STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY is the study of the three-dimensional distribu on of rock units with respect to their
deforma onal histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock
geometries to uncover informa on about the history of deforma on (strain) in the rocks, and ul mately, to
understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the
dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the geologic past; a common goal is to
understand the structural evolu on of a par cular area with respect to regionally widespread pa erns of rock
deforma on (e.g., mountain building, ri ing) due to plate tectonics.

Originally horizontal strata deformed due to stress

ATTITUDE OF BEDS
 In geology, the a tude of beds refers to the orienta on or posi on of rock layers or sedimentary beds in rela on
to the Earth's surface. It describes the inclina on or dip of the beds and their orienta on in terms of strike.
 A tude is commonly described using two main measurements:
1. Strike: The strike represents the compass direc on of a horizontal line on the inclined bed. It is measured in
degrees clockwise from north. For example, if the strike of a bed is 120°, it means the bed extends in a direc on
120° clockwise from north.
2. Dip: The dip indicates the angle of inclina on of the bed from the horizontal plane. It is measured perpendicular
to the strike and ranges from 0° (horizontal) to 90° (ver cal). The dip is measured in degrees, with a posi ve
value indica ng the direc on the bed is dipping towards. For example, a dip of 30° means the bed is inclined at a
30° angle from the horizontal, dipping in a par cular direc on.
 By combining the strike and dip measurements, geologists can determine the three-dimensional orienta on of
the beds in the subsurface. This informa on is crucial for understanding the structural geology of an area, including the
deforma on history, folding, faul ng, and the overall geometry of rock layers.

Geologists o en create geologic maps to depict the a tude of beds in an area, using symbols and lines to
represent the strike and dip of rock units. By analyzing the a tudes of beds, geologists can infer the tectonic processes
that shaped the area, interpret the deposi onal history, and understand the geological evolu on of a region.

OUTCROPS
In structural geology, an outcrop refers to a loca on where the bedrock or geological forma on is visible at the Earth's
surface. It is an exposure of rock that emerges from beneath the soil, vegeta on, or other superficial cover. Outcrops
provide direct access to the rocks, allowing geologists to observe and study their characteris cs, including their
composi on, structure, and deforma on.

Outcrops can be found in various se ngs, including mountains, cliffs, river banks, road cuts, and quarries. It allow direct
observa on and sampling of the bedrock in situ for geologic analysis and crea ng geologic maps. In situ measurements
are cri cal for proper analysis of geological history and outcrops are therefore extremely important for understanding
the geologic me scale of earth history.

GEOLOGICAL MAP
A geological map is a specialized type of map that depicts the geological features and forma ons of a par cular area. It
provides detailed informa on about the distribu on of different rock types, geological structures, and other relevant
features on the Earth's surface or in the subsurface.
Geological maps are created by geologists and geographers who study the Earth's composi on, history, and processes.
They use various methods, such as field observa ons, sampling, remote sensing, and geophysical surveys, to gather data
about the rocks, minerals, and geological structures present in an area.
Types of Geological Maps
There are several types of geological maps, each designed to provide specific informa on about the geology of a
par cular area. Some of the most common types of geological maps include:
1. Bedrock maps:
These maps show the loca on and
distribu on of different types of rock
forma ons at or near the Earth’s
surface. Bedrock maps can be used to
iden fy the age, composi on, and
structure of rocks in an area, as well
as their poten al for use as natural
resources.

2. Surficial maps:
These maps show the distribu on of different
types of surficial materials, such as soils,
sediments, and glacial deposits. Surficial
maps can be used to study the history of
climate change, the loca on of natural
resources like water and minerals, and the
poten al for soil erosion and landslides.

3. Structural maps:
These maps show the orienta on and loca on of different
types of geologic structures, such as faults and folds. Structural
maps can be used to study the history of tectonic ac vity in an
area, as well as the poten al for earthquakes and other natural
hazards.

A depth structural map showing hydrocarbon-bearing

an clinal structures with faults throw towards the SW
 4. Mineral maps:
These maps show the loca on and
distribu on of different types of minerals
and mineral resources in an area. Mineral
maps can be used to study the geology of an
area, as well as the poten al for economic
development through mining and other
resource extrac on.

