THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC DAMATURU

SCHOOL OF GENERAL AND REMEDIAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL STUDIES

COURSE CODE: GNS 101

COURSE TITLE: USE OF ENGLISH I

COURSE ELEMENT: LECTURE MATERIAL/GUIDE

COURSE CREDIT UNIT: 2 UNITS

FOR

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

ND. 1

2021/2022 ACADEMIC SESSION

A B. BASHIR JALINGO
Course overview: this course is designed to provide student with the language skills which
will enable him to cope effectively with the challenges of his course, it will equally empower
him to use language effectively in the practice of his profession as well as interact with others
in the society. Therefore, at the end of this course, the student should be able to know the
nature of language, understand the basic rules of grammar, learn the essentials qualities of
paragraphs, acquire appropriate study skills and appreciate literary works in English.

Your spoken English (pronunciation) speaks volumes of your level of education and literacy.
There are some people who though knowledgeable in their disciplines, yet are highly limited
in skills of spoken English. They therefore make a caricature of themselves when they are
called upon to carry out a function that involves the use of English. It is obvious that you are
judged and assessed by your proficiency in spoken English. Ajidukuet’all (2009).

Then it becomes pertinent for the student to master the use of English language irrespective
of their field of study.

Course outline:

 Study skills
o Concept of library
o Note taking and note making
o Reading
 Language
o Concept of language
o Functions
o Use of language in Nigeria
 Grammatical convention
o Part of speech
 Paragraphing
 Literary appreciation or literature in English
o Drama
o Prose
o Poetry
1.0 Study Skills
To study is to acquire knowledge on a subject with the intention of applying what was
acquired into practice, for example Biologist study living things, a paediatric a is branch of
medicine which study the children. Study skills as posit by Henry (2020) are strategies and
techniques that enable you to make the most efficient and effective use of your study time,
resources and academic potential to achieve your desired results.
Study skills are otherwise known as academic skills or strategies, which are applied to
learning. Study skills are array (group) of skills which tackle the process of organizing and
taking in new information, retaining information, or dealing with assessments. Broadly any
skill which boosts a person’s ability to study, retain and recall information which assists in
and passing exams can be termed as study skill, and this could include knowledge of library,
time management, note taking and making, reading and motivational techniques.

1.1 The Concept of library

A Library is a collection of books or other forms of stored information, it is an organized
collection of information resources made accessible to a defined community for reference or
borrowing, it provides physical or digital access to material and may be a physical building or
room or a virtual space or both. A library’s collection can include: books, periodicals,
newspapers, manuscripts, films, videotapes, DVDs, CDs, cassettes, e-books, audio books,
databases and other formats. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of several million
items.
Historically, Library is derived from the Latin word “liber” which means a book. Earlier a
library was “a place where books were written or kept”. This term was frequently used as a
“collection of books” and a librarian is a keeper or guard of books. This word has taken
centuries to become central point of all social actions and has got recognition as a social
institution.

1.1.1 Types of Libraries

Broadly there are four types of libraries:
1. Public Library
2. National Library
3. Special Library
4. Academic Library
  Public Library
A public library is “a public institution or establishment charged with the care of collection of
books and the duty of making them accessible to those who require the use of them. In other
words, A Public Library is a social institution established by law, financed by public fund,
open for all without any discrimination, for general and free diffusion of knowledge and
information in the community. Example of such library is the Yobe State Library

 National Library
A National Library keeps all documents of and about a nation under some legal provision and
thus represents publications of and about the whole nation. For example: National Library
Abuja; National Library of India-Kolkata; British Library, London; Library of Congress,
Washington, and The Russian State Library, Moscow.

 Special Library
A Special Library is “a library established, supported and administered by a business firm,
private corporation, association, government agency, or other special interest group or agency
to meet the information needs of its members or staff in pursuing the goals of the
organisation. Scope of collections and services is limited to the subject interest of the host or
parent organization”. In other words, special library collects updated and comprehensive
information on the subject concerned with the parent organization and disseminate this
information promptly to the people associated it. Besides this, one other factor is that a
special library develops its major collection: On some special subject/field. For example,
National Science Library, National Library of Medicine, Parliament Library, Engineering
Library etc.

