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Engineering Physics
Notes
(Theory & Problems)

Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising

every time we fall – Confucius

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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UNIT 2 - QUANTUM MECHANICS

INTRODUCTION:

Quantum mechanics is a physical science dealing with the behaviour of matter and energy on the scale of
atoms and subatomic particles or waves.

The term "quantum mechanics" was first coined by Max Born in 1924. The acceptance by the general
physics community of quantum mechanics is due to its accurate prediction of the physical behaviour of
systems, including systems where Newtonian mechanics fails.

DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT:

There are some phenomena such as interference, diffraction and polarization which can be explained by
considering light as wave only.
On the other hand phenomenon such as photoelectric effect and Compton Effect can be explained by
considering light as a particle only.
When we visualize light as a wave, we need to forget its particle aspect completely and vice versa. This
type of behavior of light as a wave as well as particle is known as dual nature of light.

Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect: When a photon of energy hυ is incident on the

surface of the metal, a part of energy Φ is used in liberating the electron from the metal.
This energy is known as the work function of the metal. The rest of energy is given to
the electron so that is acquires kinetic energy ½ mv2. Thus a photon of energy hυ is
completely absorbed by the emitter.

Energy of photon = Energy needed to liberate the electron + Maximum K.E of the liberated electron
hυ = Φ + KEmax
hυ = Φ + ½ mv2max
The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. This equation can explain all the features
of the photoelectric effect.

Compton Effect

When a beam of high frequency radiation (x-ray or gamma-

ray) is scattered by the loosely bound electrons present in the
scatterer, there are also radiations of longer wavelength along
with original wavelength in the scattered radiation. This
phenomenon is known as Compton Effect.

When a photon of energy hν collides with the electron, some

of the energy is given to this electron. Due to this energy, the
electron gains kinetic energy and photon loses energy. Hence scattered photon will have lower energy hν ’
that is longer wavelength than the incident one.

(λ’ – λ) = h/mc [1-cosΦ] where h/mc = λC = Compton wavelength = 0.02424Å

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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De Broglie hypothesis:

Louis De Broglie a French Physicist put forward his bold ideas like this

“Since nature loves symmetry, if the radiation behaves as a particle under certain circumstances and
waves under other circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which ordinarily behave as
particles also exhibit properties attributable to waves under appropriate circumstance and those types of
waves are termed as matter waves.

All matter can exhibit wave-like behavior. For example, a beam of electrons can be diffracted just like a
beam of light or a water wave. The concept that matter behaves like a wave was proposed by Louis de
Broglie in 1924. It is also referred to as the de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves. On the other hand de
Broglie hypothesis is the combination of wave nature and particle nature.

If ‘ E ’ is the energy of a photon of radiation and the same energy can be written for a wave as follows

E = mc2 ---(1) (particle nature) and E = hν = hc/λ ---(2) (wave nature)

Comparing eqns (1) & (2) we get

mc2 = hc/λ or λ = h/mc = h/p

λ = h/p ; where λ = De Broglie wavelength

Particles of the matter also exhibit wavelike properties and those waves are known as matter waves.

Expression for de Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron

De Broglie wavelength for a matter wave is given by

λ = h/p ; where λ = De Broglie wavelength -------------(1)

From eqn. (1) we find that, if the particles like electrons are accelerated to various velocities, we can
produce waves of various wavelengths. Thus higher the electron velocity, smaller will be the de-Broglie
wavelength. If velocity v is given to an electron by accelerating it through a potential difference V, then
the work done on the electron is eV. This work done is converted to kinetic energy of electron. Hence, we
can write

½ mv2 = eV

mv = (2meV)1/2 -------------(2)

But eqn.(1) can be written as

λ = h/mv -------------------(3)

Substituting eqn.(2) in eqn.(3) we get

λ = h/(2meV)1/2

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES:

1. The wavelength of a matter wave is inversely related to its particles momentum

2. Matter wave can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and undergo interference
3. The position and momentum of the material particles cannot be determined accurately and
simultaneously.
4. The amplitude of the matter waves at a particular region and time depends on the probability of
finding the particle at the same region and time.

