MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE & CONTINUING EDUCATION

TIRUNELVELI 627012, TAMIL NADU

B.COM. - II YEAR

DJC2E - BUSINESS MATHAMATICS AND STATISTICS

(From the academic year 2016-17)

Most Student friendly University - Strive to Study and Learn to Excel

For more information visit: http://www.msuniv.ac.in

 DJC2E - BUSINESS MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS

Unit I

Business statistics – meaning – definition – uses and limitations – collection of

primary and secondary data – sampling methods

Unit II

Measurement of central tendency – mean, median, mode, geometric mean,

harmonic mean – advantages and disadvantages and calculation – measures of
dispersion – range, quartile deviation, mean deviation, standard deviation –
advantage, disadvantage and calculation – Skewness – Karlpearlson and
Bowley‟s Coefficient of Skewness

Unit III

Correlation – meaning – types – calculation of Karlpearlsons co-efficient of

correlation – rank correlation (only individual observation). Regression –
meaning – calculation of X value and Y value – time series – meaning –
components – uses – calculations, moving average – seasonal index and trend
value by straight line method

Unit IV

Analytical geometry – point of distance between two points – slope of straight

line – business application – modeling by liner functions

Unit V

Algebra – theory of indices – zero and negative indices – (without fractional

indices – laws of indices – matrics – concepts – proof) – multiplication – matric
inverse – solving

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 AN INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

Introduction

In the modern world of computers and information technology, the importance of

statistics is very well recognized by all the disciplines. Statistics has originated as a science of
statehood and found applications slowly and steadily in Agriculture, Economics, Commerce,
Biology, Medicine, Industry, planning, education and so on. As on date, there is no other
human walk of life, where statistics cannot be applied.

The word „Statistics‟ and „Statistical‟ are all derived from the Latin word Status,
means a political state. The theory of statistics as a distinct branch of the scientific method is
of comparatively recent growth. Research, particularly into the mathematical theory of
statistics, is rapidly proceeding and fresh discoveries are being made all over the world.

Statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organizing,

summarising, presenting and analyzing data as well as deriving valid conclusions and making
reasonable decisions on the basis of this analysis. Statistics is concerned with the systematic
collection of numerical data and its interpretation. The word „statistic‟ is used to refer to

1. Numerical facts, such as the number of people living in particular area.

2. The study of ways of collecting, analyzing and interpreting the facts.

Definitions

Statistics is defined differently by different authors over a period of time. In the olden
day's statistics was confined to only state affairs but in modern days it embraces almost every
sphere of human activity. Therefore a number of old definitions, which was confined to
narrow field of enquiry were replaced by more definitions, which are much more
comprehensive and exhaustive. Secondly, statistics has been defined in two different ways –
Statistical data and statistical methods. The following are some of the definitions of statistics
as numerical data.

1. Statistics are the classified facts representing the conditions of people in a state. In
particular, they are the facts, which can be stated in numbers or in tables of numbers
or in any tabular or classified arrangement.

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 2. Statistics are measurements, enumerations or estimates of natural phenomenon
usually systematically arranged, analyzed and presented as to exhibit important
interrelationships among them.

“Statistics are a numerical statement of facts in any department of enquiry placed in

relation to each other”. - A.L. Bowley

Statistics may be called the science of counting in one of the departments due to
Bowley, obviously, this is an incomplete definition as it takes into account only the aspect of
collection and ignores other aspects such as analysis, presentation, and interpretation. Bowley
gives another definition for statistics, which states „statistics may be rightly called the scheme
of averages‟. This definition is also incomplete, as averages play an important role in
understanding and comparing data and statistics provide more measures.

“Statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presentation analysis and

interpretation of numerical data from the logical analysis”.- Croxton and Cowden

It is clear that the definition of statistics by Croxton and Cowden is the most scientific
and realistic one. According to this definition, there are four stages:

1. Collection of Data: It is the first step and this is the foundation upon which the entire data

set. Careful planning is essential before collecting the data. There are different methods of
collection of data such as census, sampling, primary, secondary, etc., and the investigator
should make use of the correct method.

2. Presentation of data: The mass data collected should be presented in a suitable, concise
form for further analysis. The collected data may be presented in the form of tabular or
diagrammatic or graphic form.

3. Analysis of data: The data presented should be carefully analysed for making inference
from the presented data such as measures of central tendencies, dispersion, correlation,
regression etc.,

4. Interpretation of data: The final step is drawing a conclusion from the data collected. A
valid conclusion must be drawn on the basis of analysis. A high degree of skill and
experience is necessary for the interpretation.

“Statistics may be defined as the aggregate of facts affected to a marked extent by a

multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according to a

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reasonable standard of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner, for a predetermined
purpose and placed in relation to each other.” - Horace Secrist

Functions of Statistics

There are many functions of statistics. Let us consider the following five important
functions.

Condensation:

Generally speaking the word „to condense‟, we mean to reduce or to lessen.

Condensation is mainly applied at embracing the understanding of a huge mass of data by
providing only a few observations. If in a particular class in Chennai School, only marks in
an examination are given, no purpose will be served. Instead, if we are given the average
mark in that particular examination, definitely it serves the better purpose. Similarly, the
range of marks is also another measure of the data. Thus, Statistical measures help to reduce
the complexity of the data and consequently to understand any huge mass of data.

Comparison:

Classification and tabulation are the two methods that are used to condense the data.
They help us to compare data collected from different sources. Grand totals, measures of
central tendency measures of dispersion, graphs and diagrams, the coefficient of correlation
etc provide ample scope for comparison. If we have one group of data, we can compare
within itself. If the rice production (in Tonnes) in Tanjore district is known, then we can
compare one region with another region within the district. Or if the rice production (in
Tonnes) of two different districts within Tamilnadu is known, then also a comparative study
can be made. As statistics is an aggregate of facts and figures, the comparison is always
possible and in fact, comparison helps us to understand the data in a better way.

Forecasting:

By the word forecasting, we mean to predict or to estimate before hand. Given the
data of the last ten years connected to rainfall of a particular district in Tamilnadu, it is
possible to predict or forecast the rainfall for the near future. In business also forecasting
plays a dominant role in connection with the production, sales, profits etc. The analysis of
time series and regression analysis plays an important role in forecasting.

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Estimation:

One of the main objectives of statistics is drawn inference about a population from the
analysis of the sample drawn from that population. The four major branches of statistical
inference are

1. Estimation theory

2. Tests of Hypothesis

3. Non Parametric tests

4. Sequential analysis

In estimation theory, we estimate the unknown value of the population parameter

based on the sample observations. Suppose we are given a sample of heights of hundred
students in a school, based on the heights of these 100 students, it is possible to estimate the
average height of all students in that school.

Tests of Hypothesis:

A statistical hypothesis is some statement about the probability distribution,

characterising a population on the basis of the information available from the sample
observations. In the formulation and testing of hypothesis, statistical methods are extremely
useful. Whether crop yield has increased because of the use of new fertilizer or whether the
new medicine is effective in eliminating a particular disease are some examples of statements
of hypothesis and these are tested by proper statistical tools.

Scope of Statistics

Statistics is not a mere device for collecting numerical data, but as a means of
developing sound techniques for their handling, analysing and drawing valid inferences from
them. Statistics is applied in every sphere of human activity – social as well as physical – like
Biology, Commerce, Education, Planning, Business Management, Information Technology,
etc. It is almost impossible to find a single department of human activity where statistics
cannot be applied. We now discuss briefly the applications of statistics in other disciplines.

Statistics and Industry:

Statistics is widely used in many industries. In industries, control charts are widely
used to maintain a certain quality level. In production engineering, to find whether the
product is conforming to specifications or not, statistical tools, namely inspection plans,

5
control charts, etc., are of extreme importance. In inspection plans, we have to resort to some
kind of sampling – a very important aspect of Statistics.

Statistics and Commerce:

Statistics are the lifeblood of successful commerce. Any businessman cannot afford to
either by under stocking or having an overstock of his goods. In the beginning, he estimates
the demand for his goods and then takes steps to adjust with his output or purchases. Thus
statistics is indispensable in business and commerce. As so many multinational companies
have invaded into our Indian economy, the size and volume of business are increasing. On
one side the stiff competition is increasing whereas on the other side the tastes are changing
and new fashions are emerging. In this connection, market survey plays an important role to
exhibit the present conditions and to forecast the likely changes in future.

Statistics and Agriculture:

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is one of the statistical tools developed by Professor

R.A. Fisher, plays a prominent role in agriculture experiments. In tests of significance based
on small samples, it can be shown that statistics are adequate to test the significant difference
between two sample means. In an analysis of variance, we are concerned with the testing of
equality of several population means.

For an example, five fertilizers are applied to five plots each of wheat and the yield of
wheat on each of the plots is given. In such a situation, we are interested in finding out
whether the effect of these fertilizers on the yield is significantly different or not. In other
words, whether the samples are drawn from the same normal population or not. The answer
to this problem is provided by the technique of ANOVA and it is used to test the
homogeneity of several population means.

Statistics and Economics:

Statistical methods are useful in measuring numerical changes in complex groups and
interpreting collective phenomenon. Nowadays the uses of statistics are abundantly made in
any economic study. Both in economic theory and practice, statistical methods play an
important role.

Alfred Marshall said, “Statistics are the straw only which I like every other economist
has to make the bricks”. It may also be noted that statistical data and techniques of statistical
tools are immensely useful in solving many economic problems such as wages, prices,
production, distribution of income and wealth and so on. Statistical tools like Index numbers,

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time series Analysis, Estimation theory, Testing Statistical Hypothesis are extensively used in
economics.

Statistics and Education:

Statistics is widely used in education. Research has become a common feature in all
branches of activities. Statistics is necessary for the formulation of policies to start a new
course, consideration of facilities available for new courses etc. There are many people
engaged in research work to test the past knowledge and evolve new knowledge. These are
possible only through statistics.

Statistics and Planning:

Statistics is indispensable in planning. In the modern world, which can be termed as

the “world of planning”, almost all the organizations in the government are seeking the help
of planning for efficient working, for the formulation of policy decisions and execution of the
same. In order to achieve the above goals, the statistical data relating to production,
consumption, demand, supply, prices, investments, income expenditure etc and various
advanced statistical techniques for processing, analysing and interpreting such complex data
are of importance. In India statistics play an important role in planning, commissioning both
at the central and state government levels.

Statistics and Medicine:

In Medical sciences, statistical tools are widely used. In order to test the efficiency of
a new drug or medicine, t - the test is used or to compare the efficiency of two drugs or two
medicines, t - test for the two samples is used. More and more applications of statistics are at
present used in the clinical investigation.

Statistics and Modern applications:

Recent developments in the fields of computer technology and information

technology have enabled statistics to integrate their models and thus make statistics a part of
decision-making procedures of many organizations. There are so many software packages
available for solving design of experiments, forecasting simulation problems etc. SYSTAT, a
software package offers more scientific and technical graphing options than any other
desktop statistics package. SYSTAT supports all types of scientific and technical research in
various diversified fields as follows

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 1. Archaeology: Evolution of skull dimensions

2. Epidemiology: Tuberculosis

3. Statistics: Theoretical distributions

4. Manufacturing: Quality improvement

5. Medical research: Clinical investigations.

6. Geology: Estimation of Uranium reserves from ground water

Limitations of statistics

Statistics with all its wide application in every sphere of human activity has its own
limitations. Some of them are given below.

1. Statistics is not suitable for the study of the qualitative phenomenon: Since statistics is
basically a science and deals with a set of numerical data, it is applicable to the study of only
these subjects of enquiry, which can be expressed in terms of quantitative measurements. As
a matter of fact, a qualitative phenomenon like honesty, poverty, beauty, intelligence etc,
cannot be expressed numerically and any statistical analysis cannot be directly applied to this
qualitative phenomenon. Nevertheless, statistical techniques may be applied indirectly by
first reducing the qualitative expressions to accurate quantitative terms. For example, the
intelligence of a group of students can be studied on the basis of their marks in a particular
examination.

2. Statistics do not study individuals: Statistics does not give any specific importance to the
individual items, in fact, it deals with an aggregate of objects. Individual items, when they are
taken individually do not constitute any statistical data and do not serve any purpose for any
statistical enquiry.

3. Statistical laws are not exact: It is well known that mathematical and physical sciences
are exact. But statistical laws are not exact and statistical laws are only approximations.
Statistical conclusions are not universally true. They are true only on an average.

4. Statistics table may be misused: Statistics must be used only by experts; otherwise,
statistical methods are the most dangerous tools in the hands of the inexpert. The use of
statistical tools by the inexperienced and untraced persons might lead to wrong conclusions.
Statistics can be easily misused by quoting wrong figures of data. As King says aptly
„statistics are like the clay of which one can make a God or Devil as one pleases‟.

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5. Statistics is only, one of the methods of studying a problem: statistical methods do not
provide complete solution of the problems because problems are to be studied taking the
background of the countries culture, philosophy or religion into consideration. Thus the
statistical study should be supplemented by other evidence.

Questions
1. Explain the origin and growth of statistics

2. What are the uses of Statistics?

3. What do you understand by the term “Average” in statistics? Explain its significance
in statistical work.

4. What are the limitations of statistics?

5. Explain about the applications of statistics in the field of commerce

9
 COLLECTION OF DATA

Introduction

Everybody collects, interprets and uses information, much of it in numerical or

statistical forms in day-to-day life. It is a common practice that people receive large
quantities of information every day through conversations, televisions, computers, the radios,
newspapers, posters, notices, and instructions. It is just because there is so much information
available that people need to be able to absorb, select and reject it. In everyday life, in
business and industry, certain statistical information is necessary and it is independent to
know where to find it how to collect it. As consequences, everybody has to compare prices
and quality before making any decision about what goods to buy. As employees of any firm,
people want to compare their salaries and working conditions, promotion opportunities and
so on. In time the firms on their part want to control costs and expand their profits.

One of the main functions of statistics is to provide information which will help on
making decisions. Statistics provides the type of information by providing a description of the
present, a profile of the past and an estimate of the future. The following are some of the
objectives of collecting statistical information.

1. To describe the methods of collecting primary statistical information.

2. To consider the status involved in carrying out a survey.

3. To analyse the process involved in observation and interpreting.

4. To define and describe sampling.

5. To analyse the basis of sampling.

6. To describe a variety of sampling methods.

The statistical investigation is a comprehensive and requires systematic collection of

data about some group of people or objects, describing and organizing the data, analyzing the
data with the help of different statistical method, summarizing the analysis and using these
results for making judgments, decisions and predictions. The validity and accuracy of final
judgment are most crucial and depends heavily on how well the data was collected in the first
place. The quality of data will greatly affect the conditions and hence at most importance
must be given to this process and every possible precaution should be taken to ensure
accuracy while collecting the data.

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Categories of data

Any statistical data can be classified into two categories depending upon the sources
utilized. These categories are,

1. Primary data

2. Secondary data

Primary data:

Primary data is the one, which is collected by the investigator himself for the purpose
of a specific inquiry or study. Such data is original in character and is generated by a survey
conducted by individuals or research institution or any organisation.

Example :

If a researcher is interested to know the impact of the noon meal scheme for the
school children, he has to undertake a survey and collect data on the opinion of parents and
children by asking relevant questions. Such a data collected for the purpose is called primary
data.

The primary data can be collected by the following five methods.

1. Direct personal interviews.

2. Indirect Oral interviews.

3. Information from correspondents.

4. Mailed questionnaire method.

5. Schedules sent through enumerators.

1. Direct personal interviews:

The persons from whom information are collected are known as informants. The
investigator personally meets them and asks questions to gather the necessary information. It
is the suitable method for intensive rather than extensive field surveys. It suits best for
intensive study of the limited field.

Merits:

1. People willingly supply information because they are approached personally. Hence,
more response noticed in this method than in any other method.

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 2. The collected information is likely to be uniform and accurate. The investigator is
there to clear the doubts of the informants.
3. Supplementary information on informant‟s personal aspects can be noted. Information
on character and environment may help later to interpret some of the results.
4. Answers to questions about which the informant is likely to be sensitive can be
gathered by this method.
5. The wordings in one or more questions can be altered to suit any informant.
Explanations may be given in other languages also. Inconvenience and
misinterpretations are thereby avoided.

Limitations:

1. It is very costly and time-consuming.

2. It is very difficult when the number of persons to be interviewed is large and the
persons are spread over a wide area.
3. Personal prejudice and bias are greater under this method.

2. Indirect Oral Interviews:

Under this method the investigator contacts witnesses or neighbors or friends or some
other third parties who are capable of supplying the necessary information. This method is
preferred if the required information is on addiction or cause of fire or theft or murder etc., If
a fire has broken out a certain place, the persons living in neighbourhood and witnesses are
likely to give information on the cause of the fire. In some cases, police interrogated third
parties who are supposed to have knowledge of a theft or a murder and get some clues.
Enquiry committees appointed by governments generally adopt this method and get people‟ s
views and all possible details of facts relating to the enquiry. This method is suitable
whenever direct sources do not exist or cannot be relied upon or would be unwilling to part
with the information.

The validity of the results depends on a few factors, such as the nature of the person
whose evidence is being recorded, the ability of the interviewer to draw out information from
the third parties by means of appropriate questions and cross examinations, and the number
of persons interviewed. For the success of this method one person or one group alone should
not be relied upon.

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3. Information from correspondents:

The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different places and

compiles the information sent by them. Information to Newspapers and some departments of
Government come by this method. The advantage of this method is that it is cheap and
appropriate for extensive investigations. But it may not ensure accurate results because the
correspondents are likely to be negligent, prejudiced and biased. This method is adopted in
those cases where information is to be collected periodically from a wide area for a long time.

4. Mailed questionnaire method:

Under this method, a list of questions is prepared and is sent to all the informants by
post. The list of questions is technically called questionnaire. A covering letter accompanying
the questionnaire explains the purpose of the investigation and the importance of correct
information and request the informants to fill in the blank spaces provided and to return the
form within a specified time. This method is appropriate in those cases where the informants
are literates and are spread over a wide area.

Merits:

1. It is relatively cheap.
2. It is preferable when the informants are spread over the wide area.

Limitations:

1. The greatest limitation is that the informants should be literates who are able to
understand and reply the questions.
2. It is possible that some of the persons who receive the questionnaires do not return
them.
3. It is difficult to verify the correctness of the information furnished by the respondents.

With the view of minimizing non-respondents and collecting correct information, the
questionnaire should be carefully drafted. There is no hard and fast rule. But the following
general principles may be helpful in framing the questionnaire. A covering letter and a self-
addressed and stamped envelope should accompany the questionnaire. The covering letter
should politely point out the purpose of the survey and privilege of the respondent who is one
among the few associated with the investigation. It should assure that the information would
be kept confidential and would never be misused. It may promise a copy of the findings or
free gifts or concessions etc.,

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Characteristics of a good questionnaire

1. A number of questions should be minimum.

2. Questions should be in logical orders, moving from easy to more difficult questions.
3. Questions should be short and simple. Technical terms and vague expressions capable
of different interpretations should be avoided.
4. Questions fetching YES or NO answers are preferable. There may be some multiple
choice questions requiring lengthy answers are to be avoided.
5. Personal questions and questions which require memory power and calculations
should also be avoided.
6. The question should enable cross check. Deliberate or unconscious mistakes can be
detected to an extent.
7. Questions should be carefully framed so as to cover the entire scope of the survey.
8. The wording of the questions should be proper without hurting the feelings or
arousing resentment.
9. As far as possible confidential information should not be sought.
10. Physical appearance should be attractive, sufficient space should be provided for
answering each question.

5. Schedules sent through Enumerators:

Under this method, enumerator or interviewers take the schedules, meet the
informants and filling their replies. Often a distinction is made between the schedule and a
questionnaire. A schedule is filled by the interviewers in a face-to-face situation with the
informant. A questionnaire is filled by the informant which he receives and returns by post. It
is suitable for extensive surveys.

Merits:

1. It can be adopted even if the informants are illiterates.

2. Answers to questions of personal and pecuniary nature can be collected.
3. Non-response is minimum as enumerators go personally and contact the informants.
4. The information collected is reliable. The enumerators can be properly trained for the
same.
5. It is most popular methods.

Limitations:

1. It is the costliest method.

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 2. Extensive training is to be given to the enumerators for collecting correct and uniform
information.
3. Interviewing requires experience. Unskilled investigators are likely to fail in their
work.

Before the actual survey, a pilot survey is conducted. The questionnaire/Schedule is

pre-tested in a pilot survey. A few among the people from whom actual information is needed
are asked to reply. If they misunderstand a question or find it difficult to answer or do not like
its wordings etc., it is to be altered. Further, it is to be ensured that every question fetches the
desired answer.

Merits and Demerits of primary data:

1. The collection of data by the method of personal survey is possible only if the area
covered by the investigator is small. Collection of data by sending the enumerator is
bound to be expensive. Care should be taken twice that the enumerator record corrects
information provided by the informants.
2. Collection of primary data by framing schedules or distributing and collecting
questionnaires by post is less expensive and can be completed in shorter time.
3. Suppose the questions are embarrassing or of complicated nature of the questions
probe into personal affairs of individuals, then the schedules may not be filled with
accurate and correct information and hence this method is unsuitable.
4. The information collected for primary data is more reliable than those collected from
the secondary data.

Secondary Data:

Secondary data are those data which have been already collected and analysed by
some earlier agency for its own use, and later the same data are used by a different agency.
According to W.A.Neiswanger, „ A primary source is a publication in which the data are
published by the same authority which gathered and analysed them. A secondary source is a
publication, reporting the data which have been gathered by other authorities and for which
others are responsible‟.

Sources of Secondary data:

In most of the studies the investigator finds it impracticable to collect first-hand

information on all related issues and as such he makes use of the data collected by others.
There is a vast amount of published information from which statistical studies may be made

15
and fresh statistics are constantly in a state of production. The sources of secondary data can
broadly be classified under two heads:

1. Published sources, and

2. Unpublished sources.

1. Published Sources:

The various sources of published data are:

1. Reports and official publications of

(i) International bodies such as the International Monetary Fund, International Finance
Corporation, and United Nations Organisation.

(ii) Central and State Governments such as the Report of the Tandon Committee and Pay
Commission.

2. Semi-official publication of various local bodies such as Municipal Corporations and

District Boards.

3. Private publications-such as the publications of –

(i) Trade and professional bodies such as the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce
and Institute of Chartered Accountants.

(ii) Financial and economic journals such as „Commerce‟, „Capital‟ and „Indian Finance‟.

(iii) Annual reports of joint stock companies.

(iv) Publications brought out by research agencies, research scholars, etc.

It should be noted that the publications mentioned above vary with regard to the
period of publication. Some are published at regular intervals (yearly, monthly, weekly etc.,)
whereas others are ad hoc publications, i.e., with no regularity about periodicity of
publications.

Note: A lot of secondary data is available on the internet. We can access it at any time for the

further studies.

2. Unpublished Sources

All statistical material is not always published. There are various sources of
unpublished data such as records maintained by various Government and private offices,
studies made by research institutions, scholars, etc. Such sources can also be used where
necessary

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Precautions in the use of Secondary data

The following are some of the points that are to be considered in the use of secondary data

1. How the data has been collected and processed

2. The accuracy of the data
3. How far the data has been summarized
4. How comparable the data is with other tabulations
5. How to interpret the data, especially when figures collected for one purpose is used
for another

Generally speaking, with secondary data, people have to compromise between what they
want and what they are able to find.

Merits and Demerits of Secondary Data:

1. Secondary data is cheap to obtain. Many government publications are relatively cheap
and libraries stock quantities of secondary data produced by the government, by
companies and other organisations.
2. Large quantities of secondary data can be got through the internet.
3. Much of the secondary data available has been collected for many years and therefore
it can be used to plot trends.
4. Secondary data is of value to:
- The government – help in making decisions and planning future policy.
- Business and industry – in areas such as marketing, and sales in order to
appreciate the general economic and social conditions and to provide
information on competitors.
- Research organisations – by providing social, economic and industrial
information.

Questions
1. Explain about secondary data

2. Explain the methods for collection primary and secondary data

3. Explain about primary data

17
 SAMPLING

Introduction

Sampling is very often used in our daily life. For example, while purchasing food
grains from a shop we usually examine a handful from the bag to assess the quality of the
commodity. A doctor examines a few drops of blood as a sample and draws a conclusion
about the blood constitution of the whole body. Thus most of our investigations are based on
samples.

Population

In a statistical enquiry, all the items, which fall within the purview of enquiry, are
known as Population or Universe. In other words, the population is a complete set of all
possible observations of the type which is to be investigated. A total number of students
studying in a school or college, the total number of books in a library, the total number of
houses in a village or town is some examples of the population.

Sometimes it is possible and practical to examine every person or item in the

population we wish to describe. We call this a Complete enumeration, or census. We use
sampling when it is not possible to measure every item in the population. Statisticians use the
word population to refer not only to people but to all items that have been chosen for study.

Finite population and infinite population

A population is said to be finite if it consists of a finite number of units. A number of

workers in a factory, production of articles in a particular day for a company are examples of
a finite population. The total number of units in a population is called population size. A
population is said to be infinite if it has an infinite number of units. For example the number
of stars in the sky, the number of people seeing the Television programs etc.,

Census Method:

Information on population can be collected in two ways – census method and sample
method. In census method, every element of the population is included in the investigation.
For example, if we study the average annual income of the families of a particular village or
area, and if there are 1000 families in that area, we must study the income of all 1000
families. In this method, no family is left out, as each family is a unit.

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Merits and limitations of Census method:

Merits:

1. The data are collected from each and every item of the population
2. The results are more accurate and reliable because every item of the universe is
required.
3. Intensive study is possible.
4. The data collected may be used for various surveys, analyses etc.

Limitations:

1. It requires a large number of enumerators and it is a costly method

2. It requires more money, labour, time energy etc.
3. It is not possible in some circumstances where the universe is infinite.

Sampling:

The theory of sampling has been developed recently but this is not new. In our
everyday life, we have been using sampling theory as we have discussed in the introduction.
In all those cases we believe that the samples give a correct idea about the population. Most
of our decisions are based on the examination of a few items that are sample studies.

Sample:

Statisticians use the word sample to describe a portion chosen from the population. A
finite subset of statistical individuals defined in a population is called a sample. The number
of units in a sample is called the sample size.

Sampling unit:

The constituents of a population which are individuals to be sampled from the

population and cannot be further subdivided for the purpose of the sampling at a time are
called sampling units. For example, to know the average income per family, the head of the
family is a sampling unit. To know the average yield of rice, each farm owner‟ s yield of rice
is a sampling unit.

Sampling frame:

For adopting any sampling procedure it is essential to have a list identifying each
sampling unit by a number. Such a list or map is called sampling frame. A list of voters, a list
of house holders, a list of villages in a district, a list of farmers etc. are a few examples of the
sampling frame.

19
Reasons for selecting a sample:

Sampling is inevitable in the following situations:

1. Complete enumerations are practically impossible when the population is infinite.

2. When the results are required in a short time.
3. When the area of the survey is wide.
4. When resources for the survey are limited particularly in respect of money and trained
persons.
5. When the item or unit is destroyed under investigation.

Parameters and statistics:

We can describe samples and populations by using measures such as the mean,
median, mode and standard deviation. When these terms describe the characteristics of a
population, they are called parameters. When they describe the characteristics of a sample,
they are called statistics. A parameter is a characteristic of a population and a statistic is a
characteristic of a sample. Since samples are subsets of population statistics provide estimates
of the parameters. That is, when the parameters are unknown, they are estimated from the
values of the statistics. In general, we use Greek or capital letters for population parameters
and lower case Roman letters to denote sample statistics. [N, μ, σ, are the standard symbols
for the size, mean, S.D, of the population. N, x, s, are the standard symbol for the size, mean,
s.d of sample respectively].

Principles of Sampling

Samples have to provide good estimates. The following principle tells us that the
sample methods provide such good estimates.

1. The principle of statistical regularity:

A moderately large number of units chosen at random from a large group are almost
sure on the average to possess the characteristics of the large group.

2. The principle of Inertia of large numbers:

Other things being equal, as the sample size increases, the results tend to be more
accurate and reliable.

3. The principle of Validity:

This states that the sampling methods provide valid estimates of the population units
(parameters).

20
4. The principle of Optimisation:

This principle takes into account the desirability of obtaining a sampling design which
gives optimum results. This minimizes the risk or loss of the sampling design. The foremost
purpose of sampling is to gather maximum information about the population under
consideration at minimum cost, time and human power. This is best achieved when the
sample contains all the properties of the population.

Sampling errors and nonsampling errors

The two types of errors in a sample survey are sampling errors and no – sampling
errors.

1. Sampling errors:

Although a sample is a part of the population, it cannot be expected generally to

supply full information about the population. So there may be in most cases difference
between statistics and parameters. The discrepancy between a parameter and its estimate due
to sampling process is known as sampling error.

2. Non-sampling errors:

In all surveys some errors may occur during collection of actual information. These
errors are called Non-sampling errors.

Advantages and Limitation of Sampling:

There are many advantages of sampling methods over census method. They are as
follows:

1. Sampling saves time and labour.

2. It results in reduction of cost in terms of money and manhour.
3. Sampling ends up with greater accuracy of results.
4. It has greater scope.
5. It has greater adaptability.
6. If the population is too large, or hypothetical or destroyable sampling is the only
method to be used.