 Academic Library
An Academic Library has been defined as: “a library which is associated or attached with any
educational institution to support its educational programmes”. Academic library is an
integral part of formal education system which provides time bound education from primary
school level to university level. An academic library works as a base for teaching, learning,
research etc. We can categorize academic libraries in to following three categories:
i. School Library e.g secondary schools libraries such as GDSS libarary
ii. College Library e.g Federal polytechnic Damaturu Library, COE, Zing Library
 iii. University Library:E.g BUK Library, TSU Library, YSU Library.

1.1.2 Functions of the Library

A Library has the following functions:
a. It conserves knowledge and makes it transmission possible.
b. It provides latest knowledge to teachers in their field for effective teaching.
c. Library like the national Produce a national bibliography.
d. Holding and keeping up-to-date a large and representative collection of foreign
literature, including books about the country
e. It also procures foreign publications about the country; and by the authors of Nigerian
in diaspora.
f. They serve as Information Dissemination Centre
g. They serve as Life Long Learning Centre for community’s Intellectual thus
preserving such Culture.
h. The care of a collection of books means protection and preservation of collection.
i. To make them accessible in real sense so that the right person can get right
information at the right time.

1.1.3 Information sources in The Library:

There are many available information source in the library, they include but not
limited to Reference materials, Books and e-books, Academic journals, Newspapers,
Magazines, Internet sites and Specialist information.

1.2 Note Taking/Note Making

Taking good note is an essential part of studying; Note making/taking is the practice of
recording information captured from another source. By making notes, the writer records the
essence of the information, freeing his mind from having to recall everything. Notes are
commonly drawn from authentic sources such as: an oral discussion, at a meeting, a lecture
or a text.

1.2.1 Difference Between Note-making And Note-taking:

Note-taking is more or less verbatim notes from a book or lecture. While note-making is your
own word that is in form of summary, note-making is a more intellectual task than note-
taking as it involves: selecting, analysing and summarising what you hear or read.
1.2.2 Methods Used In Note-making/taking
Methods used in note-making/taking may include:
 Sequential/linear note taking
 Cornell method
 Concept Mapping (visual representation)
 Using short hand or abbreviations
 Using diagrams or pictures
 Summarising and Paraphrasing
 When taking notes do not forget to write the page number and year as you take it.

1.2.3 General preparatory activities in note taking during lectures

1. Separate storage from text notes
2. Record date
3. Record lecture topic and title
4. Use abbreviations
5. Listen for understanding
6. Space out your notes for later elaboration
7. Underline keywords

1.2.4 After note taking within 24 hours

 Go over your notes
 Elaborate
 Rewrite your notes
 Read for understanding
 Any vague point ask your friend or the course lecturer
 Coordinate lecture and text notes
 At the end of the week review all notes again
1.2.5 Why take notes?
 They serve as useful record for future
 They help writing, help flow of idea, help planning and assist organization
 They assist exam revision as more information is already in memory
 They help memory to summarize things briefly
1.3 READING
Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive
meaning. It is also defined as the process of perceiving, recognizing, interpreting and
understanding the words strung together in a sensible grammatical unity of language. It is a
means of language acquisition, of communication and of sharing information and ideas.