Wave packet:
Two or more waves of slightly different wavelengths alternately interfere and reinforce so that an infinite
succession of groups of waves or wave packets are produced.
The velocity of the individual wave in a wave packet is called phase velocity of the wave and is
represented by Vp.

+
=

Vg

Vp

Phase, Group and particle velocities:

According to de Broglie each particle of matter (like electron, proton, neutron etc) is associated with a de
Broglie wave; this de Broglie wave may be regarded as a wave packet, consisting of a group of waves. A
number of frequencies mixed so that the resultant wave has a beginning and an end forms the group. Each
of the component waves propagates with a definite velocity called wave velocity or phase velocity.

Expression for Phase velocity:

A wave can be represented by

Y= A sin (ωt – kx) ---------- (1)

Where k = ω/v = wave number (rad/m) ; ω = Angular frequency (rad/s)

When a particle moves around a circle ν times/s, sweeps out 2πν rad/s

In eqn.(1) the term (ωt – kx) gives the phase of the oscillating mass

(ωt – kx) = constant for a periodic wave

d (ωt – kx) /dt = 0 or ω – k(dx/dt) = 0 or dx/dt =ω/k vp = ω/k

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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When a wave packet or group consists of a number of component waves each traveling with slightly
different velocity, the wave packet (group) travels with a velocity different from the velocities of
component waves of the group; this velocity is called Group velocity.

d
vg  This is the expression for group velocity
dk
Two or more waves of slightly different wavelengths alternately interfere and reinforce so that an infinite
succession of groups of waves or wave packets are produced. The de Broglie wave group associated with
a particle travels with a velocity equal to the particle velocity.

Relation between group velocity (vg) and phase velocity(vp)

We know that

 d
vp  ------ (1) and vg  ------ (2)
k dk
   k vp
d dv
 vg  (k v p )  k p  v p
dk dk
dv  dv  d 
 v g  v p  k p  v p  k  p  
dk  d  dk 
 2     dv p 
2
 vp     
   2  d 
 dv 
v g  v p -   p 
 d 

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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Relation between the particle velocity of a matter wave and is its group velocity

d
vg  - - - - - - - - (1)
dk
E
where   2  2  
 h 
 2 
d    dE - - - - - - - -(2)
 h 
Also, we know that
2  p  2 
k   2   p
  h  h 
 2 
dk   dp - - - - - - - - - (3)
 h 
d dE
  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(4)
dk dp
From eqn.(1) and (4) one can write
dE
vg 
dp
Expression for kinetic energy can be written as
p2
E 
2m
p
dE  dp
m
dE p
  v particle        (5)
dp m
comparing eqns.(1), (4) & (5) we get
v group  v particle

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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Relation between phase velocity, particle velocity and velocity of light

Since de Broglie wave is associated with a moving particle therefore, it is very much essential to know
that if both the particle and wave associated with them travel with the same velocity or with different
velocity.
vp = ω/k = 2πυ/(2π/λ) = λν = (h/mv)(mc2/h)
∴ vp = c2/v
As the velocity of material particle is always less than the velocity of light c, it means that the propagation
velocity of de Broglie wave is always greater than c. Thus it seems that both the particle & de Broglie
wave associated with the particle do not travel together with the same velocity & the wave would leave
the particle behind. However, these difficulties can be ruled by considering that a moving material
particle is equivalent to a wave packet rather than a single wave.

Principle of complimentarity :

The experiment of Davisson & Germer demonstrated the diffraction of electron beams. The wave nature
of electrons can also be demonstrated by interference with a double slit. But it is an extremely difficult
task to prepare a suitable double slit that can transmit an electron beam.

But the experiment was done by Jönson in 1961. He passed a 50,000eV beam of electron through a
double slit. The pattern obtained by him was very similar to the interference pattern obtained by Young
with visible light.

In an experiment of the above type it is rather tempting to try to find out through which slit an electron
has passed. If we design a suitable device for detecting the passage of an electron through one of the slits,
the interference pattern is found to vanish.

If the electron is to behave like a classical particle, it has to pass through one of the two slits. On the other
hand, if it is a wave, it can pass through both the slits!

When we try observing the passage of electron through one of the slits, we are examining its particle
aspect. However, when we observe the interference pattern we are investigating the wave aspect of
electron.

At a given moment and under given circumstances the electron will behave either as a particle or as a
wave but not as both.

