liner wear & fitting Lubricating oil - analysis and sampling Function and treatment of lubricants Cylinder oils - Low speed engines Engine factors affecting lubrication System oils - low speed engines Chapter rw Marine fuels. 1 3 Properties Low temperature properties, Corrosion and paints 1 3 5 7 Corrosion triangle & reactions Factors affecting corrosion Sacrificial anode system Surface preparation standards Ignition quality Cleaning and treatment Homogenisers Galvanic cell Types of corrosion Impressed current system ‘Types of paintsChapter v Operational problems and Maintenance 1. Slip in Crankshaft 2 3. Vibration 4. 5. Crankease corrosion 6 7. Failure of crosshead bearings 8 ©. Crankcase explosion, safety devices 10. 11, Starting airline explosion 2.3 12 13. Seuffing 4 15. Deposit formation in oil cooled pistons 16, 17 Piston seizure 18, 19. Chain slackening 20. 21, Turbocharger damage 2. Chapter VI Controls 1. Governors. 2 3. Classification society rules for starting air systems 4 S. Unattended machinery spaces 6 7. Vibration & noise monitoring 8 9. Bridge control of main engine 10. Chapter VII Water Treatment 1, Boiler water treatment fundamentals j <3 2. 3. Factors affecting corrosion, scaling & carry-over 4 5. Tests for low pressure boilers 6 7. Interpreting test results 8 8. Boiler blowdown 10 11. Boiling out, degreasing, descaling & derusting 2 13. Tests for cooling water 14 15. Reverse Osmosis Chapter VIII Shafting , propellers, materials and vibration 1. Shaft system and thrust block 2 3. Oilinjection fitting 4 5. Cavitation & propeller maintenance 6 7. Propeller characteristics 8 9. Service and spare propeller 10, 11, Bearing materials 2 1 Vibrational analysis. 433 Main engines with fretted chocks Valve deposits Bearing failures Bacterial infestation in system oils Scavenge Fires Piston ring faitures Excessive wear of rings & liners Piston ring clearances Clover-teafing Gear damage Boiler tube repairs Starting and reversing ‘Main engine interlocks Condition monitoring, Main engine control system Advantages of automation Elements affecting boiler treatment ‘Treatment for low pressure boilers Low pressure boiler system Boiler - wet lay up Chemical cleaning of boilers Cooling water treatment Degreasing of diese! cooling systems Stem tube bearings & seals Propeller removal - Pilgrim nut Controllable pitch propeller Propeller material & selection Material & processes Fusible alloysChapter 1x Surveys, regulations and pollution control 1. Certification and Surveys 2. Harmonised system of surveys 3. Continuous hull survey & machinery survey 4. Anmual surveys 5, Enhanced survey system 6 Corrosion & coatings 7. Structural defeets and their locations 8. Dry docking and lay-up repairs 9. Schedule & scope of dry-dock work 10. Technical aspects of drydock 11. Port state control 12, ISM code 13, Pollution control & Marpol 14, Oilpoltution & OWS 15. Airpollution 16. Prevention of pollution 17. Garbage disposal 18, Oil pollution prevention 19. Sewage regulations Chapter x Fixed fire-fighting installations 1. Inert gas system 2. Carbon dioxide system 3. Carbon dioxide-gang release system 4. Fire in cargo spaces 5. Re-entry into engine room 6. Carbon dioxide system calculations 7. Foam system - low expansion foam 8. Water spray system 9. Steam smothering, Halon systems 10. Fire main system Chapter XI Auxiliary Machinery Air Compressors 1 Definitions 2. Reciprocating compressors 3 Air filter & valves 4, Intercoolers, Aftercooler & Fusible plug 5 Oil system and relief valve 6 Bearings 7. Rotary compressors 8. Control air treatment Steering Gear 1 Regulatory requirements 2, Rudders and torque on rudder 3. Power developed by rudder 4, Steering Gear Assembly & Controls 5. Faults, Causes, Remedies 6. Pail-safe Steering & Stcering failure 7. Tests, drills, examination 8 Non follow up Steering Deck Machinery 1. Anchor and windlass 2. Winches for cargo handling 3. Electrical power for deck machinery 4, Fin stablisers Refrigerating Machinery 20 1. Vapour Compression eyele 2. Properties of refrigerants 3. Types of refrigerants 4 Reciprocating compressors 5. Expansion valves 6 Operational problems 7 Lubrication 8 Alternative refrigerants Letter WritingMass Force Moment of force Work, energy Power Pressure Temperature Volume Kilogram Gram Tonne Newton Kitonewton Newton-Metre Kilonewton-metre Joule Kilo joule Kilowatt-hour Kilowatt Watt Kilowatt Newton per metre? mill bar mm of Mercury mm of water Degree Kelvin Degree Celsius Cubic metre per second Cubic metre per hour Litre per hou: kN kN m KI kWh kW Wells =N mis kw Nim? mbar mm Hg mm water KChapter 1 Internal Combustion Engines Marine engines of conventional design fall into low-speed, medium speed and high speed category. Low-speed engines are generally intended for direct drive, (without any speed changing device) and are restricted to an rpm range, for which efficient propellers can be designed. This is generally between 50 to 300 rpm, at rated power. Low speed marine engines are mostly two-stroke, Crosshead engines, with between four to twelve cylinders, in-line, turbocharged, and aftercooled. The stroke-to-bore ratio of low speed engines (in current production) usually varies from 2.5:1 to 4.2:1 or even more, These engines are called Superlong stroke engines, and are well suited to operation on very low-quality fuels, and prove to be economically advantageous. Medium and high speed engines, because of their higher rpm, drive propellers through speed-reduction gears, but may be directly coupled for driving generators. These are usually four stroke, trunk-piston engines, which may have up to ten cylinders in-line or up to 24 ina V or W configuration, and are mostly turbocharged and aftercooled. Stroke-to-bore ratios are not very high, because of the forces created by high speeds. The upper limit of the medium-speed category, and the start of high-speed category, is generally placed in the range of 900 to 1200 rpm, but there are no clear physical features that enable the distinction to be made. At cone time, the mean piston speed was used as a defining parameter, but the traditional boundaries fail for many engines. These engines tend to be lighter, more compact, and lower in acquisition cost than low-speed en- gines, with a proven heavy-fuel capability, but most evidence indicates that maintenance costs are higher, as compared to Low speed engines, that are run on similar fuels of poor quality. Some engines, especially those in the higher-speed category, are restricted to distillate fuels. comausnion [AT CONSTANT PRESSURE ADIABATICLEXPANSION A {ROWER} YOLUME DUAL CYCLE Modern Compression ignition engines, or ‘diesel’ engines, as they are commonly known, operate on the Dual combustion eycle. The theoretical Dual or mixed combustion cycle is a combination of the constant- volume (Otto) cycle and the constant-pressure (Diesel) cycleRudolf Diesel has been credited with the creation of the Diesel engine. Diesel formulated his original engine cycle concept in 1892 in a paper called - ‘Theory and construction of a rational heat engine.’ From Camot’s theories, published in 1824, he saw that increased efficiency would be achieved by increasing the temperature difference in the engine cycle to give the maximum expansion in the cylinder. The high cycle temperatures required would only be achieved by very high maximum cylinder pressures [ peak pressures ] [At these high pressures intended, it was clearly not possible to compress the fuel together with the inducted air, because of the possibility of premature self ignition. It thus became necessary to inject the fuel separately, into the air which had already been compressed, far beyond the ignition temperature of the fuel to be bumt. This became the real distinguishing feature of the Diesel engine. Early gas engines used open flame ignition, then ignition by hot tube, followed by electric spark. Hot bulb engines, as developed by Priestman, Akroyd and others, achieved ignition, ofthe vaporised oil fuel by the hot uncooled surfaces in the combustion cham ber. Initially Diesel envisaged using Camot’s Isothermal expansion cycle, with maximum (but impractical) combustion pressures upto 250 bar ; however, he eventually employed a more realistic level of 35 bar in his, engine tests, nevertheless, this was still considerably higher than the hot bulb engine, using 10-15 bar. Diesel had to discard the impractical Camot cycle, in favor of one with constant pressure combustion, which was further modified to the Dual cycle. His second test engine ran successfully in 1897, achieving a maximum brake thermal efficiency of 30.2%, at a time when steam engines had efficiencies in the order of 10-15%, and hot bulb oil engines were only a little bit better. The first Diesel licensee was Maschinenfabrik-Augsburg AG (MAN), on 21st February 1893. This was followed by Krupp and Sulzer Brothers Ltd. in the same year. Burmeister & Wain (B & W) became licensees in 1898. By 1901, a total of 31 companies were licensed to build and sell Diesel engines. By 1902, some 359 Diesel engines were actually in use - mostly for stationary applications. The first ‘marine diesels entered service in 1903 - the French canal barge Petit Pierre, powered by a 25 BHP, horizon- tally opposed piston engine, built by Dyckhoff. Being adapted from stationary applications, these early ma- rine engines were not reversible, and had to be used as part of a diesel- electric system. Direct reversing engines were introduced by Sulzer in 1905, followed by M.A.N. and others. In 1909, Sulzer started using Cross flow port scavenging for their two strokes, dispensing with cylinder head valves, a design that was continued till 1956, when Sulzer changed over to Loop Scavenging in the RD series. The application, of diesels to merchant ships, picked up from 1910 onwards. By 1912, there were 365 Diesel engined ships in service. The first motor ship [1910] was the Italian vessel Romagna, with twin, 4-cylinder, Sulzer engines, of 380 bhp. at 250 rp.m. The first ocean-going motorship was the Selandia [ 1912 ], which made her maiden voyage from Copenhagen to Bangkok in February 1912. The Selandia was powered by twin, 1,010 BHP, B & W, 8 cylinder, 4-stroke engines, which were direct coupled, had blast injection and were single acting, ‘The Monte Penedo, of 1912, was the first 2- stroke Diesel powered, ovean-going vessel, which had twin, 4-cylinder, Sulzer engines producing 850 B.H.P at 160 RPM. Even so, by 1914, only about 0.47% of the total merchant gross tonnage used internal combustion engines, buming diesel oil; while 89% were still coal buming vessels. By the mid- 1920's, motor ships were designed to bur boiler-grade fuel in their main engines, however the commercial incentive to bum residual fuel did not exist, because