5. Geologic hazard maps:

These maps show the poten al for natural
hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides, and
volcanic erup ons, in an area. Geologic hazard
maps can be used to iden fy areas that are at
risk for these types of events, as well as to
develop strategies for mi ga ng their effects.

Turkey earthquake hazard map

STUDY OF STRUCTURES
Observing and understanding
geological structures helps us to determine
the kinds of stresses that have existed
within Earth in the past. This type of
informa on is cri cal to our understanding
of plate tectonics, earthquakes, the
forma on of mountains, metamorphism,
and Earth resources. Some of the types of
geological structures that are important to
study include fractures, faults, and folds.
Structural geologists make careful
observa ons of the orienta ons of these
structures and the amount and direc on of
offset along faults.
1. Folds are a wavelike bends in layered rock.
They represent rock strained in a duc le
manner, usually under compression.
The axial plane divides a fold into its two
limbs. The surface trace of an axial plane is
called the hinge line(or axis) of the fold.

Parts of folds
Hinge (axis): Axis is the maximum curvature
in a folded bed.
Axial plane: It is the surface connec ng all the
axis. It may be ver cal, inclined, and
horizontal.
Limb: It is on either side of the fold.
Crest: It is the highest part of the folded bed.
Trough: It is the lowest part of the folded bed.
Crest plane: It is the line that connects all
crests.
Trough plane: It is the line that connects all
troughs.
An clines are upward-arching folds, and synclines are downward-arching folds. An clines eroded horizontally at
the surface show the oldest ages in the centerline.
Synclines eroded horizontally at the surface show the youngest ages in the centerline (bedding ages are
symmetrically older going away from the center).

2. Faults are fractures or cracks in the Earth's crust along

which there has been movement of rock masses. They
occur when rocks break due to stress or strain, and the
blocks on either side of the fracture move rela ve to
each other. Faults are classified based on the direc on of
movement and the nature of the displacement.
 Types of Fault
1. Normal faults: These occur when the hanging wall (the block above the
fault plane) moves downward rela ve to the footwall (the block below the
fault plane). Normal faults are associated with extensional forces, o en
found in areas of crustal stretching or ri ing.

2. Reverse faults: These occur when the hanging wall moves upward
rela ve to the footwall. Reverse faults are associated with
compressional forces and are o en found in regions undergoing
crustal compression, such as in mountain-building processes.

3. Strike-slip faults: These occur when rocks on either side of the fault
plane slide horizontally past each other. Strike-slip faults are associated
with shearing forces and are o en observed in transform plate
boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault in California.

3. Joint is a break(fracture) of natural origin in the

con nuity of either a layer or body of rock that lacks
any visible or measurable movement parallel to the
surface(plane) of the fracture. A joint set is a family of
parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be iden fied
through mapping and analysis of the orienta ons,
spacing, and physical proper es. A joint system
consists of two or more interlocking joint sets.

Gene c Classifica on:

 Tensional joint: This is a shrinkage joint
 Shear Joint: This joint is developed from the sliding history of geological strata
 Tectonic joint: Joints developed from tectonic ac vi es and categorized according to a tude of beds.
Geometric classifica on
 Strike joint: Joints strike in the same direc on of the rock forma on
 Dip joint: Joint strike parallel to the dip of the rock forma on.
 Oblique/diagonal joint: The strike of the joint makes an inclined angle with the strike of the rock forma on.