In other words, the particle and wave nature of a physical entity cannot be observed simultaneously.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle.

Physical quantities like position, momentum, time, energy etc. can be measured accurately in
macroscopic systems (i.e. classical mechanics). However, in the case of microscopic systems, the
measurement of physical quantities for particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, photons etc are not
accurate. If the measurement of one is certain and that of other will be uncertain.

A wave packet that represents and symbolizes all about the particle and moves with a group velocity
describes a de Broglie wave. According to Bohr’s probability interpretation, the particle may be found
Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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anywhere within the wave-packet. This implies that the position of the particle is uncertain within the
limits of the wave packet. As the wave packet has a velocity spread, there is an uncertainty about the
momentum of the particle. Thus according to uncertainty principle states that the position and the
momentum of a particle in an atomic system cannot be determined simultaneously and accurately. If Δx is
the uncertainty associated with the position of a particle and Δpx the uncertainty associated with its
momentum, then the product of these uncertainties will always be equal or greater than h/4π. That is

Δx Δpx ≥ h/4π
Different forms of uncertainty principle
ΔE Δt ≥ h/4π
Δω Δθ ≥ h/4π

Applications Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle (Nonexistence of electron in the nucleus)

The radius ‘r’ of the nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10-14m so that if an electron is confined in the
nucleus, the uncertainty in its position will be of the order of 2r = ∆x (say) i.e diameter of the nucleus

But according to HUP

∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π (∆p = uncertainty in momentum)

∆x ~ 2x10-14m

Therefore,

∆p = h/(4π ∆x) = 6.625E-34 / (4π x 2x10-14) = 2.63 x 10-21 kg-m/s

Taking ∆p ~ p we can calculate energy using the formula

E = p2/2m = (2.63 x 10-21)2 / 2x 9.1x10-31 = 3.80x10-12J = 23.7x106 eV = 23.7 MeV

However, the experimental investigations on beta decay reveal that the kinetic energies of electrons must
be equal to 4MeV. Since there is a disagreement between theoretical and experimental energy values we
can conclude that electrons cannot be found inside the nucleus.

a) Wave function (ψ):

Water waves ------------ height of water surfaces varies

Light waves -------------- electric & magnetic fields vary

Matter waves -------------- wave function (ψ)

Ψ is related to the probability of finding the particle. Max Born put these ideas forward for the first time.

 The wave function ψ indicates the state of the particle. However it has no direct physical significance.
There is a simple reason why ψ cannot be interpreted in terms of an experiment. The probability that

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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something be in a certain place at a given time must lie between 0 & 1 i.e. the object is definitely not
there and the object is definitely there respectively.

 An intermediate probability, say 0.2, means that there is a 20% chance of finding the object. However, the
amplitude of a wave can be negative as well as positive and a negative probability -0.2 is meaningless.
Hence ψ by itself cannot be an observable quantity.

 Because of this the square of the absolute value of the wave function ψ is considered and is known as
probability density denoted by | ψ |2

 The probability of experimentally finding the body described by the wave function ψ at the point x, y, z at
the time t is proportional to the value of | ψ |2 .

Small value of |ψ|2 ----- Less possibility of presence

As long as |ψ|2 is not actually zero somewhere however, there is a definite chance, however small, of
detecting it there. Max Born first made this interpretation in 1926.
If we know the momentum of a particle, we can find the wavelength of the associated matter wave by
using the equation λ = h /mν. We have now to realize how we can describe the amplitude of a matter
wave. That is we have to find out just what is waving.

A particle of mass ‘m’ traveling in the increasing x- direction with no force acting on it is called a free
particle.