Types of Reading:
There are different methods of reading, which could be classified broadly under extensive
and intensive reading.
 Intensive reading
o Study reading
 Extensive reading
o Scanning
o Skimming

ExtensiveReading: this refers to reading widely and very fast too. When one read
extensively the main objective is to cover the greatest possible amount of text within the
shortest possible time. Comprehension is usually low in this type of reading. The main use is
to facilitate familiarity with a large body of reading material; comprehension is low because
the reader doesn’t really settle to study the material in details. Thus extensive reading skills
needed here is scan and skim reading as explained below.
Scanning: Is a quick reading focusing on locating specific information, It is used when
specific information is required, such as name, date, symbol, formula or phrase is required.
The reader knows how the item looks like and so knows which he has located, what he was
searching for. Scanning is often used with technical, scientific or professional materials to
locate specific information. Example: telephone directory, menus, schedules etc.
Skimming: to skim means to look at something briefly. The idea here is to look at the
reading material briefly in order to have a general idea of the text. It is done with high speed
in order to capture the main points. For example we skim read a newspaper for general
information and student can skim read their lecture notes at the lecture.
Skim all texts before you read, basically, it means looking over the text without reading every
word. Every time you start a new chapter, skim the chapter’s pages first. Look at the titles of
the chapters and any words in bold or italics. Read the introduction and summary if there is
one. This will help you prepare for the new information, and this will give you a good idea of
what the chapter will teach you.

IntensiveReading: Intensive reading calls attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers

and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning,
implications, rhetorical relationships and the like. Intensive reading is sometimes called
“Narrow Reading” it may involve students reading selective texts by the same author or
several texts about the same topic. When this occurs, content and grammatical structures
repeat themselves and students get many opportunities to understand meanings in text.
Study reading: it is the most important method for students. It is done at a slow pace and the
purpose is to study, to learn. So when you study-read, you are required to do the following;
get information on a given topic, find main and supporting ideas, organise the ideas and
subsequently use the ideas in solving problems or in answering questions. It is also called
critical reading; study reading could be achieved adopting the SQ3R technique. The acronym
stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recall/Recite and Revise.

2.0 LANGUAGE:
Ajidukuet’al (2009).Citing Bloom and Lahey (1978). State that language is a code whereby
ideas, objects, feelings etc in human society are represented through conventional and
arbitrary symbols for the purpose of communication either orally or in written form.
It could also be seen as human vocal noise or the arbitrary graphic representation of this noise
used systematically and conventionally by members of a speech community for the purpose
of communication.
Language is essentially a communication system which associates meaning or messages with
a set of signs. i.e. the sounds and symbols. Examples of Language include Arabic, French,
English, Hindu, Kanuri, Fulfulde, Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Nupe, Tangale, Mumuye amongst
other languages across the world.
From all these definitions above, one has to agree with Parvlov (1921) who states that ‘it is
nothing other than language that made use human’.

2.1 Characteristics of Language:

Human language differs from other communication in several ways, it is therefore
characterised by the following
  Culture: language is culture because our culture is interwoven in our language. For
every culture to fully express itself and go on to pass across it values to Generations
upon generations it must rely on language. For example the Igbo people rely on
language to convey their yearly yam festival.
 Productive and Creativity: Language makes it possible for its users to be able to
express new ideas, produce and comprehend new sentences which they have never
said or heard before. It gives a person ability to sing, recite poems etc.
 Arbitrariness: Between animals calls and meanings are in direct resemblance but in
human language the relationship between sounds and meanings are arbitrary. i.e it
give human ability to talk or communicate distinctively.
 Duality: This is the ability for humans to use different language in different ways
unlike animals. Yes human can learn as many languages as possible, this account for
Bilingual, multilingual, and Polyglots that we have all over the world today.
 Displacement: the communication system of language can be used to refer to things
that are remote in time and space. It enables man to be able to recount events that had
happened in the past, to talk about future plans and to create the imaginative events of
myth and fiction. It has also made possible the development of science, since it enable
man to accumulate records of his experience and to work out problems at leisure
without being distracted by the needs of a particular set of circumstances.
 Learned and taught or totalfeedback: In human language it is possible for speakers
to perceive as well as reflect upon the messages that they transmit themselves.
 Specialization: Human language allows its users to continue to talk while engaging in
physical activity totally unrelated to the subject matter of the discussion. For example
you could be talking over the phone and be cooking, sweeping or doing any other
activity.
 Change: Since Language grows with the specific needs of society, it changes with
time. New words get introduced to label new phenomenon. Some words are dropped
when they become obsolete; some acquire additional meanings, while some change
form or spellings. E.g. in old English ‘thou’ is now ‘you’, knavish is the old use of a
dishonest man or boy.