of the low cost differ- ential between diesel and residual oil, During the early part of the twentieth century, practically all marine fuels were produced by straight distillation, In 1936, a secondary refining process was developed, called as ‘catalytic cracking’. This was introduced on a commercial basis during the early 1940s, to increase the gasoline yield In the 1950s, a type of thermal cracking, known as vis-breaking, was introduced, which further increased the yield per barrel, with the result that the characteristics of the residual fuel varied consid- crably, depending on the source ofthe fuel and the types of refining processes carried out. Marine residual fuel today accounts for only about 4% to 6% of the barrel. There was intense rivalry, between 2- strokes and 4- strokes, uptil the 1930s; but by the mid - 1930s, the 2- strokes had dominated the large propulsion engine market. The earliest marine diesels were built like the steam reciprocating engines, comprising of heavy C.1 A-frames, mounted on a common bedplate. At first, the crankcase was left open; but, with the advent of pressure lubrication, cover plates were later fitted. Cylindor jackots were cast integrally, on the individual A- frames and the engines of the Monte Penedo were the first to be equipped with interchangeable cylinder liners ‘This arrangement formed the basis of Sulzer's SD series of the 1940sSulzer Marine two-stroke engines The first Sulzer marine diesel was a 40 BHP, 2-Cylinder, four stroke unit of 260 mm bore and 450 rm stroke, installed in the cargo vessel Venoge. The SD/SAD series were developed from 1943 to 1954. A. typical SD, the SD72 had a me.p. of 4.95 bar and sf.0.c. of 159 gm/BHP-hr, The RSD type of 1935 had reciprocating scavenge punips, augmented by under-piston space scavenging. A diaphragm was fitted be- ‘pween the scavenge space and the crankcase. The b.m..p. was now 5.4 bar. The RSD were replaced by the RSAD of 1954/55. In the RSAD, the mechanically driven scavenge pumps were dispensed with. Ex- haust gas Turbochargers were now fitted, operating on the Pulse type of turbocharging, and also a rotary exhaust valve. This would close the exhaust ports immediately after the scavenging process, preventing a blow-back from other cylinders during scavenging, and keep the exhaust ports closed during the compression stroke, thus preventing exhaust gas from flowing back into the under-piston space, which was used as a ‘scavenge pump, The me.p. was now 6.9 bar. The MCR of the RSAD 76 was 1175 bhp/ unit at 120 rpm. s.£0.c. was 153 gnv bhp hr., and peak pressure was about 60 bar. The RD of 1957. had loop scavenging, pulse type of Turbocharging, and had improvements in the design of the Charge air Receiver, the turbo- charger, the scavenge cooler and the scavenge ports. The design of the rotary exhaust valves was also improved. The b.me-p. was 8.64 bar, with an output of 2300 bhp/ unit (RD90), piston design was changed to take care of the higher thermal loads and piston cooling was done by water, via telescopic pipes and a sealing gland system (to take care of any water leaks.) In 1968, the RND type was introduced. using, ‘constant- pressure type turbocharging, with pistons having long skirts to blank-off the exhaust ports - thus dispensing with the rotary exhaust valves, and used loop scavenging and under-piston spaces as scavenge pumps; additionally, there was double separation, between the under-piston space, and the crankcase. thus ‘minimising the chances of contamination. The RND-M series of 1976 brought-in several changes. The nwo- part cylinder head, of the RD and RND, was changed to a solid, forged steel, bore cooled, single piece. cylinder head. The upper part of the cylinder liner was also bore-cooled. This was replaced by the longer stroke RL type engine of 1979, where the stroke-to-bore ratio was increased from 1.67:1 to 2.1:1. These \were designed for lower propeller speeds and reduced specific fuel consumption. These were also the last of the loop- scavenged engines. For these engines, Sulzer introduced the V.1.T. sysystem, which improved the tucl efficiency at part-load operation, In 1982, Sulzer introduced the KA series, with a number of radicat changes from its earlier engines The RTA engines were first introduced as the 8 - Series; with uni-flow scavenging, through a single, centrally ‘mounted, hydraulically actuated, exhaust valve. The stroke-to-bore ratio was now 2.9:1, and piston cooling, ‘was still with water. The piston was bore- cooled. Higher efficiency turbochargers permitted the omission of under-piston scavenge pumps. Separate Servo-motors were provided for the distributor, and fuel cams { one Servo-motor for every two units |, and the camshaft position remained unaltered, during reversing, since only the fuel cams were mounted on the Servo-motors, In 1984, Sulzer introduced the 2- Series of RTA engines, where the stroke to bore ratio was now increased to 3.45:1, and came in bore sizes of 520, 620 and 720 mm [ the RTA 52, 62 and 72 }, The pistons were now oil-cooled, and the specific fuel consumption dropped to 122 em / bhp-Hr, while peak pressures went up to 135 bar. In 1983, Sulzer introduced the RTA 84M, with power increased t0 4700 bhp per unit. This was followed by the RTA 84C in 1988, with power boosted still further to 5200 bhp/ unit, cvlinder head material uprated and the gcometry of the cooling bores changed, while the top piston ring was pre-profiled and plasma-coated to lower the wear rates, There were now three injectors per unit, and peak pressure was 135 bar In June 1989, M.A.N, B&W tried to acquire Sulzer Brothers” Diesel division, and call it M.B.S. Diesel ‘engines, but this was not approved by the respective governments, and it reverted to Sulzer Diese! in January 1990. In July 1990, Sulzer Brothers sold a majority stake, of their Marine engine division, to a consortium of Bremer Vulkan, H.D.W and D.M.R. of Germany, and Fincantieri of Italy, with a minority stake retained by Sulzer Brothers. The company was then called New Sulzer Diesel. In 1991, New Sulzer Diesel introduced the RTA 84T, which had a lot of new features. ‘The stroke-to-bore ratio went up to 3.75:1, and peak pressure to 140 bar, while power went up to 5280 bhp/ unit, and specific fuel consumption was now down to 119 gm bhp-hr. This engine was fitted with VIT. Variable Exhaust Closing [V.E,C.], and an electronic Governor, This \was followed by the uprated 2-Senes. the RTA S2U, 62U and 72U, in 1992, where power was up by 96. svith the same specific fuel consumption. and the top ring was now thicker, pre-protiled and plasma-coated. with claimed wear rates down to 0.0.4 mm/ 1000 hr, Peak pressure was now 142 bar. In 1996, Sulzer - oF cather, New Suizer Diesel. as it was called - was merged with the Metra Corporation, owners of Finland's \Wartsila Diesel. to form Wartsila NSD. The latest £2 RITA 96 is the largest, producing over 0,000 bhp.B&W Marine Two- Stroke engines ‘The Danish company, Burmeister & Wain (B&W), became licensees of diesel engines in 1898. In the period between the two World Wars, B&W together with their licensee Harland & Wolf, designed and built a ‘wide range of marine engines. After the Second World War, B&W had discontinued double acting engines and concentrated on single acting designs. The first of the uniflow scavenged, two-stroke, crosshead engines ‘came into service in 1939, These early engines, designated the VT2BF, had a short piston and cylinder liner, ‘with separation between scavenge space and crankcase. The next change was in 1951/52, when exhaust gas driven turbochargers were introduced. The mip. was 8 bar. In 1959/60, a highly pressure-charged, large bore engine, designated the Type 84 VT2BF 180, was introduced, developing 2100 bhp/ unit, with a bore of 840 mm, anda s.f0.¢. of 158 gv bhp hr. By 1963, the VT2BF was builtin bore sizes of 620, 740 & 840 mm, with a stoke/bore ratio of 2.1:1 to 23:1, and a BMEP of 8.6 bar. ‘The KEF was introduced in 1968, with a BMEP of 9.6 bar initially, later increased to 10.5 bar, and had ‘an improved design of the exhaust valve, featuring a heat resistant Stellite layer, and operated by rocker arm, push rods and mechanical springs. This was followed by the KFF, of which the K98FF had a bore of 980 mm, ‘output of 3800 bhp/ unit, the peak pressure was 80 bar, and s.fo.c, was 154 gnv bhp hr. In 1969-70, the KGF ‘was introduced, the most visible difference being hydraulic actuation of the exhaust valve, using a hydraulic actuator on the camshaft. Ithad a semi-built crankshaft, having a cast steel crankthrow; had pulse charging, improved exhaust valve coate of Stollite, a deep section welded hedplate, CT cross girders, steel hacked shell bearings for crosshead, a forged steel cylinder head with bore cooling, a stroke/bore ratio of 2:1, producing 3100 BHP/unit { K90GF }, BMEP of 11.6 bar, a specific fuel consumption of 152 gnv/bhp-hr, and a peak pressure of 86 bar. The stroke length was further increased by 20-30%, with corresponding reduction in engine speed, and these longer stroke variants were designated as the LGF series. The increased stroke and reduced speed resulted in an improvement in propeller efficiency of from 4.5% to 7.5%, with an improvement in fuel consumption figures. This was followed by the K/L GFC A in 1978, with constant pressure turbocharging, a scavenge pressure of 3.1 bar, steel backed white metal main/bottom-end bearings, a crosshead bearing having steel backed with 4% of tin alloy, a peak pressure of 89 to 93 bar, increase in bmep. to 15 bar, and a 16% reduction in specific fuel consumption (to 128 gm/bhp-hr). The shape of the cylinder head and the dished shape of the piston crown in the GFCA engines formed an almost spherical combustion chamber, which minimised the risk of fuel jet impingement, thus reducing the possibility of excessive thermal stresses. In December 1979, a merger was announced between M.A.N. of Augsburg, and Burmeister and Wain (B&W), of Copenhagen. In 1981, joint company, M.A.N.- B&W GmbH, was formed to coordinate diesel engine design & manufacture. The former M.A.N. works would concentrate on Four stroke engines, and the former B&W works would look after the Two strokes; under the joint name of M.A.N.- B&W GmbH, The original M.A.N range of KSZ was discontinued, it being decided to continue the B&W K/L - GFC series; with the newly formed company, M.A.N.