Folds, faults, and joints play a significant role in engineering, par cularly in areas such as civil engineering, geotechnical
engineering, and structural engineering. Here are some key reasons why these geological structures are important in
engineering:
1. Geotechnical Site Inves ga ons: Folds, faults, and joints influence the behavior and proper es of rocks and soil
in the subsurface. They can affect the stability, strength, and deforma on characteris cs of the ground.
 Understanding the presence and nature of these structures is crucial for geotechnical site inves ga ons,
including founda on design, slope stability analysis, and excava on planning.
2. Structural Integrity: Folds, faults, and joints can have a direct impact on the structural integrity of engineered
structures. Buildings, bridges, tunnels, and other infrastructure may be affected by these geological structures.
Proper considera on of folds, faults, and joints during the design and construc on phases is essen al to ensure
the stability and durability of the structures.
3. Groundwater and Contaminant Flow: Faults and joints can serve as pathways for groundwater flow, influencing
water supply and management. They can also impact the migra on of contaminants, such as pollutants or
hazardous substances, through the subsurface. Understanding the distribu on and characteris cs of faults and
joints is important in assessing and mi ga ng poten al risks associated with groundwater contamina on and
resource management.
4. Rock and Mineral Resources: Folds, faults, and joints can have a significant impact on the extrac on and
u liza on of mineral resources. These structures may control the accumula on, concentra on, and accessibility
of valuable minerals. Knowledge of the structural controls provided by folds, faults, and joints is crucial in
iden fying and loca ng economically viable mineral deposits.
5. Construc on and Excava on Planning: Folds, faults, and joints influence excava on and construc on projects.
They can impact the stability of excava on walls, the design of support systems, and the selec on of
construc on methods. Proper assessment and understanding of these structures are necessary to ensure safe
and efficient construc on opera ons.
By considering and analyzing folds, faults, and joints, engineers can make informed decisions, mi gate poten al risks,
and op mize designs in various engineering projects. Incorpora ng geological informa on into engineering prac ces
leads to safer and more reliable infrastructure development, improved resource management, and effec ve mi ga on of
geological hazards.
 ROCK MECHANICS

Rock mechanics is a branch of geomechanics that focuses on the behavior of rocks under various mechanical and
environmental condi ons. It involves the study of how rocks respond to forces, stresses, and deforma ons. Rock
mechanics plays a crucial role in understanding the stability, strength, and behavior of rock masses in engineering and
geotechnical applica ons.

Physical proper es and mechanical proper es of rocks:

1. Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a

material. Porosity is determined by dividing the
volume of voids by the total volume of a material
to determine a percentage.
Porosity (%) = (Volume of Voids / Total Volume) x
100.
2. Permeability is a measure of the ability of a
material (such as rocks) to transmit fluids.
Porosity and permeability are related proper es of
any rock or loose sediment. Both are related to the
number, size, and connec ons of openings in the
rock.
3. Density is the measure of mass per unit volume of a rock. It provides an indica on of the rock's overall
compactness and can vary depending on the rock type and mineral composi on.
4. Strength refers to a rock's ability to resist deforma on or failure under stress. It is a cri cal property for
construc on materials and stability analysis. The strength of a rock can be evaluated through various tests,
including compressive strength, tensile strength, and shear strength.
5. Hardness is a measure of a rock's resistance to scratching or abrasion. It is determined by the strength of the
chemical bonds within the rock's mineral cons tuents. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is commonly used to
compare the hardness of different minerals and rocks. The scale ranges from 1 (so est, such as talc) to 10
(hardest, such as diamond).
6. Elas city refers to a rock's ability to deform under stress and return to its original shape once the stress is
released. It is related to the rock's elas c modulus, which measures its s ffness or resistance to deforma on.
Rocks with high elas city can undergo temporary deforma on and then recover their original shape when the
stress is removed. Elas city is crucial for understanding rock behavior under dynamic loads, such as earthquakes
or rock bursts.
7. Plas city is the property of a rock to undergo permanent deforma on without fracturing under stress. It occurs
in rocks that can undergo duc le deforma on, where the rock's mineral grains or crystal la ce can deform and
flow without breaking. Plas city is influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and mineral composi on.
Rocks with high plas city can be shaped or molded under pressure, like clay or some metamorphic rocks.
Plas city is relevant in geotechnical engineering for understanding the behavior of soils and weak rocks.