According to Schrodinger the wave function ψ(x,t) for a free particle moving in the positive x direction is
given by

ψ(x,t) = ψo ei(kx – ωt), here ψo = amplitude and ψ(x,t) = complex

b) Probability density :

If ψ is a complex no. then its complex conjugate is obtained by replacing i by –i, ψ alone don’t have any
meaning but only ψψ* gives the probability of finding the particle. In quantum mechanics we cannot
assert where exactly a particle is. We cannot say where it is likely to be

P (x) = ψψ* = [ψo ei(kx – ωt)] [ψo e-i(kx – ωt)] = |ψo|2

 Large value of |ψ|2 ----- Strong possibility of presence of particle

 Small value of |ψ|2 ----- Less possibility of presence of particle

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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c) Normalization of wave function:

The probability of finding the particle between any two coordinates x1
& x2 is determined by
summing the probabilities in each interval dx. Therefore there exists a
particle between x1 & x2 in any interval dx. This situation can be
mathematically represented by
x2

  ( x)
2
dx = 1
x1

If a particle exists anywhere in a region of space within a small

volume element dv, then the normalized condition can be represented as


 dV  1
2

-

Time independent one dimensional Schrodinger wave equation :

A wave eqn. for a debroglie wave is given by
  A ei(kx - t) ------------- (1)
Differentiating twice eqn.(1) with respect to t we get
 2
t 2

 - 2 A ei(kx - t) 
 2
 - 2 -------------- (2)
t 2

Displacement ‘y’ of a wave is given by y = A sin[ωt-kx]-------(A)

2y
Differentiating twice w.r.t ‘t’ we get  - 2 y ----------(B)
t 2

2y  
2 2
1
Similarly differentiating twice w.r.t ‘x’ we get  - k 2 y    y     2 y ----(C)
x 2
v v
2y  1  2y
Comparing eqns (B) & (C) we get   ------ (3)
x 2  v 2  t 2
By analogy eqn. for a traveling de Broglie wave is given by
 2  1   2
  ------ (4)
x 2  v 2  t 2
 2  
2

Comparing eqns. (2) & (4)  -    ; where ω = 2πν and v = νλ

x 2
v
 2  4 2  1  1   2
 -  2    -  42  x 2 --------(5)
or
x 2   2  
For a particle of mas ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’
Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 = m2v2/2m = p2/2m =
But p = h/λ
Therefore, KE = [1/ λ2] [h2/2m]
Substituting for 1/ λ2 from eqn (5) we get

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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 1   h 2   2  h 2   1   2
KE = -  2    2  -  2    2
 4    2m  x  8 m     x
Total energy is given by
 h 2   1   2
E = PE + KE = V -  2    2
 8 m     x
 2  - 82 m 
 (E - V)  h2  
x 2  
 2   8  2m 
 (E - V)   0
x 2  h 2 

Properties of wave function.

Ψ should
satisfy the law of conservation of energy i.e Total energy = PE + KE
be consistent with de Broglie hypothesis i.e λ = h/p
be single valued ( because probability is unique)
be continuous
be finite
be linear so that de Broglie waves have the important superposition property

Eigen value & Eigen function:

A wave function Ψ, which satisfies all the properties is said to be Eigen function (Eigen = proper)


An operator O is a mathematical operator (differentiation, integration, addition, multiplication, division
etc.) which may be applied on a function Ψ(x), which changes the function to another function Ф(x). This
can be represented as

O  (x)  (x)

If a function is Eigen function, then by result of operation with an operator O , we get the same function
as 
O (x)   (x)

Ψ(x) = eigen function, λ = eigen value, Ô = operator and Ψ(x) = operand

d2 d2
Eg.  (sin 2 x )  4(sin2x) , Here Ô =  ; λ = 4 ; ψ(x) = sin2x
dx 2 dx 2

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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Energy Eigen values and Eigen function for a particle trapped in a potential well of infinite height

A particle moving freely in one-dimensional “box” of length ‘L’ trapped completely within the box is
imagined to be as a particle in a potential well of infinite depth.

Initial conditions

V(x) = 0 ; 0 < x < L

V(x) = ∞ ; x < 0, x > L

If the walls of the box are perfectly rigid, the particle must always be in the box and the probability for
finding it elsewhere must be zero. Thus outside the box we have

Ψ (x) = 0 ; x < 0, x > L

Schrodinger wave equation is

 2  8 2 m
 ( E  V )  0 --------------- (1)
x 2 h2

Inside the well V = 0, thus equation (1) becomes

 2  8 2 m
 E  0 ---------------- (2)
x 2 h2

8 2 m
Let E  k2 ----------------- (3)
h2

Substituting eqn.(3) in eqn.(2) we get

 2
 k2   0 ----------------- (4)
x 2

The solution for above differential eqn. can be written as

Ψ (x) = A sin kx + B coskx ---------------- (5)