- B&W, producing all the future engines. In 1981, the L-GFC A was modified to the L-GFC B type, which had higher efficiency Turbochargers, which meant that mep could be raised from 13.9 bar to 15 bar, and the peak pressure increased from 89 bar to 10S bar, for the same engine speeds. The Pmax./ mep ratio remained unchanged, however the increased peak pressure raised the engine output by 15%, and the specific fuel consumption was reduced by about 3 gnv/ bhp hr. A fuel optimised variant was the L- GFC BE, with an improved fuel injection system, featuring an obliquely cut-off upper edge of the fuel pump plunger. This was the first version of the VIT system, which improved economy at part loads. Early in 1982, the engine designations were simplified. The L-GFC B was re-designated as the LGB, whose main features ‘were a bmep of 15 bar, a Peak pressure of 105 Bar, while fuel consumption was 3% lower. The stroke to bore ratio was 2.41. There were pneumatic springs for exhaust valve shutting In 1982, the LMC was the first, of the so-called ‘MC - series’, which are still being produced today These were superlong-stroke engines having a stroke to bore ratio of 3.24 - |. They were having from six to twelve cylinders; with the bedplate having a crossgirder, and with cast steel bearing supports, a crankshaft employing narrow gap submerged-arc welding, or semi- built up, the main bearings of thick shell white metal the bottom end and crossiiead bearings of the thin wall, aluminium-tin type, and the guides of white metal The piston had a chrome -molybdenum cast steel crown: a protective layer of Inconel being welded to the outer part of the crown, the piston cooling was by cil, and it had a short cast-iron skirt; the crown being bolted to the piston rod, and the piston rod bolted to the cross head. The piston had four grooves, which were hard - chrome plated, while the skirt had a phosphatised surface. The power output was up to 524] bhp/unit - [for5B the L8O MC}, and peak pressure was 125 bar, the BMEP 16 2 bar. the specific fuel consumption down to 19 gm/bhp-hr, the crosshead bearing had a one piece bottom shell, and there was a later version of Variable Injection Timing [VT , called as super VIT, where the barrel was raised’ lowered, for changing the injec- tion timing, unlike the earlier system. There was also the Fuel Quality Setting [F.Q.S.}, which would compen- sate for the variable quality of the fuel that was being used. ‘A distinguishing feature of the “MC” series was the reversing mechanism, which had pneumatically operated, self-locking, shifting rollers for the fuel cam, ‘The SMC was introduced in 1987. The stroke/bore ratio was increased to 3.8:1, the BMEP increased to 18 bar, and was made with the following bore sizes ~ 260, 350, 500, 600, 700 & 800 mm bores at speeds of 80 to 255 RPM. The S 90 MC produced 6200 bhp/unit, and the specific fuel consumption was now 124 gnvbhp-hr, There was a two part water jacket. This was followed by the KMC, where the stroke/bore ratio was initially kept at 2.9:1. It was made in 500. 600, 700, 800 & 900 mm bores, produced 5540 bhp/unit [in the K90 MC}, with specific fuel consumption at 126 gm/bhp-hr. This was followed by the KMC-C version in 1988, having 5590 bhp/unit [for the K90 MC-C), a BMEP of 16.2 bar, made in 800 é& 900 mm bores, with a peak pressure of 135 bar, a stroke/bore ratio of about 2.55:1, and a specific fuel consumption of 121 to 119 gm/bhp-hr. This engine was produced for the container ship market, being used in faster ships with limited head-room, hence the lower stroke-to-bore ratio. The SMC series was further extended, with the addition of the S 42 MC in 1994, having an ultra long stroke of 4.2:1, and specitic fuel consumption of 128 gm/bhp-hr. The ultra-long stroke, combined with the slow speeds, helped the engine to bum the lowest grades of oil. The K 98 MC is the largest, used for the new generation Post Panamax Container ships ( in excess of 8000 TEU) and the largest 18 cylinder K 98 MC version is capable of generating 1,40, 000 bhp POWER =a pence! > 1%In the Otto cycle, the theoretical pressure-volume diagram is formed from two constant-volume and two adiabatic processes. The air in the cylinder is compressed adiabatically. Heat is added to the air at constant volume. Work is done ducing the adiabatic expansion and then heat is rejected at constant volume In the Diesel cycle, the theoretical pressure-volume diagram is formed from two adiabatic operations, one constant-pressure and one constant-volume operation. Air is compressed adiabatically and then heat is added at constant pressure. Adiabatic expansion takes place and then heat is rejected at constant volume. ‘The theoretical air cycle can take place only in an engine based on theoretical assumptions. It is assumed that the piston is frictionless, the cylinder walls and piston consist of non-heat-conducting material, and that the cylinder head behaves sometimes as a perfect heat conductor and sometimes as a perfect heat insulator. We ‘must then imagine that the cycle starts with a cylinder and compression space full of pure air in compressing it and raising its temperature. During the compression stroke the cylinder head is behaving as a perfect insulator as are the piston and cylinder walls. Under these conditions no heat is lost during the compression stroke. At the end of the compression stroke, the cylinder head is assumed to become a perfect heat conduc- tor and heat is added to the compressed air from some extemal source (fuel). The addition of heat to the air (at high pressure and temperature) forces out the piston against some resistance, and work is done at the expense of the heat in the air. Asino heat has gone into the piston, cylinder head or walls, no heat can be given to the air and the expansion will be adiabatic, as was the compression, When the piston is at the end of the stroke the cylinder head is imagined to become a perfect conductor again. A cold body is then put against the head and some of the heat in the air goes into the cold body and continues until the temperature is back to initial temperature again. The process is repeated without changing the air. The heat added in the theoretical cycle is related to the heat content of the fuel injected into the cylinder in practice. The heat rejected is related to the heat lost in the exhaust gases. Generally diesel engines are so matched to their loads, that normal operations (in service) is at some high fraction of rated output, typically in the range of 80% to 90% of the maximum continuous rating (MCR), at a speed slightly below rated rpm. This region of operation usually coincides with the best range of specific fuel consumption. Anticipated component lives and service recommendations for inspection, maintenance renewal, and overhaul intervals are based upon operation in this range. The difference, between the power at MCR and the power level established for normal operation (which is sometimes called the CMCR or Contract MCR), is the Engine margin ew es REM KW 40} 7000 | PROPELLER CURVE \ Figure shows the speed-power curves for a ship. The curves can be projected at the design stage. The power absorbed by the propeller is less than the brake power because of transmission and shafting losses and attached loads. The average service condition curve reflects the fact that more power will be required for a uiven ship's speed to be achieved in servies than on trials The allowance for service conditions, whieh is applied to the power estimate for the trial condition, is called the Service margin, and is applied in addition to7 the Engine margin, The Total margin is the difference between the installed power (or MCR) and the power required to achieve service speed on trials, with the hull and propeller clean and smooth, and is equal to the ‘sum of the engine margin and the service margin. In practice , many operators will accept the use of the power reserve that is incorporated in the engine margin to meet required service speeds as the hull perfor- mance deteriorates. In fact, the division between engine margin and service margin is not consistently de- fined, since the continuous service power is arbitrarily determined, The only important consideration is that the total margin be adequate Engine matching and selection Relation between Ship Speed and Engine Performance If an engine were matched to run at 100% of rated pm at the required service speed under trial conditions, it can be seen that, to maintain the required service speed, the engine would necessarily exceed its rated rpm increasingly thereafter, as the hull and propeller roughen. Consequently, propulsion engines must bbe matched on their propellers, such that the ship’s speed achieved at 100% rpm under trial conditions (the trial speed) exceeds the required service speed. An engine is normally limited in its power output by con- straints on thermal overload that are most conveniently expressed as an MEP limit. The MEP, like the torque, is proportional to the power developed divided by the rpm. Since the service speed is below the tral speed, it is normally the MEP limit that will be reached first as the hull and propeller performance deteriorate in service . Thus an engine can be forced into a condition of excessive torque and MEP without exceeding rated power. TURBOCHARGER OVERSPEED 100% POWER (MCR) AIR LIMIT CONSUMPTION TORQUE OR MEP LIMIT fe 5 a a 3 Es 3 2 s 5 6 IDLE SPEED PERFORMANCE LIMITS Required Engine Rating ‘The engine rating is generally determined so that, in the trial condition of the hull and propeller, at loaded draft and trim, the power required to drive the propeller, allowing for transmission and shafting losses, ‘will be between 80% and 90% of the MCR, at rated rpm. This allowance will usually result in adequate marginsDerating Engines are derated, such that the power required under rated rpm at trial conditions is even less than 80% to 90% of the MCR, and there are various reasons for this, some of which are -the ship must maintain rigorous schedules or a large allowances for adverse weather conditions is required, thus the need for an adequate power reserve. -the long-term effects of increased hull and propeller roughness are expected to be large - extended stays in warm, seawater ports or anchorage, where increased hull fouling is likely ~ often the MCR rating does not give the most economical fuel consumption. ‘When the rating is determined such that the power absorbed at rated rpm under trial conditions is less than the MCR, higher average power outputs can be utilized in service as the hull and propeller roughen, ‘without excessive torque (as reflected in high MEP and cylinder exhaust temperatures), enabling higher ship speeds to be achieved. However, more power must be installed, and so acquisition cost and plant weight will be higher. Engine Selection Once the required engine rating has been established, other factors that affect the selection of engines for a particular application must be considered. Among these are the ship's type, the plant weight, the machinery space volume, fuel quality and consumption, acquisition