LIMITATIONS

The limitations of sampling are given below:

21
 1. Sampling is to be done by qualified and experienced persons. Otherwise, the
information will be unbelievable.
2. Sample method may give the extreme values sometimes instead of the mixed values.
3. There is the possibility of sampling errors. Census survey is free from sampling error.

Types of Sampling

The technique of selecting a sample is of fundamental importance in sampling theory

and it depends upon the nature of investigation. The sampling procedures which are
commonly used may be classified as

1. Probability sampling.
2. Non-probability sampling.
3. Mixed sampling.

Probability sampling (Random sampling):

A probability sample is one where the selection of units from the population is made
according to known probabilities. (eg.) Simple random sample, probability proportional to
sample size etc.

Non-Probability sampling:

It is the one where discretion is used to select „representative‟ units from the
population (or) to infer that a sample is „representative‟ of the population. This method is
called judgement or purposive sampling. This method is mainly used for opinion surveys; A
common type of judgement sample used in surveys is quota sample. This method is not used
in general because of prejudice and bias of the enumerator. However if the enumerator is
experienced and expert, this method may yield valuable results. For example, in the market
research survey of the performance of their new car, the sample was all new car purchasers.

Mixed Sampling:

Here samples are selected partly according to some probability and partly according
to a fixed sampling rule; they are termed as mixed samples and the technique of selecting
such samples is known as mixed sampling.

Methods of selection of samples:

Here we shall consider the following three methods:

1. Simple random sampling.

22
 2. Stratified random sampling.

3. Systematic random sampling.

1. Simple random sampling:

A simple random sample from finite population is a sample selected such that each
possible sample combination has equal probability of being chosen. It is also called
unrestricted random sampling.

2. Simple random sampling without replacement:

In this method the population elements can enter the sample only once (ie) the units
once selected is not returned to the population before the next draw.

3. Simple random sampling with replacement:

In this method the population units may enter the sample more than once. Simple
random sampling may be with or without replacement.

Methods of selection of a simple random sampling:

The following are some methods of selection of a simple random sampling.

a) Lottery Method:

This is the most popular and simplest method. In this method all the items of the
population are numbered on separate slips of paper of same size, shape and colour. They are
folded and mixed up in a container. The required numbers of slips are selected at random for
the desire sample size. For example, if we want to select 5 students, out of 50 students, then
we must write their names or their roll numbers of all the 50 students on slips and mix them.
Then we make a random selection of 5 students. This method is mostly used in lottery draws.
If the universe is infinite this method is inapplicable.

b) Table of Random numbers:

As the lottery method cannot be used, when the population is infinite, the alternative
method is that of using the table of random numbers. There are several standard tables of
random numbers.

1. Tippett‟ s table

2. Fisher and Yates‟ table

3. Kendall and Smith‟ s table are the three tables among them.

23
 A random number table is so constructed that all digits 0 to 9 appear independent of
each other with equal frequency. If we have to select a sample from population of size
N=100, then the numbers can be combined three by three to give the numbers from 001 to
100.

c) Random number selections using calculators or computers:

Random number can be generated through scientific calculator or computers. For each
press of the key get a new random numbers. The ways of selection of sample is similar to that
of using random number table.

Merits of using random numbers:

Merits:

1. Personal bias is eliminated as a selection depends solely on chance .

2. A random sample is in general a representative sample for a homogenous population.
3. There is no need for the thorough knowledge of the units of the population.
4. The accuracy of a sample can be tested by examining another sample from the same
universe when the universe is unknown.
5. This method is also used in other methods of sampling.

Limitations:

1. Preparing lots or using random number tables is tedious when the population is large.
2. When there is large difference between the units of population, the simple random
sampling may not be a representative sample.
3. The size of the sample required under this method is more than that required by
stratified random sampling.
4. It is generally seen that the units of a simple random sample lie apart geographically.
The cost and time of collection of data are more.

Stratified Random Sampling:

Of all the methods of sampling the procedure commonly used in surveys is stratified
sampling. This technique is mainly used to reduce the population heterogeneity and to
increase the efficiency of the estimates. Stratification means division into groups.In this
method the population is divided into a number of subgroups or strata. The strata should be
so formed that each stratum is homogeneous as far as possible. Then from each stratum a

24
simple random sample may be selected and these are combined together to form the required
sample from the population.

Types of Stratified Sampling:

There are two types of stratified sampling. They are proportional and
nonproportional. In the proportional sampling equal and proportionate representation is
given to subgroups or strata. If the number of items is large, the sample will have a higher
size and vice versa.

The population size is denoted by N and the sample size is denoted by „ n‟ the sample
size is allocated to each stratum in such a way that the sample fractions is a constant for each
stratum. That is given by n/N = c. So in this method each stratum is represented according to
its size.

In non-proportionate sample, equal representation is given to all the sub-strata

regardless of their existence in the population.

Merits and limitations of stratified sampling:

Merits:

1. It is more representative.

2. It ensures greater accuracy.

3. It is easy to administer as the universe is sub - divided.

4. Greater geographical concentration reduces time and expenses.

5. When the original population is badly skewed, this method is appropriate.

6. For non – homogeneous population, it may field good results.

Limitations:

1. To divide the population into homogeneous strata, it requires more money, time and
statistical experience which is a difficult one.
1. Improper stratification leads to bias, if the different strata overlap such a sample will
not be a representative one.

Systematic Sampling:

This method is widely employed because of its ease and convenience. A frequently
used method of sampling when a complete list of the population is available is systematic
sampling. It is also called Quasi-random sampling.

25
Selection procedure

The whole sample selection is based on just a random start . The first unit is selected
with the help of random numbers and the rest get selected automatically according to some
pre designed pattern is known as systematic sampling. With systematic random sampling
every Kth element in the frame is selected for the sample, with the starting point among the
first K elements determined at random.

Merits :

1. This method is simple and convenient.

2. Time and work is reduced much.
3. If proper care is taken result will be accurate.
4. It can be used in infinite population.

Limitations:

1.Systematic sampling may not represent the whole population.

2.There is a chance of personal bias of the investigators.

Systematic sampling is preferably used when the information is to be collected from trees
in a forest, house in blocks, entries in a register which are in a serial order etc.

26
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDANCY

Introduction

In the study of a population with respect to one in which we are interested we may get
a large number of observations. It is not possible to grasp any idea about the characteristic
when we look at all the observations. So it is better to get one number for one group. That
number must be a good representative one for all the observations to give a clear picture of
that characteristic. Such representative number can be a central value for all these
observations. This central value is called a measure of central tendency or an average or a
measure of locations.

There are five averages. Among them mean, median and mode are called simple
averages and the other two averages geometric mean and harmonic mean are called special
averages.

Definitions

The meaning of average is nicely given in the following definitions.

“A measure of central tendency is a typical value around which other figures congregate.”

“An average stands for the whole group of which it forms a part yet represents the whole.”

“One of the most widely used set of summary figures is known as measures of location.”

Characteristics for a good or an ideal average

The following properties should possess for an ideal average.

1. It should be rigidly defined.

2. It should be easy to understand and compute.

3. It should be based on all items in the data.

4. Its definition shall be in the form of a mathematical formula.

5. It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.

6. It should have sampling stability.

7. It should be capable of being used in further statistical computations or processing.

Besides the above requisites, a good average should represent maximum characteristics
of the data; its value should be nearest to the most items of the given series.

27
Arithmetic mean or mean

Arithmetic mean or simply the mean of a variable is defined as the sum of the
observations divided by the number of observations. If the variable x assumes n values x1, x2
… xn then the

mean, 𝑋, is given by

𝑿𝟏 + 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑿𝟑 + ⋯ 𝑿𝒏
𝑿=
𝑵
Example 1:

Calculate the mean for 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

Solution:
2+4+6+8+10
𝑋=
5

30
𝑋=
5

𝑋=6

Short cut method

Under this method an assumed or an arbitrary average (indicated by A) is used as the

basis of calculation of deviations from individual values. The formula is
∑𝑑
𝑋=𝐴±
𝑛

Where, A = the assumed mean or any value in x

d = the deviation of each value from the assumed mean

Example 2 :

A student‟ s marks in 5 subjects are 75, 68, 80, 92, 56. Find his average mark.

Solution :

X d = X-A

75 7

A 68 0

28
 80 12

92 24

56 – 12

N=5 ∑d=31

∑𝑑
𝑋=𝐴±
𝑁

31
= 68 +
5

= 68+6.2

= 74.2

Grouped Data: Discrete Series

Direct Method

In case of discrete series, frequency against each of the observations is multiplied by

the value of the observation. The values, so obtained, are summed up and divided by the total
number of frequencies. Symbolically,

∑𝑓𝑥
𝑋=
𝑁
Where x = the mid-point of individual class

f = the frequency of individual class

N = the sum of the frequencies or total frequencies

Short-cut method:

∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴±
𝑁

Where, A = any value in x; N = total frequency

Example 3:

Given the following frequency distribution, calculate the arithmetic mean

29
 Marks : 64 63 62 61 60 59

Number of Students : 8 18 12 9 7 6

Solution:

X F Fx d = X-A fd

64 8 512 2 16

63 18 1134 1 18

62 A 12 744 0 0

61 9 549 –1 –9
60 7 420 –2 –14

59 6 354 –3 – 18

N =60 ∑fx=3713 ∑fd=– 7

Direct method

∑𝑓𝑥
𝑋=
𝑁
3713
𝑋=
60
𝑋 = 61.88

Short-cut method
∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴±
𝑁

7
𝑋 =62 -
60

𝑋 =62 – 0.12

𝑋 =61.88

30
Continuous Series

Here, class intervals are given. The process of calculating arithmetic mean in case of
continuous series is same as that of a discrete series. The only difference is that the mid-
points of various class intervals are taken. You should note that class intervals may be
exclusive or inclusive or of unequal size. Example of exclusive class interval is, say, 0–10,
10–20 and so on. Example of inclusive class interval is, say, 0–9, 10–19 and so on. Example
of unequal class interval is, say, 0–20, 20–50 and so on. In all these cases, calculation of
arithmetic mean is done in a similar way.

Direct method

∑𝑓𝑚
𝑋=
𝑁
Short-cut method
∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴±
𝑁

Step deviation method

∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴± ×𝐶
𝑁

Where
𝑋−𝐴
𝑑= 𝐶

A = any value in x

N = total frequency

c = width of the class interval

Example 4 :

Following is the distribution of persons according to different income groups.

Calculate arithmetic mean.

Income
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Rs.(100)

Number of
6 8 10 12 7 4 3
persons

31
Solution :

Income Number of Mid d=M−A

Fd
C.I Persons (f) M
c

0-10 6 5 -3 -18

10-20 8 15 -2 -16

20-30 10 25 -1 -10

30-40 12 35 0 0

40-50 7 45 1 7

50-60 4 55 2 8

60-70 3 65 3 9

N=50 ∑fd= -20

∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴± ×𝑐
𝑁

20
𝑋 = 35 − × 10
50

200
𝑋 = 35 − 50

𝑋 = 35 − 4

𝑋 = 31

Merits and demerits of Arithmetic mean :

Merits:

1. It is rigidly defined.

2. It is easy to understand and easy to calculate.

3. If the number of items is sufficiently large, it is more accurate and more reliable.

4. It is a calculated value and is not based on its position in the series.

5. It is possible to calculate even if some of the details of the data are lacking.

6. Of all averages, it is affected least by fluctuations of sampling.

7. It provides a good basis for comparison.

32
Demerits:

1. It cannot be obtained by inspection nor located through a frequency graph.

2. It cannot be in the study of qualitative phenomena not capable of numerical
measurement i.e. Intelligence, beauty, honesty etc.,
3. It can ignore any single item only at the risk of losing its accuracy.
4. It is affected very much by extreme values.
5. It cannot be calculated for open-end classes.
6. It may lead to fallacious conclusions, if the details of the data from which it is
computed are not given.

Weighted Arithmetic mean

For calculating simple mean, we suppose that all the values or the sizes of items in the
distribution have equal importance. But, in practical life this may not be so. In case some
items are more important than others, a simple average computed is not representative of the
distribution. Proper weightage has to be given to the various items. For example, to have an
idea of the change in cost of living of a certain group of persons, the simple average of the
prices of the commodities consumed by them will not do because all the commodities are not
equally important, e.g rice, wheat and pulses are more important than tea, confectionery etc.,
It is the weighted arithmetic average which helps in finding out the average value of the
series after giving proper weight to each group.

Definition:

The average whose component items are being multiplied by certain values known as
“weights” and the aggregate of the multiplied results are being divided by the total sum of
their “weight”.

If x1, x2…xn be the values of a variable x with respective weights of w1, w2… wn
assigned to them, then
𝑊1 𝑋1 +𝑊2 𝑋2+⋯+ 𝑊𝑖 𝑋 𝑖 ∑𝑊𝑖 𝑋 𝑖
Weighted A.M= 𝑋w = =
𝑊1 +𝑊2 +⋯𝑊𝑛 ∑𝑊𝑖

Uses of the weighted mean:

Weighted arithmetic mean is used in:

a. Construction of index numbers.

b. Comparison of results of two or more universities where number of students differ.

33
c. Computation of standardized death and birth rates.

Example 5:

Calculate weighted average from the following data

Designation Monthly salary Strength of the

(in Rs) cadre

Class 1 officers 1500 10

Class 2 officers 800 20

Subordinate staff 500 70

Clerical staff 250 100

Lower staff 100 150

Solution:

Designation Monthly salary, x Strength of the cadre, w wx

Class 1 officer 1500 10 15,000

Class 2 officer 800 20 16,000

Subordinate staff 500 70 35,000

Clerical staff 250 100 25,000

Lower staff 100 150 15,000

∑W=350 ∑wx= 1,06,000

34
 ∑𝑤𝑥
Weighted A.M= 𝑋w =
∑𝑤

106000
𝑋w =
350

𝑋w = 302.86

Harmonic mean (H.M)

Harmonic mean of a set of observations is defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic average
of the reciprocal of the given values. If x1, x2…..xn are n observations,
𝑛
H.M= 1
∑𝑛 𝑓 ( )
𝑖=1 𝑥 𝑖

𝑁
For frequency distribution H.M= 1
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑓 ( )
𝑥𝑖

Example 6:

From the given data calculate H.M 5, 10,17,24,30

1
X
x

5 0.2000

10 0.1000

17 0.0588

24 0.0417

30 0.0333

Total 0.4338

35
 𝑛
H.M= 1
∑(𝑥 )

5
H.M= = 11.526
0.4338

Example 7:

The marks secured by some students of a class are given below. Calculate the
harmonic mean.

Marks 20 21 22 23 24 25

Number of Students 4 2 7 1 3 1

Solution :

𝟏 𝟏
Marks (X) No. of students (f) 𝒇( )
𝒙 𝒙

20 4 0.0500 0.2000

21 2 0.0476 0.0952

22 7 0.0454 0.3178

23 1 0.0435 0.0435

24 3 0.0417 0.1251

25 1 0.0400 0.0400

𝟏
N=18 ∑𝒇 =0.8216
𝒙

36
 𝑁
𝐻. 𝑀 =
1
∑𝑓 𝑥

18
𝐻. 𝑀 = = 21.91
0.8216

Merits of H.M :

1. It is rigidly defined.

2. It is defined on all observations.

3. It is amenable to further algebraic treatment.

4. It is the most suitable average when it is desired to give greater weight to smaller
observations and less weight to the larger ones.

Demerits of H.M :

1. It is not easily understood.

2. It is difficult to compute.

3. It is only a summary figure and may not be the actual item in the series

4. It gives greater importance to small items and is therefore, useful only when small items
have to be given greater weightage.

Geometric mean

The geometric mean of a series containing n observations is the nth root of the product
of the values. If x1, x2…, xn are observations then

G.M= 𝑛 𝑥1 . 𝑥2 … 𝑥𝑛
1
=(𝑥1 . 𝑥2 … 𝑥3 )𝑛
1
Log G.M=𝑛 log (𝑥1 . 𝑥2 … 𝑥𝑛 )

1
= 𝑛 (log𝑥1 + log𝑥2 … + log𝑥𝑛 )

∑𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑖
= 𝑛

∑𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑖
GM= Antilog 𝑛

37
For grouped data

∑ 𝑓 log 𝑥 𝑖
GM= Antilog [ ]
𝑁

Example 8:

Calculate the geometric mean of the following series of monthly income of a batch of
families 180, 250, 490, 1400, 1050.

X log x

180 2.2553

250 2.3979

490 2.6902

1400 3.1461

1050 3.0212

N=5 ∑log x=13.5107

∑𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 𝑖
GM= Antilog 𝑛

13.5107
= Antilog 5

13.5107
= Antilog 5

= Antilog 2.7021 = 503.6

38
Example 9:

Calculate the average income per head from the data given below. Use geometric mean.

Number of Monthly income per head

Class of people
families (Rs.)

Landlords 2 5000

Cultivators 100 400

Landless-labours 50 200

Money-lenders 4 3750

Office Assistants 6 3000

Shop keepers 8 750

Carpenters 6 600

Weavers 10 300

Solution :

Class of people Annual income Number of families Log x f log x

(Rs) X (f)

Landlords 5000 2 3.6990 7.398

Cultivators 400 100 2.6021 260.210

Landless-labours 200 50 2.3010 115.050

Money-lenders 3750 4 3.5740 14.296

39
Office Assistants 3000 6 3.4771 20.863

Shop keepers 750 8 2.8751 23.2008

Carpenters 600 6 2.7782 16.669

Weavers 300 10 2.4771 24.771

N=186 482.257

∑ 𝑓 log 𝑥 𝑖
GM= Antilog [ ]
𝑁

482.257
GM= Antilog [ ]
186

GM= Antilog [2.5928]

= Rs. 391.50

Merits of Geometric mean :

1. It is rigidly defined

2. It is based on all items

3. It is very suitable for averaging ratios, rates and percentages

4. It is capable of further mathematical treatment.

5. Unlike AM, it is not affected much by the presence of extreme values

Demerits of Geometric mean:

1. It cannot be used when the values are negative or if any of the observations is zero

2. It is difficult to calculate particularly when the items are very large or when there is a
frequency distribution.

3. It brings out the property of the ratio of the change and not the absolute difference of
change as the case in arithmetic mean.

4. The GM may not be the actual value of the series.

40
Median

Median is defined as the middle most observation when the observations are arranged
in ascending or descending order of magnitude. That means the number of observations
preceding median will be equal to the number of observations succeeding it. Median is
denoted by M. The median is that value of the variate which divides the group into two equal
parts, one part comprising all values greater, and the other, all values less than median

Ungrouped or Raw data :

Arrange the given values in the increasing or decreasing order. If the number of
values are odd, median is the middle value. If the number of values are even, median is the
mean of middle two values.

By formula
𝑁+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

Example 10:

When odd number of values are given. Find median for the following data

25, 18, 27, 10, 8, 30, 42, 20, 53

Solution:

Arranging the data in the ascending order 8, 10, 18, 20, 25, 27, 30, 42, 53. The middle
value is the 5th item i.e., 25 is the median.

Using this formula

𝑁+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

9+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

10 th
Median (m) = item
2

Median (m) = 5 th item

= 25

Example 11 :

When even number of values are given. Find median for the following data

5, 8, 12, 30, 18, 10, 2, 22

41
Solution:

Arranging the data in the ascending order 2, 5, 8, 10, 12, 18, 22, 30.

Using the formula

𝑁+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

8+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

9
Median (m) = 2 th item

Median (m) = 4.5 th item

Here median is the mean of the middle two items (ie) mean of (10,12) ie

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 4 𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 +𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 5𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚

= 2

10+12 22
=( )= =11
2 2

Example 12:

The following table represents the marks obtained by a batch of 10 students in certain
class tests in statistics and Accountancy.

Serial No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Marks (Statistics) 53 55 52 32 30 60 47 46 35 28

Marks (Accountancy) 57 45 24 31 25 84 43 80 32 72

Indicate in which subject is the level of knowledge higher?

Solution:

For such question, median is the most suitable measure of central tendency. The mark

in the two subjects are first arranged in ascending order as follows:

Serial No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Marks in Statistics 28 30 32 35 46 47 52 53 55 60

Marks in Accountancy 24 25 31 32 43 45 57 72 80 84

42
 𝑁+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

10+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

11 th
Median (m) = item
2

Median (m) = 5.5 th item

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 5𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 +𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6𝑡𝑕 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚

2

46+47
Median for Statistics = = 46.5
2

43+45
Median for Accountancy = = 44
2

Therefore the level of knowledge in Statistics is higher than that in Accountancy.

Grouped Data:

In a grouped distribution, values are associated with frequencies. Grouping can be in

the form of a discrete frequency distribution or a continuous frequency distribution.
Whatever may be the type of distribution , cumulative frequencies have to be calculated to
know the total number of items.

Cumulative frequency: (cf)

Cumulative frequency of each class is the sum of the frequency of the class and the
frequencies of the pervious classes, ie adding the frequencies successively, so that the last
cumulative frequency gives the total number of items.

Discrete Series:

Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.

𝑁+1
Step2: Find
2

𝑁+1
Step3: See in the cumulative frequencies the value just greater than
2

Step4: Then the corresponding value of x is median.

Example 13:

The following data pertaining to the number of members in a family. Find median size of the
family.

43
Number of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
members x

Frequency F 1 3 5 6 10 13 9 5 3 2 2 1

Solution :

X f Cf

1 1 1

2 3 4

3 5 9

4 6 15

5 10 25

6 13 38

7 9 47

8 5 52

9 3 55

10 2 57

11 2 59

12 1 60

N=60

𝑁+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

44
 60+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

61 th
Median (m) = item
2

Median (m) = 30.5 th item

The cumulative frequencies just greater than 30.5 is 38.and the value of x
corresponding to 38 is 6.Hence the median size is 6 members per family.

Note:

It is an appropriate method because a fractional value given by mean does not indicate
the average number of members in a family.

Continuous Series:

The steps given below are followed for the calculation of median in continuous series.

Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.

𝑁
Step2: Find
2
𝑛
Step3: See in the cumulative frequency the value first greater than ( 2 ), Then the

corresponding class interval is called the Median class. Then apply the formula

𝑁
− 𝑐𝑓
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 + 2 ×𝐶
𝑓

Where

l = Lower limit of the median class

cf = cumulative frequency preceding the median

c = width of the median class

f = frequency in the median class.

N =Total frequency.

Note :

If the class intervals are given in inclusive type convert them into exclusive type and
call it as true class interval and consider lower limit in this.

45
Example 14:

The following table gives the frequency distribution of 325 workers of a factory,
according to their average monthly income in a certain year.

Income group (in Rs) Number of workers

Below 100 1

100-150 20

150-200 42

200-250 55

250-300 62

300-350 45

350-400 30

400-450 25

450-500 15

500-550 18

550-600 10

600 and above 2

325

Calculate median income

46
Solution :

Income group (in Rs) Number of workers Cumulative frequency c.f

(Class-interval) (Frequency)

Below 100 1 1

100-150 20 21

150-200 42 63

200-250 55 118

250-300 62 180

300-350 45 225

350-400 30 255

400-450 25 280

450-500 15 295

500-550 18 313

550-600 10 323

600 and above 2 325

N= 325

𝑁 325
= 2
=162.5
2

Here

l = 250,

N = 325,

f = 62,

c = 50,

cf = 118

47
 N
−cf
2
median = l + ×c
f

162.5−118
median = 250 + ×50
62

44.5
median = 250 + ×50
62

162.5−118
median = 250 + ×50
62

2225
median = 250 +
62

median = 250 + 35.887

median = 285.887

Example 15:

Calculate median from the following data

Value 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39

Frequency 5 8 10 12 7 6 3 2

Solution

True class
C f c.f
interval

0-4 5 0.5-4.5 5

5-9 8 4.5-9.5 13

10-14 10 9.5-14.5 23

15-19 12 14.5-19.5 35

20-24 7 19.5-24.5 42

25-29 6 24.5-29.5 48

30-34 3 29.5-34.5 51

35-39 2 34.5-39.5 53

N=53

48
 𝑁 53
= = 26.5
2 2

l = 14.5,

N = 53,

f = 12,

c = 5,

cf = 23
N
−cf
2
median = l + ×c
f

26.5−23
median = 14.5 + ×5
12

3.5
median = 14.5 + ×5
12

17.5
median = 14.5 +
12

median = 14.5 + 1.46

median = 15.96
Note:

Since the variables are in the inclusive form, classes have to be adjusted. The
difference between the upper limit of first class and lower limit of second class is one, in this
problem. It is divided by 2, we get 0.5 which have be reduced lower limit of every class limit
and have be added with the upper limit of every class.

Example 16:

Compute median for the following data.

Mid-value 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75

Frequency 7 10 15 17 8 4 6 7

49
Solution :

The given problem is continuous series frequency distribution. Mid –values of the
class limits are given. The difference between two mid – values is 10. Therefore 10/2 or 5 is
reduced from each mid value to get the lower limit and 5 is added to get the upper limit of a
class.

Mid x C.I f c.f

5 0-10 7 7

15 10-20 10 17

25 20-30 15 32

35 30-40 17 49

45 40-50 8 57

55 50-60 4 61

65 60-70 6 67

75 70-80 7 74

N=74

𝑁
Median = size of 𝑡𝑕 item
2

74
= = 37 which lies in the class 30-40
2

l = 30,

N = 74,

f = 17,

c = 10,

50
 cf = 32

𝑁
− 𝑐𝑓
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 + 2 ×𝐶
𝑓
37−32
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 + ×10
17

5
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 + 17 ×10

50
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 +
17
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 + 2.94

𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 32.94

Merits of Median :

1. Median is not influenced by extreme values because it is a positional average.

2. Median can be calculated in case of distribution with open-end intervals.
3. Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.
4. Median can be located even for qualitative factors such as ability, honesty etc.

Demerits of Median :

1. A slight change in the series may bring drastic change in median value.
2. In case of even number of items or continuous series, median is an estimated value
other than any value in the series.
3. It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment except its use in mean deviation.
4. It is not taken into account all the observations
Mode

The mode refers to that value in a distribution, which occur most frequently. It is an
actual value, which has the highest concentration of items in and around it. According to
Croxton and Cowden “ The mode of a distribution is the value at the point around which the
items tend to be most heavily concentrated. It may be regarded at the most typical of a series
of values”.

It shows the centre of concentration of the frequency in around a given value.

Therefore, where the purpose is to know the point of the highest concentration it is preferred.
It is, thus, a positional measure.

51
 Its importance is very great in marketing studies where a manager is interested in
knowing about the size, which has the highest concentration of items. For example, in placing
an order for shoes or ready-made garments the modal size helps because this sizes and other
sizes around in common demand.

Computation of the mode:

Ungrouped or Raw Data:

For ungrouped data or a series of individual observations, mode is often found by

mere inspection.

Example 17:

2 , 7, 10, 15, 10, 17, 8, 10, 2

∴ Mode = M0 = 10

In some cases the mode may be absent while in some cases there may be more than
one mode.

Example 18:

1) 12, 10, 15, 24, 30 (no mode)

2) 7, 10, 15, 12, 7, 14, 24, 10, 7, 20, 10

the modes are 7 and 10

Grouped Data:

For Discrete distribution, see the highest frequency and corresponding value of X is
mode.

Continuous distribution:

See the highest frequency then the corresponding value of class interval is called the
modal class. Then apply the formula.

∆1
Mode = M0= 𝑙+ ×𝐶
∆1+ ∆2

l = Lower limit of the model class

∆1 = f1 – f0

∆2 = f1 – f2

f1 = frequency of the modal class

52
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class

f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

Example 19:

Calculate mode for the following:

C.I F

0-50 5

50-100 14

100-150 40

150-200 91

200-250 150

250-300 87

300-350 60

350-400 38

400 and above 15

Solution:

The highest frequency is 150 and corresponding class interval is 200 – 250, which is the
modal class.

l = Lower limit of the model class 200

f1 = frequency of the modal class 150

f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class 91

f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class 87

∆1 = f1 – f0 150-91 = 59

53
∆2 = f1 – f2 150-87 =63

C=50

∆1
Mode = M0= 𝑙+ ×𝑐
∆1+ ∆2

59
= 200+ × 50
59+63

2950
= 200+
122

=200+ 24.18

= 224.18

Exercises
1. State the merits of arithmetic mean as a measure of central tendency

2. What are the main characteristics of a good mean?

3. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Harmonic mean

4. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Geometric mean

5. What is meant by median? explain

6. What is meant by mode? Explain

Marks 10 20 30 40 50 60

No of
5 6 10 8 5 6
students

7. Calculate arithmetic mean from the following

(Mean=35)

8. Calculate arithmetic mean from the following

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

Frequency 5 8 10 8 9

(Mean=27)

54
 9. Calculate median from the following

50,100,300,500,600,1000,1150 (Median =500)

10. Calculate median from the following

50,100,300,500,600,700,1000,1150 (Median =550)

11. Calculate median from the following

Marks 10 20 30 40 50

No of students 2 5 10 4 3

(Median =30)

12. Calculate median from the following

Class interval 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35

Frequency 10 14 20 13 8

(Median =22.125)

13. Calculate mode of the following

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

No of
3 6 10 15 8 8
students

(Mode=34.17)

14. Calculate mean and median

Mid point : 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Frequency : 25 55 30 20 14 6

(𝒙 = 𝟕𝟒𝟖, 𝒎 = 𝟔𝟖𝟏. 𝟖𝟏)

15. Find Harmonic mean

X : 10 12 14 16 18 20

Y : 5 18 20 10 6 1

(HM=13.42)

55
 16. Find out the Harmonic mean

X : 1 2 3 4 5

Y : 2 4 3 2 1

(HM=2.10)

17. Calculate the mean, median and mode for the following frequency distribution

Class internal : 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34

Frequency : 4 7 15 18 12 10 3

(Mean =17, Median=16.86, Mode=16.7)

18. Calculate the mean, median and mode for the following frequency distribution

Mid point 5 10 15 20 25 30

Frequency 5 15 25 30 15 10

(Mean =18.5, Median=19.17, Mode=20)

56
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

Introduction

The measure of central tendency serves to locate the center of the distribution, but
they do not reveal how the items are spread out on either side of the center. This
characteristic of a frequency distribution is commonly referred to as dispersion. In a series all
the items are not equal. There is difference or variation among the values. The degree of
variation is evaluated by various measures of dispersion. Small dispersion indicates high
uniformity of the items, while large dispersion indicates less uniformity. For example
consider the following marks of two students.