2.2 Language skills

Virginia Satir cited in Adamma (2010). States that ‘‘once a human being has arrived on this
earth, communication is the largest single factor determining what kinds of relationship he
makes with others and what happens to him in the world about him’’. Language is the
principal means used by human beings to communicate with one another. Language and
communication are inseparable terms because one expresses the other. If one uses language
to express his ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions to another, he is passing across
information and when one passes across information he is communicating. Therefore, for one
to be able to communicate effectively, s/he must posse the basic language skills which are
necessary for communication. These skills are;
I. Listening skills
II. Speaking skills
III. Reading skills
IV. Writing skills
Listening and reading skills are generally referred to as receptive communicative language
skills while speaking and writing are referred to expressive or productive communicative
skills.

2.3 Functions of Language

These are essentially the communicative roles of language,they are:
A. Identification role: language is used to signal class identity. Speaking a language
identifies an individual as a member of that speech community. E.g speaking Gizima
Language tags an individual to be part of such speech community not necessary a
member of such ethic group.
B. Informationalrole: The most important role of language is for individuals to pass on
information from one person to another.
C. Expressiverole: language can serve as a means by which one can express his
emotions, feelings or attitudes towards his fellow being or a state of affairs.
D. Integrative role: Language can be used as a means by which one can establish a
contact or relationship with other people within one speech community.
E. Performativityand heuristic role: Language can also be used to bring about a sudden
change in the state of affairs in the real world as soon as the utterance is made.
Example in politics, wedding, etc. thus, it enable you discover, learn and imbibe
through enquires, discussion and even experience.
F. Theimaginative and ludicrole: Language can be used for amusement or to entertain
people to laugh as in comedy. It could as well enable an individual create his own
world; paint it out to his own taste. This is usually achieved through fiction writing.
2.1 The Use of English Language in Nigeria
John Adams (1735-1826) says ‘English is destined to be in the next and succeeding centuries
more generally the language of the world than Latin was in the last or French is in the
present’. There is no doubting the fact that English language today has indeed spread at a
very rapid rate across the globe to Africa, west Africa and, specifically Nigeria. This is
notably achieved through Christian missionary activities, Slave Trade, explorers activities,
colonization etc.
English as a language has been domesticated to suit our socio-cultural context and is made to
perform several functions such as:
1. Thelanguageofeducation: English has been widely used in the propagation of
education in Nigeria and this is used in all facets of education. This seems to be the
most important function of English in our society. In all level of education in Nigeria,
the English language is the most widely used language of instructions in schools.
2. Thelanguageofthegovernment: The English language is the language of government
in Nigeria because almost all the transactions in government offices are carried out in
the English language. Minutes, official correspondence, memoranda, circulars,
instructions and directives are given out in the English language and still English is
the official language.
3. ThelanguageofInternationalcommunication: When Nigerians want to engage in
international business or transaction of any kind with persons beyond Nigerian
geographical boundary, English becomes readily available language to be used either
within or outside the country. Announcements at the airport are done in English
because foreigners are likely to be among the passengers.
4. Thelanguageofcommerceandindustry: Transactions in commerce and industry are
mostly carried out in the English language and Pidgin English as well as in some local
languages. Inter and intra business transactions are done in English language, banking
industry, stock market. Etc.
5. Thelanguageofthemedia: The English language is the most extensively used in the
Nigerian media, we mean both the print and the electronic media.
6. ThelanguageofLawandLegalDrafting: Almost all the books in law and legal
drafting are written in English language. 1922, 1979 constitution are written in
English. All courts except customary and sharia courts sparsely use native languages.
 7. Thelanguageofscienceandtechnology: Just like in any other areas, the language of
science and technology in Nigeria is English. It is true that most of the names of
chemicals and scientific formulae are written in English perhaps the Nigerian
indigenous languages have not developed enough to handle some of these scientific
and chemical names.
8. Thelanguageofsocialinteractions: If a Nigerian meets another Nigerian for the First
time, the first language s/he is likely to use in communication will be English which
could be pidgin, broken or standard English, also national conferences etc.