cost, reliability, maintenance require- ments, and present and future spare parts cost and availability, A requirement for low weight or minimum machinery volume may be achieved at the expense of high fuel consumption or high maintenance require- ments. Selection of propulsion engines of light weight or low specific fuel consumption, for example may not result in the lightest or most cost-effective power plant. The operating profile of an engine assesses the time spent in various operating modes. All important modes must be considered, and periods of sustained idle or Jow load operation must be included as well as those at high loads. For propulsion engines, uperating modes ‘may include conditions of deep and light draft, clean and fouled hull, calm and heavy weather, cruising and high ship speed, towing or icebreaking and running free, and operation with and without attached auxiliaries. ‘The plant design and engine selection will be affected if the profile includes frequent or extended periods of maneuvering or aster running, In selecting propulsion engines, consideration must be given to whether a single engine of the low-speed, direct coupled type is most suitable, or if requirements are better met by one for more medium or high speed engines driving the propeller through gearing or electric drive Tests and Trials ‘The construction of a ship is concluded by tests to demonstrate that the ship meets contract require~ ‘ments. Some of the more simple tests are those of a quality control nature, which are conducted to ensure the ‘conformance of material properties to specified requirements, the soundness of castings, dimensional acct racy, and other such characteristics. The more complicated program of tests and trials that is subsequently conducted does, however, reflect the unique requirements associated with ship construction. This program includes shop tests, installation tests, dock trials and finally, sea trials. Tests are preferably scheduled as early as feasible during the ship construction process because early testing allows more time to evaluate and develop resolutions for design or material problems with minimal disruption to ship construction. Shop tests for purchased equipment are advantageously conducted at the manufacturer's facility where any corrections or adjustments can be expeditiously handled. A major advantage associated with the use of modular- con- struction methode in shipbuilding ic the ability to conduct aff-ship tests an construction modules that may include a number of components and their piping connections. Shop tests are conducted for purposes such as confirming that assemblies are correctly built, verifying strength and tightness requirements, and demonstrat ing that controls and safety devices are functional and properly adjusted. Components can often be tested more economically under shop conditions, and the shop ‘test environment is usually cleaner and less con- gested than that of a ship under construction. Components that have restrictive noise limits are commonly ‘operated in a noise-test shop to confirm that they have acceptable noise characteristics before they are installed. After shop testing, components are given a protective covering that is not removed until installation aboard ship. Installation tests are conducted to confirm that the installation is in conformance with specified requirements, cleanliness of piping systems, to demonstrate adequate access for equipment operation, main- tenance, and removal, and to confirm that components and systems function as specified. To the extent practicable, all components and systems are subjected to operational tests under conditions typical of thoseq expected in service, to provide confidence that the design and construction are sound. After the ship is {aunched and construction is essentially complete, and after the installation tests have been conducted, dock Uials are scheduled to establish that the propulsion plant and its auxiliaries are ready for sea trials. During dock trials, the ship is secured to. the pier with mooring lines while the main engines are used to drive the Propeller. The propulsion system is loaded, until a limiting condition is reached. With the ship secured to the pier, the apparent slip of the propeller is 100 percent, instead of the 20 to 40 percent in service, with a resultant effect on the power rpm relationship of the propeller Because of the high-slip conditions, for a given pm, the propeller develops a substantially higher thrust and torque than when in normal service. Conse- quently, the allowable thrust or torque may limit the power that can be developed during dock trials. Most shipboard components and systems can be subjected to tests in the shipyard that closely approximate service condition. There is no practicable way of demonstrating that the steering gear will function properly, without {aking the ship out to sea. The performance of the steering is to be tested, especially since the magnitude of the torque required, to move the rudder while the ship is underway at full power, is very large. Some assur- ance can be derived from mode! tests, but analytical procedures that have been correlated with full-scale test results are the primary means used in the design stage to ensure that a steering gear has an appropriate rating Fuel pumps adjustment and injection The most common type of fuel pump is the Bosch type, which with small variations is used in many diesel engines. One is fitted for each cylinder. The pump consist of a cam operated, single acting plunger of fixed stroke having a spring to maintain contact of follower on the cam. Fuel injection commences at the point on the up stroke when the top edge of the plunger blanks off the suction port. A helix or seroll is machined on the plunger, which stops delivery of fuel, when the curved surface of the helix uncovers the suction port. This allows fuel pressure above the plunger to fall to suction pressure through a vertical slot or hole. The quantity of fuel delivered is regulated by the vertical length of the helix, from the leading edge, ‘where itis in Tine with the suction port, This quantity may be altered by rotating the plunger. A rack is fitted to the fuel pump to engage with a pinion machined on the outside ofa sleeve. The sleeve fits over the plunger and has slots engaging with keys. The fuel cam is designed to raise the plunger atthe rate required to build up fuel pressure and maintain this for the corresponding period of fuel injection. Since the pump only discharges on its up stroke, only one flank of the cam operates the timing. The trailing flank of the cam returns the Plunger to the bottom of its stroke to allow the chamber to refill ‘Timing is controlled by the relative angular position of the cam with respect to TDC. It can be adjusted by moving the cam with respect to the shaft. Further adjustment is made by raising or lowering the pump Plunger with respect to its follower. Raising the plunger will make the fuel injection early, while lowering the Plunger will make it late. The fuel pump casing may be lowered or raised on its base, by means of shims, to tive the corresponding effect. The plunger must maintain sufficient clearances at the top of its stroke. Fuel Supply to the pump suction is by means ofa booster pump, which causes flooding of the fuel pump chamber, 8 soon as the suction port is uncovered by the plunger. In some pumps, a non-return spring-loaded discharge valve is fitted. This is arranged, so as to reduce the pressure in the discharge line, at the end of injection, ensuring positive seating of the fuel injector needle, without any secondary injection due to pressure pulses,and also reduces cavitation within the pump. A priming or vent plug is fitted to the discharge. Plunger and barrel surfaces are a close fit, the small clearance allowing some leakage to lubricate the plunger. Larger clearances are necessary when buming heavy fuel, for the larger expansion due to the higher temperatures Care must be taken that no leakage from the pumps can enter the camshaft lubrication system as this leads to fuel contamination of the lubricating oil. Cam timing should be checked periodically, as it greatly influences the fuel consumption rate. Fuel Pumps for MAN-B&W MC type engines operates on the same principle of control by a helix on the plunger, but have further adjustments, which make it possible to vary the Injection timing during operation of the engine (V.I.T.). The pump barrel is moved within the pump casing, with respect to the Plunger, by means of a VIT rack, which rotates a coarse-threaded sleeve, attached to the lower end of the barrel. Movement of the barrel will alter the timing ofthe start of injection and thus can be advanced more or less, 50 as to improve the specific fuel consumption at part load. The variable ignition timing linkage allows the engine govemor control to adjust all pumps collectively. A shock absorber is fitted to the pump chamber, to reduce pulses. The follower may be raised to cut-off fuel to a particular unit, if required. During the part of the cycle when the ‘Pumps are not injecting the fuel, hot fuel oil recirculates through the line to the injectors, thus allowing the ‘engine to be kept on heavy oil from pier-to-pier. unl ed TUNER a} a Lt ie sh eccomes, AY SULZER FUEL PUMP A valve timed fuel pump is used in large Sulzer RTA engines, The pump plunger is raised and lowered by a follower operated by the cam, Spring-loaded suction and spill valves control oil to and from the pump chamber. Each of these valves is opened by means of a pushrod, moved by a lever, operated from the plunger drive, Pivot points of the levers are mounted on eccentrics, and so positioned that one pushrod moves up as the plunger rises, while the other pushrod moves down. As the plunger moves upwards, the suetion valve is closed, and injection commences, From this point, oil pressure is raised and injection continues as the plunger continues its up stroke. The spill valve pushrod is now activated, jerking the spill valve off its seat, releasing the oil pressure and thus ending injection, The plunger chamber is recharged during the downward stroke. ‘The pivots of the levers being mounted on eccentrics, rotating these causes the timing to be altered. During, normal operation, the suction valve timing is constant, and thus the start of injection is fixed, while variation of the spill valve opening is used to control the amount of fuel injected, Variable ignition timing controls the suction and spill valve pivots, giving adjustment of the timing of injection with respect to TDC. Heated fuel oil ppasses through the pump, even during the period for which itis not injecting, thus allowing continuous running on heavy