Student I Student II

68 85

75 90

65 80

67 25

70 65

Both have got a total of 345 and an average of 69 each. The fact is that the second
student has failed in one paper. When the averages alone are considered, the two students are
equal. But first student has less variation than second student. Less variation is a desirable
characteristic.

Characteristics of a good measure of dispersion

An ideal measure of dispersion is expected to possess the following properties

1. It should be rigidly defined

2. It should be based on all the items.

3. It should not be unduly affected by extreme items.

4. It should lend itself for algebraic manipulation.

5. It should be simple to understand and easy to calculate

57
Absolute and Relative Measures:

There are two kinds of measures of dispersion, namely

1. Absolute measure of dispersion

2.Relative measure of dispersion.

Absolute measure of dispersion indicates the amount of variation in a set of values in

terms of units of observations. For example, when rainfalls on different days are available in
mm, any absolute measure of dispersion gives the variation in rainfall in mm. On the other
hand relative measures of dispersion are free from the units of measurements of the
observations They are pure numbers. They are used to compare the variation in two or more
sets, which are having different units of measurements of observations.

The various absolute and relative measures of dispersion are listed below.

Absolute measure Relative measure

1. Range 1. Co-efficient of Range

2. Quartile deviation 2. Co-efficient of Quartile deviation

3. Mean deviation 3. Co-efficient of Mean deviation

4. Standard deviation 4. Co-efficient of variation

Range and coefficient of Range

Range:

This is the simplest possible measure of dispersion and is defined as the difference
between the largest and smallest values of the variable.

In symbols, Range = L – S.

Where L = Largest value.

S = Smallest value.

In individual observations and discrete series, L and S are easily identified. In

continuous series, the following two methods are followed.

Method 1:

L = Upper boundary of the highest class

S = Lower boundary of the lowest class.

58
Method 2:

L = Mid value of the highest class.

S = Mid value of the lowest class.

Co-efficient of Range:
𝐿−𝑆
Co-efficient of Range =
𝐿+𝑆

Example 1:

Find the value of range and its co-efficient for the following data.

7, 9, 6, 8, 11, 10

Solution:

L = 11, S = 4.

Range = L – S = 11- 4 = 7
𝐿−𝑆
Co-efficient of Range = 𝐿+𝑆

11−4
Co-efficient of Range =
11+4

7
Co-efficient of Range =
15

Co-efficient of Range = 0.4667

Example 2:

Calculate range and its co efficient from the following distribution.

Size: 60-63 63-66 66-69 69-72 72-75

Number: 5 18 42 27 8

Solution:

L = Upper boundary of the highest class. = 75

S = Lower boundary of the lowest class. = 60

Range = L – S = 75 – 60 = 15
𝐿−𝑆
Co-efficient of Range =
𝐿+𝑆

59
 75−60
Co-efficient of Range =
75+60

15
Co-efficient of Range =
135

Co-efficient of Range = 0.1111

Merits and Demerits of Range:

Merits:

1. It is simple to understand.
2. It is easy to calculate.
3. In certain types of problems like quality control, weather forecasts, share price
analysis, etc., range is most widely used.

Demerits:

1. It is very much affected by the extreme items.

2. It is based on only two extreme observations.
3. It cannot be calculated from open-end class intervals.
4. It is not suitable for mathematical treatment.
5. It is a very rarely used measure.

Quartile Deviation and Co efficient of Quartile Deviation

Quartile Deviation (Q.D):

Definition:

Quartile Deviation is half of the difference between the first and third quartiles.Hence, it is called
Semi Inter Quartile Range.
𝑄3 −𝑄1
In Symbols, Q .D = . Among the quartiles Q1, Q2 and Q3, the range Q3 – Q1 is
2
𝑄3 −𝑄1
called inter quartile range and . , semi- inter quartile range.
2

Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation :

𝑄3 −𝑄1
Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = .
𝑄3 +𝑄1

Example 3:

Find the Quartile Deviation for the following data: 391,

384, 591, 407, 672, 522, 777, 733, 1490, and 2488

60
Solution:

Arrange the given values in ascending order.

384, 391, 407, 522, 591, 672, 733, 777, 1490, 2488.
𝑁+1 10+1 11
Position of Q1 is = = = 2.75th item
4 4 4

Q1 = 2nd value + 0.75 (3rd value – 2nd value )

= 391 + 0.75 (407 – 391)

= 391 + 0.75 × 16

= 391 + 12

= 403

𝑁+1
Position of Q3 is 3 = 3 × 2.75 = 8.25
4

Q3 = 8th value + 0.25 (9th value – 8th value)

= 777 + 0.25 (1490 – 777)

= 777 + 0.25 (713)

= 777 + 178.25 = 955.25

𝑄3 −𝑄1
Q. D = 2
.

955.25−403
Q. D = .
2

552.25
Q. D = .
2

Q.D = 276.125

Example 4 :

Weekly wages of labours are given below. Calculate Q.D and Coefficient of Q.D.

Weekly Wage (Rs.) : 100 200 400 500 600

No. of Weeks : 5 8 21 12 6

61
Solution:

Weekly Wage (Rs.) No. of Weeks Cum. No. of Weeks

100 5 5

200 8 13

400 21 34

500 12 46

600 6 52

Total N = 52

𝑁+1 52+1 53
Position of Q1 is = = = 13.25th item
4 4 4

Q1 = 13th value + 0.25 (14th Value – 13th value)

= 13th value + 0.25 (400 – 200)

= 200 + 0.25 (400 – 200)

= 200 + 0.25 (200)

= 200 + 50 = 250

𝑁+1
Position of Q3 is 3 = 3 × 13.25 = 39.75
4

Q3 = 39th value + 0.75 (40th value – 39th value)

= 500 + 0.75 (500 – 500)

= 500 + 0.75 × 0

= 500

62
 𝑄3 −𝑄1
Q. D = 2
.

Q. D = 500−250
2
. Q. D = 250
2
. Q. D = 125

𝑄3 −𝑄1
Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = .
𝑄3 +𝑄1

500−250 250
Co-efficient of Q.D = . ; Co-efficient of Q.D = .
500+250 750

Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = 0.3333

Example 5:

For the data given below, give the quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation.

X : 351 – 500 501 – 650 651 – 800 801–950 951–1100

f : 48 189 88 47 28

Solution :

X F True class Intervals Cumulative frequency

351-500 48 350.5-500.5 48

501-650 (Q1) 189 500.5-650.5 237

651-800 (Q3) 88 650.5-800.5 325

801-950 47 800.5-950.5 372

951-1100 28 950.5-1100.5 400

Total N = 400

𝑁
− 𝑐𝑓
𝑄1 = 𝑙 ± 4 ×𝐶
𝑓
𝑁 400
= = 100 which lies in 500.5-650.5
4 4

l=500.5

63
cf= 48

f=189

c=150

100 − 48
𝑄1 = 500.5 + × 150
189
52
𝑄1 = 500.5 + × 150
189
52 × 150
𝑄1 = 500.5 +
189
7800
𝑄1 = 500.5 +
189
𝑄1 = 500.5 + 41.27

𝑄1 = 541.77

𝑁
3 4 − 𝑐𝑓
𝑄3 = 𝑙 ± ×𝐶
𝑓

𝑁
3 = 3 × 100 = 300 which lies in 650.5-800.5
4

Q3 Class is 650.5 – 800.5

l = 650.5,

cf = 237,

f = 88,

C = 150

300 − 237
𝑄3 = 650.5 + × 150
88
63
𝑄3 = 650.5 + × 150
88
63 × 150
𝑄3 = 650.5 +
88
𝑄3 = 650.5 + 107.39

64
 𝑄3 = 751.89

Therefore
𝑄3 −𝑄1
Q. D = .
2

751.89 − 541.77
Q. D =
2
216.12
Q. D =
2
Q. D = 108.06

𝑄3 −𝑄1
Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = .
𝑄3 +𝑄1

751.89 − 541.77
751.89 + 541.77
216.12
Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = .
1299.66

Co-efficient of Quartile Deviation = 0.1663

Merits and Demerits of Quartile Deviation

Merits :

1. It is Simple to understand and easy to calculate

2. It is not affected by extreme values.

3. It can be calculated for data with open end classes also.

Demerits:

1. It is not based on all the items. It is based on two positional values Q 1 and Q3 and
ignores the extreme 50% of the items

2. It is not amenable to further mathematical treatment.

3. It is affected by sampling fluctuations.

65
Mean Deviation and Coefficient of Mean Deviation

Mean Deviation:

The range and quartile deviation are not based on all observations. They are positional
measures of dispersion. They do not show any scatter of the observations from an average.
The mean deviation is measure of dispersion based on all items in a distribution.

Definition:

Mean deviation is the arithmetic mean of the deviations of a series computed from
any measure of central tendency; i.e., the mean, median or mode, all the deviations are taken
as positive i.e., signs are ignored. According to Clark and Schekade,

“Average deviation is the average amount scatter of the items in a distribution from
either the mean or the median, ignoring the signs of the deviations”.

We usually compute mean deviation about any one of the three averages mean,
median or mode. Sometimes mode may be ill defined and as such mean deviation is
computed from mean and median. Median is preferred as a choice between mean and
median. But in general practice and due to wide applications of mean, the mean deviation is
generally computed from mean. M.D can be used to denote mean deviation.

Coefficient of mean deviation:

Mean deviation calculated by any measure of central tendency is an absolute measure.

For the purpose of comparing variation among different series, a relative mean deviation is
required. The relative mean deviation is obtained by dividing the mean deviation by the
average used for calculating mean deviation.
mean deviation
𝑐o efficient of mean deviation = mean or median or mode

If the result is desired in percentage, the coefficient of mean deviation

mean deviation
co efficient of mean deviation mean × 100
or median or mode

Computation of mean deviation – Individual Series:

1. Calculate the average mean, median or mode of the series.

2. Take the deviations of items from average ignoring signs and denote these deviations by
|D|.

66
3. Compute the total of these deviations, i.e., ∑ |D|

4. Divide this total obtained by the number of items.

Symbolically: 𝑀. 𝐷 = ∑𝑛𝐷
Example 6:

Calculate mean deviation from mean and median for the following data:

100,150,200,250,360,490,500,600,671 also calculate coefficients of M.D.

Solution:

MEAN

∑𝑋 3321
𝑋= ; 𝑋= = 369
𝑁 9

MEDIAN

Now arrange the data in ascending order

100, 150, 200, 250, 360, 490, 500, 600, 671

𝑁+1 𝑡𝑕 9+1 𝑡𝑕 10 𝑡𝑕
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = item ; 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = item 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = item ;
2 2 2
𝑡𝑕
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 5 item 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 360

X 𝑫 = 𝑿−𝑿 𝑫 = 𝑿 − 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏

100 269 260

150 219 210

200 169 160

250 119 110

360 9 0

490 121 130

500 131 140

67
 600 231 240

671 302 311

3321 ∑ 𝑫 =1570 ∑ 𝑫 =1561

∑D
M. D from mean =
n
1570
M. D from mean = = 174.44
9
mean deviation
co efficient of mean deviation =
mean
174.44
co efficient of mean deviation =
369
co efficient of mean deviation = 0.47

∑D
M. D from median =
n
1561
𝑀. 𝐷 = = 173.44
9

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑐𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛

173.44
𝑐𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 0.48
360

Mean Deviation – Discrete series:

Steps: 1. Find out an average (mean, median or mode).

2. Find out the deviation of the variable values from the average, ignoring signs and
denote them by |D|

3. Multiply the deviation of each value by its respective frequency and find out the
total ∑f | D|

4. Divide Σf | D| by the total frequencies N

𝚺𝐟 | 𝐃|
Symbolically, M.D=
𝑵

68
Example 7:

Compute Mean deviation from mean and median from the following data:

Height in cms 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166

No. of persons 15 20 32 35 33 22 20 10 8

Also compute coefficient of mean deviation

Solution :

Height No. of persons d = x-A

Fd |D| = |X-mean| f|D|
X F A = 162

158 15 -4 -60 3.51 52.65

159 20 -3 -60 2.51 50.20

160 32 -2 -64 1.51 48.32

161 35 -1 -35 0.51 17.85

162 33 0 0 0.49 16.17

163 22 1 22 1.49 32.78

164 20 2 40 2.49 49.80

165 10 3 30 3.49 34.90

166 8 4 32 4.49 35.92

N=195 ∑fd=-95 ∑f|D|=338.59

69
 ∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴±
𝑁

95
𝑋 = 162 − 195

𝑋 = 162 − 0.49

𝑋 = 161.51

∑D
M. D from mean =
n
338.59
M. D from mean =
195
M. D from mean = 1.74

mean deviation
co efficient of mean deviation =
mean
1.74
co efficient of mean deviation =
161.51
co efficient of mean deviation = 0.0108

Height x No. of persons

c.f. |D| = |X – Median| f |D|
f

158 15 15 3 45

159 20 35 2 40

160 32 67 1 32

161 35 102 0 0

162 33 135 1 33

163 22 157 2 44

164 20 177 3 60

165 10 187 4 40

166 8 195 5 40

N=195 ∑ f |D|=334

70
 𝑁+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

195+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

Median (m) = 98 th item

Median (m) = 161

∑D
M. D from median =
n
334
M. D from median =
195
M. D from median = 1.71

mean deviation
co efficient of mean deviation =
median
1.71
co efficient of mean deviation =
161
co efficient of mean deviation = 0.0106

Mean deviation-Continuous series:

The method of calculating mean deviation in a continuous series same as the discrete series.
In continuous series we have to find out the mid points of the various classes and take
deviation of these points from the average selected. Thus

𝚺𝐟 | 𝐃|
M.D=
𝑵

Where

D = M – average

M = Mid point

71
Example 8:

Find out the mean deviation from mean and median from the following series.

Age in years No. of persons

0-10 20

10-20 25

20-30 32

30-40 40

40-50 42

50-60 35

60-70 10

70-80 8

Also compute co-efficient of mean deviation.

Solution:

𝑴−𝑨
d= 𝑪
X M F Fd | D | = | m – 𝒙| f |D|
(A=35, C=10)

0-10 5 20 -3 -60 31.5 630.0

10-20 15 25 -2 -50 21.5 537.5

20-30 25 32 -1 -32 11.5 368.0

30-40 35 40 0 0 1.5 60.0

40-50 45 42 1 42 8.5 357.0

72
50-60 55 35 2 70 18.5 647.5

60-70 65 10 3 30 28.5 285.0

70-80 75 8 4 32 38.5 308.0

N=212 ∑fd=32 ∑f|D|=3192.5

∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴± ×𝑐
𝑁

32
𝑋 = 35 + × 10
212

320
𝑋 = 35 +
212

𝑋 = 35 + 1.51

𝑋 = 36.51

∑D
M. D from mean =
n
3192.5
M. D from mean =
212
M. D from mean = 15.06

mean deviation
co efficient of mean deviation =
mean
15.06
co efficient of mean deviation =
36.51
co efficient of mean deviation = 0.41

73
Calculation of median and M.D. from median

X M F c.f |D| = |m-Md| f|D|

0-10 5 20 20 32.25 645.00

10-20 15 25 45 22.25 556.25

20-30 25 32 77 12.25 392.00

30-40 35 40 117 2.25 90.00

40-50 45 42 159 7.75 325.50

50-60 55 35 194 17.75 621.25

60-70 65 10 204 27.75 277.50

70-80 75 8 212 37.75 302.00

N=212 Total 3209.50

𝑁
− 𝑐𝑓
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 + 2 ×𝐶
𝑓

𝑁 212
= =106 which lies in 30-40
2 2

l=30

cf=77

f=40

c=10

106 − 77
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 + × 10
40

74
 29
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 + × 10
40
290
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 +
40
𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 30 + 7.25.

𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 37.25

∑D
M. D from median =
n
3209.5
M. D from median = = 15.14
212

mean deviation
co efficient of mean deviation =
median
15.14
co efficient of mean deviation =
37.25
co efficient of mean deviation = 0.41

Merits and Demerits of M.D :

Merits:

1. It is simple to understand and easy to compute.

2. It is rigidly defined.

3. It is based on all items of the series.

4. It is not much affected by the fluctuations of sampling.

5. It is less affected by the extreme items.

6. It is flexible, because it can be calculated from any average.

7. It is better measure of comparison.

Demerits:

1. It is not a very accurate measure of dispersion.

2. It is not suitable for further mathematical calculation.

3. It is rarely used. It is not as popular as standard deviation.

Algebraic positive and negative signs are ignored. It is mathematically unsound and illogical.

75
Standard Deviation and Coefficient of variation

Standard Deviation:

Karl Pearson introduced the concept of standard deviation in 1893. It is the most
important measure of dispersion and is widely used in many statistical formulae. Standard
deviation is also called Root-Mean Square Deviation. The reason is that it is the square–root
of the mean of the squared deviation from the arithmetic mean. It provides accurate result.
Square of standard deviation is called Variance.

Definition:

It is defined as the positive square-root of the arithmetic mean of the Square of the
deviations of the given observation from their arithmetic mean. The standard deviation is
denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma)

Calculation of Standard deviation-Individual Series:

There are two methods of calculating Standard deviation in an individual series.

a) Deviations taken from Actual mean

b) Deviation taken from Assumed mean

a) Deviation taken from Actual mean:

This method is adopted when the mean is a whole number.

Steps:

1. Find out the actual mean of the series (x)

2. Find out the deviation of each value from the mean (x = X – 𝑋)

3. Square the deviations and take the total of squared deviations ∑x2
∑𝑋 2
4. Divide the total ∑𝑋 2 by the number of observation 𝑁

∑𝑋 2
The square root of 𝑁
is standard deviation.

∑𝑋2 ∑ 𝑋−𝑋
Thus σ = or
𝑁 𝑵

a) Deviations taken from assumed mean:

This method is adopted when the arithmetic mean is fractional value. Taking
deviations from fractional value would be a very difficult and tedious task. To save time

76
and labour, we apply short–cut method; deviations are taken from an assumed mean. The
formula is:

∑𝑑2 ∑𝑑 2
σ= −
𝑁 𝑁

Where d-stands for the deviation from assumed mean = (X-A)

Steps:

1. Assume any one of the item in the series as an average (A)

2. Find out the deviations from the assumed mean; i.e., X-A denoted by d and also the total of the
deviations ∑d

3. Square the deviations; i.e., d2 and add up the squares of deviations, i.e, ∑d2

4. Then substitute the values in the following formula:

∑𝑑2 ∑𝑑 2
σ= −
𝑁 𝑁

Example 9:

Calculate the standard deviation from the following data.

14, 22, 9, 15, 20, 17, 12, 11

Solution:

Deviations from actual mean.

Values (X) X-X (X-X)2

14 -1 1
22 7 49
9 -6 36
15 0 0
20 5 25
17 2 4
12 -3 9
11 -4 16

N=120 ∑(X-X)2=140

77
 ∑ 𝑋−𝑋
σ=
𝑵

∑ 𝑋−𝑋
σ=
𝑵

140
σ= 𝟖

σ= 17.5

σ=4.18

Example 10:

The table below gives the marks obtained by 10 students in statistics. Calculate standard
deviation.

Student Nos : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Marks : 43 48 65 57 31 60 37 48 78 59

Solution: (Deviations from assumed mean)

Nos. Marks (x) d=X-A (A=57) d2

1 43 -14 196

2 48 -9 81

3 65 8 64

4 57 0 0

5 31 -26 676

6 60 3 9

7 37 -20 400

8 48 -9 81

9 78 21 441

10 59 2 4

N = 10 ∑d = 44 ∑d2 = 1952

78
 ∑𝑑2 ∑𝑑 2
σ= −
𝑁 𝑁

1952 44 2
σ= −
10 10

σ= 195.2 − 19.36

σ = 175.84

σ = 13.26

Calculation of standard deviation:

Discrete Series:

There are three methods for calculating standard deviation in discrete series:

(a) Actual mean methods

(b) Assumed mean method

(c) Step-deviation method.

(a) Actual mean method:

Steps:

1. Calculate the mean of the series.

2. Find deviations for various items from the means i.e., x- 𝑋 = d.

3. Square the deviations (=d2) and multiply by the respective frequencies(f) we get fd2

4. Total to product (∑fd2) Then apply the formula:

∑fd2
𝛔=
∑f

If the actual mean in fractions, the calculation takes lot of time and labour; and as such
this method is rarely used in practice.

(b) Assumed mean method:

Here deviations are taken not from an actual mean but from an assumed mean. Also
this method is used, if the given variable values are not in equal intervals.

79
Steps:

1. Assume any one of the items in the series as an assumed mean and denoted by A.

2. Find out the deviations from assumed mean, i.e., X-A and denote it by d.

3. Multiply these deviations by the respective frequencies and get the ∑fd.

4. Square the deviations (d2).

5. Multiply the squared deviations (d2) by the respective frequencies (f) and get ∑fd2.

6. Substitute the values in the following formula:

𝟐
∑fd2 ∑fd
𝛔= −
∑f ∑f

where d = X – A, N = ∑f.

Example 11:

Calculate Standard deviation from the following data.

X: 20 22 25 31 35 40 42 45

f: 5 12 15 20 25 14 10 6

Solution :

Deviations from assumed mean

x F d = x –A (A = 31) d2 fd fd2

20 5 -11 121 -55 605

22 12 -9 81 -108 972

25 15 -6 36 -90 540

31 20 0 0 0 0

35 25 4 16 100 400

40 14 9 81 126 1134

42 10 11 121 110 1210

45 6 14 196 84 1176

N = 107 ∑fd= 167 ∑fd2 = 6037

80
 𝟐
∑fd2 ∑fd
𝛔= −
∑f ∑f

𝟐
6037 167
𝛔= −
107 107

σ = 56.42 − 2.44

σ = 53.98

σ =7.35

(c) Step-deviation method:

If the variable values are in equal intervals, then we adopt this method.

Steps:

1. Assume the center value of the series as assumed mean A.

𝑋−𝐴
2. Find 𝑑′ = , where C is the interval between each value.
𝐶

3. Multiply these deviations d' by the respective frequencies and get ∑fdt.

4. Square the deviations and get d'2.

5. Multiply the squared deviation (d'2) by the respective frequencies (f) and obtain the total
∑fd'2.

6. Substitute the values in the following formula to get the standard deviation.

2 𝟐
∑fd′ ∑fd′
𝛔= − ×𝑪
∑f ∑f

Example 12:

Compute Standard deviation from the following data

Marks : 10 20 30 40 50 60

No. of students : 8 12 20 10 7 3

81
Solution:

𝑿−𝑨
Marks x F 𝒅′ = fd' fd'2
𝑪

10 8 -2 -16 32
20 12 -1 -12 12
30 20 0 0 0
40 10 1 10 10
50 7 2 14 28
60 3 3 9 27

N = 60 ∑fd' = 5 ∑fd'2 = 109

2 2
∑fd′ ∑fd′
σ= − ×𝐶
∑f ∑f

109 5 2
σ= − × 10
60 60

σ = 1.817 − 0.0069 × 10

σ = 1.8101 × 10

σ = 1.345 × 10

σ = 13.45

Calculation of Standard Deviation –Continuous series:

In the continuous series the method of calculating standard deviation is almost the
same as in a discrete series. But in a continuous series, mid-values of the class intervals are to
be found out. The step- deviation method is widely used. The formula is,

2 2
∑fd′ ∑fd′
σ= − ×𝐶
∑f ∑f

Where
𝑋−𝐴
𝑑′ = ,
𝐶

C is the interval between each value.

82
Steps:

1. Find out the mid-value of each class.

2. Assume the center value as an assumed mean and denote it by A.

𝑋−𝐴
3. Find out 𝑑′ = ,
𝐶

4. Multiply the deviations d' by the respective frequencies and get ∑fd'.

5. Square the deviations and get d'2.

6. Multiply the squared deviations (d'2) by the respective frequencies and get ∑fd'2.

7. Substituting the values in the following formula to get the standard deviation

2 2
∑fd′ ∑fd′
σ= − ×𝐶
∑f ∑f

Example 13:

The daily temperature recorded in a city in Russia in a year is given below.

Temperature C0 No. of days

– 40 to – 30 10
– 30 to – 20 18
– 20 to – 10 30
– 10 to 0 42
0 to 10 65
10 to 20 180
20 to 30 20

365

Calculate Standard Deviation.

83
Solution :

Mid value No. of days

Temperature 𝐟𝐝′ ′𝟐
′
𝑿−𝑨 𝐟𝐝
(m) f 𝒅 =
𝑪

- 40 to - 30 -35 10 -3 -30 90
-30 to - 20 -25 18 -2 -36 72
-20 to -10 -15 30 -1 -30 30
-10 to -0 -5 42 0 0 0
0 to 10 5 65 1 65 65
10 to 20 15 180 2 360 720
20 to 30 25 20 3 60 180

N = 365 ∑ 𝐟𝐝′ = 389 ′𝟐

∑ 𝐟𝐝 = 1157

2 2
∑fd′ ∑fd′
σ= − ×𝐶
∑f ∑f

2
1157 389
σ= − × 10
365 365

σ = 3.1699 − 1.1358 × 10

σ = 2.0341 × 10

σ = 1.4262 × 10

σ = 14.262

Merits and Demerits of Standard Deviation:

Merits:

1. It is rigidly defined and its value is always definite and based on all the observations
and the actual signs of deviations are used.

2. As it is based on arithmetic mean, it has all the merits of arithmetic mean.

3. It is the most important and widely used measure of dispersion.

4. It is possible for further algebraic treatment.

84
 5. It is less affected by the fluctuations of sampling and hence stable.

6. It is the basis for measuring the coefficient of correlation and sampling.

Demerits:

1. It is not easy to understand and it is difficult to calculate.

2. It gives more weight to extreme values because the values are squared up.

3. As it is an absolute measure of variability, it cannot be used for the purpose of

comparison.

Coefficient of Variation:

The Standard deviation is an absolute measure of dispersion. It is expressed in terms

of units in which the original figures are collected and stated. The standard deviation of
heights of students cannot be compared with the standard deviation of weights of students, as
both are expressed in different units, i.e. heights in centimetre and weights in kilograms.
Therefore the standard deviation must be converted into a relative measure of dispersion for
the purpose of comparison. The relative measure is known as the coefficient of variation. The
coefficient of variation is obtained by dividing the standard deviation by the mean and
multiplies it by 100.

Symbolically,
𝛔
Coefficient of variation (C.V) = × 100
𝑋

If we want to compare the variability of two or more series, we can use C.V. The
series or groups of data for which the C.V. is greater indicate that the group is more variable,
less stable, less uniform, less consistent or less homogeneous. If the C.V. is less, it indicates
that the group is less variable, more stable, more uniform, more consistent or more
homogeneous.

Exercises

1. What is quartile deviation

2. Write short notes about mean deviation.

85
3. Calculate quartile deviation and its co –efficient from the following data

Marks 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

No of students 6 8 10 20 12 9 7 5

(Q.D=15, Coefficient of Q.D=0.333)

4. From the following data, calculate quartile deviation

Wages 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60

Workers 2 14 24 30 15

(Q.D=3.934)

5. Calculate the mean and standard deviation from the following data

Mid point : 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5

Frequency : 5 6 15 10 5 4 3 2

(Mean =21.3 and S.D=8.975)

6. Calculate the standard deviation from the following data

14, 22, 9, 15, 20,17,12,11 (S.D=4.18)

7. Calculate the mean deviation and its co-efficient from the following data

Marks 22-25 25-28 28-31 31-34 34-37 37-40

No of students 4 8 12 3 2 1

(Median=28.75, M.D=2.75, Coefficient of M.D=0.196)

8. Calculate mean deviation from the median from the following data

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

No of students 1 3 8 2 2

(Median=25, M.D=6.875, Coefficient of M.D=0.275)

86
 SKEWNESS

Introduction

Skewness means „lack of symmetry‟. We study skewness to have an idea about the
shape of the curve which we can draw with the help of the given data.If in a distribution
mean = median = mode, then that distribution is known as symmetrical distribution. If in a
distribution mean ≠ median ≠ mode , then it is not a symmetrical distribution and it is called a
skewed distribution and such a distribution could either be positively skewed or negatively
skewed.

a) Symmetrical distribution:

Mean = Median = Mode

It is clear from the above diagram that in a symmetrical distribution the values of mean, median
and mode coincide. The spread of the frequencies is the same on both sides of the center point of the
curve.

b) Positively skewed distribution:

Mode Median Mean

It is clear from the above diagram, in a positively skewed distribution, the value of the mean
is maximum and that of the mode is least, the median lies in between the two. In the positively
skewed distribution the frequencies are spread out over a greater range of values on the right hand
side than they are on the left hand side.