Let us solve equation (5) outside the boundaries

Case I : For x ≤ 0, Ψ = 0

Therefore, Ψ(0) = A sin0 + B cos0

=> B = 0 ------------------- (6)

Case II : For x ≥ L, Ψ = 0

Therefore, Ψ(L) = A sin kL

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 13 of 19

=> A sin kL = 0

=> Either A = 0 or sin kL = 0

A ≠ 0 because Ψ is finite inside the box

Therefore, sin kL = 0

=> k L = n π

=> k = n π / L ------------------ (7)

Where n = 1,2,3…………

Thus the solution to the Schrodinger equation for a particle trapped in a linear region of length ‘L’ is
a series of standing de Broglie waves.

Only certain values of k are permitted and thus only certain values of E may occur. Thus the energy
is quantized.

Substituting eqn.(6) in eqn.(3) we get

82 m  n 
2

E   or
 L
2
h

n 2h 2
En  ------------------- (8) where n = 1,2,3……….
8mL2

Equation (8) is the expression for energy Eigen values for a particle trapped in a potential well of
infinite depth.

However, the particle must be present somewhere inside the well, thus

 dx  1
2

Substituting eqn.(6) & eqn.(7) in eqn.(5) we get

Ψ (x) = A sin[nπ / L]x

 Lx dx  1
L
1
A
2
sin 2 n However, we know that sin 2   (1  cos 2)
0
2

1 L



L
1
 A 2   dx -  cos 2n x dx   1
L
2 0 20 

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 14 of 19

L
A 2  L  L   2n  
x  0 -   sin  x   1
2   2n   L   0

A2   L  
 L-  sin2nL  1 But sin 2nπ = 0
2   2n  

Therefore,

A 2L 2
1 or A 
2 L

Hence, we can write the wave function as

2  n 
( x )  sin   x
L  L

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 15 of 19

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
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UNIT 1: QUANTUM MECHANICS

1 Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by a 100 watt sodium vapour lamp.
Assume λ = 5893Å for sodium light.
Solution:
Given data:
No. of photons /second = ? λ = 5893Å

WKT E = hυ = hc/ λ = (6.634x10-34x3x108)/5893x10-10 = 3.375x10-19 J

Further, the rate of energy emission from a 100watt lamp is 100 joules/second. So the number
of photons (each having energy 3.375x10-19 emitted per second is
100 / 3.375x10-19 = 2.96 x 1020 photons per second

2 In an expt. Tungsten cathode which has threshold of 2300Å is irradiated by UV light of

wavelength 1800Å. Calculate i) maximum energy of emitted photoelectrons ii) work
function for tungsten. Given, h = 6.634x10-34 J-s, 1eV = 1.6x10-19J and c = 3x108m/s.
Solution:
WKT
i) KEmax = h(υ – υo) = h(c/λ - c/λo)
= 6.634x10-34x3x108 (1/1800x10-10 – 1/2300 x10-10) = 1.48eV

ii) Work function Wo = hυo = (6.634x10-34x3x108 /2300 x10-10) = 5.38eV

3 Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the following and justify your answers
i. a 1000kg automobile traveling at 100m/s
ii. a smoke particle of mass 10-9g moving at 1cm/s
iii. an electron with KE 1eV
Solution:
i. we have λ = h/mv = 6.634x10-34/1000x100 = 6.634x10-29 m
ii. we have λ = h/mv = 6.634x10-34/10-12x10-2 = 6.634x10-20 m
iii. we have λ = h/(2meV)½ = 6.634x10-34/(2x9.1x10-31x1.6x10-19)½ = 1.22x10-9 m
From the above results it is clear that smaller the mass of the object, more prominent will be
its de Broglie wavelength and vice versa.