oil from pier-to-pier. The pump follower can be lifted clear of the cam, to shut off fuel to any unit.t COMBUSTION Combustion of fuel ‘The general indication of good combustion are similar in any operating diesel engine: a clear exhaust, correct amount of power produced and exhaust temperatures normal for the throttle setting. There should be nno uneven running, knocking from cylinders or any other fault in the fuel system. Viscosity or resistance to flow, in a fuel oil is important when considering combustion. It must be within the range to ensure correct atomisation at the fuel injector. Since viscosity reduces as temperature is increased, it will be necessary to heat heavy fuel oil to reduce its viscosity to about 10 - 15 Cst before injector for proper atomisation and combustion, Atomisation is the spitting up of the fuel into very small droplets by the fuel injector, forcing fuel at high pressure through small atomiser holes. The droplet size will depend upon the size of holes and the Pressure difference between fuel pump discharge and that of the compressed air in the combustion chamber, and consequently the size of droplets may vary . Atomised droplets have a high surface area to mass ratio, giving good heat transfer and causing efficient combustion with minimum of unburnt fuel Penetration refers to the distance the oil droplets travel into the combustion space before mixing with the air and igniting. This will depend upon droplet size (atomisation), velocity leaving the injector and the conditions within the combustion chamber, It is desirable that fuel should penetrate into the whole of the ‘combustion space for efficient space utilisation and good mixing, but droplets should not impinge on the intemal surfaces before burning. The number of atomiser holes and their position will decide the spray pattern. Turbulence is the movement of compressed air and fuel within the combustion space before combus~ tion occurs. This may have several causes. Swirl is imparted to the air during its entry at scavenge ports. It may be further agitated by the fuel spray pattem and the shape and movement of the piston crown. Turbu- lence will improve the mixing of ireland air for effective and rapid combustion. It is particularly desirable for rapid combustion of heavy fuels in medium or higher speed engines. Compression Ignition is the term used to describe the combustion in diesel engines and they are often referred to as compression ignition engines. The combustion process may be considered as several consecutive phases. Inthe initial phase, the atomised oil droplets emitted from the fuel valve nozzle into the combustion space at the start of injection will evaporate and mix with hot, compressed air. The mixture willreach an ignition temperature and spontaneous combustion will commence. The time elapsed during this phase termed the ignition delay or ignition lag, In the next phase ignition and start of combustion will set up aflame front which will accelerate through the chamber, enveloping and buming all the other droplets present, ‘causing a very rapid generation of heat with a corresponding rise in pressure and temperature, During the ignition delay, the injector continues to inject fuel and, if this has built up a sufficient quantity, the rapid combustion and pressure rise will be quite violent, causing detonation, the shock loading creating a noise termed diese! knock. Following the rapid pressure rise, hot, turbulent conditions existing in the combustion chamber will cause the ignition and burning of the remainder of the measured fuel charges as itis injected. This is termed the controlled part of the combustion process as pressure is regulated by the rate at which fuel continues to be delivered. The cylinder pressure may start to reduce as the piston moves down after passing ‘over top centre. Ignition quality of a fuel is the term used to denote its ignition delay, combustion character- istics and tendency to cause knock. It depends mainly upon the form of the hydrocarbon compounds in the fuel and no precise unit has been derived to measure this. The most usual measure of ignition quality of distillate fuels is the Cetane number. This is found by comparison of their knock producing properties to those ‘of mixtures containing an equivalent percentage of Cetane when burnt in a test engine. A high Cetane number indicates a short ignition delay. Cetane numbers are not quoted in.normal fuel specifications or analysis. Slow speed, two-stroke engines can operate efficiently on fuels down to Cetane number of about 24 but medium speed, four-stroke engines normally require a figure above 34; high speed engines need higher figures. Another measure which is similar to Cetane number but found from different parameters of the fuel, is termed its diesel index. For residual or blended fuels the ignition quality can be expressed as a CCAI value (calculated carbon aromacity index) or CII (calculated ignition index), The lower the CCAI value, the better the ignition quality. The ignition quality of a fuel is particularly important for ease of starting an engine, or ‘when operating at reduced power for long periods. It can be improved by advancing the timing (FQS), increasing the compression ratio of the engine or by pre-heating the scavenge air. There will be design or operational limits to these Fuel combustion does net take place at the tip of the injector but at a distance away from it, The delay occurs because the individual fuel droplets must diffuse through the hot cylinder contents for a sufficient time to heat, vaporize, mix with air, and finally ignite. The combustion process in a diesel cylinder is considered to occur in four phases, which begin during the compression process and end during the expansion process. The four phases are a) the ignition delay period (when no combustion occurs), b) the uncontrolled or rapid- combustion period, c) controlled combustion, and d) the afterbuming period Toe CONTROLLED COMBUSTION aereR RNING MONRO counustion PRESSURE ———=— IGNITION DELAYIgnition delay period “The ignition delay period isthe interval between injector opening and the start of ignition, During this phase the first droplets to enter the eylinder are heated by the surrounding charge of compressed air a8 they Eisperse and vaporize. Uni ignition occurs, there is no increase in the cylinder pressure above what it would have boon had injection not occurred. The ignition-delay period is primarily a function of he ignition quality of the fuel. whichis related to its chemical composition. Fuels of lower ignition quality require more preparation tine and the delay period is therefore longer. It is important to note that in a higher speed engine, the time available for this preparation of the fuel for ignition is lower than in a lower speed engine, 2 fact which helps to explain the generally lower tolerance of high-speed engines for fuel of low ignition quality. Rapid-combustion period During the rapid combustion period, the fuel, which has accumulated in the cylinder during the delay period, ignites and bums rapidly. Because the accumulated fuel has already mixed with the charge ai, this phase is sometimes called the premixed combustion period, The rapid combustion is accompanied by a sharp vise in cylinder temperature and pressure. If the pressure rises too sharply, the combustion becomes audible, a phenomenon known as Diesel knock. Controlled-combustion period Once combustion has been established in the cylinder, the ignition of further fuel droplets entering the cylinder lags the injection rate by the time required for the fuel to mix, heat, and vaporize. Because the droplets bum as they diffuse into the cylinder, this phase is sometimes called the diffusion combustion period. “This period ends shortly after the injector closes, when the last of the fuel has bumed. The eylinder pressure usually peaks just beyond the TDC position and near the middle of the steady-combustion period, The cylin- der pressure then declines as the expansion process proceeds, Afterburning period If all of the fuel has bumed cleanly and completely by the end of the steady combustion period, the pressure profile will be smooth through the expansion stroke. There will be some pressure fluctuations resulting from the combustion of incompletely burned fuel or of intermediate combustion products, and some delayed chemical reactions. It is during this period that soot and other pollutants are produced. Although the great majority of low-speed engines and many medium-speed engines are operated on heavy fuels, and although an increasing number of high-speed engines have been proven capable of operation on at least the Tighter blends, there is still a balance to be struck between the lower cost of heavier fuels and the inconve- rience and greater cost of fuel treatment and increased engine maintenance that inevitably result from their use. Distillate fuels are generally suitable for use in diesel engines, so that treatment can be limited to settling and filtering operations. Residual fuel is blended with distillate fuel to form an intermediate fuel (IFO), which depending on the proportions used , can itself be described as light or heavy. A residual fuel may contain significant amounts of the undesirable constituents of the crude, and may be contaminated with catalytic fines ‘Variable injection timing (VI) fan engine operates for long periods at reduced power or speed, the residual heat in the main compo- nents of the combustion chamber will decrease, causing a lower air temperature after compression. This will lead to an increase in the ignition delay of injected fuel, which will lead to a fall in the peak pressure and increase in fuel consumption, and may also cause knocking or “rough running’ in the engine, with consequent damage from shock loads. This problem can be reduced by the use of variable ignition timing to advance the stattof injection, allowing forthe longer delay but maintaining the same peak pressure and fuel consumption In large, two-stroke engines, variable ignition timing is automatically superimposed on the normal fuel pump setting from the engine governor. Fuel pumps are designed to change the advance as per load automatically, ‘while the engine is running, This control can also be manvally regulated to change normal timing, if its known that fue! with low ignition quality is to be used (FOS) 13Fuel characteristics Viscosity The viscosity ofa fuel is the resistance to flow, and may, by itself present no difficulty, as long as the fuel can be heated sufficiently at each point in the system to permit pumping, settling, filtering centrifuging, and atomizing. At very high viscosities, the problems that could arise are : Fouling of Heaters, gassing