87
c) Negatively skewed distribution:

Mean Median Mode

It is clear from the above diagram, in a negatively skewed distribution, the value of
the mode is maximum and that of the mean is least. The median lies in between the two. In
the negatively skewed distribution the frequencies are spread out over a greater range of
values on the left hand side than they are on the right hand side.

Measures of skewness

The important measures of skewness are

(i) Karl –Pearason‟s coefficient of skewness

(ii) Bowley‟s coefficient of skewness

(iii) Measure of skewness based on moments

Karl – Pearson’ s Coefficient of skewness:

According to Karl – Pearson, the absolute measure of skewness = mean – mode. This
measure is not suitable for making valid comparison of the skewness in two or more distributions
because the unit of measurement may be different in different series. To avoid this difficulty use
relative measure of skewness called Karl–Pearson‟ s coefficient of skewness given by:
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 −𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆.𝐷

In case of mode is ill – defined, the coefficient can be determined by the formula:
3(𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 − 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
𝑐𝑜 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑆. 𝐷

Example 1:

Calculate Karl–Pearson‟s coefficient of skewness for the following data.

25, 15, 23, 40, 27, 25, 23, 25, 20

88
Solution:

Computation of Mean and Standard deviation:

Short – cut method.

Size Deviation from A=25 d2

X X-A

25 0 0
15 -10 100
23 -2 4
40 15 225
27 2 4
25 0 0
23 -2 4
25 0 0
20 -5 25

N=9 ∑d = – 2 ∑d2 = 362

∑d
Mean=𝐴 ±
𝑛

2
Mean=25 −
9

Mean=25 −0.22

Mean=24.78

∑𝑑2 ∑𝑑 2
σ= −
𝑁 𝑁

362 −2 2
σ= −
9 9

σ= 40.22 − 0.05

σ= 40.17

σ = 6.3

Mode = 25, as this size of item repeats 3 times

89
Karl – Pearson’s coefficient of skewness
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 − 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑆. 𝐷
24.78 − 25
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
6.3
−0.22
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
6.3
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =-0.03

Example 2:

Find the coefficient of skewness from the data given below

Size : 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Frequency : 7 10 14 35 102 136 43 8

Solution :

d=X-A
Frequency
2
Size d=X-6 d fd fd2
(f)

3 7 -3 9 -21 63

4 10 -2 4 -20 40

5 14 -1 1 -14 14

6 35 0 0 0 0

7 102 1 1 102 102

8 136 2 4 272 544

9 43 3 9 129 387

10 8 4 16 32 128

N = 355 ∑fd = 480 ∑fd2 = 1278

90
 ∑𝑓𝑑
𝑋=𝐴±
𝑁

480
𝑋=6+
355

𝑋 = 6+1.35

𝑋 = 7.35

∑𝑓𝑑2 ∑𝑓𝑑 2
σ= −
𝑁 𝑁

1278 480 2
σ= −
355 355

σ= 3.6 − 1.82

σ = 1.78

σ = 1.33

Example 3:

Find Karl – Pearson‟s coefficient of skewness for the given distribution:

X: 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40

F: 2 5 7 13 21 16 8 3

Solution :

The highest frequency is 21 and corresponding class interval is 20 – 25, which is the modal
class.

l = Lower limit of the model class 20

f1 = frequency of the modal class 21

f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class 13

f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class 16

∆1 = f1 – f0 21-13= 8

∆2 = f1 – f2 21-16 =5

C=5

91
 8
Mode = M0= 20 + ×5
8+5

8×5
Mode = M0= 20 + 8+5

40
Mode = M0= 20 + 13

Mode = M0= 20 + 3.076

Mode = M0= 23.08

Computation of Mean and Standard deviation

Deviations
Mid-point Frequency M −22.5
X fd' d'2 fd'2
M f d' =
5

0-5 2.5 2 -4 -8 16 32
5-10 7.5 5 -3 -15 9 45
10-15 12.5 7 -2 -14 4 28
15-20 17.5 13 -1 -13 1 13
20-25 22.5 21 0 0 0 0
25-30 27.5 16 1 16 1 16
30-35 32.5 8 2 16 4 32
35-40 37.5 3 3 9 9 27

N = 75 ∑fd' = –9 ∑fd'2 = 193

∑fd′
𝑋=𝐴± ×𝑐
𝑁

9
𝑋 = 22.5 − 75 × 5

45
𝑋 = 22.5 − 75

𝑋 = 22.5 − 0.6

𝑋 = 21.9

92
 ∑fd ′ 2
2
∑fd ′
σ= − ×𝐶
∑f ∑f

193 −9 2
σ= − ×5
75 75

σ = 2.75 − 0.0144 × 5

σ = 2.5556 × 5

σ = 1.5986 × 5

σ = 7.99
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 − 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑆. 𝐷
21.9 − 23.08
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
7.99
−1.18
𝑘𝑎𝑟𝑙 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = -0.1477
7.99

Bowley’s Coefficient of skewness:

In Karl – Pearson‟s method of measuring skewness the whole of the series is needed.
Prof. Bowley has suggested a formula based on relative position of quartiles. In a
symmetrical distribution, the quartiles are equidistant from the value of the median; i.e.,
Median – Q1 = Q3 – Median. But in a skewed distribution, the quartiles will not be
equidistant from the median. Hence Bowley has suggested the following formula:

Q3 + Q1 − 2 median
Bowley’ s Coefficient of skewness (sk) =
Q 3 − Q1

Example 4:

Find the Bowley‟s coefficient of skewness for the following series.

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22

Solution:

The given data in order

𝑁+1 𝑡𝑕
Position of Q1 is = item
4

11+1𝑡𝑕
= item
4

93
 12 𝑡𝑕
= item
4

= size of 3𝑡𝑕 item = 6

𝑁+1
Position of Q3 is = 3 4

11+1
= 3 4

= size of 9th item

= 18
𝑛+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

11+1 th
Median (m) = item
2

= size of 6th item

=12

Q3 + Q1 − 2 median
Bowley’ s Coefficient of skewness (sk) =
Q 3 − Q1
18+6−2(12)
Bowley’ s Coefficient of skewness (sk) = 18−6

24 − 24
Bowley’ s Coefficient of skewness sk =
18 − 6
0
Bowley’ s Coefficient of skewness sk = =0
12
Since sk = 0, the given series is a symmetrical data.

Exercises
1. What is coefficient of variation? What purpose does it serve?

2. What do you understand by skewness. What are the various measures of skewness.

3. Calculate Karl-Pearson‟s co-efficient of Skewness for the following data

Wages in Rs 10 11 12 13 14 15

Numbers 2 4 10 8 5 1

(Skewness=0.36)

94
4. Calculate Karl Pearson‟s co-efficient of skewness for the following data

Wages in Rs. : 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Numbers : 3 6 9 13 8 5 4

(Skewness=0)

5. Calculate Karl-Pearson‟s Coefficient of skewness for the following data

Wage per item Rs. : 12 15 20 25 30 40 50

Number of items : 10 25 40 70 32 13 10

(Skewness=0.014)

6. Calculate Karl-Pearson‟s coefficient of skewness for the following data?

Size : 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Numbers : 6 3 4 10 8 2 3

(Skewness=0.110)

95
 CORRELATION

Introduction

The term correlation is used by a common man without knowing that he is making use of the
term correlation. For example when parents advice their children to work hard so that they may get
good marks, they are correlating good marks with hard work.

The study related to the characteristics of only variable such as height, weight, ages, marks,
wages, etc., is known as univariate analysis. The statistical Analysis related to the study of the
relationship between two variables is known as Bi-Variate Analysis. Some times the variables may be
inter-related. In health sciences we study the relationship between blood pressure and age,
consumption level of some nutrient and weight gain, total income and medical expenditure, etc., The
nature and strength of relationship may be examined by correlation and Regression analysis.

Thus Correlation refers to the relationship of two variables or more. (e-g) relation between
height of father and son, yield and rainfall, wage and price index, share and debentures etc.

Correlation is statistical Analysis which measures and analyses the degree or extent to which
the two variables fluctuate with reference to each other. The word relationship is important. It
indicates that there is some connection between the variables. It measures the closeness of the
relationship. Correlation does not indicate cause and effect relationship. Price and supply, income and
expenditure are correlated.

Definitions

1. Correlation Analysis attempts to determine the degree of relationship between variables-

Ya-Kun-Chou.

2. Correlation is an analysis of the co-variation between two or more variables.- A.M.Tuttle.

Correlation expresses the inter-dependence of two sets of variables upon each other. One
variable may be called as (subject) independent and the other relative variable (dependent). Relative
variable is measured in terms of subject.

Uses of correlation

1. It is used in physical and social sciences.

2. It is useful for economists to study the relationship between variables like price, quantity
etc. Businessmen estimates costs, sales, price etc. using correlation.
3. It is helpful in measuring the degree of relationship between the variables like income and
expenditure, price and supply, supply and demand etc.
4. Sampling error can be calculated.
5. It is the basis for the concept of regression.

96
Scatter Diagram:

It is the simplest method of studying the relationship between two variables diagrammatically.
One variable is represented along the horizontal axis and the second variable along the vertical axis.
For each pair of observations of two variables, we put a dot in the plane.

There are as many dots in the plane as the number of paired observations of two
variables. The direction of dots shows the scatter or concentration of various points. This will
show the type of correlation.

1. If all the plotted points form a straight line from lower left hand corner to the upper right
hand corner then there is Perfect positive correlation. We denote this as r = +1

Perfect positive
Correlation Perfect Negative
r=+1 Correlation

r=–1

Y Y

O X axis O X axis

2. If all the plotted dots lie on a straight line falling from upper left hand corner to lower right hand
corner, there is a perfect negative correlation between the two variables. In this case the
coefficient of correlation takes the value r = -1.

3. If the plotted points in the plane form a band and they show a rising trend from the lower left
hand corner to the upper right hand corner the two variables are highly positively correlated.

1. If the points fall in a narrow band from the upper left hand corner to the lower right hand
corner, there will be a high degree of negative correlation.

97
2. If the plotted points in the plane are spread all over the diagram there is no correlation
between the two variables.

Merits:

1. It is a simplest and attractive method of finding the nature of correlation between the
two variables.
2. It is a non-mathematical method of studying correlation. It is easy to understand.
3. It is not affected by extreme items.
4. It is the first step in finding out the relation between the two variables.
5. We can have a rough idea at a glance whether it is a positive correlation or negative
correlation.

Demerits:

By this method we cannot get the exact degree or correlation between the two variables.

Types of Correlation

Correlation is classified into various types. The most important ones are

i) Positive and negative.

ii) Linear and non-linear.

iii) Partial and total.

iv) Simple and Multiple.

Positive and Negative Correlation:

It depends upon the direction of change of the variables. If the two variables tend to
move together in the same direction (ie) an increase in the value of one variable is
accompanied by an increase in the value of the other, (or) a decrease in the value of one
variable is accompanied by a decrease in the value of other, then the correlation is called

98
positive or direct correlation. Price and supply, height and weight, yield and rainfall, are some
examples of positive correlation.

If the two variables tend to move together in opposite directions so that increase (or)
decrease in the value of one variable is accompanied by a decrease or increase in the value of
the other variable, then the correlation is called negative (or) inverse correlation. Price and
demand, yield of crop and price, are examples of negative correlation.

Linear and Non-linear correlation:

If the ratio of change between the two variables is a constant then there will be linear
correlation between them.

Consider the following.

X 2 4 6 8 10 12

Y 3 6 9 12 15 18

Here the ratio of change between the two variables is the same. If we plot these points
on a graph we get a straight line.

If the amount of change in one variable does not bear a constant ratio of the amount of
change in the other. Then the relation is called Curvi-linear (or) non-linear correlation. The
graph will be a curve.

Simple and Multiple correlation:

When we study only two variables, the relationship is simple correlation. For
example, quantity of money and price level, demand and price. But in a multiple correlation
we study more than two variables simultaneously. The relationship of price, demand and
supply of a commodity are an example for multiple correlation.

Partial and total correlation:

The study of two variables excluding some other variable is called Partial
correlation. For example, we study price and demand eliminating supply side. In total
correlation all facts are taken into account.

99
Computation of correlation:

When there exists some relationship between two variables, we have to measure the
degree of relationship. This measure is called the measure of correlation (or) correlation
coefficient and it is denoted by ‘ r’ .

Algebraic or Mathematical Methods: Some of the methods of calculation of correlation

coefficient are based on algebraic or mathematical treatment. The value of the coefficient of
correlation by these formulae too remains between ±1. Following are the main mathematical
methods –

1. Karl Pearson‟s Covariance method

2. Rank Correlation method

Co-variation:

The covariation between the variables x and y is defined as

∑ 𝑋−𝑋 (𝑌−𝑌 )
Cov (x,y) = 𝑁

where 𝑋 , 𝑌 are respectively means of x and y and 'n' is the number of pairs of observations.

Karl pearson’s coefficient of correlation

Karl pearson, a great biometrician and statistician, suggested a mathematical method

for measuring the magnitude of linear relationship between the two variables. It is most
widely used method in practice and it is known as pearsonian coefficient of correlation. It is
denoted by „ r‟ . The formula for calculating „r‟ is
𝐶 𝑂𝑉(𝑥.𝑦)
(i) r= where σ𝑥 , σ𝑦 are S.D of x and y
σ 𝑥 .σ 𝑦

∑𝑥𝑦
(ii) 𝑟 =𝑛σ
𝑥 σ𝑦

∑𝑋𝑌
(iii) 𝑟= 𝑋 = 𝑥 − 𝑥, 𝑌 = 𝑦 − 𝑦
∑𝑋 2 .∑𝑌 2

When the deviations are taken from the actual mean we can apply any one of these methods.
Simple formula is the third one.

The third formula is easy to calculate, and it is not necessary to calculate the standard
deviations of x and y series respectively.

100
Steps:

1. Find the mean of the two series x and y.

2. Take deviations of the two series from x and y.

𝑋 = 𝑥 − 𝑥, 𝑌 = 𝑦 − 𝑦
3. Square the deviations and get the total, of the respective squares of deviations of x and y and
denote by ΣX2, ΣY2 respectively.
4. Multiply the deviations of x and y and get the total and Divide by n. This is
covariance.
5. Substitute the values in the formula.

𝐶 𝑂𝑉(𝑥.𝑦) ∑ 𝑥−𝑥 (𝑦−𝑦)∕𝑛

r= =
σ 𝑥 .σ 𝑦 ∑(𝑥 −𝑥 ) ∑(𝑦 −𝑦 )
.
𝑛 𝑛

The above formula is simplified as follows

∑𝑋𝑌
𝑟= 𝑋 = 𝑥 − 𝑥, 𝑌 = 𝑦 − 𝑦
∑𝑋 2 .∑𝑌 2

Example 1:

Find Karl Pearson‟s coefficient of correlation from the following data between height of father

(x) and son (y).

X 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

Y 66 67 65 68 70 68 72

Comment on the result.

Solution

𝑿=𝒙−𝒙 Y=y-𝒚

X Y X2 Y2 XY

X=x-67 Y=y-68

64 66 -3 9 -2 4 6

65 67 -2 4 -1 1 2

66 65 -1 1 -3 9 3

101
 67 68 0 0 0 0 0

68 70 1 1 2 4 2

69 68 2 4 0 0 0

70 72 3 9 4 16 12

∑x=469 ∑y=476 0 ∑ X2=28 0 ∑ Y2=34 ∑ XY =25

∑x ∑y
𝑥 = 𝑦=
𝑛 𝑛

469 476
𝑥 = 𝑦=
7 7

𝑥 = 67 𝑦 = 68

∑𝑋𝑌
𝑟=
∑𝑋 2 .∑𝑌 2

25
𝑟=
28∗34

25
𝑟=
952
25
𝑟= = 0.81
30.85

Since r = + 0.81, the variables are highly positively correlated. (ie) Tall fathers have tall sons.

Example 2

From the following data compute the co-efficient of correlation between X and Y:

X Series Y Series

No. of items 15 15

Arithmetic Mean 25 18

Square of deviations from mean 136 138

Summation of product of deviations of X and Y series from their respective Arithmetic Mean is 122X

102
Solution:

Denoting deviations of X and Y from the arithmetic means by x and y respectively the given
data are

∑ X2 = 136; ∑ Y2= 138

We apply Karl Pearson‟s method

∑𝑋𝑌
𝑟=
∑𝑋 2 . ∑𝑌 2

122
𝑟=
136 × 138
122
𝑟=
18768
122
𝑟=
137
r = 0.89

Short-cut Method: To avoid difficult calculations due to mean being in fraction, deviations are taken
from assumed means while calculating coefficient of correlation. The formula is also modified for
standard deviations because deviations are taken from assumed means. Karl Pearson‟s formula for
short-cut method is given below:
∑𝑑 𝑥 (∑𝑑 𝑦 )
∑𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑁 ∑𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑦 −{ ∑𝑑 𝑥 ∑𝑑 𝑦 }
𝑟= 𝑁
(∑𝑑 𝑦 )2
Or 𝑟=
(∑𝑑 )2 2 2
∑𝑑 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 . ∑𝑑 𝑦 2 − 2 2 (∑𝑑𝑦)
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 ∑𝑑𝑥 − (∑𝑑𝑁𝑥) . 𝑁 ∑𝑑𝑦 − 𝑁

Example 3. The following table gives the soil temperature and the germination time at various places.

Calculate the co-efficient of correlation and interpret the value

Temperature 57 42 40 38 42 45 42 44 40 46 44 43

Germination Time 10 26 30 41 29 27 27 19 18 19 31 29

Take 44 and 26 as assumed means

Solution:

We assume temperature as x and germination time as Y.

103
 X (X-44) dx dx2 Y (Y-26) dy dy2 Dxdy

57 13 169 10 -16 256 -208

42 -2 4 26 0 0 0

40 -4 16 30 +4 16 -16

38 -6 36 41 +15 225 -90

42 -2 4 29 +3 9 -6

45 +1 1 27 +1 1 +1

42 -2 4 27 +1 1 -2

44 0 0 19 -7 49 0

40 -4 16 18 -8 64 +32

46 +3 4 19 -7 49 -14

44 0 0 31 +5 25 0

43 -1 1 29 +3 9 -3

N = 12 ∑dx = −5 ∑dx2 = 255 ∑dy = −6 ∑dy2 = 704 ∑dxdy = −306

∑𝑑𝑥 (∑𝑑𝑦 )
∑𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑁
𝑟=
(∑𝑑𝑥 )2 (∑𝑑𝑦 )2
∑𝑑𝑥 2 − 𝑁 . ∑𝑑𝑦 2 − 𝑁

−5 (−6)
−306 − 12
𝑟=
(−5)2 (−6)2
255 − . 704 −
12 12

104
 30
−306 −
𝑟= 12
25 36
255 − 12 . 704 − 12

−306 − 2.5
𝑟=
255 − 2.1 . 704 − 3

−308.5
𝑟=
252.9 701
−308.5
𝑟=
15.90 × 26.47

−308.5
𝑟=
420.873
𝑟 = −0.733

Rank Correlation

It is studied when no assumption about the parameters of the population is made. This method
is based on ranks. It is useful to study the qualitative measure of attributes like honesty, colour,
beauty, intelligence, character, morality etc. The individuals in the group can be arranged in order and
there on, obtaining for each individual a number showing his/her rank in the group.

This method was developed by Edward Spearman in 1904. It is defined as –

6 ∑𝐷 2
𝑟 =1−
𝑛3 − 𝑛
r = rank correlation coefficient.

Note: Some authors use the symbol ρ for rank correlation.

ΣD2 = sum of squares of differences between the pairs of ranks.

n = number of pairs of observations.

The value of r lies between –1 and +1. If r = +1, there is complete agreement in order of ranks
and the direction of ranks is also same. If r = -1, then there is complete disagreement in order of ranks
and they are in opposite directions.

105
 Computation for tied observations: There may be two or more items having equal values. In
such case the same rank is to be given. The ranking is said to be tied. In such circumstances an
average rank is to be given to each individual item. For example if the value so is repeated twice at the
5+6
5th rank, the common rank to be assigned to each item is 2
= 5.5 which is the average of 5 and 6

given as 5.5, appeared twice.

1
If the ranks are tied, it is required to apply a correction factor which is 12 (m3 – m). A slightly

different formula is used when there is more than one item having the same value.

The formula is
1 1
6 [∑𝐷 2 + 𝑚 3 −3 + 𝑚 3 −3 +⋯ ]
12 12
𝑟 =1− 𝑛 3 −𝑛

Where „m‟ is the number of items whose ranks are common and should be repeated as many
times as there are tied observations.

Example 4:

In a marketing survey the price of tea and coffee in a town based on quality was found as
shown below. Could you find any relation between tea and coffee price .

Price of tea 88 90 95 70 60 75 50

Price of coffee 120 134 150 115 110 140 100

Solution:

Price of Rank Price of Rank D D2

tea coffee

88 3 120 4 1 1

90 2 134 3 1 1

95 1 150 1 0 0

70 5 115 5 0 0

106
 60 6 110 6 0 0

75 4 140 2 2 4

50 7 100 7 0 0

∑D2 = 6

6 ∑𝐷 2
𝑟 =1− 3
𝑛 −𝑛
6×6
𝑟 =1−
73 − 7
36
𝑟 =1−
343 − 7
36
𝑟 =1−
336
𝑟 = 1 − 0.1071

𝑟 = 0.8929

Example 5:

In an evaluation of answer script the following marks are awarded by the examiners.

1st 88 95 70 60 50 80 75 85

2nd 84 90 88 55 48 85 82 72

Do you agree the evaluation by the two examiners is fair?

Solution :

X R1 y R2 D D2

88 2 84 4 2 4

95 1 90 1 0 0

70 6 88 2 4 16

60 7 55 7 0 0

107
 50 8 48 8 0 0

80 4 85 3 1 1

85 3 75 6 3 9

∑D2 =30

6 ∑𝐷 2
𝑟 =1− 3
𝑛 −𝑛
6 × 30
𝑟 =1−
83 − 8
180
𝑟 =1−
512 − 8
180
𝑟 =1−
504
𝑟 = 1 − 0.357

𝑟 = 0.643

Example 6:

Rank Correlation for tied observations. Following are the marks obtained by 10 students in a class in
two tests.

Students A B C D E F G H I J

Test 1 70 68 67 55 60 60 75 63 60 72

Test 2 65 65 80 60 68 58 75 63 60 70

Calculate the rank correlation coefficient between the marks of two tests.

Student Test 1 R1 Test 2 R2 D D2

A 70 3 65 5.5 - 2.5 6.25

B 68 4 65 5.5 -1.5 2.25

108
 C 67 5 80 1.0 4.0 16.00

D 55 10 60 8.5 1.5 2.25

E 60 8 68 4.0 4.0 16.00

F 60 8 58 10.0 -2.0 4.00

G 75 1 75 2.0 -1.0 1.00

H 63 6 62 7.0 -1.0 1.00

I 60 8 60 8.5 0.5 0.25

J 72 2 70 3.0 -1.0 1.00

∑D2 =50.00

60 is repeated 3 times in test 1

60, 65 is repeated twice in test 2

m=3; m=2; m=2

1 1
6 [∑𝐷 2 + 𝑚 3 −3 + 𝑚 3 −3 +⋯ ]
12 12
𝑟 =1− 𝑛 3 −𝑛

1 1 1
6[50 + 12 33 − 3 + 12 23 − 2 + 12 23 − 2 ]
𝑟 =1−
103 − 10
1 1 1
6[50 + 12 27 − 3 + 12 8 − 2 + 12 8 − 2 ]
𝑟 =1−
1000 − 10
1 1 1
6[50 + 12 24 + 12 6 + 12 6 ]
𝑟 =1−
990
24 6 6
6[50 + + + ]
𝑟 =1− 12 12 12
990
6[50 + 2 + 0.5 + 0.5]
𝑟 =1−
990

109
 6[53]
𝑟 =1−
990

672
𝑟 =1−
990

𝑟 = 1 − 0.678

𝑟 = 0.322

Questions
1. What is correlation?

2. Define Karl Pearson‟ s coefficient of correlation

3. What is Rank correlation? What are its merits and demerits?

4. Explain different types of correlation with examples.

5. Find Karl Pearson‟s co-efficient of correlation from the following data

x 10 12 18 24 23 27

y 13 18 12 25 30 10

(r=0.255)

6. Find Karl Pearson‟s co-efficient of correlation from the following data

X 23 27 28 29 30 31 33 35 36 39

Y 18 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30 32

(r=0.995)

7. Find Karl pearson‟s co-efficient of correlation from the following data

X : 65 66 67 67 68 69 70 72

Y : 67 68 65 68 72 72 69 71

(r=0.603)

110
8. Find Karl Peason‟s Co-efficient of correlation from the following data

Price : 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Demand : 20 18 15 13 12 9 10 7

(r= -0.978 )

9. Rank Correlation for tied observations. Following are the marks obtained by 10 students in a
class in two tests.

Students A B C D E F G H I J

Test 1 4 8 6 7 5 3 2 1 9 10

Test 2 4 3 7 9 10 6 5 2 1 8

Calculate the rank correlation coefficient between the marks of two tests.

(r= - 0.297)

10. In an evaluation of answer script the following marks are awarded by the examiners.

1st 30 50 80 40 70 100 20 10 60 90

2nd 60 40 90 80 100 20 30 100 50 70

Do you agree the evaluation by the two examiners is fair?

(r=0.139)

111
 REGRESSION

Introduction

After knowing the relationship between two variables we may be interested in

estimating (predicting) the value of one variable given the value of another. The variable
predicted on the basis of other variables is called the “dependent” or the „explained‟ variable
and the other the „independent‟ or the „predicting‟ variable. The prediction is based on
average relationship derived statistically by regression analysis. The equation, linear or
otherwise, is called the regression equation or the explaining equation.

For example, if we know that advertising and sales are correlated we may find out
expected amount of sales for a given advertising expenditure or the required amount of
expenditure for attaining a given amount of sales.

The relationship between two variables can be considered between, say, rainfall and
agricultural production, price of an input and the overall cost of product consumer
expenditure and disposable income. Thus, regression analysis reveals average relationship
between two variables and this makes possible estimation or prediction.

Definition

According to Blair, “Regression is the measure of the average relationship between

two or more variable in terms of the original units of the data”

According to Wallis and Robert.“ one of the most frequently used techniques in
economics and business research, to find a relation between two or more variable that are
related casually, is regression analysis”

Types of Regression

The regression analysis can be classified in to:

a) Simple and Multiple

b) Linear and Non –Linear

c) Total and Partial

a) Simple and Multiple:

In case of simple relationship only two variables are considered, for example, the
influence of advertising expenditure on sales turnover. In the case of multiple

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relationships, more than two variables are involved. On this while one variable is a
dependent variable the remaining variables are independent ones.

For example, the turnover (y) may depend on advertising expenditure (x) and the
income of the people (z). Then the functional relationship can be expressed as y = f (x,z).

b) Linear and Non-linear:

The linear relationships are based on straight-line trend, the equation of which has no-
power higher than one. But, remember a linear relationship can be both simple and multiple.
Normally a linear relationship is taken into account because besides its simplicity, it has a
better predictive value; a linear trend can be easily projected into the future. In the case of
non-linear relationship curved trend lines are derived. The equations of these are parabolic.

c) Total and Partial:

In the case of total relationships all the important variables are considered. Normally,
they take the form of a multiple relationships because most economic and business
phenomena are affected by multiplicity of cases. In the case of partial relationship one or
more variables are considered, but not all, thus excluding the influence of those not found
relevant for a given purpose.

Linear Regression Equation:

If two variables have linear relationship then as the independent variable (X)
changes, the dependent variable (Y) also changes. If the different values of X and Y are
plotted, then the two straightlines of best fit can be made to pass
through the plotted points. These two lines are known as regression lines. Again, these
regression lines are based on two equations known as regression equations. These equations
show best estimate of one variable for the known value of the other. The equations are linear.

Linear regression equation of Y on X is

Y = a + b X ……. (1)

And X on Y is

X = a + b Y……. (2)
a, b are constants.

From (1) We can estimate Y for known value of X.

(2) We can estimate X for known value of Y.

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Regression Lines:

For regression analysis of two variables there are two regression lines, namely Y on X
and X on Y. The two regression lines show the average relationship between the two
variables.