4 Calculate the de Broglie wavelength associated with a proton moving with 1/20 th the
velocity of light, mass of proton is 1836 times the mass of electron.
Solution:
mp = 1836 me ; me = 9.1x10-31kg ; v = 1/20 x velocity of light
λ = h/mv = 6.634x10-34 x 20/(1836x9.1x10-31x3x108)= 2.64x10-14m

5 If an electron has a de Broglie wavelength of 2nm, find its KE and group velocity.
Solution:
KE = p2/2m = h2/ 2mλ2 = (6.634x10-34)2/(2x9.1x10-31x(2x10-9)2) = 6.038x10-20 J
Group velocity = p/m = h/mλ = 6.634x10-34/9.1x10-31x2x10-9 = 364285 m/s

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 17 of 19

6 An electron has a speed of 600m/s with an accuracy of 0.005%. Calculate the certainty
with which the position of the electron can be located?
Solution:
We have Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π or ∆x m∆v ≥ h/4π
∆v is 0.005% of 600m/s that is ∆v = (0.005x600)/100 = 0.030m/s
∆x = h/4π m∆v = 6.63x10-34/4x3.14x9.1x10-31x0.03 = 1.93x10-3m
Hence, certainly there exists an electron with in 1.93x10-3m

7 If an electron has a deBroglie wavelength of 2nm, find its kinetic energy and group
velocity.
Solution:
vg = vparticle = p/m = h/λm = 6.63x10-34/2x10-9x9.1x10-31 = 3.64 x105m/s

8 A particle of mass 1.67x10-27kg is confined to the 2nd excited state in a one dimensional
potential well of infinite height & width L = 0.1nm. Calculate (a) its energy (b)
momentum and (c) the probability of finding the particle between 0 & L/3.
Solution:
E = n2h2/8ml2 = 29.34x10-21J
p = (2mE)½ = 10-23kg-m/s
L L 2 L
3 3
 2  n  
3
2  n  
p   | | dx 
2
  sin   x  dx    L sin 2   x  dx
0 0  L  L   0  L  
L
 L3 L

 2  1   2n  1  2n 
3 3

p    
 L  2 
 (1 - cos
 L 
 x )dx    
L 0
1dx -  cos
 L


x dx

0
 0

 1   L 1
p    
L  3 3

9 A nucleon is confined to a nucleus of diameter 5x10-4m. Calculate the minimum

uncertainty in the momentum of the nucleon. Also calculate the minimum kinetic energy
of the nucleon.
Solution:
∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π or ∆p = h/∆x4π = 6.634x10-34/5x10-4x4x3.14 = 1.056x10-31kg-m/s
Since p ≥ (∆p)min, let us consider p = (∆p)min
Emin =p2/2mn = 3.33x10-36J

10 If the uncertainty in the location of a particle is equal to its de-Broglie wavelength, what
is the uncertainty associated with the velocity?
Solution:
∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π or ∆x m∆v ≥ h/4π or ∆v ≥ h/∆x m 4π
But ∆x = λ therefore ∆v ~ h/(h/p) m 4π ~ v/4π

11 For a particle having energy E & momentum P, show that the group velocity of matter
waves associated with a moving particle on which no forces act is twice the phase
velocity.
Solution: vph = ω/k = 2πν/(2π/λ) = νλ =(E/h)(h/p)= E/p =p2/2mp
= p/2m=1/2(vparticle) = 1/2(vpgroup)
Hence vpgroup = 2vph

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 18 of 19

12 For surface tension waves in shallow water, the relation between frequency &
1
 2T  2
wavelength is given by    3  find the group velocity.
  
1 3
 2T  2  3 2  2  
   X 2  2 k 2
3
2 3 3
      X  2  X  
Solution:     k  or 2
1 1/2 1 1/2
d  2  3  2T  1 3  2T 
 X 2  2 k 2  X 2  2
1 3 2 2
1 3 1
         
  X 2 
1 3
2 k 2
or dk 2 2    2      2   

13 In a particular substance the phase velocity of waves doubles when the wavelength is
halved. Show that wave groups in this system move at twice the central phase velocity.
Solution:
vp α 1/λ or vp = A/λ, we have vg =vp –λ[dvp/dλ]
vg =vp –λ[-A/λ2] = vp + A/λ = 2 vp

14 A particle is confined to a one-dimensional box of length 0.2nm. It is found that when the
energy of the particle is 230eV, its wave function has five antinodes. Find the mass of the
particle and show that it can never have energy equal to 1keV.
Solution: Given data,
L = 0.2nm, E = 230eV and for five antinodes n=5
E = n2h2/8mL2 or m = n2h2/8EL2 = 52x (6.6x10-34)2/8x230x1.6x10-19x(0.2x10-9)2
= 9.24x10-31kg
For E = 1keV we get n =10.42 which is a fraction and hence not allowed