of the fuel, thermal expansion of fuel pump components and clogging of filters. The volume of fuel bumed in an engine is small in relation to the volume that is available in the piping, and in installations intended for operation con heavy fuels, the transit time between the heaters and the injectors could be sufficiently long, especially at Tow loads, for the fuel to cool. To prevent this undesired cooling, tracing steam is used and a flow rate is, maintained that is much higher than that needed for injection, that is, about two or three times engine con- sumption at MCR, with the unconsumed excess of the injection pumps recirculated back to the booster pump suction, Density The ability to separate water and solids from a fuel by setting and centrifuging is dependent on the differences between the density of the impurities and the fuel, The correct amount of heating is required, because the density of the fuel decreases more rapidly than those of the impurities, most notably water, Heating enables conventional centrifuges to achieve adequate separation of water from heated fuel, that has a specific gravity as high as 0.995. More sophisticated centrifuges can separate even heavier fuels (ALCAP). Injection pumps are volume-metering devices, thus rack settings vary for a constant engine output, depending, con both the density and the heating value of the fuel, Ignition quality ‘The ignition delay associated with fuels of low ignition quality results in a late and, therefore, more explo- sive start to the combustion period. This pattem of combustion results in rough and noisy operation that, if sustained, can cause damage to the engine, cause high fuel consumption, and fouling of the combustion chamber. The ignition delay associated with a fuel can be reduced if the timing is advanced (FQS) and for operation on low ignition-quality fuel at iow loads, the temperatures of the jacket and piston coolants must be maintained at higher levels, and temperature of the charge air leaving the Scavenge air cooler should be increased Carbon residue Fuels with a high carbon-residue index leave more deposits after combustion, which results in fouling and wearing of cylinder liners, piston rings, ring grooves, exhaust valves, and turbocharger turbine nozzles. The adverse effects on cylinder components can be reduced by the use of detergent cylinder oils, Turbocharger fouling is countered by frequent water washing. The deposits that accumulate on fuel nozzles are removed when the injectors are withdrawn for cleaning. Solid particles carried into the engine with the fuel can cause abrasive wear of fuel injection pumps, injectors, cylinder liners, piston rings, exhaust valve seats, and turbo- chargers. The larger solid particles can be removed by settling, filtration, and centrifugal purification. For smaller solid particles, including catalytic fines, the most effective procedure for reducing their presence involves the continuous use of centrifuges in series. The first centrifuge is set up as a purifier and the next unit as clarifier, followed by fine filters. fine filters, used alone, provide adequate protection only for engines that bum the cleanest fuels. When fitted as the sole means of protection for engines that use lower quality fuels, fine filters may clog at inconveniently short intervals. Sulphur Sulphur causes cold corrosion and acid contamination of the lubricating oil, These effects can occur when the sulphur bearing products of combustion are cooled below their Dew point and form Sulphuric and Sul- phurous acids. Engine components that are most vulnerable to cold-end corrosion include eylinder liners and pistons The potential for this trouble is for engines operated at low power levels for sustained periods, but is countered by maintaining sure oF the tacket and piston coolants at high levels even | \at low output, and by increasing the temperature of the air leaving the charge air cooler. In addition, the oil used for cylinder lubrication should have a high alkaline content (high total base number, TBN) in order to neutralize the acids that form, The latest engines such as RTA T-engines have a new type of cooling called as Load Dependant Cooling, which can effectively deal with this problem. A converse difficulty can develop from using lubricating oils that have a high TBN; if there is insufficient sulphur present in the fuel to neutralize the alkaline ingredients of the lubricating oil, the resulting deposits of the alkaline ingredients can cause scoring of the liner and wear on the rings. This trouble arises when an ‘engine that is normally operated on high-sulphur fuel is supplied with low-sulphur fuel for an extended period ‘without changing the oil used to lubricate the cylinders. In crosshead engines the purely vertical movement of the piston rod permits a packing gland/ stuffing box to be fitted to separate the combustion space from the crankcase, thereby preventing combustion blow-by and excess cylinder oil from reaching the crankcase. Crosshead engines do not, therefore require a crankcase oil of high TBN; instead a high-TBN cylinder oil may be used in a separate cylinder oil system. In contrast, sulphur contamination of the crankcase oil can be troublesome with trunk piston engines; these therefore, are usually supplied with crankcase oils that have a high TEN. Vanadium During the combustion process, and especially in the presence of sodium, gaseous oxides of vanadium form, some of which change phase and form solid deposits that adhere to surfaces at temperatures as low as 500°C or even lower. These surfaces include piston crowns, exhaust valves, and turbocharger turbine nozzles and blades. When the deposits occur on the seating surfaces of the exhaust valves, the adverse effects may become immediately apparent as the valves overheat and bum through. Vanadium troubles will be minimized ‘where temperatures of the surfaces are kept below 500°C. Valve cooling is usually not difficult in large low speed engines, but is difficult in high-speed engines and some medium speed engines Sodium Most of the Sodium in fuels is introduced through seawater contamination, The principal trouble with Sodium is its combination with Vanadium, as the eutectic compounds then formed will adhere to surfaces at temperatures well below those of the simple Vanadium oxides. Sodium content should be less than a third of the Vanadium content Flash point ‘The temperature of Fuel tanks is usually kept below the flash point to limit the hazard of fire, A hazard can arise in a plant buming heavy fuel ifthe fuel leaving the centrifuge in tum raises the Service tank temperature In some installations, particularly where plants have a change-over from diesel to heavy oil, the heated fuel oil returns from the engine are retumed to the day tank, heating it above the flash point. A preferred arrange~ ment includes a Mixing tank, so that its high temperature is less hazardous, Pour point Pour point is the temperature above which the liquid can flow. To keep the temperature of fuel above the pour point, heavy fuel tanks are heated, and heavy fuel lines are steam-traced Compatibility An incompatibility among the constituents of a fuel is revealed by sludge accurmulations in tanks, filters, and centrifuges, by fluctuating pump discharge pressures. The fuel supplier is expected to ensure that fuels blended ashore do not contain incompatible constituents. Aboard ship itis important to avoid mixing fuels from different deliveries, or blending fuels, without first undertaking a spot test for compatibilityProblems created by burning residual fuel ‘The buming of poor quality residual fuel in marine engines has either created some new problems or aggra~ vated existing problems. Problems are: 1. The high sulphur content of fuel (up to about 4-5 per cent weight) has greatly increased the risk of cylinder liner and piston ring wear. 2. Ash, either soluble or insoluble in the fuel, can increase abrasive wear of piston rings and liners. 3, Mineral acids, formed as a result of condensation of sulphur oxides produced during combustion, create a serious corrosion hazard if they find their way into the crankcase. 4, Incompletely bumt heavy ends of the fuel can cause excessive deposits in the piston rang zone. 5. Shorter exhaust valve life may be expected due to deposit formation or corrosive attack by Vanadium, Sodium, Sulphur and other chemical compounds present either in the fuel or in lubricating oils. 6. Greater tendency for the deposition of solid deposits and/ or corrosion of turbo-charger nozzles and moving blades 7. Trumpet formation, spray hole blockage, leakage and corrosion of injectors. Corrosive wear This is caused by acid formation, but by improved design (Load controlled Cooling) and especially by the introduction of specially developed alkaline cylinder lubricants, wear is now well within acceptable limits Abrasive wear Large particles between rubbing surfaces cause abrasive wear. This is inter-related to corrosive wear. Removal of extraneous foreign matter, by efficient pre-treatment of fuel, reduces the problem. Ring zone deposits Despite careful attention to good fuel cleaning, injection ata suitable viscosity, correct injection timing and good injector maintenance, it is impossible to burn completely all the residual fuel. The heavy ends and ash forming constituents are incombustible at normal cylinder temperatures. Although a considerable proportion pass out of the cylinder with the exhaust gases, some find their way down the piston, causing objectionable deposits on the piston lands and skirts, but more especially in the piston ring grooves where in time they will cause sticking of piston rings with blowby, buming away of the oil film, excessive wear and ultimately seizure. MAN-B&W have recently introduced a Piston Cleaning ring, which is located in the cylinder liner, and claims to remove such deposits effectively. Specially developed cylinder oils and detergent dispersant oils have gone along way to overcome this problem too. Injector problems As combustion of residual fuel is slower and somewhat different from that of distillate fuels, the nozzle tip and body reach must higher temperatures. This is ageravated by the fact that the fuel passing through the injector is preheated to a high temperature. The use of high temperature hardened steels for the injector body has eased the problem but current practice is to re-circulate fuel oil, A further adverse effect of high injector tip temperature is to crack the fuel thermally as it leaves the injector. The incompletely burnt heavy ends and incombustible ash frequently form ‘trumpets’ on the tips around the spray holes. These may partially or completely choke the holes. This will result in distortion of