For perfect correlation, positive or negative i.e., r = + 1, the two lines coincide i.e., we
will find only one straight line. If r = 0, i.e., both the variables are independent then the
two lines will cut each other at right angle. In this case the two lines will be parallel to X and
Y-axes.

r=–1
r=+1

Y Y

O X O X

Lastly the two lines intersect at the point of means of X and Y. From this point of
intersection, if a straight line is drawn on X axis, it will touch at the mean value of x.
Similarly, a perpendicular drawn from the point of intersection of two regression lines on Y-
axis will touch the mean value of Y.

Y Y

r=0
(x , y )

O X O X

Principle of ‘Least Squares’:

Regression shows an average relationship between two variables, which is expressed by a

line of regression drawn by the method of “least squares”. This line of regression can be
derived graphically or algebraically. Before we discuss the various methods let us understand
the meaning of least squares.

A line fitted by the method of least squares is known as the line of best fit. The line
adapts to the following rules:

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(i) The algebraic sum of deviation in the individual observations with reference to the
regression line may be equal to zero. i.e.,

∑(X – Xc) = 0 or ∑ (Y- Yc ) = 0

Where Xc and Yc are the values obtained by regression analysis.

(ii) The sum of the squares of these deviations is less than the sum of squares of
deviations from any other line. i.e.,

∑ (Y – Yc) 2 < ∑ (Y – Ai) 2

Where Ai = corresponding values of any other straight line.

The lines of regression (best fit) intersect at the mean values of the variables X and Y, i.e.,
intersecting point is x, y.

Methods of Regression Analysis:

The various methods can be represented in the form of chart given below:

Regression Methods

Graphic Algebraic

Regression equation
Regression equation
Scatter (regression co-
(normal equation)
efficient)

Graphic Method:

Scatter Diagram:

Under this method the points are plotted on a graph paper representing various parts
of values of the concerned variables. These points give a picture of a scatter diagram with

115
several points spread over. A regression line may be drawn in between these points either by
free hand or by a scale rule in such a way that the squares of the vertical or the horizontal
distances (as the case may be) between the points and the line of regression so drawn is the
least. In other words, it should be drawn faithfully as the line of best fit leaving equal number
of points on both sides in such a manner that the sum of the squares of the distances is the
best.

Algebraic Methods:

(i) Regression Equation.

The two regression

equations for X on Y;
X = a + bY

And for Y on X; Y = a + bX

Where X, Y are variables, and a, b are constants whose values are to be determined

For the equation, X = a + bY

The normal equations are

∑X = na + b ∑Y and

∑XY = a∑Y + b∑Y2

For the equation, Y= a + bX, the normal equations are

∑Y = na + b∑ X and

∑XY = a∑X + b∑X2

From these normal equations the values of a and b can be determined.

Example 1:

Find the two regression equations from the following data:

X: 6 2 10 4 8

Y: 9 11 5 8 7

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Solution:

X Y X2 Y2 XY

6 9 36 81 54

2 11 4 121 22

10 5 100 25 50

4 8 16 64 32

8 7 64 49 56

∑X=30 ∑Y =40 ∑X2=220 ∑Y2=340 ∑XY =214

Regression equation of Y on X is Y = a + bX and the normal equations are

∑Y = na + b∑X

∑XY = a∑X + b∑X2

Substituting the values, we get

40 = 5a + 30b …… (1)

214 = 30a + 220b ... (2)

Multiplying (1) by 6

240 = 30a + 180b……. (3) (2)-(3)

-26=40b
−26
Or b= b=-0.65
40

Now, substituting the value of „ b‟ in equation (1)

40 = 5a + 30b

40=5a+30(-0.65)

40=5a-19.5

5a-19.5-40=0

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5a-59.5=0

5a=59.5
59.5
a= 5

a=11.9

Hence, required regression line Y on X is Y = 11.9 – 0.65 X.

Again, regression equation of X on Y is

X = a + bY and

The normal equations are

∑X = na + b∑Y and

∑XY = a∑Y + b∑Y2

Now, substituting the corresponding values from the above table, we get

30 = 5a + 40b …. (3)

214 = 40a + 340b …. (4)

Multiplying (3) by 8, we get

240 = 40a + 320 b …. (5)

(4) – (5) gives

−26 = 20b
−26
b= 20

b=-1.3

Substituting b = – 1.3 in equation (3) gives

30 = 5a −52

5a = 82
82
a= 5

a=16.4

Hence, Required regression line of X on Y is X = 16.4 – 1.3Y

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REGRESSION EQUATIONS THROUGH REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS

Regression coefficient refers to the constant value multiplied to the independent

variable in a given relation. Say a relation Y = a + bx, here b (the slope of the regression line)
is the sregression coefficient, since it is a multiple of independent variable x, Regression
equations or lines can easily be arrived at by the use of regression coefficients. For this
purpose, we are required to calculate mean, standard deviation and correlation coefficient of
the given series. The following are the main methods to calculate regression coefficient Y on
X (byx) or X on Y (bxy).

1. Taking deviations from actual mean

2. Taking deviations from Assumed mean

3. Applying actual observations

4. Applying grouped data

Regression equation of X on Y.
𝛔𝐱
This can be written as 𝑿 − 𝑿 = 𝒓 𝛔𝐲 (𝒀 − 𝒀)

𝑿 is the means of X series

𝒀 is the means of Y series

𝛔𝐱 ∑𝑋𝑌
𝒓 𝛔𝐲 is known as the regression co-efficient of X on Y OR (bxy) =
∑𝑌 2

Regression equation of Y on X
𝛔𝐲
𝒀−𝒀=𝒓 (𝑿 − 𝑿)
𝛔𝐱
𝒀 is the means of Y series

𝑿 is the means of X series

𝛔𝐲 ∑𝑋𝑌
𝒓 𝛔𝐱 is known as the regression co-efficient of Y on X OR (byx) =
∑𝑥 2

Example 2:

Calculate the two regression equations of X on Y and Y on X from the data given below,
taking deviations from actual means of X and Y

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Price (Rs) 10 12 13 12 16 15

Amount demanded 40 38 43 45 37 43

Estimate the likely demand when the price is Rs 20

Solution

𝑿−𝑿 𝒚=𝒀−𝒀
X 𝒙𝟐 Y 𝒚𝟐 xy
x-13 Y-41

10 -3 9 40 -1 1 3

12 -1 1 38 -3 9 3

13 0 0 43 2 4 0

12 -1 1 45 4 16 -4

16 3 9 37 -4 16 -12

15 2 4 43 2 4 4

∑X=78 0 ∑𝒙𝟐 =24 ∑Y=246 0 ∑𝒚𝟐 =50 ∑ xy =-6

Regression equation of X on Y
𝛔𝐱
𝑿−𝑿= 𝒓 (𝒀 − 𝒀)
𝛔𝐲
78 246
𝑋= =13; 𝑌= =41
6 6

σx ∑𝑋𝑌 −6
𝑟 = = = -0.12
σy ∑𝑌 2 50

X-13 = -0.12 (y-41)

X-13= -0.12y+4.92

X=-0.12+17.92

Regression equation of Y on X

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 𝛔𝐲
𝒀−𝒀=𝒓 (𝑿 − 𝑿)
𝛔𝐱
78 246
𝑋= =13; 𝑌= =41
6 6

σy ∑𝑋𝑌 −6
𝑟 = = = - 0.25
σx ∑𝑥 2 24

Y-41= -0.25 (X-13)

Y-41= -0.25X+3.25

Y= - 0.25X + 44.25

Therefore

When X is 20, Y will be

Y= - 0.25X + 44.25

Y= - 0.25(20) + 44.25

Y= - 5+ 44.25

Y=39.25

When the price is Rs 20, the likely demand is 39.25

Deviations taken from Assumed Means X and Y:

In practice we get means of fractions and for simplicity we take deviations from
assumed means. When the deviations are taken from the assumed means, the procedure for
finding regression equations remains the same. In case of actual means the regression
equations of X on Y are
𝛔𝐱
𝑿−𝑿=𝒓 (𝒀 − 𝒀)
𝛔𝐲

𝛔𝐱
The value of 𝒓 will now be obtained as follows
𝛔𝐲

∑𝐝𝐱 × ∑𝐝𝐲
𝛔𝐱 ∑𝐝𝐱𝐝𝐲 −
𝒓 = 𝐍
𝛔𝐲 (∑𝐝𝐲)𝟐
∑𝐝𝐲 𝟐 −
𝐍
dx= X-A; dy=Y-A

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The regression equations of Y on X is
𝛔𝐲
𝒀−𝒀=𝒓 (𝑿 − 𝑿)
𝛔𝐱
∑𝐝𝐱 × ∑𝐝𝐲
𝛔𝐲 ∑𝐝𝐱𝐝𝐲 −
𝒓 = 𝐍
𝛔𝐱 (∑𝐝𝐱)𝟐
∑𝐝𝐱 𝟐 −
𝐍
Example 3:

Price indices of cotton and wool are given below for the 12 months of a year. Obtain
the equations of lines of regression between the indices.

Price index of cotton (X) 78 77 85 88 87 82 81 77 76 83 97 93

Price index of wool (Y) 84 82 82 85 89 90 88 92 83 89 98 99

dx= X-A Dy=Y-A

X 𝐝𝐱 𝟐 Y 𝐝𝐲 𝟐 dx.dy
X- 84 Y- 88

78 -6 36 84 -4 16 24

77 -7 49 82 -6 36 42

85 1 1 82 -6 36 -6

88 4 16 85 -3 9 -12

87 3 9 89 1 1 3

82 -2 4 90 2 4 -4

81 -3 9 88 0 0 0

77 -7 49 92 4 16 -28

76 -8 64 83 -5 25 40

83 -1 1 89 1 1 -1

97 13 169 98 10 100 130

93 9 81 99 11 121 99

1004 ∑dx= -4 ∑𝐝𝐱 𝟐 =488 1061 ∑dy=5 ∑𝐝𝐲 𝟐 =365 ∑ dx.dy =287

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Regression equation of X on Y
𝛔𝐱
𝑿−𝑿= 𝒓 (𝒀 − 𝒀)
𝛔𝐲
∑𝐝𝐱 × ∑𝐝𝐲
𝛔𝐱 ∑𝐝𝐱𝐝𝐲 −
𝒓 = 𝐍
𝛔𝐲 (∑𝐝𝐲) 𝟐
∑𝐝𝐲 𝟐 − 𝐍

−4 × 5
σx 287 −
𝑟 = 12
σy 52
365 − 12

σx 287 × 12 − (−20)
𝑟 =
σy 365 × 12 − 25

σx 3444 − (−20)
𝑟 =
σy 4380 − 25

σx 3444 + 20)
𝑟 =
σy 4380 − 25

σx 3464
𝑟 =
σy 4355
σx
𝑟 = 0.795
σy

1004 1061
𝑋= = 83.67; 𝑌= = 88.42
12 12

X-83.67 = 0.795(Y-88.42)

X-83.67= 0.795Y- 70.29

X=0.795Y-70.29+83.67

X=0.795Y+13.38

The regression equation of Y on X is

𝛔𝐲
𝒀−𝒀=𝒓 (𝑿 − 𝑿)
𝛔𝐱
∑𝐝𝐱 × ∑𝐝𝐲
𝛔𝐲 ∑𝐝𝐱𝐝𝐲 −
𝒓 = 𝐍
𝛔𝐱 (∑𝐝𝐱)𝟐
∑𝐝𝐱 𝟐 −
𝐍

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 −4 × 5
σy 287−
12
𝑟 = (−4)2
σx 488−
12

σy 287 × 12 − (−20)
𝑟 =
σx 488 × 12 − 6
σy 3444 − (−20)
𝑟 =
σx 5856 − 6
σy 3444 + 20)
𝑟 =
σx 5856 − 6
σy 3464
𝑟 =
σx 5850
σy
𝑟 = 0.59
σx
Y-88.42 = 0.59 (X – 83.67)

Y-88.42 = 0.59X-49.37

Y= 0.59X- 49.37+88.42

Y= 0.59X+39.05

Example 4 : The following scores were worked out from a test in Mathematics and English
in an annual examination.

Scores in Mathematics (x) English (y)

Mean 39.5 47.5

Standard deviation 10.8 16.8

r = + 0.42

Find both the regression equations. Using these regression estimate find the value of Y
for X = 50 and the value of X for Y = 30.

Solution:

Regression of X on Y
𝝈𝒙
𝑿−𝑿=𝒓 (𝒀 − 𝒀)
𝝈𝒚

10.8
X − 39.5 = 0.42 (Y − 47.5)
16.8
X − 39.5 = 0.27 (Y − 47.5)

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 X − 39.5 = 0.27 Y − 12.825

X = 0.27 Y − 12.825 + 39.5

X = 0.27 Y + 26.675

When Y = 30, the value of X

X = 0.27 (30) + 26.675

X = 8.1 + 26.675

X = 34.775

Regression equation of Y on X
𝛔𝐲
𝒀−𝒀=𝒓 (𝑿 − 𝑿)
𝛔𝐱
𝟏𝟔. 𝟖
𝒀 − 𝟒𝟕. 𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 (𝑿 − 𝟑𝟗. 𝟓)
𝟏𝟎. 𝟖
16.8
𝑌 − 47.5 = 0.42 (𝑋 − 39.5)
10.8
𝑌 − 47.5 = 0.653 (𝑋 − 39.5)

𝑌 − 47.5 = 0.653𝑋 − 25.7935)

𝑌 = 0.653𝑋 − 25.7935 + 47.5

𝑌 = 0.653𝑋 + 21.7065

When X is 50, the value of Y

𝑌 = 0.653(50) + 21.7065

𝑌 = 32.65 + 21.7065

𝑌 = 54.36

Exercises

1. Explain the uses of regression analysis

2. Distinguish between correlation and regression.
3. Obtain the two regression equations from the following

x 3 6 5 4 4 6 7 5

y 3 2 3 5 3 6 6 4

X=0.375y+3.5, Y=1.5+0.5x

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4. Obtain the two regression equations of the following

X : 45 42 44 43 41 45 43 40

Y : 40 38 36 35 38 39 37 41

X=-0.178y+49.66, Y=47.37-0.218x

5. Calculate the two regression equations from the following

X : 10 12 13 12 16 15

Y : 40 38 43 45 37 43

X=-0.12y+17.92, Y=44.25-0.25x

6. Obtain the two regression equation from the following

X : 1 2 3 4 5

Y : 2 3 5 4 6

X=0.9y-0.6, Y=1.3+0.9x

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 TIME SEIRES

Introduction

Arrangement of statistical data in chronological order ie., in accordance with

occurrence of time, is known as “Time Series”. Such series have a unique important place in
the field of Economic and Business statistics. An economist is interested in estimating the
likely population in the coming year so that proper planning can be carried out with regard to
food supply, job for the people etc. Similarly, a business man is interested in finding out his
likely sales in the near future, so that the businessman could adjust his production
accordingly and avoid the possibility of inadequate production to meet the demand. In this
connection one usually deal with statistical data, which are collected, observed or recorded at
successive intervals of time. Such data are generally referred to as „time series‟.

Definition

According to Mooris Hamburg, “A time series is a set of statistical observations

arranged in chronological order”.

Ya-Lun- chou defining the time series as “A time series may be defined as a
collection of readings belonging to different time periods, of some economic variable or
composite of variables. A time series is a set of observations of a variable usually at equal
intervals of time. Here time may be yearly, monthly, weekly, daily or even hourly usually at
equal intervals of time.

Hourly temperature reading, daily sales, monthly production are examples of time
series. Number of factors affect the observations of time series continuously, some with
equal intervals of time and others are erratic studying, interpreting analyzing the factors is
called Analysis of Time Series.

The Primary purpose of the analysis of time series is to discover and measure all
types of variations which characterise a time series. The central objective is to decompose
the various elements present in a time series and to use them in business decision making.

Components of Time series

The components of a time series are the various elements which can be segregated
from the observed data. The following are the broad classification of these components.

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 Components

Long Term Short Term

Secular Trend Cyclical Seasonal Irregular

(or)
Erratic
Regular

In time series analysis, it is assumed that there is a multiplicative relationship between

these four components.

Symbolically,

Y=T×S×C×I

Where Y denotes the result of the four elements; T = Trend ; S = Seasonal

component; C = Cyclical components; I = Irregular component

In the multiplicative model it is assumed that the four components are due to different
causes but they are not necessarily independent and they can affect one another.

Another approach is to treat each observation of a time series as the sum of these four
components. Symbolically

Y=T+S+ C+I

The additive model assumes that all the components of the time series are
independent of one another.

1) Secular Trend or Long - Term movement or simply Trend

2) Seasonal Variation

3) Cyclical Variations

4) Irregular or erratic or random movements(fluctuations)

1. Secular Trend:

It is a long term movement in Time series. The general tendency of the time series is to
increase or decrease or stagnate during a long period of time is called the secular trend or
simply trend. Population growth, improved technological progress, changes in consumers
taste are the various factors of upward trend. We may notice downward trend relating to

128
deaths, epidemics, due to improved medical facilities and sanitations. Thus a time series
shows fluctuations in the upward or downward direction in the long run.

Methods of Measuring Trend:

Trend is measured by the following mathematical methods.

1. Graphical method

2. Method of Semi-averages

3. Method of moving averages

4. Method of Least Squares

Graphical Method:

This is the easiest and simplest method of measuring trend. In this method, given data
must be plotted on the graph, taking time on the horizontal axis and values on the vertical
axis. Draw a smooth curve which will show the direction of the trend. While fitting a trend
line the following important points should be noted to get a perfect trend line.

(i) The curve should be smooth.

(ii) As far as possible there must be equal number of points above and below the trend
line.

(iii) The sum of the squares of the vertical deviations from the trend should be as small
as possible.

(iv) If there are cycles, equal number of cycles should be above or below the trend line.

(v) In case of cyclical data, the area of the cycles above and below should be nearly
equal.

Example 1 :

Fit a trend line to the following data by graphical method.

Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Sales (in Rs.'000) 60 72 75 65 80 85 95

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Solution:

The dotted lines refers trend line

Merits:

1. It is the simplest and easiest method. It saves time and labour.

2. It can be used to describe all kinds of trends.

3. This can be used widely in application.

4. It helps to understand the character of time series and to select appropriate trend.

Demerits:

1. It is highly subjective. Different trend curves will be obtained by different persons for the
same set of data.

2. It is dangerous to use freehand trend for forecasting purposes.

3. It does not enable us to measure trend in precise quantitative terms.

Method of semi averages

In this method, the given data is divided into two parts, preferably with the same
number of years. For example, if we are given data from 1981 to 1998 i.e., over a period of
18 years, the two equal parts will be first nine years, i.e., 1981 to 1989 and from 1990 to
1998. In case of odd number of years like 5,7,9,11 etc, two equal parts can be made simply
by omitting the middle year. For example, if the data are given for 7 years from 1991 to
1997, the two equal parts would be from 1991 to 1993 and from 1995 to 1997, the middle
year 1994 will be omitted.

After the data have been divided into two parts, an average of each parts is obtained.
Thus we get two points. Each point is plotted at the mid-point of the class interval covered by
respective part and then the two points are joined by a straight line which gives us the

130
 required trend line. The line can be extended downwards and upwards to get intermediate
values or to predict future values.

Example 2:

Draw a trend line by the method of semi-averages.

Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Sales (in Rs.1000) 60 75 81 110 106 120

Solution:

Year Sales (Rs) Semi Total Semi – average Trend value

1991 60 59

1992 75 216 72 72

1993 81 85

1994 110 98

1995 106 333 111 111

1996 117 124

Difference in middle periods = 1995 –1992 = 3 years

Difference in semi averages = 111 –72 = 39

∴Annual increase in trend = 39/3 = 13

Trend of 1991 = Trend of 1992 -13

= 72 – 13 = 59

Trend of 1993 = Trend of 1992 +13

= 72 + 13 = 85

Similarly, we can find all the values

131
The following graph will show clearly the trend line.

Example 3:

Calculate the trend value to the following data by the method of semi- averages.

Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Expenditure (Rs.
1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.6 3.0
in Lakhs)

Solution:

Year Expenditure (Rs.) Semi total Semi average Trend values

1995 1.5 1.545

1996 1.8 5.3 1.77 1.77

1997 2 1.995

1998 2.3 2.22

1999 2.4 7.3 2.43 2.445

2000 2.6 2.67

2001 3 2.895

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Difference between middle periods = 2000 – 1996

= 4 years

Difference between semi-averages = 2.67 - 1.77

= 0.9
0.9
Annual trend values = 4

= 0.225

Trend of 1995 = Trend of 1996 – 0.225

= 1.77 – 0.225

= 1.545

Trend of 1996 = 1.77

Trend of 1997 = 1.77 + 0.225

= 1.995

Similarly we can find all the trend values

Similarly we can find all the trend values

Merits:

1. It is simple and easy to calculate

2. By this method every one getting same trend line.

133
3. Since the line can be extended in both ways, we can find the later and earlier estimates.

Demerits:

1. This method assumes the presence of linear trend to the values of time series which may
not exist.

2. The trend values and the predicted values obtained by this method are not very reliable.

Method of Moving Averages:

This method is very simple. It is based on Arithmetic mean. Theses means are
calculated from overlapping groups of successive time series data. Each moving average is
based on values covering a fixed time interval, called “period of moving average” and is
shown against the center of the interval. The method of 'odd period' of moving average is as
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑏+𝑐+𝑑 𝑐+𝑑+𝑒
follows. (3 or 5). The moving averages for three years is , , etc.
3 3 3
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑+𝑒 𝑏+𝑐+𝑑+𝑒+𝑓 𝑐+𝑑+𝑒+𝑓+𝑔
The formula for five yearly moving average is , , etc.
5 5 5

Steps for calculating odd number of years.

1. Find the value of three years total, place the value against the second year.

2. Leave the first value and add the next three years value (ie 2nd, 3rd and 4th years value)
and put it against 3rd year.

3. Continue this process until the last year‟ s value taken.

4. Each total is divided by three and placed in the next column.

These are the trend values by the method of moving averages

Example 4 :

Calculate the three yearly average of the following data.

Year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Production 50 36 43 45 39 38 33 42 41 34

134
Solution :

3 years moving
Production (in 3 years moving
Year average as Trend
tones) total
values

1975 50 - -

1976 36 129 43.0

1977 43 124 41.3

1978 45 127 42.3

1979 39 122 40.7

1980 38 110 36.7

1981 33 113 37.7

1982 42 116 38.7

1983 41 117 39.0

1984 34 - -

Even Period of Moving Averages:

When the moving period is even, the middle period of each set of values lies between
the two time points. So we must center the moving averages.

The steps are

1. Find the total for first 4 years and place it against the middle of the 2nd and 3rd year in
the third column.

2. Leave the first year value, and find the total of next four-year and place it between the
3rd and 4th year.

3. Continue this process until the last value is taken.

135
4. Next, compute the total of the first two four year totals and place it against the 3rd year in
the fourth column.

5. Leave the first four years total and find the total of the next two four years‟ totals and
place it against the fourth year.

6. This process is continued till the last two four years‟ total is taken into account.

7. Divide this total by 8 (Since it is the total of 8 years) and put it in the fifth column.

These are the trend values.

Example 5 :

The production of Tea in India is given as follows. Calculate the Four-yearly moving
averages

Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Production 464 515 518 467 502 540 557 571 586 612

Solution:

Production 4 years Moving Total of Two

Year Trend Values
(in tones) total four years

1993 464 - -

1994 515

1964

1995 518 3966 495.8

2002

1996 467 4029 503.6

2027

1997 502 4093 511.6

2066

1998 540 4236 529.5

136
 2170

1999 557 4424 553.0

2254

2000 571 4580 572.5

2326

2001 586

2002 612

Example

Using five year moving average determine the trend from the following data

Year 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Production 332 317 357 392 402 405 410 427 405 431

Year Production 5 years moving total 5 years moving average as Trend values

1991 332

1992 317

1993 357 1800 360

1994 392 1873 374.6

1995 402 1966 393.2

1996 405 2036 407.2

1997 410 2049 409.8

1998 427 2078 415.6

1999 405

2000 431

137
Merits:

1. The method is simple to understand and easy to adopt as compared to other methods.

2. It is very flexible in the sense that the addition of a few more figures to the data, the
entire calculations are not changed. We only get some more trend values.

3. Regular cyclical variations can be completely eliminated by a period of moving average

equal to the period of cycles.

4. It is particularly effective if the trend of a series is very irregular.

Demerits:

1. It cannot be used for forecasting or predicting future trend, which is the main objective of
trend analysis.

2. The choice of the period of moving average is sometimes subjective.

3. Moving averages are generally affected by extreme values of items.

4. It cannot eliminate irregular variations completely.

Method of Least Square

This method is widely used. It plays an important role in finding the trend values of
economic and business time series. It helps for forecasting and predicting the future values.
The trend line by this method is called the line of best fit.

The equation of the trend line is y = a + bx, where the constants a and b are to be
estimated so as to minimize the sum of the squares of the difference between the given
values of y and the estimate values of y by using the equation. The constants can be obtained
by solving two normal equations.

∑y = na + b∑x ………. (1)

∑xy = a∑x + b∑x2 ……… (2)

Here x represent time point and y are observed values. „ n‟ is the number of pair-
values.

When odd number of years are given

Step 1: Writing given years in column 1 and the corresponding sales or production etc in
column 2.

Step 2: Write in column 3 start with 0, 1, 2 .. against column 1 and denote it as X

138
Step 3: Take the middle value of X as A

Step 4: Find the deviations u = X - A and write in column 4

Step 5: Find u2 values and write in column 5.

Step 6: Column 6 gives the product uy

Now the normal equations become

∑y = na + b∑u (1) where u = X-A

∑uy = a∑u + b∑u2 (2)

Since ∑u = 0 , From equation (1)

From equation (2)

∑𝑢𝑦 = 𝑏∑𝑢2
∑𝑢𝑦
Therefore b=
∑𝑢2

∴ The fitted straight line is

y = a + bu = a + b ( X - A)

Example 6:

For the following data, find the trend values by using the method of Least squares

Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

Production
50 55 45 52 54
(in tones)

Estimate the production for the year 1996.

139
Solution :

Year Production u = x-A Trend

X = x - 1990 u2 Uy
(x) (y) = x-2 values

1990 50 0 –2 4 – 100 50.2

1991 55 1 –1 1 – 55 50.7

1992 45 2 (A) 0 0 0 51.2

1993 52 3 1 1 52 51.7

1994 54 4 2 4 108 52.2

Total 256 10 5

Where A is an assumed value

The equation of straight line is

Y = a + bX

= a + bu , where u = X - 2

the normal equations are

∑y = na + b∑u……….(1)
∑uy = a∑u + b∑u2 …..(2)

since

∑u = 0 from(1) ∑y = na

∑𝑦
𝑎=
𝑛
256
= = 51.2
5

From equation (2)

140
 ∑ uy = b∑ u2

5 =10b
5
b= 10 = 0.5

The fitted straight line is

y = a + bu

y = 51.2 + 0.5 (X-2)

y = 51.2 + 0.5X -1.0
y = 50.2 + 0.5X

Trend values are, 50.2, 50.7, 51.2, 51.7, 52.2

The estimate production in 1996 is put X = x – 1990

X = 1996 –1990 = 6

Y = 50.2 + 0.5X = 50.2 +0.5(6) = 50.2 +3.0 = 53.2 tonnes.

When even number of years are given

𝑋−𝐴
Here we take the mean of middle two values of X as A Then u = = 2(𝑋 − 𝐴)
1/2

The other steps are as given in the odd number of years.

Example 7:

Fit a straight line trend by the method of least squares for the following data.

Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

Sales (Rs. in lakhs) 3 8 7 9 11 14

Also estimate the sales for the year 1991

141
Solution:

2 Trend
Year (x) Sales (y) X = x-1983 u = 2X - 5 u uy
values

1983 3 0 –5 25 –15 3.97

1984 8 1 –3 9 – 24 5.85

1985 7 2 –1 1 –7 7.73

1986 9 3 1 1 9 9.61

1987 11 4 3 9 33 11.49

1988 14 5 5 25 70 13.37

Total 52 0 70 66

u=X−A

1 2/

= 2(X −2 5.) = 2X −5

The straight line equation is

y = a + bX = a + bu

The normal equations are

∑y = na …….(1)

∑uy = b∑u2 ……(2)

From (1) 52 = 6a
52
a=6

= 8 67.

From (2) 66 = 70b

70
𝑏 = 66

= 0 94.

142
The fitted straight line equation is

y = a + bu

y = 8.67+0.94(2X-5)

y = 8.67 + 1.88X - 4.7

y = 3.97 + 1.88X -----------(3)

The trend values are

Put X = 0, y = 3.97 X = 1, y = 5.85

X = 2, y = 7.73 X = 3, y = 9.61

X = 4, y = 11.49 X = 5, y = 13.37

The estimated sale for the year 1991 is; put X = x –1983

= 1991 – 1983 = 8

y = 3.97 + 1.88 × 8

= 19.01 lakhs

The following graph will show clearly the trend line.

Merits:

1. Since it is a mathematical method, it is not subjective so it eliminates personal bias of the

investigator.