2.5 Varieties of Language and usage in society

Dialect: is any variety of language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation,
grammar, and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language. Everyone speaks a
dialect. The people who speak a certain dialect are called a “speech community.”
Slang: is a stylish deviation in language, used by a restricted group for achieving one
personal or group aim. It serves as a symbol of group identity and fun making.
Pidgin: is a language variety that emerges from the concoction of the various local
languages. It is mainly used in transaction between people who speak different languages.
Jargon: is a form of expression peculiar to a particular field of endeavour.
Broken: here the grammatical rules governing the standard use of the language have been
abused or distorted; it is used for communication between an individual who has a great
degree of mastery in the language and another individual who doesn’t have much mastery in
the language.
Monolingualismor Unilingualism: “alone, solitary”, is the condition of being able to speak
only a single language. In a different context “monolingualism may refer to language policy
which enforces an official or national language over others.
Bilingualism: Is the ability to master the use of two languages. For example, more than half
the population of Nigeria are functionally competent in both indigenous language and
standard or Nigerian English.
Multilingualism: The term multilingualism can refer to an occurrence regarding an
individual speaker who uses two or more languages or a community of speakers where two or
more languages are used, between speakers of different languages.
Polyglots: one who has mastered, notably speaks, several languages.
GRAMMAR: refers to the way words are used, classified, and structured together to form
coherent written or spoken communication. In other words, grammar is a body of innate
linguistic rules which resides in the mind of a competent user of a language. This knowledge
includes:
1. Phonology; is the study of categorical organisation of speech sounds in languages;
how speech sounds are organised in the mind and used to convey meaning.
2. Morphology; is the study of words how they are formed, and their relationship to
other words in the same language.
3. Semantics; is the study of meaning in language. It can be applied to entire texts or to
single words. E.g. ‘destination and last stop’
4. Syntax; is refers to the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form
phrase, clauses and sentences.
5. Pragmatics; is the study of practical aspects of human action and thought. Or the
study of the use of linguistics sign, words and sentences in actual situation.

Therefore, one can only claim to possess the grammar of a particular language if one has a
perfect mastery of how words are formed; how the units of the language are produced; how
words are combined into units of expressions; what a word or a sequence of words means and
the context within which a or a certain expression is considered appropriate.

Parts of Speech
Are the categories to which different words are assigned, based on their meaning, structure,
and function in a sentence. Parts of speech are also defined as the logical pattern of groupings
words into various classes by considering their individual functions in speech or in writing.