the spray pattem, resulting in bad combustion and deposit formation Exhaust valve failures Trouble starts with a thin but extremely hard build up of deposits on the valve seat and especially on the valve face Unless this glass hard ‘ating is chipped or broken, the valve appears to function quite normally If, however, hard foreign matter is trapped between the closing valve and its seat, the coating gets chipped orcracked. If this continues across the contact area during combustion, gases at a temperature of about 1,927° C pass through the fine gap creating a wiredrawing effect, so that local overheating occurs, leading to erosion and complete failure in a short time. A further point is that ifthe exhaust valve seat temperature is kept below about 550°C, experience indicates that adhesion of ash compounds and corrosion is not trouble~ some. This emphasises the value of positive cooling of exhaust valves and their seats. Positive valve rotation is also beneficial in prevention of deposit formation. Indicator Diagrams ‘An indicator diagram is a Préssure Vs. Volume graph, taken from the Indicator cock on the cylinder of a ‘working engine. It is plotted either as a continuous line showing all pressure changes during one complete ‘engine cycle which is called as a power card, or as a Pressure Vs. Crank angle or Draw card, Indicator diagrams can be of great assistance in understanding the combustion characteristics of an engine. Examina- tion candidates are required to be familiar with the information which may be obtained from the shape and dimensions of the diagram, as also the typical faults that can be identified from them. In many modem engines sophisticated measuring devices may be fitted to record cylinder pressures, or there are portable indicators which can store data that can be down-loaded to PCs for further analysis. There are several advantages to electronic devices, such as elimination of errors due to mechanical springs (used in conven- tional indicators) which limit the use to slow speed engines. Modem indicators using pressure transducers ‘can now be used on engines ranging from slow (50 RPM) to high (2000 RPM), without any significant errors. Another advantage is the ability to superimpose curves taken at long intervals so as to study any changes (eg. card taken during one loaded passage can be compared with another taken much later during a subse- quent loaded passage), and without any possibility of human error, which can be there in mechanical indica~ tors. Calculation of indicated power, specific fuel consumption, peak pressure, compression pressure and So cn is done by the microprocessor, and is thus easy to obtain and extremely accurate. The T.D.C. postion of No.1 unit is sensed by some type of sensor, usually located close to the flywheel, and which passes on the data to the unit. INDICATOR Engine Indicator This consist of a spring loaded piston on which the spring is compressed in proportion to the cylinder pressure acting on it. This piston moves a pen attached to an arm through a parallel link mechanism. A card with a sensitised surface is wrapped around the indicator drum. The indicator cock for the chosen cylinder is first blown through to clear it of carbon and the indicator is then connected to it. The cord on the indicator drum is attached to some form of engine stroke synchronising mechanism from the crosshead or a cam. The cock is now opened and the indicator pen is held against the card, tracing a diagram for one cycle of the engine, Pressure is recorded to a vertical scale according to the stiffness of the indicator compression spring. Corresponding cylinder swept volume is recorded on a horizontal scale due to rotation of the drum by its cord, By shutting the indicator cock , a horizontal line of atmospheric pressure is drawn on the diagram This acts the pressure datum hineFour types of indicator diagram can be obtained : ’) The Power card is taken with the indicator drum rotation in phase with piston movement. The area within this diagram represents the work done during the cycle to scale. This is used to calculate the mean indicated pressure (MIP) for the cylinder. Irregularities in the shape of the diagram will show operational faults. Maximum or peak pressure is measured to scale from the atmospheric line to the highest point on the diagram, ii) Compression diagram is taken in a similar manner to the power card but with the fuel shut off from the cylinder. The height of this curve shows maximum compression pressure. If compression and expansion lines coincide, it shows that the indicator is correctly synchronised with the engine, Reduction in height (of this diagram) shows low compression, which may be due to wom cylinder liner, faulty piston rings, insufficient scavenge air, leaky exhaust valve, or any other cause of poor compression, which will cause poor combus- tion. Draw card or Out of phase diagram is taken with the indicator drum 90° out of phase, usually by hand. ‘This diagram shows the pressure variations during the combustion process, and illustrates more cleatly the any faults during fuel combustion. iv) Light spring diagram is in phase with the engine, but taken with alight compression spring fitted to the indicator, showing pressure changes during exhaust and scavenge to an enlarged scale. It can be used to detect faults during the scavenge and exhaust phases. Irregularities in Diagrams Irregularities in the shape of an indicator diagram illustrate incorrect engine operation. If the same fault appears on diagrams from all cylinders, the cause is most probably a general one such as fuel condition, turbocharger , exhaust, engine cooling or even incorrect camshaft timing . Provided the fuel viscosity and engine temperatures are correct and the injector is operating normally, the time between injection of fuel and ignition (the ignition lag) is almost constant. Consequently ignition timing faults signify a corresponding timing, fault in the injection. They will affect the shape of the Power diagram, but are far more easily detected on a Draw card Early Ignition Early ignition will cause an abnormally high peak pressure in the cylinder at the top of the piston stroke. A heavy shock load will be transmitted to the running gear and bearings with a corresponding ‘knocking sound” Although thermal efficiency is higher and exhaust temperatures are reduced (in case of early injection), the resultant shock loads and consequent vibrations may cause damage. Cases of early ignition may be incorrect fuel pump timing, broken or wrongly set injector springs, bad fuel condition, or overheating of parts within the oylinder. Late Ignition It can be seen from that this causes a low peak pressure which occurs well after top centre of the piston Power is lost since the fuel is not bumed correctly to transmit power at the most effective part of the stroke Combustion may continue during the expansion stroke (see Afterbumning ) and may be incomplete, giving loss in energy produced, high exhaust temperature and smoke. Late ignition may be due to excessive injector spring setting, poor atomisation, high viscosity or poor quality fuel, fuel pump leaking or incorrectly timed, low ‘compression insufficient supply of combustion air, or undercooling of parts within the cylinder. Afterburning This refers to slow or late combustion of fuel during the expansion stroke of the piston and is shown by rise in the expansion line during the latter part of the stroke. Exhaust temperatures will be high, with buming fuel and carbon passing to exhaust, This may burn exhaust valves and foul the exhaust system, with risk of turbocharger surging or uptake fires. High temperatures within the cylinder eause a deterioration in lubrica~ tion and possible damage to liner surface and piston rings, There may also be buming of the piston crown. A leaking fuel injector can be detected by a loss in power in the affected cylinder together with smoke atexhaust and high exhaust temperature. There may also be a knock or pressure wave in the injection system. ‘An indicator diagram taken from this cylinder will show fluctuations of pressure during the expansion process due to secondary bumning of fuel leaking from the valve (fig.) A higher expansion line at the exhaust opening indicates afterbuming. Loss in power will be due to incorrect combustion since the fuel pressure wave from the fuel pump must refill the space left by fuel leaked from the injector, this may also cause the knock. Hot gas from the cylinder may blow back into the injector tip, forming carbon and chocking the atomiser. Carbon may also form on the outside of the atomiser due to buming of the dribble of fuel. The injector should be changed and tested. To reduce the possibility of leaking injectors, good maintenance of fuel pumps and injectors should be carried out with routine changing of the injectors. Fuel must be purified and filtered and must be supplied at the correct temperature, Fuel injectors must also be maintained at the correct tempera- ture, Partly choked fuel valve may be due to contamination of the fuel in which debris may choke the small atomiser holes in the injector. Alternatively it may be caused by a leaky injector allowing hot gas to blow back into the injector causing carbon to form and choke the injector. overheating of injector nozzle may also cause build up of carbon. There will be a loss in engine power. There will probably be hammering in the fuel pipes between fuel pump and this may lead to rupture of fuel pipe. A choked valve can be confirmed by indicator diagram power and draw cards and reduced exhaust temperature. The remedy is to change the fuel injector, clean the fuel and ensure correct centrifuging and filtering of fuel, and maintain correct fuel valve tempera- ture. Low Compression is shown by the low pressures on a compression diagram .It is probable that first evidence was from faulty combustion. Low pressures may be due to a lack of air being supplied (turbo- charger faults, choked scavenge ports or inlet valve, etc); or that air is escaping rings, wom cylinder liner, etc. but blowpast is then usually detected during the expansion stroke. Blowpast is a term used when combustion ‘gases at high temperature leak past the piston between the piston rings and cylinder liner. This will cause rapid local overheating, removing the lubricating oil film and causing further damage to the surfaces and possible piston seizure, Burning gas will enter scavenge spaces in two stroke, trunk piston engines these gases will enter the crankcase with severe risk of a crankcase explosion. Blowpast may be caused by excessive cylinder liner wear, lack of cylinder lubrication; wom, broken, stuck or poorly maintained piston rings, wom piston rings groove landings