2. By this method we can estimate the future values. As well as intermediate values of the
time series.

3. By this method we can find all the trend values.

143
Demerits:

1. It is a difficult method. Addition of new observations makes recalculations.

2. Assumption of straight line may sometimes be misleading since economics and business
time series are not linear.

3. It ignores cyclical, seasonal and irregular fluctuations.

4. The trend can estimate only for immediate future and not for distant future.

Seasonal Variations:

Seasonal Variations are fluctuations within a year during the season. The factors that
cause seasonal variation are

i) Climate and weather condition.

ii) Customs and traditional habits.

For example the sale of ice-creams increase in summer, the umbrella sales increase in
rainy season, sales of woolen clothes increase in winter season and agricultural production
depends upon the monsoon etc.,

Secondly in marriage season the price of gold will increase, sale of crackers and new
clothes increase in festival times.

So seasonal variations are of great importance to businessmen, producers and sellers

for planning the future. The main objective of the measurement of seasonal variations is to
study their effect and isolate them from the trend.

Measurement of seasonal variation:

The following are some of the methods more popularly used for measuring the seasonal
variations.

1. Method of simple averages.

2. Ratio to trend method.

3. Ratio to moving average method.

4. Link relative method

Among the above four methods the method of simple averages is easy to compute
seasonal variations.

144
Method of simple averages

The steps for calculations:

i) Arrange the data season wise

ii) Compute the average for each season.

iii) Calculate the grand average, which is the average of seasonal

averages.

iv) Obtain the seasonal indices by expressing each season as percentage

of Grand average

The total of these indices would be 100n where „ n‟ is the number of seasons in the year.

Example 8:

Find the seasonal variations by simple average method for the data given below.

Quarter

Year I II III IV

1989 30 40 36 34

1990 34 52 50 44

1991 40 58 54 48

1992 54 76 68 62

1993 80 92 86 82

Solution :

Quarter

Year I II III IV

1989 30 40 36 34

1990 34 52 50 44

145
1991 40 58 54 48

1992 54 76 68 62

1993 80 92 86 82

Total 238 318 294 270

Average 47.6 63.6 58.8 54

Seasonal 85 113.6 105 96.4

Indices

47.6+63.6+58.8+54
Grand average =
4

224
= =56
4

Seasonal index for

𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
I Quarter = ×100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

47.6
= × 100 = 85
56

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Seasonal index for II Quarter = ×100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

63.6
= × 100 = 113.6
56

𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Seasonal index for III Quarter = ×100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

58.5
= × 100 = 105
56

𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡𝑕 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Seasonal index for IV Quarter = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

54
= 56 × 100 = 96.4

146
Example 9:

Calculate the seasonal indices from the following data using simple average method.

Year

Quarter 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

I 72 76 74 76 74

II 68 70 66 74 74

III 80 82 84 84 86

IV 70 74 80 78 82

Solution :

Quarter

Year I II III IV

1974 72 68 80 70

1975 76 70 82 74

1976 74 66 84 80

1977 76 74 84 78

1978 74 74 86 82

Total 372 352 416 384

Average 74.45 70.4 83.2 76.8

Seasonal
97.6 92.4 109.2 100.8
Indices

147
 74.4+70.4+83.2+76.8
Grand average =
4

304.8
= =76.2
4
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
Seasonal index for I Quarter = ×100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

74.4
= × 100 = 97.6
76.20

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Seasonal index for II Quarter = ×100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

70.4
= 76.2 × 100 = 92.4

𝑇𝑕𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Seasonal index for III Quarter = ×100
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

83.2
= 76.2 × 100 = 109.2

𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡𝑕 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Seasonal index for IV Quarter = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

76.8
= 76.2 × 100 = 100.8

The total of seasonal indices calculated must be equal to 400 here we have

= 97.6 + 92.4 + 109.2 + 100.8

= 400 hence verified.

Cyclical variations:

The term cycle refers to the recurrent variations in time series, that extend over longer
period of time, usually two or more years. Most of the time series relating to economic and
business show some kind of cyclic variation. A business cycle consists of the recurrence of
the up and down movement of business activity. It is a four-phase cycle namely.

1. Prosperity 2. Decline 3. Depression 4. Recovery

Each phase changes gradually into the following phase. The following diagram
illustrates a business cycle.

148
 The study of cyclical variation is extremely useful in framing suitable policies for
stabilising the level of business activities. Businessmen can take timely steps in maintaining
business during booms and depression.

Irregular variation:

Irregular variations are also called erratic. These variations are not regular and which
do not repeat in a definite pattern.

These variations are caused by war, earthquakes, strikes flood, revolution etc. This
variation is short-term one, but it affect all the components of series. There is no statistical
techniques for measuring or isolating erratic fluctuation. Therefore the residual that remains
after eliminating systematic components is taken as representing irregular variations.

1. Explain about seasonal variation

2. Give the names of different methods of measuring trend.

3. What are the merits and demerits of the semi-average method?

4. What are the components of time series.

5. Fit a straight line trend by the method of least square and estimate the production in 1990

Year : 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Production in quantities : 15 16.5 18 20.5 25

Y=19+2.4x , Production for 1990 = 35.8

6. Using five year moving average method determine the trend from the following

Year : 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

Expense : 50 36 43 44 38 38 32 38 41

(42.2, 39.8, 39, 38, 37.4)

149
7. Fit a straight line trend by the method of least squares and estimate the net profit in 2012.

What is the amount of change per annum in net profit?

Year : 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Net Profit : 32 36 44 37 71 72 109

(Rs.Crores)

Y=21.92+11.79x

Profit for 2012=116.24

8. Find out trend values by the method of moving average (5 yearly)

Year : 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Production : 351 366 361 362 400 419 410 420 450 500 518

(368,381.6, 390.4, 402.2, 419.8, 439.8, 459.6)

9. Fit a straight line trend by the method of least square to the following data. Also estimate the
value for 2004.

Year : 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Production of : 60 72 75 65 80 85 95
steel in tons

Y=61.429+4.857x

Production for 2004=95.428

10. Find out trend value by the method of four yearly moving average for the following data

Year : 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

Production : 37.4 31.1 38.7 39.5 47.9 42.6 48.4 64.6 58.4 38.6 51.4 84.4

(37.98, 40.74, 43.39, 47.74, 52.19, 53, 52.88, 55.73)

150
11. Fit a straight line trend by the method of least square and estimate the net profit in 2014.

Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Net Profit in Rs. 35 40 38 44 37 100 89

Crores

Y=24.605+10.035x

Profit for 2014=104.885

12. Using five year moving average determine the trend from the following data

Year 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 197 1976

Income 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.6 3.0

(2, 2.22, 2.46)

151
 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Introduction

The word “Geometry” is derived from the Greek word “geo” meaning “earth” and
“metron” meaning “measuring”. The need of measuring land is the origin of geometry.

The branch of mathematics where algebraic methods are employed for solving
problem in geometry is known as Analytical Geometry. It is sometimes called cartesian
Geometry after the french mathematician Des-Cartes.

Section formula

Internal division

If the point P divides the line segment joining two points A 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and B 𝑦1 , 𝑦2
internally in the ratio of m:n is called internal division. The formula for internal division is
𝒎𝒙𝟐 + 𝒏𝒙𝟏 𝒎𝒚𝟐 + 𝒏𝒚𝟏
𝒙, 𝒚 = ,
𝒎+𝒏 𝒎+𝒏
External division

If the point P divides the line segment joining two points A 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 and B 𝑦1 , 𝑦2
externally in the ratio of m:n is called external division. The formula for internal division is
𝒎𝒙𝟐 − 𝒏𝒙𝟏 𝒎𝒚𝟐 − 𝒏𝒚𝟏
𝒙, 𝒚 = ,
𝒎−𝒏 𝒎−𝒏
Example 1

Find the point which divides the line segment joining the points (3 , 5) and (8 , 10)
internally in the ratio 2 : 3.

Solution Let A (3 ,5) and B (8 ,10) be the given points.

Let the point P(x,y) divide the line AB internally in the ratio 2 :3.

By section formula,
𝑚𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑦1
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
2 8 + 3(3) 2 10 + 3(5)
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
2+3 2+3

152
 16 + 9 20 + 15
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
5 5
25 35
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
5 5
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = 5,7

Example 2

Find the point which divides the line segment joining the points (2 , 1) and (3 , 5) externally
in the ratio 2 : 3.

Solution Let A (2,1) and B (3,5) be the given points.

Let the point P(x,y) divide the line AB externally in the ratio 2 :3.

By section formula,
𝑚𝑥2 − 𝑛𝑥1 𝑚𝑦2 − 𝑛𝑦1
𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
𝑚−𝑛 𝑚−𝑛
2 3 − 3(2) 2 5 − 3(1)
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
2−3 2−3

6 − 6 10 − 3
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
−1 −1
0 7
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = ,
−1 −1
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0, −7

Midpoint

In geometry, the midpoint is the middle point of a line segment. It is equidistant from
both endpoints, and it is the centriod both of the segment and of the endpoints. It bisects the
segment.

𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 +𝒚𝟐
(x,y) = ,
𝟐 𝟐

Example 3

Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (3,0) and (-1,4)

153
Solution

Midpoint M(x , y) of the line segment joining the points (𝑥1 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 𝑦2 )

𝑥 1 +𝑥 2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
M(x,y) = ,
2 2

∴ Mid- point of the line segment joining the points (3, 0) and (-1, 4) is

3+(−1) 0+4
M(x,y) = ,
2 2

2 4
M(x,y) = , = M(1,2)
2 2

Centroid of a triangle

The centroid of the triangle whose vertices is 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑥2 𝑦2 and 𝑥3 𝑦3 is

𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟏 +𝒚𝟐 +𝒚𝟑

(x,y)= ,
𝟑 𝟑

Example 4

Find the co –ordinates of the centriod of the triangle whose vertices are (3,2) , (-1,-4)

and (-5,6)

𝑥 1 +𝑥 2 +𝑥 3 𝑦1 +𝑦2 +𝑦3
(x,y)= ,
3 3

3+ −1 +(−5) 2+(−4)+6
(x,y)= ,
3 3

−3 4
(x,y)= ,
3 3

4
(x,y)= -1 ,
3

154
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2 ) be any two points in the plane. We shall now find the distance between
these two points.
y B (x2, y2)
Let P and Q be the foot of the perpendiculars from A and B to the
x-axis respectively. AR is drawn perpendicular to BQ. From the x
x
diagram, A(x1, y1) x y2- y1
R
AR = PQ = OQ - OP = x2- x1

and
x‘ O P Q
BR = BQ - RQ = y2- y1 x2- x1 x
From right angle ARB
2 2 2
AB = AR +RB = (x2- x1) + (y2- y1) 2 2
y‘ {
∴ AB = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

Hence the distance between the points A and B is

AB = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

Example 5

Find the distance between the points ( -4, 0) and (3, 0)

Solution The points (-4, 0) and (3, 0) lie on the x-axis. Hence

d= 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

AB = 3 − −4 2 + 0−0 2

AB = 7 2 + 0 2

AB = 49

AB = 7

Example 6

Show that the three points (4, 2), (7, 5) and (9, 7) lie on a straight line.

155
Solution

Let the points be A (4, 2), B (7, 5) and C (9, 7). By the distance formula

AB2= (4-7)2+ (2-5)2 = (-3)2 + (-3)2 = 9+9 = 18

BC2= (9-7)2+ (7-5)2 = (2)2 + (2)2 = 4+4 = 8

AC2= (9-4)2+ (7-2)2 = (5)2 + (5)2 = 25+25= 50

So, AB = 18 = 9 × 2 = 3 2 ; BC = 8 = 4 × 2 = 2 2 ;

CA= 50 = 25 × 2 = 5 2

This gives AB+ BC = 3 2 + 2 2 = 5 2

Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.

Example 7

Determine whether the points are vertices of a right triangle

A (–3, –4), B (2, 6) and C (–6, 10)

Solution Using the distance formula d = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

AB2= (2- -3)2+ (6 - -4)2 = (5)2 + (10)2 = 25+100 = 125

BC2= (-6-2)2+ (10-6)2 = (-8)2 + (4)2 = 64+16 = 80

AC2= (-6 - -3)2+ (10- -4)2 = (-3)2 + (14)2 = 9+196= 205

∴ AB2 + BC2 = 125 + 80 = 205 = CA2

Hence ABC is a right angled triangle since the square of one side is equal to sum of the

squares of the other two sides.

Example 8

Show that the points (a, a), (- a, - a) and(- 𝑎 3 , 𝑎 3 ) form an equilateral triangle.

Solution

Let the points be represented by A= (a, a), B= (- a, - a) and C= (- 𝑎 3 , 3 ) Using the

distance formula

d= 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

AB = −𝑎 − 𝑎 2 + −𝑎 − 𝑎 2

156
 = −2𝑎 2 + −2𝑎 2

= 4 𝑎2 + 4 𝑎2

= 8𝑎2 = 2 2𝑎

2 2
BC= −𝑎 3 − −𝑎 + 𝑎 3 −− 𝑎

2 2
= −𝑎 3 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 3+𝑎

= 3𝑎2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎2 3 + 3𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 3

8𝑎2 = 2 2𝑎

2 2
AC= 𝑎 − −𝑎 3 + 𝑎−𝑎 3

= 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 3 + 3𝑎2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎2 3 + 3𝑎2

= 8𝑎2 = 2 2𝑎

∴ AB = BC= AC
Since all the sides are equal the points form an equilateral triangle

Example 9

Prove that the points (–7, –3), (5, 10), (15, 8) and (3, –5) taken in order are the corners

of a parallelogram.

Solution

Let A, B, C and D represent the points (-7, -3), (5, 10), (15, 8) and (3, -5) respectively.

Using the distance formula d = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

AB2= (5- -7)2+ (10 - -3)2 = (12)2 + (13)2 = 144+169 = 313

BC2= (15-5)2+ (8-10)2 = (10)2 + (-2)2 = 100+4 = 104

CD2= (3-15)2+ (-5- 15)2 = (-12)2 + (-13)2 = 144+196= 313

157
DA2=(3--7)2+ (-5--3)2 = (10)2 + (-2)2 = 100+4 = 104

So, AB=CD= 313

BC=DA= 104

i.e,. The opposite sides are equal. Hence ABCD is a parallelogram.

Example 10

Show that the following points (3, –2), (3, 2), (–1, 2) and (–1, –2) taken in order are
vertices of a square.

Solution

Let the vertices be taken as A (3, -2), B (3, 2), C (-1, 2) and D (-1, -2).

AB2= (3-3)2+ (2 - -2)2 = (0)2 + (4)2 = 0+16 = 16

BC2= (3+1)2+ (2-2)2 = (4)2 + (0)2 = 16+0 = 16

CD2= (-1+1)2+ (2+2)2 = (0)2 + (4)2 = 0+16= 16

DA2=(-1-3)2+ (-2--2)2 = (-4)2 + (0)2 = 16+0 = 16

AB = BC = CD = DA = 16 = 4. (That is, all the sides are equal.)

AC2= (-1-3)2+ (2 - -2)2 = (-4)2 + (4)2 = 16+16 = 32

BD2= (-1-3)2+ (-2-2)2 = (-4)2 + (-4)2 = 16+16= 32

AC=BD= 32 =4 2 (that is the diagonals are equal)

Hence the points A,B,C and D form a square .

SLOPE OF A STRAIGHT LINE

The measure of steepness and direction of straight line is given by its slope. Slope is usually
represented by the letter m.

158
In the given figure, if the angle of inclination of the given line with the x- axis is ∅, then then
the slope of the line is represented by tan ∅.

1. Slope of the line joining two points

𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

2. Slope of the line which is parallel to x – axis

𝒚−𝒚
𝒎=
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

𝟎
𝒎=
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

3. Slope of the line which is parallel to y- axis

𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝒙−𝒙
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝟎
4. Slope of the line joining the origin and any point
𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝒙𝟏

5. Slope of the equation

−𝒂
𝒎=
𝒃
a= co–efficient of x

b=co-efficient of y

Example 11

Find the slope of the lines joining the points

(i) (-1,3) and (2,5)

(ii) (-2,-1) and (1,3)

Solution
𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
𝑚=
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏

(i) Let A= (-1,3) and B= (2,5)

159
 𝟓−𝟑
Slope of the line AB = 𝑚 =
𝟐−−𝟏

𝟐
=
𝟑

(iii) Let A= (-2,-1) and B= (1,3)

𝟑−−𝟏
Slope of the line AB = 𝑚 =
𝟏−−𝟐

𝟒
=
𝟑

Example 12

Find the slope of the line joining the points

(i) (-3,2) and (4,2)

(ii) (2,5) and (2,3)

(iii) (0,0) and (1,2)

Solution
𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
𝑚=
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏

(i) Let A= (-3,2) and B=(4,2)

𝟐−𝟐
Slope of the line AB = 𝑚 =
𝟒−−𝟑

𝟎
𝑚 = =0
𝟕

Note: If m= 0, it shows us that the line is parallel to x- axis

(ii) Let A= (2,5) and B=(2,3)

𝟑−𝟓
Slope of the line AB = 𝑚 =
𝟐−𝟐

−𝟐
= =0
𝟎

Note: If m= 0, it shows us that the line is parallel to y- axis

(iv) Let A= (0,0) and B= (1,2)

160
 𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝒙𝟏

𝟐
Slope of the line AB = 𝑚 =
𝟏

𝟐
= =2
𝟏
𝒚
Note : we used 𝒎 = 𝒙𝟏 formula, because line passes from the origin
𝟏

Example 13

Find the slope of the equation of the lines

(i) 2x+5y-4=0

(ii) x-4y=3

(iii) y=x+1

Slope of the equation

−𝒂
𝒎=
𝒃
a= co–efficient of x

b=co-efficient of y

(i) 2x+5y-4=0 a=2 b=5

−𝒂
𝒎=
𝒃
−𝟐
𝒎=
𝟓
(ii) x-4y=3 a=1 b=-4

𝟏
𝒎=
−𝟒
(iii) y=x+1

-x+y=1 a= -1 b=1

− (−𝟏)
𝒎=
𝟏
𝟏
𝒎 = =1
𝟏

161
Example 14

Show that the points (2,-4) (4,-2) and (7,1) are collinear

Solution

Let A= (2,-4) B= (4,-2) and C= (7, 1)

𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
Slope of AB =
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏

−𝟐−(−𝟒)
=
𝟒−𝟐

𝟐
= =1
𝟐
𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏
Slope of BC =
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏

𝟏−(−𝟐)
=
𝟕−𝟒

𝟑
= =1
𝟑

Slope of AB = slope of BC proved

Therefore A,B and C lie on the same line.

Example 15

Find the value of K if the points (K,3) (-6,4) and (-10,5) are collinear.

Let A= (K,3), B= (-6,4) and C= (-10,5)

When A,B and C are collinear

Slope of AB = slope of BC

𝟒−𝟑 𝟓−𝟒
=
−𝟔−𝑲 −𝟏𝟎−(—𝟔)

𝟏 𝟏
=
−𝟔−𝑲 −𝟒

(cross multiplying)

-6- K= - 4

-K = - 4 + 6

162
- K=2

K= - 2

Example 16

Show that the line joining the points (-2 , 3) and (4 , 2) is parallel to the line joining the
points (3,4) and (- 3 , 5)

Solution

Let A= (-2 , 3) and B= (4 , 2)

C= (3,4) and D= (- 3 , 5)

𝑦2 −𝑦1 2−3 −1 1
Slope of AB = = m1= = =-
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1 4−(−2) 6 6

𝑦2 −𝑦1 5−6 1 1
Slope of CD = = m2= = =-
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1 −3−3 −6 6

m1= m2 proved

Hence the line AB is parallel to the line CD

Example 17

If the line joining the points (3,2) and (2,-3) is parallel to the line joining the points (4,3)

and (2,k). Find the K value

Solution

Let A= (3,2) and B= (2,-3)

C= (4,3) and D= (2,K)

Slope of AB = Slope of CD

−3 − 2 𝐾 − 3
=
2−3 2−4
−5 𝐾 − 3
=
−1 −2
(cross multiplying)
10 = −𝐾 + 3
10-3=-K
- K= 7

K=-7

163
Example 18

Show that the line joining the points (3,- 4) and (2,1) is perpendicular to the line joining the
points (-2 , 2) and (3,3)

Let A= (3,- 4) and B= (2,1)

C= (-2 , 2) and D= (3,3)

𝑦2 −𝑦1 1−(−4) 5
Slope of AB = = m1= = =-5
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1 2−3 −1

𝑦2 −𝑦1 3−2 1
. Slope of CD = = m2= =
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1 3−(−2) 5

m1 ×m2 = −1
1 −5
−5 × = = -1 proved
5 5

Hence the line AB is perpendicular to the line CD.

Example 19

If the lines joining the points (-3, 4) and (2,-3) is perpendicular to the line joining the points
(3,K) and (2, -3). Find the value of K.

Let A= (-3, 4) and B= (2,-3)

C= (3,K) and D= (2, -3)

𝑦2 −𝑦1 −3−4 −7
Slope of AB = = m1= =
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1 2−(−3) 5

−7
× m2= −1
5

−5
m2= −1 ×
7
5
m2=
7

𝑦2 −𝑦1 5
. Slope of CD = = m2=
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1 7

5 −3−𝐾
=
7 2−3

164
5 −3−𝐾
=
7 −1

(Cross multiplying)

-5= -21-7K

-5+21= -7K

16= -7K
−16
K=
7

EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINE

(i) If a line is at a distance a and parallel to x-axis, then the equation of the line is y = ± a.

(ii) If a line is parallel to y-axis at a distance b from y-axis then its equation is x = ± b

(iii) Point-slope form : The equation of a line having slope m and passing through the

point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is given by 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 = m(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )

(iv) Two-point-form : The equation of a line passing through two points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥2 , 𝑦2 is given by
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

(v) Slope intercept form : The equation of the line making an intercept c on y-axis and

having slope m is given by

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Note that the value of c will be positive or negative as the intercept is made on the
positive or negative side of the y-axis, respectively

(vi) Intercept form : The equation of the line making intercepts a and b on x- and yaxis

respectively is given by
𝒙 𝒚
+ =𝟏
𝒂 𝒃
General equation of a line

Any equation of the form Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are simultaneously not zero, is
called the general equation of a line.

165
Example 20
1
Find the equation to the line with slope and y intercepts 4
3

Slope – intercept
1
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄 m= c= 4
3

1
𝒚= 𝒙+𝟒
3
𝑥 + 12
𝒚=
3
3y= x+12

-x+3y= 12

-x+3y-12=0

Example 21
1
Find the equation to the line which passes through (-1,3) and has slope
3

Point – slope form

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 = m(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
1
𝒚−𝟑 = 𝒙— (−𝟏)
3

1
𝒚−𝟑 = 𝒙+𝟏
3

(Cross multiplying)

3y-3=x+1

-x+3y=1+3

-x+3y=4 or

-x+3y-4=0

Example 22

Find the equation to the line joining the points (0,-3) and (-4,-5) (0,-3) and (-4,-5)

Two point form

𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

166
 −5 − −3
𝑦 − −3 = 𝑥−0
−4 − 0
−2
𝑦+3 = 𝑥
−4
1
𝑦+3 = 𝑥
2
2y+6=x

-x+2y+6=0 or -x+2y=-6

Example 23

Find the equation to the line cutting of intercepts -3 and 4 on x and y axis

Two intercepts form

𝒙 𝒚
𝒂
+𝒃=𝟏 a= - 3 and b= 4

𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
−3 4
−4𝑥+3𝑦
=1
12

-4x+3y= 12 or

-4x+3y-12=0

Business Application of Analytical Geometry

Demand and supply

The law of demand states that there is a negative or inverse relationship between the
price and quantity demanded of a commodity over a period of time.

Definition:

Alfred Marshall stated that “the greater the amount sold, the smaller must be the price
at which it is offered, in order that it may find purchasers; or in other words, the amount
demanded increases with a fall in price and diminishes with rise in price”. According to
Ferguson, the law of demand is that the quantity demanded varies inversely with price.

Thus the law of demand states that people will buy more at lower prices and buy less
at higher prices, other things remaining the same. By other things remaining the same, we
mean the following assumptions.

167
 The demand curve slopes downwards mainly due to the law of diminishing marginal
utility. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that an additional unit of a commodity
gives a lesser satisfaction. Therefore, the consumer will buy more only at a lower price. The
demand curve slopes downwards because the marginal utility curve also slopes downwards.

Supply means the goods offered for sale at a price during a specific period of time. It
is the capacity and intention of the producers to produce goods and services for sale at a
specific price.

The supply of a commodity at a given price may be defined as the amount of it which
is actually offered for sale per unit of time at that price.

The law of supply establishes a direct relationship between price and supply. Firms
will supply less at lower prices and more at higher prices. “Other things remaining the same,
as the price of commodity rises, its supply expands and as the price falls, its supply
contracts”.

168
Market Equilibrium

When the supply and demand curves intersect, the market is in equilibrium. This is
where the quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal. The corresponding price is the
equilibrium price or market-clearing price, the quantity is the equilibrium quantity.

Example 24

15 tables are sold when the price is Rs 500 and 25 tables are sold when the price is Rs 400.
What is equation of the demand curve assuming it to be linear?

Let

X= demand Y= price

15 500

25 400

Demand curve points are (15, 500) (25, 400)

X1, Y1 X2, Y2

Equation formula
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

𝟒𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟓
𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓
−𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = −𝟏𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟓

𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = −𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎

10x+y=150+500

10x+y=650

The demand curve equation is 10x+y=650

169
Example 25

When the price is Rs 30 , 100 toys of a particular type are available and when the
price is Rs 50, 150 toys of the same type are available in the market

Let

X= supply Y= price

100 30

150 50

Supply curve points are (100, 30) (150, 50)

X1, Y1 X2, Y2

Equation formula
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

𝟓𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟑𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟑𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎
𝟐
𝒚 − 𝟑𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟓
Cross multiplying

5(y-30) = 2 (x-100)

5y-150=2x-200

-2x+5y= -200+150

-2x+5y= -50 (or)

2x-5y= 50

The supply curve equation is 2x-5y=50

170
Example 26

When the price was Rs 500, 50 Radios were available for sale. When the price
was Rs 600, 75. Radios were available. What is the supply equation assuming that it is
linear. If 100 Radios are made available, what is the expected price per radio?

Let

X= supply Y= price

50 500

75 600

100 ?

Supply curve points are (50, 500) (75, 600)

X1, Y1 X2, Y2

Equation formula
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟓𝟎
𝟕𝟓 − 𝟓𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟓𝟎
𝟐𝟓
𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟓𝟎

𝒚 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎

y = 4x-200+500

y = 4x+300
The supply curve equation is y = 4x+300

When x = 100

y = 4(100)+300

y=700

If 100 Radios are made available the expected price per Radio is Rs 700

171
Example 27

A firm produces 200 units of the product for a total cost of Rs 730 and 500 units of the
product for a total cost of Rs 970.

Assuming the cost curve to be linear, derive the equation of this straight line and use it
to estimate the cost of producing 400 units of the product

Let

X= units Y= cost

200 730

500 970

400 ?

Cost curve points are (200, 730) (500, 970)

X1, Y1 X2, Y2

Equation formula
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

𝟗𝟕𝟎 − 𝟕𝟑𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟕𝟑𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟕𝟑𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝟒
𝒚 − 𝟕𝟑𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝟓
5 𝒚 − 𝟕𝟑𝟎 = 4 𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎

5y-3650= 4x-800

-4x+5y=-800+3650

-4x+5y=2850

The cost curve equation is -4x+5y=2850

When x=400

-4(400)+5y=2850

-1600+5y= 2850

172
5y=2850+1600

5y=4450

𝟒𝟒𝟓𝟎
Y=
𝟓

Y=890

Example 28

The total expenses (y) of a mess are partly constant and partly proportional to the
number of members (x) of the mess. The total expenses are Rs 1040 when there are 12
members in the mess and Rs 1600 when there are 20 members. Find (i) the linear relationship
between y and x and (ii) the constant expenses and the variable expenses per member.

Let

X= supply Y= price

12 1040

20 1600

Equation points are (12, 1040) (20, 1600)

X1, Y1 X2, Y2

Equation formula
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐
𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐
𝟓𝟔𝟎
𝒚 − 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎 = 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐
𝟖
𝒚 − 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐

𝒚 − 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟎 = 𝟕𝟎𝒙 − 𝟖𝟒𝟎

y=70x-840+1040

y= 70x+200

(i) The linear relationship of y and x is y =70x+200

(ii) Constant expenses is Rs 200

(iii)Variable expenses per member is Rs 70

173
Exercises

1. Find the point which divides the line segment joining the points (5 , 2) and (7 , 9)
internally in the ratio 2 : 7.
𝟒𝟗 𝟑𝟐
Answer = ,
𝟗 𝟗

2. Find the point which divides the line segment joining the points (4 , 7) and (1 , 2)
externally in the ratio 3 : 2.

Answer = (─5,─8)

3. Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the points (2,-2) and (-1,4)

𝟏
Answer = ,𝟏
𝟐,

4. Find the co –ordinates of the centriod of the triangle whose vertices are (2,5) , (5,2) and
(6,6)
𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟔
Answer = ,
𝟑 𝟑

5. Find the distance between the points ( 0, 4) and (6, 8)

Answer = 𝟓𝟐

6. Determine whether the points are vertices of a right angled triangle (0,3),(-2,1),(-1,4)

Answer: 𝑨𝑩𝟐 = 𝟖, 𝑩𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝑨𝑪𝟐 = 𝟐

7. Show that the points (4, -4), (- 4, 4) and(4 3 , 4 3 ) form an equilateral triangle.

Answer: 𝑨𝑩 = 𝟖 𝟐, 𝑩𝑪 = 𝟖 𝟐, 𝑨𝑪 = 𝟖 𝟐

8. Prove that the points (–2, –1), (1, 0), (4, 3) and (1, 2) taken in order are the corners

of a parallelogram.