Dynamic proper es of rocks:

It refers to their behavior and response under dynamic or me-dependent loads.
1. Wave theory in rock mechanics deals with the propaga on of waves through rocks.
There are two primary types of waves relevant to rock mechanics:
a. P-waves (Primary waves) are compressional waves that cause par cles in the rock to move parallel to
the direc on of wave propaga on. These waves travel faster than other seismic waves and can
 propagate through both solids and fluids. The wave velocity of P-waves in rocks depends on the density,
elas city, and compressibility of the rock material.
Generally, P-wave veloci es are higher in denser and more rigid rocks. For example, in crystalline rocks
like granite or basalt, P-wave veloci es can range from a few kilometers per second (km/s) to several
kilometers per second. In so er rocks or unconsolidated sediments, P-wave veloci es are lower, typically
ranging from hundreds of meters per second (m/s) to a few kilometers per second.

b. S-Waves (Shear Waves) are shear waves that cause par cles in the rock to move perpendicular to the
direc on of wave propaga on. These waves propagate slower than P-waves and can only travel through
solid materials.
S-wave veloci es are generally lower than P-wave veloci es in rocks. They are also affected by the rock's
elas c anisotropy (varia on in proper es with direc on). In crystalline rocks, S-wave veloci es are
typically slower than P-wave veloci es, with values ranging from a few hundred meters per second to a
few kilometers per second.

Factors Influencing Wave Velocity:

Several factors influence the velocity at which waves propagate through rocks. The following are some key
factors that affect the velocity of waves propaga ng through rock materials:
a. Rock Type and Composi on
b. Porosity and Satura on:
c. Degree of Satura on
d. Rock Fabric and Anisotropy
e. Stress and Confining Pressure
f. Temperature
g. Frequency and Wave Type

2. Sta c and dynamic moduli of elas city are dynamic proper es of rocks that describe their response to applied
stress and strain. These proper es provide insights into the s ffness and deforma on characteris cs of rocks
under sta c and dynamic loading condi ons.
 The sta c modulus of elas city, also known as the Young's modulus or the elas c modulus, represents
the rock's s ffness under sta c or slowly applied loads. It measures the ra o of stress to strain within the
elas c deforma on range. When a rock is subjected to an external force, it deforms elas cally un l it
reaches its elas c limit, beyond which permanent deforma on occurs.
 The dynamic modulus of elas city, also known as the dynamic Young's modulus, represents the rock's
s ffness under dynamic or rapidly applied loads. It measures the ra o of stress to strain when the rock is
subjected to high-frequency or dynamic loading, such as seismic waves or impact forces. The dynamic
modulus of elas city reflects the rock's ability to transmit and dissipate energy during dynamic events.

Both sta c and dynamic moduli of elas city are important in engineering and geology. They help in assessing
the mechanical behavior and deforma on characteris cs of rocks under different loading condi ons. These
proper es are used to evaluate rock stability, design founda ons, analyze slope stability, and predict the
response of rocks to seismic events. Understanding the sta c and dynamic moduli of elas city aids in the
characteriza on of rock masses, selec on of suitable construc on materials, and assessment of the safety and
durability of engineered structures.
Grou ng refers to a technique or process used in engineering and construc on to improve the proper es of rock or soil
masses. It involves injec ng a fluid material, known as grout, into the subsurface to fill voids, strengthen weak zones, or
control water flow.

Grou ng can be used for various purposes, including:

1. Ground Improvement: Grou ng is commonly used to improve the strength and stability of weak or loose soil or
rock forma ons. By injec ng grout into the ground, voids and fractures can be filled, crea ng a more compact
and stable mass. This process is par cularly useful in areas where there is a risk of se lement, subsidence, or
slope instability.
2. Sealing and Water Control: Grou ng can be employed to control or mi gate water flow through rock or soil. By
injec ng grout into fractures, joints, or porous zones, the permeability of the subsurface can be reduced,
effec vely sealing off water pathways. This technique is commonly used in tunnel construc on, dam
founda ons, and underground construc on to prevent water ingress or to stabilize water-bearing forma ons.
3. Founda on Stabiliza on: Grou ng can be used to improve the load-bearing capacity of founda ons. By injec ng
grout into weak or loose zones beneath a founda on, the surrounding soil or rock can be strengthened,
increasing the founda on's stability and preven ng se lement.

The selec on of grout materials and injec on techniques depends on the specific project requirements, geological
condi ons, and desired outcomes. Common types of grouts include cemen ous grouts, chemical grouts, and expansive
grouts. The injec on can be performed using various methods, such as permea on grou ng, compac on grou ng, or
pressure grou ng.