allowing rings to cant and jam; carbon jamming rings in grooves. It will be aggravated ifthe engine is overloaded, The remedy is to gauge cylinder liner and renew if necessary; overhaul piston; clean ring grooves and gauge them, machine or fit new groove inserts as necessary, and renew piston rings with correct clearances, Maintain cylinder lubrication and avoid overload Exhaust valve opening on slow running engine can be checked by means ofa light spring indicator diagram, This will not give an accurate timing check. but may be seen ifvalve opening is early or late. Early opening of exhaust valve will cause a loss in power since pressure is released too soon. It will give a high exhaust temperature with risk of overheating and contamination, Late opening will reduce the scavenge efficiently by reducing blowdown. It will also affect the supply of energy to the turbocharger. Choked Exhaust The pressure during valve opening does not fall as rapidly of as fara it should and prevents correct blowdown and recharge of the cylinder with air. It causes loss in power. high exhaust temperature smoke and possible surge in the turbocharger. and is the result of contamination duc to incorrect combustion or excessive cylinder lubricating ol. NORMAL 7, LATE INJECTION EARLY INJECTIONLIGHT SPRING DIAGRAM cH [AUST Power Balancing of Engines For economy and efficient running of an engine, equal power should be produced from each cylinder ‘This is then said to be ‘power balanced’ and it may be necessary to make some adjustments to achieve this. Power produced is related to the quantity of fuel injected and balancing is carried out by adjustments to individual fuel pump controls. Accuracy in adjustments is important, to ensure units are not overloaded, ‘exhaust temperatures are not excessive, and that fuel pumps stil cut off when brought to stop. Fuel pump rack positions, exhaust and cooling retum temperatures, from each cylinder should be noted. Equal exhaust temperatures, on their own do not necessarily show an accurate balance, particularly in turbocharged en- gines. Figures do, however, tend to give some indication of balance, when they follow a pattem similar to that recorded at test bed trials Power balancing can be checked by measurement from indicator diagrams, by calculating the area or mean effective pressure from each cylinder. Fuel injection equipment is particularly important and fuel pump settings, clearances and timings must be checked and maintained during periods when the engine is out of service. Fuel injectors must be changed regularly, cleaned and tested to ensure trouble-free operation. The injector is the most important part of the system to ensure trouble free operation. The injector is one ofthe most likely parts ofthe system to be subject to faults in service. A fault in one injector will cause loss in power in the affected cylinder, but may also mean that other cylinders are subjected to overloading, as the engine govemor attempts to maintain normal speed. Ifan engine operates in an unbalanced condition, some bearings and running gear may become overloaded; this may cause overheating and bearing failure. Overload in cylinders may cause piston blowpast, with the corresponding dangers of overheated or seized pistons. Unbalance will also set up vibrations which, if main- tained for prolonged periods, will cause fatigue from the fluctuating stresses induced. This may in tum lead to fatigue cracking of metal in bearings, fracture of bearing studs or bolts, cracks in crankshaft and bedplate, and slackening or failure of holding down bolts. All relevant temperatures and pressures, particularly exhaust and cooling system retums to be checked. The exhaust should be clear (of smoke) and there should be no unusual noise or vibration Combustion monitoring ‘Modem measuring instruments and recording equipment make it possible to monitor pressures, tempera~ tures aiid even wear rates within an engine, Tho precent generation engines are analysed very accurately by means of computer programs. By connecting a pressure sensing transducer to the indicator cock, itis pos- sible to record pressures variations in the cylinder. A printout of this diagram appears as an accurate, out-of phase diagram. Other important points such as T.D.C. (top centze postion), point of fuel injection, peak pressure, heat release rate, and so on can be verified, The readings can be superimposed, to compare the performance on sucessive voyages. These are thus essential for accurate power balancing and improved fuel_ efficiency2t Chapter Ir Scavenging and Pressure charging Scavenging ‘With the four stroke engine in which each cycle occupies two revolutions of the crankshaft, removal of the exhaust gases from the cylinder presents no problem. In the two-stroke engine, on the other hand, replacement of exhaust gases by fresh air occupies only a comparatively short period, and complicated arrangements are required for scavenging the cylinder and recharging it with air. In any engine, at a given speed, an increase in the weight of air available for combustion allows a greater quantity of fuel to be consumed per eycle, and as a result the mean effective pressure and the engine torque are increased. The power output of an engine can, therefore, be increased in relation to its weight and size by pressure charging, i.e. by supplying the cylinder with more air, than it would normally take at atmospheric pressure. The maxi- mum cylinder pressure does not become very much higher, but the amount of heat released is greater. Careful attention is therefore necessary to ensure that the extra heat is dissipated without raising the tem- peratures of the cylinder and piston above acceptable limits. ‘Turbocharging In most modem low-speed engines, the quantity of air delivered to the cylinder and the power delivered by the engine at any given speed is increased by supercharging . Although this may be effected in a variety of ways, itis usually done by an exhaust driven turbocharger. This consists of a rotary air compressor on the same shaft as a gas turbine, There are two pressure charging systems in common use: constant pressure charging and pulse-charging, Constant pressure charging is now employed for the majority of the latest highly rated two-stroke low speed engines and for some of the more recent designs of four-stroke. The pulse system is used for many four-stroke engines. The two systems are described below. (a) Constant pressure charging In this system the pulsations in the exhaust are damped out, by passing the exhaust gases from all cylin- ders into a single large chamber. The gas is then delivered at fairly constant pressure and temperature, to the turbocharger(s) which, because of the steady flow conditions, can work at optimum efficiency. At part loads, this system has the disadvantage that the charging pressures are too low to drive the turbine at the speed required for efficient scavenging. It is therefore necessary to boost the air supply for starting and part load running, This is usually done by electrically driven auxiliary blowers, arranged to commence operation before the engine is started, and shut-off when the Scavenge pressure is normal, They ensure complete scavenging of the cylinders up to about 40-50 per cent of the load. (b) Pulse-pressure charging In the pulse pressure system, the energy of the exhaust from the cylinder is transferred to the turbo- charger by the pressure waves or pulses, generated in the exhaust manifold, when the exhaust valve or port is opened. It is necessary for the pressure wave or pulse, generated in the exhaust manifold, to be at its maximum, when it reaches the turbine, This pressure must be as close as possible to that of the gases as they are released from the cylinder. This necessitates a rapid opening of the exhaust valve, a large exhaust opening during the blowdown (exhaust) stroke and an exhaust pipe of minimum length, to avoid pulse reflections from the turbine. The exhaust pipes must be grouped, so as to prevent any possibility of the exhaust (from one cylinder) blowing back into another during the scavenge period. The most usual arrange ‘ment is for groups of three cylinders to be coupled to one blower with a fring interval of 120° crank between consecutive cylinders.CRANK ANGLE PULSE TURBOCHARGING EXHAUST aR Dy ea CRANK ANGI INSTANT PRESSURE TURBOCHARGING ‘Turbocharger design, fouling, and corrosion Exhaust gas from the engine flows through the gas inlet casing, and expands in the nozzle ring, It imparts energy to the blades of the turbine rotor, and then passes ( via the gas outlet casing & Silencer) to the ‘atmosphere. The air required by the engine is drawn through a filter / silencer to the compressor. It.then flows through the diffuser, and finally leaves the turbocharger to enter the Scavenge air Cooler, Sealing air forthe labyrinth glands of the turbine rotor is obtained from the compressor through a passage. This prevents ‘exhaust gases from entering the scavenge air side or the bearing housing, A passage allows the pressures in the bearing space to be balanced, and prevents loss of oil. Continuous development over the years has led to higher pressure ratios and improved efficiencies, so that single stage turbochargers now have high compres- sion ratios and contribute towards a low fuel consumption and the ability to burn low quality heavy fuel. At cone time, two stage turbocharging i.e. a combination of constant-pressure and pulse charging was consid ered necessary for maximum engine outputs, but with improvements in the design of modem single-stage turbochargers this is no longer so. Many turbochargers have water-cooled castings, but presently uncooled casings are available as an altemative. Mitsubishi MET turbochargers are non-cooled. Non-cooled turbo- chargers are claimed to provide maximum efficiency and to be free from pitting caused by corrosion of the gas castings. Another new development is the power turbine. If the efficiency of the turbocharger is high, and excess power is produced, more than needed for the turbo-charger, the surplus energy in the exhaust gas ‘turbine is retumed to the engine through reduction gearing, Fuel consumption is thus improved. Intercooling Intercooling of the scavenge air is widely used for most highly rated engines. The effect is to increase the density of the air delivered to the cylinders, and consequently the engine’s power output. Furthermore, the cooled scavenge air reduces cylinder and exhaust temperatures at a given power level to limits that remain acceptable even though power outputs may be appreciably increased by turbocharging. To improve combus- tion of heavy fuel with poor ignition qualities, some engine manufacturers now offer means for heating the