Answer: 𝑨𝑩𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝑩𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖, 𝑪𝑫𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝑨𝑫𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖

𝑨𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝑪𝟐 ≠ 𝑨𝑪𝟐 𝑩𝑬𝑪𝑨𝑼𝑺𝑬 𝑨𝑪𝟐 = 𝟓𝟐

9. Show that the following points (3, 2), (5, 4), (3, 6) and (1, 4) taken in order are vertices
of a square.

Answer: 𝑨𝑩𝟐 = 𝟖, 𝑩𝑪𝟐 = 𝟖, 𝑪𝑫𝟐 = 𝟖, 𝑨𝑫𝟐 = 𝟖

𝑨𝑩𝟐 + 𝑩𝑪𝟐 = 𝑨𝑪𝟐 𝑩𝑬𝑪𝑨𝑺𝑼𝑺𝑬 𝑨𝑪𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔

174
10. Find the slope of the line joining the points

i. (3>2)> (-3>1)

ii. (3>-1)>(-2>0)

iii. (-2>-1)>(5>7)

−𝟏 𝟏 𝟖
Answer: (i) (ii) (iii)
−𝟔 −𝟓 𝟕

11. Show that the points (3,-2) (-1,1) and (-5,4) are collinear
𝟑 𝟑
Answer: slope of AB= −𝟒 and slope BC = −𝟒

12. Show that the line joining the points (-3,1) and (3 , 4) is parallel to the line joining the
points (5,1) and (1 , -1)
𝟏 𝟏
Answer: slope of AB= 𝟐 and slope BC = 𝟐

13. Show that the line joining the points (2,3) and (4,2) is perpendicular to the line joining
the points (5 , 3) and (6,5)
−𝟏 𝟐
Answer: slope of AB= and slope BC = 𝟏
𝟐

175
 ALGEBRA

Algebraic Expressions

Algebraic expressions are made up of terms like integral or fractional constants,

variables and the algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
between them. However, there can be one or any number of terms forming the expression.
Moreover, the terms may be like or unlike terms.

Variables, Constants and Coefficients

Variable

A quantity which can take various numerical values is known as a variable (or a
literal). Variables can be denoted by using the letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.

Constant

A quantity which has a fixed numerical value is called a constant.

12
For example, 3, ─ 25, 13 and 8.9 are constants.

Term

A term is a constant or a variable or a product of a constant and one or more variables.

Example

3x2, 6x, ─ 5 are called the terms of the expression 3x2+6x ─ 5

In the expression 3x2+6x ─ 5 the terms are 3x2, 6x and ─ 5. The number of terms is 3.

Coefficient

The coefficient of a given variable or factor in a term is another factor whose product
with the given variable or factor is the term itself.

If the coefficient is a constant, it is called a constant coefficient or a numerical

Coefficient.

Example

In the term 5xy,

coefficient of xy is 5 (numerical coefficient),

coefficient of 5x is y,

coefficient of 5y is x.

176
 Depending on the number of terms forming an expression, the algebraic expressions
are categorised into the following:

 Monomials

 Binomials

 Trinomials

 Polynomials

Monomial:

An Algebraic expression that contains only one term is called a monomial.

𝟏 𝟓
Example: , 3x, -3x2, 81xyz, 𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒃 etc.....
𝟑

Binomial:

An Algebraic expression that contains only two terms is called a binomial.

Example: x+y , 4a-3b,2-3x2y,l2-7m etc.

Trinomial :

An Algebraic expression that contains only three terms is called a trinomial.

Example: x+y+z, 2a-3b+4 , x2y+y2z-z etc ....

Polynomial :

An expression containing a finite number of terms with non-zero coefficient is called

a polynomial. In other words, it is an expression containing a finite number of terms with the
combination of variables, whole number exponents of variables and constants.

Example: a+b+c+d, 7xy, 3abc-10, 2x+3y-5z , 3x5+4x4-3x3+72x+5 etc.

Degree of the Polynomial:

The monomials in the polynomial are called the terms. The highest power of the
terms is the degree of the polynomial. The coefficient of the highest power of x in a
polynomial is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial.

Example: 2x5+4x4-3x3+2x2+72x+5 is a polynomial in x. Here we have six monomials 2x5,

+4x4, -3x3, +2x2, +72x and 5 which are called the terms of the polynomial.

Degree of the polynomial is 5.

The leading coefficient of the polynomial is 2

177
Standard form of the polynomial

A polynomial is in standard form when all the terms are written in order of
descending powers of the variables.

Example: 2+9x-9x2+2x4-6x3

Now we write the polynomial in the standard form as 2x4-6x3-9x2+9x+2.

Like terms and Unlike terms

Terms having the same variable or product of variables with same powers are called
Like terms. Terms having different variable or product of variables with different powers are
called Unlike terms.

Example

(i) x, -5x, 9x are like terms as they have the same variable x

(ii) 4x2 y, 7yx2 - are like terms as they have the same variable x2 y

Example

(i) 6x, 6y are unlike terms

(ii) 3xy2, 5xy, 8x, 10y - are unlike terms.

Addition and subtraction of expressions

Adding and subtracting like terms

Already we have learnt about like terms and unlike terms.

The basic principle of addition is that we can add only like terms.

To find the sum of two or more like terms, we add the numerical coefficient of the
like terms. Similarly, to find the difference between two like terms, we find the difference
between the numerical coefficients of the like terms.

There are two methods in finding the sum or difference between the like terms
namely,

(i) Horizontal method

(ii) Vertical method

(i) Horizontal method: In this method, we arrange all the terms in a horizontal line and then
add or subtract by combining the like terms

178
Only like or similar terms can be added or subtracted.

Add 2x and 5x.

Solution:

2x + 5x = (2 + 5) × x

= 7 × x = 7x

(ii) Vertical method:

In this method, we should write the like terms vertically and then add or subtract.

Add 4a and 7a.

Solution: 4a
+7a
______
11 a
______

(i) Subtract - 2xy from 9xy.

9xy
─2xy (+ change the sign)
______
11xy
______
Addition and subtraction of polynomial expressions

To find the sum of two or more like terms, we add the numerical coefficient of the
like terms. Similarly, to find the difference between two like terms, we find the difference
between the numerical coefficients of the like terms.

Problem 1: Add 2x+3 with 3x+5

Answer (2x+3)+( 3x+5)

=2x+3+3x+5

=5X+8

Problem 2: Add 5x2-6 with 3x2-5

Answer (5x2-6)+( 3x2-5)

179
 = 5x2-6+3x2-5

=8x2-11

Problem 3 subtract 3x+5 from 2x+3

Answer (2x+3)-( 3x+5)

=2x+3-3x+5

= -x-2

Problem 4 subtract 3x2-5 from 5x2-6

Answer (5x2-6)-(3x2-5)

=5x2-6-3x2-5

=2x2-1

Polynomial multiplication is a process for multiplying together two or more polynomials. We

can perform polynomial multiplication by applying the distributive property to the multiplication
of polynomials.

To multiply two polynomials with each other, take the terms of the first polynomial and
distribute them over the second polynomial.

(a+b) (c+d)= a(c+d)+b(c+d)= ac+ad+bc+bd

Alternatively, distribute the terms of the second polynomial:

(a+b) (c+d)= (a+b)c+(a+b)d=ac+bc+ad+bd

Although the terms are in slightly different order, these two results are the same.

Problem 5 Multiply (3x2-7x+5) × (-4x3)

(3x2-7x+5) × (-4x3)= (-4x3×3x2)+( -4x3×(-7x)) +(-4x3×5)

= -12x5+28x4+(-20x3)

=-12x5+28x4-20x3

Problem 6 Multiply (2x+3) × (3x-5)

(2x+3) × (3x-5) = [2x×3x]+[2x (-5)]+[3×3x]+[3x(-5)]

= 6x2+(-10x)+9x+(-15)

=6x2-10x+9x-15

=6x2-x-15

180
Polynomial Division

Polynomial long division is a method/technique by which we can divide a polynomial

by another polynomial of the same or a lower degree.
Division of a polynomial (ax2+bx+c) by another polynomial (dx + e) can be expressed
in the form:

𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥 +𝑐
𝑑𝑥 +𝑒

Where a,b,c,d and e are any constant values.

The polynomial on the top is called the "numerator" whereas the polynomial on the
bottom is termed as "denominator". These terms are useful to remember, as we will use
them frequently in the coming text. (Note: Remember denominator from down).

While dividing using Long Division method, we write the numerator and the
denominator like this:

Problem 7 Divide (-4x3) from (-12x5+28x4-20x3)

−12𝑥 5 +28𝑥 4 −20𝑥 3 −12𝑥 5 28𝑥 4 20𝑥 3

Answer = = + 3 −
−4𝑥 3 −4𝑥 3 −4𝑥 −4𝑥 3

= 3x2-7x+5

Factors of Algebraic Expressions:

If algebraic expressions is expressed as the product of numbers, algebraic variables or

algebraic expressions, then each of these numbers and expressions is called the factor of
algebraic expressions.

Problem 8 Find the factors of 7x

7x= 7 × x = 7x

=7, x

181
The factors of 7 and X

Problem 9 Find the factors of 3x-6y

3x-6y= 3(x-2y)

= 3, (x-2y)

Problem 10 Find the factors of 2x3+6x2+4x

2x3+6x2+4x= 2x(x2+3x+x)

x2+3x+2= x2+2x+x+2

=x(x+2)+1(x+2)

= (x+2) (x+1)

2x3+6x2+4x= (2x) (x+2) (x+1)

EQUATIONS

The equation is an expression where two sides of the expression are connected
through an equal to sign (=). 2x+1=9 is an equation, where 2x+1 is the left-hand side (LHS)
and 9 is the right-hand side (RHS) of the expression. The equal sign between LHS and RHS
indicates that the value of LHS is equal to the RHS of the expression.

10x+63>10, is not an equation. Here, the sign between LHS and RHS of the
expression is not an equal sign. Hence, we can say every expression is not an equation.

Some other examples of algebraic equations are, 8m+5=10n, a+4b=12c+3 .

NOTE: An equation is interchangeable i.e. the equation remains same even if LHS and RHS
interchange each other.

Equations 8m+5=10n and 10n= 8m+5 are same.

Linear equation

Equations having one variable and the degree of the variable being one is known as a
linear equation in one variable. It can be represented by a line parallel to one specific axis. As
the number of variables increases, it becomes a linear equation in two variables which
becomes more complex. A linear equation in two variables is represented by a line in the
cartesian plane varying according to the coefficients of the variable terms.

182
 The standard form of a linear equation in two variables is represented as Where a and
b are real numbers, and both a and b are not equal to zero. Every linear equation in one
variable has a unique solution.

Both sides of the equation are supposed to be balanced for solving a linear equation.
Equality sign denotes that the expressions on either side of the „equal to‟ sign are equal. Since
the equation is balanced, for solving it certain mathematical operations are performed on
both sides of the equation in a manner that it does not affect the balance of the equation.

Problem 11 solve 3x+6=0

3x=-6
−6
X= 3 = -2
𝑥
Problem 12 solve +1=5
2

𝑥
=5−1
2

𝑥
=4
2

𝑥 4
= 1 (Cross multiplying)
2

X=8
𝑥 𝑥
Problem 13 solve 3 + 5 = 8

5𝑥+3𝑥
=8 (taking L.C.M)
15

5x+3x=120

8x=120
120
X= 8

X= 15
𝑥+2 𝑥−3
Problem 14 solve =
4 3

𝑥+2 𝑥−3
= (Cross multiplying)
4 3

3 𝑥 + 2 = 4(𝑥 − 3)

3𝑥 + 6 = 4𝑥 − 12

4𝑥 − 3𝑥 = −12 − 6

183
 −𝑥 = −18

𝑥 = 18
𝑥 3
Problem 15 solve −2 = 5𝑥 +4
2

𝑥 3
Answer −5 =4+2
2

5𝑥−6𝑥
=6
10

5𝑥 − 6𝑥 = 60

−𝑥 = 60

𝑥 = −60
4 3
Problem 16 solve = 𝑥−3
𝑥+2

4 3
Answer = 𝑥−3 (Cross multiplying)
𝑥+2

4 𝑥 − 3 = 3(𝑥 + 2)

4𝑥 − 12 = 3𝑥 + 6

4𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 6 + 12

𝑥 = 18
𝑥−3 2𝑥+1
Problem 17 solve + =3
𝑥−1 𝑥−2

Answer Multiplying both sides by (x-1) (x-2)

𝑥−3 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 2𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−2
+ =3 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2
𝑥−1 𝑥−2

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6 + 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 = 3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6 + 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 1 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 3𝑥 = 6 + 1 − 6

3𝑥 = 1
1
𝑥=3

184
Simultaneous equations

Simultaneous equations are that equations in which the number of equations must be
equal to the number of unknowns. It is used to find the values of unknowns.

Elimination method

In this method, we may combine equations of a system in such a manner as to get rid
of one of the unknowns. The elimination of one unknown can be achieved in the following
ways.

(i) Multiply or divide the members of the equations by such numbers as to make the
coefficients of the unknown to be eliminated numerically equal.
(ii) Then, eliminate by addition if the resulting coefficients have unlike signs and by
subtraction if they have like signs.

Substitution method

If two (or more) equations have the same variables and the same solutions then they
are simultaneous equations. For example, these equations are simultaneous equations:

x + y = 3 and

2x + 3y = 8

because both have the same variables: „x‟ and „y‟, and the same solutions: x = 1, y = 2

Substituting x = 1 and y = 2 into both equations, they BOTH give correct answers:

1 + 2 = 3 and

2´1 + 3´2 = 8

Thus: x = 1 and y = 2 are the solutions to both equations.

'Solving' simultaneous equations means finding the values of 'x' and 'y' that make
them true. The following steps will demonstrate how to solve simultaneous equations by
the substitution method.

We will use the example equations above to demonstrate the procedure...

(1) Isolate one of the variables ( ‘x’ ) on one side of one of the equations:

x+y=3

Isolating „x‟:

x =3-y

185
(2) Substitute for the isolated variable in the other equation:

2x + 3y = 8

Substituting 3 - y for „x‟:

2(3 - y) + 3y = 8

This equation has only one variable, so we can solve it.

(3) Solve this equation for the other variable, ‘y’:

2(3 - y) + 3y = 8

Expanding the brackets:

6 - 2y + 3y = 8

Simplifying:

6+y=8

Subtracting 6 from both sides:

y=2

(4) Substitute the known value of ‘y’ into the equation for ‘x’ derived in step 1:

x =3-y

Substituting 2 for ‘y’:

x =3-2

Therefore:

x=1

Problem 18 solve the equation

x- 2y=1

2x+y=-3

Solution

Method of Elimination

x- 2y=1 ---------------(1)

2x+y=-3---------------(2)

186
(1) ×1 x - 2y =1

(2) ×2 4x+2y = -6 (+)

__________________________

(1)+(2) 5x = -5

__________________________
−5
𝑥= ; x= -1
5

Substituting x= -1 in (1)

x-2y=1

-1-2y=1

-2y=1+1

-2y=2

2
𝑦= = −1
−2

Method of Substitution

x- 2y=1 ---------------(1)

2x+y=-3---------------(2)

x- 2y=1

x=1+2y

Substituting x=1+2y in (2)

2x+y=-3---------------(2)

2(1+2y)+y=-3

2+4y+y=-3

2+5y=-3

5y=-3-2

5y=-5

−5
𝑦= = −1
5

187
Substituting y= -1 in (1)

x- 2y=1

x- 2(-1)=1

x+2=1

x=1-2

x=-1

Problem 19 Solve the following equation

4x-3y-1=0

2x-5y+3=0

4x-3y=1---------------------(1)
2x-5y=-3--------------------(2)
(1) ×1 4x- 3y = 1
(2) ×2 4x-10y=-6 (-)
_____________________________
(1)-(2) 7y=7
_____________________________

7
𝑦= =1
7

𝑦=1

Substituting y= 1 in (1)

4x-3y=1

4x-3(1)=1

4x-3=1

4x=1+3

4x=4
4
𝑥= =1
4

𝑥=1

188
Method of substitution

4x-3y=1---------------------(1)

2x-5y=-3--------------------(2)

4x-3y=1---------------------(1)

4x-3y=1

4x=1+3y
1 3𝑦
𝑥= +
4 4
1 3𝑦
Substituting 𝑥 = + in (2)
4 4

2x-5y=-3--------------------(2)

2(14 + 3𝑦4 )-5y=-3

2 6𝑦
+ − 5𝑦 = −3
4 4
2 + 6𝑦 − 20𝑦
= −3
4
2−14𝑦
= −3 (cross multiplication)
4

2 − 14𝑦 = −12

−14𝑦 = −12 − 2

−14𝑦 = −14

−14
𝑦= =1
−14

Substituting y= 1 in (1)

4x-3y=1

4x-3(1)=1

4x-3=1

4x=1+3

4x=4
4
𝑥= =1
4

189
𝑥=1

𝑥 𝑦
Problem 20 solve +3=5
2

𝑥 𝑦
−3=7
4

𝑥 𝑦
+ =5
2 3
3𝑥 + 2𝑦
=5
6
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 30------------------------------(1)
𝑥 𝑦
− =7
4 3
3𝑥 − 4𝑦
=7
12
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 84------------------------------(2)

3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 30
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 84 (-)
__________________________________
6y = -54 (1) - (2)
___________________________________
−54
𝑦= = −9
6
𝑦 = −9

Substituting y= -9 in (1)

3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 30

3𝑥 + 2(−9) = 30

3𝑥 − 18 = 30

3𝑥 = 30 + 18

3𝑥 = 48
48
𝑥= = 16
3

190
Problem 21

Solve 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 11

3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −3

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 11----------------(1)

3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4------------------(2)

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −3-----------------(3)

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 11-------------------------(1)
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4---------------------------(2) (1) + (2) (z eliminated )
_________________________________________
𝟓𝒙 + 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓-------------------------(4)
_________________________________________

(1) ×2= 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 22
(3) ×1= 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −3 (1) + (2) (z eliminated)
____________________________________
𝟓𝒙 + 𝟕𝒚 = 𝟏𝟗-------------------(5)
______________________________________

5𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 15 (4)
5𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 19 (5)
____________________________________
−2𝑦 = −4 (4)-(5)
______________________________________
−4
𝑦= =2
−2
𝑦=2

Substituting y= 2 in (4)

5𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 15

5𝑥 + 5(2) = 15

191
5𝑥 + 10 = 15

5𝑥 = 15 − 10

5𝑥 = 5
5
𝑥= =1
5
𝑥=1

Substituting y= 2 and x=1 in (1)

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 11

2(1) + 3(2) + 𝑧 = 11

2 + 6 + 𝑧 = 11

8 + 𝑧 = 11

𝑧 = 11 − 8

𝑧=3

Quadratic equation

In math, we define a quadratic equation as an equation of degree 2, meaning that

the highest exponent of this function is 2. The standard form of aquadratic is y = ax2 + bx +
c, where a, b, and c are numbers and a cannot be 0. Examples of quadratic
equations include all of these: y = x2 + 3x + 1.

A Quardratic equation is one in which the highest index is 2. It may have i) One variable and
ii) Two Variable

Example :

x2+7x+8=0 - One variable

x2+2y+y2=12 - Two variable

Factorization method

Factorization method can be used when the quadratic equation can be factorized into
linear factors. Given a product, if any factor is zero, then the whole product is zero.
Conversely, if a product is equal to zero, then some factor of that product must be zero, and
any factor which contains an unknown may be equal to zero. Thus, in solving a quadratic
equation, we find the values of x which make each of the factors zero. That is, we may equate
each factor to zero and solve for the unknown.

192
Formula method

Quadratic formula is the solution of the quadratic equation. In this method, the
roots of a quadratic equation are evaluated by using this direct formula.

For example, ax2+bx+c=0is a quadratic equation in standard form and the

solution of this quadratic equation is given below

−𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

Problem 22: Solve x2+5x+6=0

Factorisation Method

x2+5x+6=0

1x6=6

Factors of 6; Sum of factors

1x6 1+6=7

6x1 6+1=7

2x3 2+3=5

3x2 3+2=5

x2+2x+3x+6=0

x(x+2) + 3(x+2) = 0

(x+2) (x+3)

(x+2)=0 (x+3)=0

X= −2 X= −3

Quadratic formula Method

x2+5x+6=0

a=1; b=5; c=6

−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎

−5+ 52 −4×1×6 −5− 52 −4×1×6

𝑥= 2×1
𝑥= 2×1

−5+ 25−24 −5− 25−24

𝑥= 2
𝑥= 2

193
 −5+ 1 −5− 1
𝑥= 𝑥=
2 2

−5+1 −5−1
𝑥= 2
𝑥= 2

−4 −6
𝑥= 2
𝑥= 2

𝑥 = −2 𝑥 = −3

Problem 23: solve 2x2+9x+4=0

2x4=8

Factors of 8 Sum of factors

1x8 1+8=9

8x1 8+1=9

2x4 2+4=6

4x2 4+2=6

2x2+8x+x+4=0

2x(x+4)+1(x+4)=0

(x+4) (2x+1)=0

(x+4) =0 (2x+1)=0
−1
X=-4 2x=-1; 𝑥 = 2

Formation of an equation

To form a quadratic equation, let α and β be the two roots. Let us assume that the
required equation be ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0). According to the problem, roots of this equation
are α and β.

Therefore

−𝑏
(α + β) =
𝑎
𝑐
αβ =
𝑎

then (x- α) and (x- β) are the factors of the equation.

Hence

X2─X(x- α) + αβ= 0

194
X2─X(sum of the roots) + product of the roots = 0

Problem 24

From the following equation find

1. The sum of the two roots

2. The product of the two roots

x-5x+2=0

a=1; b=-5; c=2

−𝑏
Sum of the two roots =
𝑎
−(−5)
= =5
1

𝑐
Product of the two roots =
𝑎
2
= =2
1

Problem 25

. From the following equation find

1. The sum of the two roots

2. The product of the two roots

2x2+9x+4=0

a=2; b=9; c=4

−𝑏
Sum of the two roots =
𝑎
−9
= 2

𝑐
Product of the two roots =
𝑎
4
=2=2

Example 26

The sum of the two roots is -2 and their product is -35. Find the equation

195
 −𝑏
Sum of the two roots = = −2
𝑎

−𝑏
= = −2;
1

−𝑏 = −2 ;

𝑏 = 2;

𝑎=1
𝑐
Product of the two roots = = −35
𝑎

𝑐
= −35,
1
𝑐 = −35
The required equation is X2+2x-35=0

Exercises
1. Add (3x2+2x-5) with (8x-7) Answer= 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟏𝟐

2. Subtract (5x2+2x-3) from (8x3+4x2-3x+5) Answer= 𝟖𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟐

3. Multiply (3x-5) × (2x+7) Answer= 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝒙 − 𝟑𝟓

4. Divide (-4x3) from (-12x5+28x4-20x3) Answer= 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟓

5. Find the factors of 7x+14y Answer: 7, (x+2y)

6. Find the factors of 3x2+3x-6 Answer: 3, (x-1), (x+2)

7. solve 5x-10=0 Answer : x=2

𝑥 𝑥
8. solve 2 + 7 = 9 Answer : x=14

𝑥+3 𝑥−4
9. solve = Answer : x=18
3 2

10. solve the equation

3x- 4y=-5

4x+5y=45

Answer: x=5 and y =5

196
11. solve the equation

3x-y=1

x-2y=-3

Answer: x=1 and y =2

12. Solve 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 15

𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 12

3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 9

Answer: x=4, y =2 and z= ─1

13. Solve x2+8x+15=0 by two methods

Answer: x=─3 or x =─5

14. solve 3x2+8x+4=0 by two methods

−𝟐
Answer: x= or x =─2
𝟑

197
 INDICES

Introduction

We are aware of certain operations of addition and multiplication and now we take up certain higher
order operations with powers and roots under the respective heads of indices.

We know that the result of a repeated addition can be held by multiplication e.g.

4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 5(4) =
20 a + a + a + a + a = 5(a)
= 5a

Now, 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 45; a × a × a × a × a = a5.

It may be noticed that in the first case 4 is multiplied 5 times and in the second case „a‟ is multiplied 5
times. In all such cases a factor which multiplies is called the “base” and the number of times it is
multiplied is called the “power” or the “index”. Therefore, “4” and “a” are the bases and “5” is the
index for both. Any base raised to the power zero is defined to be 1; i.e. ao = 1. We also define
1
𝑟
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟

If n is a positive integer, and „a‟ is a real number, i.e. n ∈ N and a ∈ R (where N is the set of
positive integers and R is the set of real numbers), „a‟ is used to denote the continued product
of n factors each equal to „a‟ as shown below:

an = a × a × a ………….. to n factors.

Here an is a power of “a“ whose base is “a“ and the index or power is “n“.

For example, in 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 34 , 3 is base and 4 is index or power.

Law of indices

Law 1

am × an = am+n

198
when m and n are positive integers; by the above definition, am = a × a ………….. to m
factors and an = a × a ………….. to n factors.

∴ am × an = (a × a ………….. to m factors) × (a × a ……….. to n factors)

= a × a ………….. to (m + n) factors
m+n
=a

Now, we extend this logic to negative integers and fractions. First let us consider this
for negative integer that is m will be replaced by –n. By the definition of am × an = am+n , we
get a–n×an = a–n+n = a0 = 1

For example

34 × 3 5 = (3 × 3 × 3 × 3) × (3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3) = 3 4 + 5 = 39

Again, 3–5 = 1/35 = 1/(3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3) = 1/243

Law 2

am/an = am–n

when m and n are positive integers and m > n. By definition, am = a × a ………….. to m factors
𝑎𝑚 𝑎×𝑎……..𝑡𝑜 𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
Therefore 𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = =
𝑎𝑛 𝑎×𝑎……..𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

= a × a ……… to m–n factors

= am–n

Now we take a numerical value for a and check the validity of this Law

27 2 × 2 … … . . 𝑡𝑜 7 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
27 ÷ 24 = =
24 2 × 2 … … . . 𝑡𝑜 4 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

= 2 × 2 × 2 ……….. to (7–4) factors.

= 2 × 2 × 2 ……….. to 3 factors

= 23 = 8

Or

27 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
27 ÷ 24 = =
24 2×2×2×2

199
 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 21+1+1 = 23

=8

Law 3

𝑎𝑚 𝑛
=. 𝑎𝑚𝑛
where m and n are positive integers

By definition (am)n = am × am × am …….. to n factors

= (a × a …….. to m factors) a × a ×…….. to n factors……..to n times

= a × a …….. to mn factors

= amn

Following above, (am)n = (am)p/q

(We will keep m as it is and replace n by p/q, where p and q are positive integers)

𝑞
Now the qth power of (am)p/q is (𝑎𝑚)𝑝/𝑞

= (am)(p/q)x q
mp
=a

If we take the qth root of the above we obtain

1
𝑞
𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑞 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝

Now with the help of a numerical value for a let us verify this law.

(24)3 = 24 × 24 × 24

= 24+4+4

= 212 = 4096

Law 4
𝑛
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑏 𝑛
when n can take all of the values.

For example 63 = (2 × 3) 3 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 23 × 33

200
 First, we look at n when it is a positive integer. Then by the definition, we have
(ab)n = ab × ab ……………. to n factors

= (a × a ……..……. to n factors) × (b × b …………. n factors)

= an × bn

When n is a positive fraction, we will replace n by p/q.