15 A quantum particle confined to one-dimensional box of width ‘a’ is in its first excited
state. What is the probability of finding the particle over an interval of a/2 marked
symmetrically at the centre of the box.
Solution:
3a 3a 2 3a
4 4
 2  2  
4
2 2  2  
p   | | dx  2
  sin   x  dx    a sin  a  x  dx  0.5
a a  a  a   a    
4 4 4

16 A plane wave is travelling in a dispersive medium with phase velocity v ph given by vph =
a+bλ where a & b are constants. Show that the group velocity is equal to ‘a’.

Solution:
We have vph = ω/k ------ (1) and vph = a+bλ ------ (2)
Combining equations (1) & (2) we get
ω = (a+bλ)k
dω dλ dω 2π −2π
= (a + bλ) + k (0 + b ) 𝑜𝑟 = vg = a + b ( ) + kb ( 2 ) = a
dk dk dk k k

17 Find the value of ‘A’ in terms of ‘k’ for a wave function ψ = Aexp (-kx) for 0 < x < ∞.
Solution :
∞ ∞
∫0 | ψ|2 dx = 1 implies ∫0 𝐴2 𝑒 −2𝑘𝑥 dx = 1

𝐴2 1
[ − 1] = 1 implies A = (2k)1/2
−2𝑘 𝑒 ∞

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka
 Page 19 of 19

18 An excited atom has an average life time of 10-8s. During this period, it emits a photon
and returns to the ground state. What is the minimum uncertainty in the frequency of
this photon.
Solution:
∆E ∆t ≥ h/4π or h∆ʋ ∆t ≥ h/4π or ∆ʋ ≥ [1/4π ∆t] or ∆ʋ ~ 8 x 106 cps
But ∆x = λ therefore ∆v ~ h/(h/p) m 4π ~ v/4π

19 Estimate the minimum time spent by an atom in the excited state during the excitation &
de-excitation process, when a spectral line of wavelength 546nm & width 10 -14 m is
emitted.
Solution :
We have E = hc/λ
ΔE = [hcΔλ/λ2] ------(1)
Also ∆E ∆t ≥ h/4π ------(2) Comparing eqns. (1) & (2) we get
∆t ~ (λ2/4π)(1/cΔλ) ~ (546x10-9)2/4π x 1/3x108x10-14 = 8x10-9s

20 Compare the kinetic energy of a photon with that of an electron when both are
associated with a wavelength 0.2nm.
Solution:
KEelectron = p2/2m = h2/2m λ2 ; KEphoton = hc/λ

[KEelectron]/ [KEphoton] = [hc/λ]x[2m λ2 /h2] = 2mcλ /h = [2x9.1x10-31x3x108x0.2x10-9]

/6.63x10-34

[KEelectron]/ [KEphoton] = [164.70/1]

21 Calculate the momentum of an electron and the deBroglie wavelength associated with it
if its kinetic energy is 1.5 keV
Solution:
λ = h/(2meV)½ = 6.634x10-34/(2x9.1x10-31x1.5x103x1.6x10-19)½ = 3.172x10-11 m
λ = h/p or p = h/ λ = 6.634x10-34/3.172x10-11 = 2.09x10-23 kg-m/s

22 Estimate the potential difference through which a proton is needed to be accelerated so

that its de Broglie wavelength becomes equal to 1 Å. Given mproton 1.673x10-27 kg.
Solution:
λ = h/(2meV)½ or
v = h2/2me λ2 = (6.634x10-34)2/(2x1.673x10-27x1.6x10-19x (1x10-10)2) = 0.0822 volts
23 Calculate the energy required for an electron to jump from second excitation state to
third excitation state in a box of width 1Å width.
Solution:
E1 = n2h2/8ml2, E2 = 32h2/8ml2, E3 = 42h2/8ml2
Therefore, E = E3 - E2 = [h2/8ml2] (42 -32) = 4.23x10-17J = 264eV

Dr. K.E.Ganesh, Associate Professor,Department of Physics, BMSCE, Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-19, Karnataka