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Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) uses algorithms to allow software to learn, make decisions, and complete tasks autonomously. There are different types of AI including narrow AI that can perform limited tasks and general AI that aims to match human intelligence. Early milestones included the first checkers program in 1951 and research into machine learning and evolutionary computing in the 1950s. Key researchers included Christopher Strachey, Arthur Samuel, John Holland, Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, and Cliff Shaw who developed programs in game playing, problem solving, and neural networks.

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59 views4 pages

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) uses algorithms to allow software to learn, make decisions, and complete tasks autonomously. There are different types of AI including narrow AI that can perform limited tasks and general AI that aims to match human intelligence. Early milestones included the first checkers program in 1951 and research into machine learning and evolutionary computing in the 1950s. Key researchers included Christopher Strachey, Arthur Samuel, John Holland, Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, and Cliff Shaw who developed programs in game playing, problem solving, and neural networks.

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sabahat khusro
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Artificial Intelligence

Jen Mallia
 
   | Reviewed by Margaret Rouse
Last updated: 9
June, 2023
What Does Artificial Intelligence (AI) Mean?
Artificial intelligence (AI), also known as machine intelligence, is a branch of
computer science that focuses on building and managing technology that can
learn to autonomously make decisions and carry out actions on behalf of a
human being.

AI Use Cases in Business


AI is currently being applied to a range of functions both in the lab and in
commercial/consumer settings, including the following technologies:

 Speech Recognition allows an intelligent system to convert human


speech into text or code.
 Natural Language Generation enables conversational interaction
between humans and computers.
 Computer Vision allows a machine to scan an image and use
comparative analysis to identify objects in the image.
 Machine learning focuses on building algorithmic models that can
identify patterns and relationships in data.
 Expert systems gain knowledge about a specific subject and can solve
problems as accurately as a human expert on this subject.

At its heart, AI uses the same basic algorithmic functions that drive
traditional software, but applies them in a different way. Perhaps the most
revolutionary aspect of AI is that it allows software to rewrite itself as it
adapts to its environment.

Techopedia Explains Artificial Intelligence (AI)


While AI often invokes images of the sentient computer overlord of science
fiction, the current reality is far different.
What are the types of AI and how do they differ?
Ai is often spoken about in terms of being either weak or strong. Today,
most business applications of AI are machine-learning applications of weak
AI.

 Narrow (Weak) AI is capable of performing only a limited set of


predetermined functions.
 General (Strong) AI is said to equal the human mind’s ability to
function autonomously according to a wide set of stimuli;
 Super AI is expected one day to exceed human intelligence (and
conceivably take over the world).

AI initiatives are also talked about in terms of their belonging to one of four
categories:

1. Reactive AI relies on real-time data to make decisions.


2. Limited Memory AI relies on stored data to make decisions.
3. Theory of Mind AI can consider subjective elements such as user intent
when making decisions.
4. Self-Aware AI possesses a human-like consciousness that is capable of
independently setting goals and using data to decide the best way to
achieve an objective.

A good way to visualize these distinctions is to imagine AI as a professional


poker player. A reactive player bases all decisions on the current hand in
play, while a limited memory player will consider their own and other
player’s past decisions.

A Theory of Mind player factors in other player’s behavioral cues and finally,
a self-aware professional AI player stops to consider if playing poker to
make a living is really the best use of their time and effort.

Early milestones in AI
The first AI programs
The earliest successful AI program was written in 1951 by Christopher Strachey, later
director of the Programming Research Group at the University of Oxford.
Strachey’s checkers (draughts) program ran on the Ferranti Mark I computer at
the University of Manchester, England. By the summer of 1952 this program could play
a complete game of checkers at a reasonable speed.
Information about the earliest successful demonstration of machine learning was
published in 1952. Shopper, written by Anthony Oettinger at the University of
Cambridge, ran on the EDSAC computer. Shopper’s simulated world was a mall of eight
shops. When instructed to purchase an item, Shopper would search for it, visiting shops
at random until the item was found. While searching, Shopper would memorize a few of
the items stocked in each shop visited (just as a human shopper might). The next time
Shopper was sent out for the same item, or for some other item that it had already
located, it would go to the right shop straight away. This simple form of learning, as is
pointed out in the introductory section What is intelligence?, is called rote learning.

The first AI program to run in the United States also was a checkers program, written in
1952 by Arthur Samuel for the prototype of the IBM 701. Samuel took over the essentials
of Strachey’s checkers program and over a period of years considerably extended it. In
1955 he added features that enabled the program to learn from experience. Samuel
included mechanisms for both rote learning and generalization, enhancements that
eventually led to his program’s winning one game against a former
Connecticut checkers champion in 1962.

Evolutionary computing
Samuel’s checkers program was also notable for being one of the first efforts at
evolutionary computing. (His program “evolved” by pitting a modified copy against the
current best version of his program, with the winner becoming the new standard.)
Evolutionary computing typically involves the use of some automatic method of
generating and evaluating successive “generations” of a program, until a highly
proficient solution evolves.

A leading proponent of evolutionary computing, John Holland, also wrote


test software for the prototype of the IBM 701 computer. In particular, he helped design
a neural-network “virtual” rat that could be trained to navigate through a maze. This
work convinced Holland of the efficacy of the bottom-up approach. While continuing to
consult for IBM, Holland moved to the University of Michigan in 1952 to pursue a
doctorate in mathematics. He soon switched, however, to a new interdisciplinary
program in computers and information processing (later known as communications
science) created by Arthur Burks, one of the builders of ENIAC and its successor
EDVAC. In his 1959 dissertation, for most likely the world’s first computer
science Ph.D., Holland proposed a new type of computer—a multiprocessor computer—
that would assign each artificial neuron in a network to a separate processor. (In
1985 Daniel Hillis solved the engineering difficulties to build the first such computer,
the 65,536-processor Thinking Machines Corporation supercomputer.)

Holland joined the faculty at Michigan after graduation and over the next four decades
directed much of the research into methods of automating evolutionary computing, a
process now known by the term genetic algorithms. Systems implemented in Holland’s
laboratory included a chess program, models of single-cell biological organisms, and a
classifier system for controlling a simulated gas-pipeline network.
Genetic algorithms are no longer restricted to “academic” demonstrations, however; in
one important practical application, a genetic algorithm cooperates with a witness to a
crime in order to generate a portrait of the criminal

Logical reasoning and problem solving

Newell, Simon, and Shaw went on to write a more powerful program, the General
Problem Solver, or GPS. The first version of GPS ran in 1957, and work continued on the
project for about a decade. GPS could solve an impressive variety of puzzles using a trial
and error approach. However, one criticism of GPS, and similar programs that lack
any learning capability, is that the program’s intelligence is entirely secondhand, coming
from whatever information the programmer explicitly includes.

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