Then we will have (ab)n = (ab)p/q

The qth power of (ab)p/q = {(ab)(p/q)}q = (ab)p

Example 1

Simplify the following

(i) 𝑋5. 𝑋8

(ii) 23 . 25

(iii) 𝑋5 ÷ 𝑋8

(iv) 35 ÷ 34

(v) 𝑎2 . 𝑏 3 . 𝑐 2

(vi) 53 2

Solution

(i) 𝑋 5 . 𝑋 8 = 𝑋 5+8 =𝑋13

(ii) 23 . 25 = 23+5 =28

1 1
(iii) 𝑋 5 ÷ 𝑋 8 = 𝑋 8−5 = 𝑋 3

(iv) 35 ÷ 34 = 35−4 =31 = 3

(v) 𝑎2 . 𝑏 3 . 𝑐 2
= 𝑎2 2
𝑏3 2
𝑐 2

(vi) 53 2 = 53×2 = 56

Example 2

Find the value with the help of indices rules

(i) 812 .27

201
 256 2
(ii)
64 3

(iii) (27×216)
1296
(iv)
81

(v) 8 × 16 × 32

Solution

(i) 812 .27 = 34 2

. 33

= 38+3

= 311

256 2 44 2
(ii) =
64 3 44 3

48 1 1
= = =
49 4 9−8 4

(iii) (27×216) = (33 × 63 ) = 3 × 6 3

= 18 3
= 5832

1296 64 6 4
(iv) = 4
= = 24 = 16
81 3 3

(v) 8 × 16 × 32 = 23 . 24 . 25 = 23+4+5 = 212

Example 3

Evaluate

(i) 𝟓𝟎 𝟐

(ii) 𝟓𝟐 𝟎

𝟐 𝟎
(iii) 𝟓

(iv) 𝑿𝟎

(v) 𝟐𝑿𝟎

(vi) (𝟐𝑿)𝟎

(vii) 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

Solution

(i) 50 2
= 12 = 1

(ii) 52 0
= 250 = 1

202
 2 0
(iii) 5 = 51 = 5

(iv) 𝑋 0 = 1

(v) 2𝑋 0 = 2×1= 2

(vi) (2𝑋)0 = 20 𝑋 0 =1×1 = 1

(vii) 1000000 = 1

Example 4

Simplify

(i) 73 . 6−3

(ii) 4−5 . 43

(iii) 52 . 42 −3

4−2
(iv) −3
5

1
(v)
3−2

5−2
(vi) −3
5

5−3
(vii) . −2
5

Solution

73 7 3
(i) 73 . 6−3 = 3 =
6 6

1 1 1 1
(ii) 4−5 . 43 = 5 . 3 = = =4−8
4 4 4 5+3 48

(iii) 52 . 42 −3
= 52 −3
42 −3
= 5−6 . 4−6

−6 1
5×4 = 20−6 =
20 6

4−2 1 53 53 125
(iv) = × = =
5−3 42 1 42 16

1 32
(v) −2
= 1× = 32
3 1

203
 5−2
(vi) = 5−2−(−3) = 51 = 5
5−3

5−3 1 1 1
(vii) . = = =
5−2 5 −2−(−3)
51 5

Example 5

𝟕 −𝟐 −𝟑
Simplify -5 𝟒 + 𝟐𝑿𝟐 𝟎
𝟒

7−2 −3
= 4 −2 − 5 4 + 20 × X 2 0

42 5
= 72 − 4 3 + 1 × 1

16 5
= − +1
49 64

Exercises

1. Simplify the following

i. 𝑎4 × 𝑎3 Answer : 𝒂𝟕

ii. 𝑎−3 × 𝑎5 Answer : 𝒂𝟐

𝑎 −3 𝟏
iii. Answer :
𝑎5 𝒂𝟖

𝑎5
iv. Answer : 𝒂𝟖
𝑎 −3

2𝑥 −2 𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟐
v. Answer :
5𝑦 𝟒𝒙𝟐

−2
7𝑥 2 𝟗𝒚𝟐
vi. Answer : 𝟒𝟗𝒙𝟒
−3𝑦

𝟏
vii. 43 −2
Answer : 𝟒𝟔

2. Find the value with the help of indices rules

i. 812 × 27−1 Answer : 𝟑𝟓 = 𝟐𝟒𝟑

256 2
ii. Answer : 𝟐𝟑𝟒
64 −3

𝟐𝟏𝟔
iii. 27−1 × 216 Answer : 𝟐𝟕
=𝟖

204
 MATRIX

Introduction

Sir ARTHUR CAYLEY (1821-1895) of England was the first Mathematician to

introduce the term MATRIX in the year 1858. But in the present day applied Mathematics in
overwhelmingly large majority of cases it is used, as a notation to represent a large number of
simultaneous equations in a compact and convenient manner. Matrix Theory has its
applications in Operations Research, Economics and Psychology. Apart from the above,
matrices are now indispensible in all branches of Engineering, Physical and Social Sciences,
Business Management, Statistics and Modern Control systems.

Definition of a Matrix

A rectangular array of numbers or functions represented by the symbol.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛 is called a matrix.
𝑎𝑚 1 𝑎𝑚 2 𝑎𝑚𝑛
The numbers or functions aij of this array are called elements, may be real or complex
numbers, whereas m and n are positive integers, which denotes the number of Rows and
number of Columns.

For example

1 2 𝑋2 sin 𝑥
A= and B= 1 are the matrices.
3 4 𝑥 𝑥

Order of a Matrix

A matrix A with m rows and n columns is said to be of the order m by n (m x n).

Symbolically

A = (aij)mxn is a matrix of order m x n. The first subscript i in (aij ) ranging from 1 to m

identifies the rows and the second subscript j in (aij) ranging from 1 to n identifies the
columns.

For example
1 2 3
A= is a Matrix of order 2 × 3
4 5 6

205
 1 2
B= is a Matrix of order 2 × 2
2 4
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
C= is a Matrix of order 2 × 2
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1 2 3
D= 4 5 6 is a Matrix of order 3 × 3
7 8 9

Types of Matrices

(i) SQUARE MATRIX

When the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, the matrix is called a
Square Matrix.

1 2
B= is a Matrix of order 2 × 2
2 4
1 2 3
D= 4 5 6 is a Matrix of order 3 × 3
7 8 9
(ii) ROW MATRIX

Amatrix having only one row is called Row Matrix For example

A= (2 0 1) is a row matrix of order 1 x 3

B=(1 0) is a row matrix or order 1 x 2

(iii) COLUMN MATRIX

A matrix having only one column is called Column Matrix. For example

1
𝐴 = 2 is a column matrix of order 3 × 1.
3
2
𝐵= is a column matrix of order 2 × 1.
1
(iv) ZERO OR NULL MATRIX

A matrix in which all elements are equal to zero is called Zero or Null Matrix and is denoted
by O.
0 0
0= is a null matrix of order 2× 2.
0 0

206
 0 0
𝑜 = 0 0 is a null matrix of order 3× 2
0 0
(v) DIAGONAL MATRIX

A square Matrix in which all the elements other than main diagonal elements are zero is
called a diagonal matrix

For example

1 0
A= is a diagonal matrix of order 2 and
0 4
1 0 0
B= 0 5 0 is a diagonal matrix of order 3
0 0 9
(vi) SCALAR MATRIX

A Diagonal Matrix with all diagonal elements equal to K (a scalar) is called a Scalar Matrix.

For example

2 0 0
A= 0 2 0 is a scalar matrix of order 3 and the value of scalar K=2
0 0 2
(vii) UNIT MATRIX OR IDENTITY MATRIX

A scalar Matrix having each diagonal element equal to 1 (unity) is called a Unit Matrix and is
denoted by I.

1 0
𝐼2 = is a unit matrix of order 2
0 1
1 0 0
𝐼3 = 0 1 0 is a unit matrix of order 3
0 0 1
Multiplication of a marix by a scalar

If A = (aij) is a matrix of any order and if K is a scalar, then the Scalar Multiplication
of A by the scalar k is defined as

KA= (Kaij) for all i, j.

In other words, to multiply a matrix A by a scalar K, multiply every element of A by

K.

207
Negative of a matrix

The negative of a matrix A = (aij)mxn is defined by - A = (-aij)mxn for all i, j and is

obtained by changing the sign of every element.

For example

2 −5 7
If A= then
0 5 6
−2 5 −7
−𝐴 =
−0 −5 −6
Equality of matrices

Two matrices are said to equal when

i) They have the same order and

ii) The corresponding elements are equal.

Addition of matrices

Addition of matrices is possible only when they are of same order (i.e., conformal for
addition). When two matrices A and B are of same order, then their sum (A+B) is obtained
by adding the corresponding elements in both the matrices.

Properties of matrix addition

Let A, B, C be matrices of the same order. The addition of matrices obeys the
following

(i) Commutative law: A + B = B + A

(ii) Associative law: A + (B + C)= (A + B) + C

(iii) Distributive law: K (A+B) = KA+KB, where k is scalar.

Subtraction of matrices

Subtraction of matrices is also possible only when they are of same order. Let A and
B be the two matrices of the same order. The matrix A – B is obtained by subtracting the
elements of B from the corresponding elements of A.

Multiplication of matrices

Multiplication of two matrices is possible only when the number of columns of the
first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix (i.e. conformable for
multiplication)

208
 Let A = (aij) be an m x p matrix,

and let B = (bij) be an p x n matrix.

Then the product AB is a matrix C = (cij) of order m x n,

Properties of matrix multiplication

i. Matrix Multiplication is not commutative i.e. for the two matrices A and B, generally
AB BA.

ii. The Multiplication of Matrices is associative i.e., (AB) C = A(BC)

iii. Matrix Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition. i.e. if, A, B, C are
matrices of order mxn, n x k, and n x k respectively, then A(B+C) = AB + AC

iv. Let A be a square matrix of order n and I is the unit matrix of same order.

then AI = A = I A

v. The product AB = O (Null matrix), does not imply that either A = 0 or B = 0 or both
are zero.

Transpose of a matrix

Let A = (aij) be a matrix of order m x n. The transpose of A, denoted by AT of order n x m is

obtained by interchanging rows into columns of A.

For example

1 2 5
If A = then
3 4 6 2×3

1 3
1 2 5𝑇
AT = = 2 4
3 4 6
5 6
Properties of Matrix Transposition

Let AT and BT are the transposed Matrices of A and B and ∝ is a scalar. Then

(i) (AT)T = A

(ii) (A + B)T = AT + BT

(iii) (∝ A)T = ∝ AT

(iv) (AB)T = BT AT (A and B are conformable for multiplication)

209
Example 1

5 9 6 6 0 7
If A= and 𝐵 = find A + B and A-B
6 2 10 4 −8 −3
Solution:

5+6 9+0 6+7

𝐴+𝐵 =
6+4 2 + (−8) 10 + (−3)

11 9 13
𝐴+𝐵 =
10 −6 7
5−6 9−0 6−7
𝐴−𝐵 =
6−4 2 − (−8) 10 − (−3)

5−6 9−0 6−7

𝐴−𝐵 =
6 − 4 2 + 8 10 + 3
−1 9 −1
𝐴−𝐵 =
2 10 13

Example 2

3 6 1
If A= find (i) 3A (ii) - 3A
9 2
Solution:

3 6 9 18
(i) 3A= 3 =
9 2 27 6

1 1 3 6 −1 −2
(ii) − 3 A= − 3 = −3 − 2
9 2 3

Example 3

2 3 5 3 1 2
If A= 4 7 9 and B= 4 2 5
1 6 4 6 −2 7
Show that 5(A+B) = 5A+5B

Solution:

5 4 7 25 20 35
𝐴+𝐵 = 8 9 14 ∴ 5(A+B) = 40 45 70
7 4 11 35 20 55

210
 10 15 25 15 5 10
5A = 20 35 45 and 5B = 20 10 25
5 30 20 30 −10 35
25 20 35
∴ 5A+5B = 40 45 70 ∴ 5(A+B) = 5A+5B
35 20 55

Example 4

1 2 3 −1 −2 −4
If A= 2 4 6 and B= −1 −2 −4 find AB and BA. Also show that AB ≠ BA
3 6 9 1 2 4
Solution:

1 −1 + 2 −1 + 3(1) 1 −2 + 2 −2 + 3(2) 1 −4 + 2 −4 + 3(4)

AB= 2 −1 + 4 −1 + 6(1) 2 −2 + 4 −2 + 6(2) 2 −4 + 4 −4 + 6(4)
3 −1 + 6 −1 + 9(1) 3 −2 + 6 −2 + 9(2) 3 −4 + 6 −4 + 9(4)

0 0 0
AB = 0 0 0
0 0 0 3×3

−17 −34 −51

Similarly, BA= −17 −34 −51
17 34 51 3×3

∴ AB ≠ BA

Example 5
1 −2
If A= , then compute A2-5A + 3I
3 −4
1 −2 1 −2 −5 6
A2= A× 𝐴 = × =
3 −4 3 −4 −9 10
1 −2 5 −10
5A= 5 =
3 4 15 −20
1 0 3 0
3I= 3 =
0 1 0 3
−5 6 5 −10 3 0
A2 - 5A+3I= - +
−9 10 15 − 20 0 3
−10 16 3 0 −7 16
= + =
−24 30 0 3 −24 33

211
Example 6

Verify that (AB) T = BT AT when

2 −3
1 −4 2
A= and B = 0 1
4 0 1 2×3
−4 −2 3×2

Solution:

2 −3
1 −4 2
AB = 0 1
4 0 1
−4 −2
1 2 + −4 0 + 2(−4) 1 −3 + −4 1 + 2(−2)
= 4 2 + 0 0 + 1(−4) 4 −3 + 0 1 + 1(−2)

2+ 0+ −8 −3 + −4 + −4
=
8+ 0+ −4 −12 + 0+ −2
−6 −11
=
4 −14
𝑇
−6 −11 −6 4
L.H.S (AB) T = =
4 −14 −11 −14
1 4
2 0 −4
R.H.S= BT AT = −4 0
−3 1 −2
2 1
−6 −11
=
4 −14

(AB) T = BT AT is proved.

DETERMINANTS

An important attribute in the study of Matrix Algebra is the concept of Determinant,

ascribed to a square matrix. Knowledge of Determinant theory is indispensable in the study
of Matrix Algebra.

The determinant associated with each square matrix A = (aij) is a scalar and denoted
by the symbol det.A or AThe scalar may be real or complex number, positive, Negative
or Zero. A matrix is an array and has no numerical value, but a determinant has numerical
value.

212
For example

𝑎 𝑏
When A =
𝑐 𝑑

𝑎 𝑏
A  and the determinant value is = ad- bc
𝑐 𝑑

Example 7

𝟏 −𝟏
Evaluate
𝟑 −𝟐

Solution:

1 −1
A 
3 −2

××


Example 8

𝟐 𝟎 𝟒
Evaluate 𝟓 −𝟏 𝟏
𝟗 𝟕 𝟖
Solution:

2 0 4
−1 1 5 1 5 −1
5 −1 1 = 2 −0 +4
7 8 9 8 9 7
9 7 8
= 2(-1×8-1×7) – 0 (5× 8 − 9 × 1)+ 4 (5× 7 − (−1) × 9)

=2(-8-7) – 0 (40-9) + 4 (35+9)

=-30-0+176 = 146

Properties of Determinants

i. The value of determinant is unaltered, when its rows and columns are
interchanged.
ii. If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then the value of the
determinant changes only in sign.
iii. If the determinant has two identical rows (columns), then the value of the
determinant is zero.

213
 iv. If all the elements in a row or in a (column) of a determinant are multiplied by a
constant k(k, 0) then the value of the determinant is multiplied by k.
v. The value of the determinant is unaltered when a constant multiple of the elements
of any row (column), is added to the corresponding elements of a different row
(column) in a determinant.
vi. If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is expressed as the sum of two
or more terms, then the determinant is expressed as the sum of two or more
determinants of the same order.
vii. If any two rows or columns of a determinant are proportional, then the value of the
determinant is zero.

Singular Matrix

A square matrix A is said to be singular if det. A = 0, otherwise it is a non-singular

matrix.

Example 9

𝟏 𝟐
Show that
𝟐 𝟒
Solution:

1 2
= (1× 4) – (2× 2)
2 4
=4–4

=0

The matrix is singular

Example 10

𝟐 𝟓
Show that is a non-singular matrix
𝟗 𝟏𝟎
Solution:

2 5
= (2× 10) – (5× 9)
9 10
= 20 – 45

= -25 ≠ 0

The given matrix is non singular

214
INVERSE OF A MATRIX

Minors and Cofactors of the elements of a determinant.

The minor of an element aij of a determinant A is denoted by M i j and is the determinant

obtained from A by deleting the row and the column where ai j occurs.

The cofactor of an element aij with minor Mij is denoted by Cij and is defined as

𝑀𝑖 𝑗 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝐶𝑖𝑗 =
𝑀𝑖 𝑗 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Thus, Cofactors are signed minors

𝑎11 𝑎12
In the case of 𝑎 𝑎22 we have
21

M11 = a22 ; M12 = a21 , M21 = a12 , M22 = a11

Also C11 = a22, C12 = - a21, C21 = - a12 , C22 = a11

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
In the case of 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 we have
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎22 𝑎23
M11 = 𝑎 𝑎33 C11 = 𝑎 𝑎33
32 32

𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23

M12 = 𝑎 𝑎33 C12 = - 𝑎 𝑎33
31 31

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎21 𝑎22

M13 = 𝑎 𝑎32 C13 = 𝑎 𝑎32
31 31

𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎12 𝑎13

M21 = 𝑎 𝑎33 C21 = - 𝑎 𝑎33
32 32

Adjoint

The transpose of the matrix got by replacing all the elements of a square matrix A by
their corresponding cofactors in | A | is called the Adjoint of A or Adjugate of A and is
denoted by Adj A.
T
Thus, AdjA = A c

Note

𝒂 𝒃 𝒅 −𝒄
(i) Let A = then Ac =
𝒄 𝒅 −𝒃 𝒂

215
 𝒅 −𝒃
Adj A = ATC =
−𝒄 𝒂
𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 −𝑏
Thus the Adjoint of a 2 x 2 matrix can be written as
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎

(ii) Adj I = I, where I is the unit matrix.

(iii) A(AdjA) = (Adj A) A = | A | I

(iv) Adj (AB) = (Adj B) (Adj A)

(v) If A is a square matrix of order 2, then |AdjA| = |A|

If A is a square matrix of order 3, then |Adj A| = |A|2

Example 11
𝟏 −𝟐
Write the Adjoint of the matrix A =
𝟑 𝟒
Solution

4 −3
Adj A =
2 1
Example 12

𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
Find the Adjoint of the matrix A = 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
Solution
0 1 2
A = 1 2 3 = Adj A = ATc
3 1 1
2 3 1 3 1 2
C11 = = ─1, C12 = ─ = 8, C13 = = ─5
1 1 3 1 3 1

1 2 0 2 0 1
C21 = ─ = 1, ` 𝐶22 = = ─6 C23 = ─ = 3,
1 1 3 1 3 1
1 2 0 2 0 1
C31 = = ─1, ` 𝐶32 = ─ = 2 ` 𝐶33 = = ─1
2 3 1 3 1 2

−1 8 −5
∴ Ac = 1 −6 3
−1 2 −1
216
Hence
T
−1 8 −5 −1 1 −1
Adj A= 1 −6 3 = 8 −6 2 .
−1 2 −1 −5 3 −1
Inverse of a non singular matrix.

The inverse of a non singular matrix A is the matrix B such that AB = BA = I. B is then
called the inverse of A and denoted by A-1.

Note

i. A non square matrix has no inverse.

ii. The inverse of a square matrix A exists only when |A| ≠ 0 that is, if A is a singular
matrix then A-1 does not exist.
iii. If B is the inverse of A then A is the inverse of B. That is B = A-1 and A = B-1.
iv. A A-1 = I = A-1 A
v. The inverse of a matrix, if it exists, is unique. That is, no matrix can have more
than one inverse.
vi. The order of the matrix A-1 will be the same as that of A.
vii. I1 = I
1
viii. (AB) = B1 A1, provided the inverses exist.
2 1
ix. A = I implies A =A
x. If AB = C then
1 1
(a) A = CB (b) B = A C, provided the inverses exist.
xi. We have seen that A(AdjA) = (AdjA)A = |A| I

𝟏 𝟏
∴A (Adj A) = (Adj A) A= I
𝑨 𝑨

1 1
This suggests that A-1 = (Adj A). That is A-1 = Atc
𝐴 𝐴

xii. (A-1)-1 = A, provided the inverse exists.

217
Example 13

𝟓 𝟑
Find the inverse of A= if it exists.
𝟒 𝟐
Solution
5 3
𝐴= = (5× 2) − (3 × 4) = 10-12 = ─2
4 2

∴ A-1 exists.

Example 14

Show that the inverse of the following do not exist:

−2 6
(i) A=
3 −9
3 1 −2
(ii) A= 2 7 3
6 2 −4
Solution:

−2 6
(i) 𝐴=
3 −9
=0 ∴ A-1 does not exist.
3 1 −2
(ii) 𝐴= 2 7 3 =0 ∴ A-1 does not exist.
6 2 −4

Example 15

𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
Find the inverse of A= 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 if it exists
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐
Solution

𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝐴= 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 = 15 ≠ 𝟎 ∴ A-1 exists.
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐
1
We have A-1 = Atc
𝐴

Now the cofactors are

2 1 3 1 3 2
C11 = = ─5, C12 = ─ = 7, C13 = =1
1 −2 1 −2 1 1
3 4 2 4 2 3
C21 = ─ = 10, ` 𝐶22 = = ─8 C23 = ─ =1
1 −2 1 −2 1 1

218
 3 4 2 4 2 3
C31 = = ─5, ` 𝐶32 = ─ = 10 ` 𝐶33 = =─5
2 1 3 1 2 2

Hence

−5 7 1
Ac = 10 −8 1
−5 10 −5
−5 10 −5
t
Ac= 7 −8 10
1 1 −5

1
∴ A-1 = Atc
𝐴

1 −5 10 −5
A-1 = 7 −8 10
15
1 1 −5

 If the value of the determinant of a square matrix is not equal to

zero, then it is a non-singular matrix.

 If it is a non-singular matrix,then inverse exists.

 A−1=
𝟏
adjoint of A
𝑨

 A−1B=X

Example

Solve the following equation by matrix inverse method

x+2y=6

3x+4y=16

Solution

1 2 𝑥 6
3 4 𝑦 = 16

219
A × X= B

X= A-1B

𝐴 = 1× 𝟒 − 𝟑 × 𝟐 = 𝟒 − 𝟔 = −𝟐

1
A-1 = Atc
𝐴

4 −2
adj A =
−3 1
1 4 −2
A-1 = − 2
−3 1
1 4 −2 6 1 4×6 + −2 × 16
A-1B= − 2 = −2
−3 1 16 −3 × 6 + 1 × 16
1 24 − 32
= −2
−18 + 16
1 −8
−
2 −2
4
X=
1
𝑥 4
=
𝑦 1

x= 4

y=1

Example

Solve by matrix method

2 x1 +3 x2 - x3 =9

x1+ x2 + x3 = 9

3 x1- x2 - x3= 1
Solution

2 3 −1 𝑥1 9
1 1 1 𝑥2 = 9
3 −1 −1 𝑥3 1
A × X= B

X= A-1B

220
 1
A-1 = Atc
𝐴
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐴 =+ 2 − 3 + −1
−1 −1 3 −1 3 −1
= 2[1 × −1 − (−1 × 1)]-3[1 × −1 − 3 × 1] − 1[1 × −1 − 3 × 1]

=2[-1+1]-3[-1-3]-1[-1+3]

=2(0)-3(-4)-1(-4)

=0+12+4

=16
t
adj A = A c
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ − +
−1 −1 3 −1 3 −1
t 3 −1 2 −1 2 3
A c= − −1 −1
+
3 −1
−
3 −1
2 −1 2 −1 2 3
+ − +
1 1 1 1 1 1

+ −1 + 1 − −1 − 3 + (−1 − 3)
= − −3 − 1 + −2 + 3 − (−2 − 9)
+ 3 + 1 − 2 + 1 + (2 − 3)

0 4 −4
= 4 1 11
4 −3 −1

0 4 4
t
adj A= A c= 4 1 −3
−4 11 −1
0 4 4
-1 1
A =
16
4 1 −3
−4 11 −1
0 4 4 9
-1. 1
A B=
16
4 1 −3 9
−4 11 −1 −1

221
 0 × 9 + 4 × 9 + (4 × −1)
1
= 4 × 9 + 1 × 9 + (−3 × −1)
16
−4 × 9 + 11 × 9 + (−1 × −1)

0 + 36 − 4
1
=
16
36 + 9 + 3
−36 + 99 + 1
32
1
=
16
48
64
2
X= 3
4
x1=2

x2 =3

x3=4
Exercises

𝟏 𝟑 𝟕 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝟔
1. If A = and B = find A+B & A-B
𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟏𝟏 𝟖 𝟕

𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏
2. If A = 𝟒 𝟏 and B = 𝟑 𝟐 find A+B & A-B
𝟑 −𝟐 𝟐 −𝟑
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
𝟏
3. If A = −𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟐 find 3A,-A,-3A and 𝟐A
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟓 𝟎
4. If A = 𝟑 𝟒 B= 𝟎 𝟏 and C= 𝟏 −𝟏 Verify that
𝟓 𝟑 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎 𝟏

i. A+B=B+A

ii. A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C

iii. 4(A+B)=4A+AB

222
 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟕
5. If A = 𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 and B = 𝟐 −𝟗 find AB
𝟎 𝟏 𝟒 𝟏 𝟎
𝟓 −𝟑 𝟎 −𝟖 𝟓 𝟑
6. If A = 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 and B = 𝟐 𝟕 𝟗 show that AB≠BA
𝟑 𝟖 𝟕 𝟖 𝟑 𝟎
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
7. If A = and B = 𝟐 𝟎 show that AB≠BA
𝟐 𝟏 𝟎
−𝟏 𝟏
𝟒 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟔
8. If A = B= and C= Verify that
−𝟑 𝟏 −𝟕 𝟔 −𝟐 𝟐 −𝟑 𝟓
A(B+C)=AB+AC

𝟏 𝟎 −𝟐
9. If A = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 show that A2 -3A+2I = 0
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐
𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
10. If A = show that 𝑨𝒕 𝒕
=𝑨
𝟓 𝟔 𝟕
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
11. If A = and B = show that
𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟏 𝟖 𝟔
𝒕
i. 𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑩𝒕
𝒕
ii. 𝑨−𝑩 = 𝑨𝒕 − 𝑩𝒕

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
12. If A = verify that 𝟑𝑨 𝒕 = 3 𝑨𝒕
𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
𝟓 𝟔
13. If A = find 𝑨
𝟖 𝟗
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
14. Evaluate 𝟐 𝟓 𝟕
𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏
𝟐 𝟓 −𝟐
15. Find the adjoint of the matrix A= 𝟒 −𝟏 𝟑
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
16. Find the inverse of matrix A
𝟓 −𝟒
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏
17. If A = −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 find 𝑨−𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐

223
 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
18. If A = 𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 show that A. 𝑨−𝟏 = 𝑨−𝟏 . 𝑨 = 𝑰
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
19. Solve the following equation by matrix inversion technique

a. x+2y=6

b. 3x+4y=16

20. Solve by matrix method

2x1+3x2-x3=9

x1+x2+x3=9

3x1-x2-x3=1
Answers
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑
1. A+B=
𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟓
−𝟗 −𝟔 𝟏
A-B=
−𝟗 −𝟒 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
2. A+B= 𝟕 𝟑
𝟓 −𝟓
−𝟏 𝟑
A-B= 𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
𝟗 𝟔 𝟑
3. 3A= −𝟑 −𝟗 −𝟔
𝟔 −𝟑 𝟎
−𝟗 −𝟔 −𝟑
-3A= 𝟑 𝟗 𝟔
−𝟔 𝟑 𝟎
−𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟏
-A= 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐
−𝟐 𝟏 𝟎

𝟑 𝟏
𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
A= − 𝟐 − 𝟐 −𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎

224
4.

𝟑 𝟏
i. A+B=B+A IT CAN BE PROVED 𝟑 𝟓
𝟔 𝟏
𝟖 𝟏
ii. A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C IT CAN BE PROVED 𝟒 𝟒
𝟔 𝟐
𝟏𝟐 𝟒
iii. 4(A+B)=4A+AB IT CAN BE PROVED 𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟒 𝟒
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟓
5. AB = 𝟐𝟗 𝟔𝟔
𝟔 𝟗
−𝟒𝟔 𝟒 𝟒𝟐
6. AB= −𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 −𝟗
𝟒𝟖 𝟗𝟐 −𝟔𝟑
−𝟏𝟔 𝟓𝟖 𝟐𝟔
BA= 𝟒 −𝟔𝟒 𝟓𝟔
𝟒𝟗 −𝟏𝟖 𝟑
𝟏 𝟒
7. AB=
𝟒 𝟒
𝟓 𝟑 𝟐
BA= 𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟐
𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖
8.
−𝟖 −𝟗 −𝟏𝟓
A(B+C)=AB+AC ( It can be proved)

𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
9. 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 A2 -3A+2I = 0 (It can be proved)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏 𝟓
10. 𝑨𝒕 𝟑 𝟔 (It can be proved)
𝟒 𝟕

𝒕
11. 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑨𝒕 + 𝑩𝒕 (It can be proved)

𝟑 𝟓
𝟓 𝟏𝟑
𝟕 𝟏𝟐

225
 𝒕
𝑨−𝑩 = 𝑨𝒕 − 𝑩𝒕 (It can be proved)

−𝟏 𝟑
−𝟏 −𝟑
−𝟏 𝟎

12. 𝟑𝑨 𝒕 = 3 𝑨𝒕 `(It can be proved)

𝟑 𝟏𝟐
𝟔 𝟏𝟓
𝟗 𝟏𝟖
13. 𝑨 = −𝟑

14. 𝑨 = -4

−𝟕 𝟒 𝟏𝟑
15. Adj A = 𝟏𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟏𝟒
𝟏𝟑 −𝟏 −𝟐𝟐
𝟒 𝟑
𝟐𝟑 𝟐𝟑
16. 𝑨−𝟏 = 𝟓 𝟐
𝟐𝟑 𝟐𝟑

𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏
17. 𝑨−𝟏 = 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟑

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
18. 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 (It can be proved)
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
19. x= 4 and y= 1

20. 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐, 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟑, 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟒

226