The English language has seven well-defined parts of speech although some grammarians
may recognize eight, nine or ten. They are: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns,
prepositions and conjunctions.
1. NOUN: Nouns are words that identify or name people, place, or things. Noun can function
as the subject of a clause or sentence, an object of a verb, or an object of a preposition. Words
like cat, book, table, girl, and plane are all nouns.
2. VERB: Is a word or group of words that is used to tell what someone or something is,
does, or experiences. It is a compulsory element of a sentence expressing an action
done by the subject or a state experienced by the subject or what is becoming of the
subject.
 Classification of Verbs:
Verb can be classify into different categories which includes; action verbs, transitive verbs,
intransitive verbs, linking verbs, modals verbs etc.
1. Action verb; as their name says, are used to refer to actions. E.g. run, swim, help,
ignore believe etc.
2. Transitive verb; a verb that is accompanied by a direct object in a sentence. E.g.
Musa ate a delicious pepperoni pizza, the wealthy man bought three paintings, she
really hate broccoli.
3. Intransitive verbs; a verb is an transitive verb if it is not used with direct object. E.g.
airplanes fly, the children slept while the adults worked, the terrified monkeys hid in
the trees after they saw the gigantic hungry snake.
4. Linking verbs; linking verbs are special type of verb, whose name gives a big clue as
to what they do. Linking verbs are used to link a subject complement. A subject
complement describes or identifies the subject of the sentence or clause. E.g. be,
become, seem appear, grow etc.
5. Helping verbs (auxiliaries verbs); helping verbs also called auxiliary verbs, are
helpful verbs that work with other verbs to change the meaning of a sentence. A
helping verb combines with the main verb in order to accomplish different goals. E.g.
be, have, do, can, will etc.
6. Modals verbs; modal are sub group of helping verbs that are used to give sentence a
specific mood. The mood can be ability, necessity, possibility, or permission. E.g.
can, may, might, must, would etc.
3 ADJECTIVE: Is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. Example: big, good, boring,
purple, quick are adjectives. Modified meanings can be derived from the words when they are
preceded by different adjectives.
ADVERB
Adverb is a word or group of words that describes or adds meaning to a verb, an adjective,
another adverb, or a whole sentence. Example:
a. He ran slowly.
b. It is very hot.
c. Naturally, we want you to come.
PRONOUN
Pronouns are words that we use in place of nouns/noun phrases to refer to the persons or
things named by the nouns/noun phrases and thus avoid unnecessary repetitions.
Types of Pronoun
These are: Personal, Reflective, Possessive, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Indefinite,
 Personal pronoun: I, we
 Reflective pronoun: myself, yourself, himself etc.
 Possessive pronoun: my, mine, your, yours, his, hers, its etc.
 Demonstrative pronoun: this, these, that, those, etc.
 Interrogative pronoun: what, who, this, which, etc
 Indefinite pronoun: they do not specify their referents. Thus anybody, nobody,
nothing, everyone etc.

PREPOSITION
Preposition is a word which establishes a relationship between a noun or a noun equivalent
and other words in a sentence. Example:
1. The book is on the table.
2. I am writing with a pencil.

Prepositions can be grouped into two main types viz:

a. Simple prepositions; e.g. in, on, behind, across etc
b. Compound prepositions; e.g. into, inside, outside, etc.
CONJUNCTION
Conjunctions are linking words. They join words, phrases, or sentences together. Examples
are: and, but, for, since, while, as though, either/or, neither/nor, hence, although, because, if,
yet, unless, even though, therefore, moreover, etc.
Types of Conjunctions
a. Coordinating conjunctions; is use to join two or more words, phrases, or
independent clauses. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English, which can
be remembered using the acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
b. Correlative conjunctions; or paired conjunctions, are sets of conjunctions that are
always used together. Like coordinating conjunctions they join words, phrases, or
independent clauses of similar or equal importance stricter. E.g. either...or,
neither...nor, not only....but also, whether...or.
 c. Subordinating conjunctions; are used to create complex sentences containing one
independent clause, or main clause, and one dependent clause.

PUNCTUATIONS
Punctuation is the act or art of dividing writing into sentences, phrases, etc. by using special
marks such as full stops, comma, etc. These marks are called punctuation marks.
Punctuation marks are graphic mark symbols that help to clarify meaning in the written
language.

S/N TYPES OF PUNCTUATION MARKS SYMBOLS

1. FULL STOP OR PERIOD .
2. COMMA ,
3. SEMI COLON ;
4. COLON :
5. APOSTROPHE ‘
6. QUOTATION MARKS “”
7. QUESTION MARK ?
8. HYPEN _
9. PARENTHESIS ()
10. EXCLAMATION MARK !
11. ELLIPSIS ...
12. CARET ^
13. DASH -
14. SLASH /

Explanations
1. Period (.) this one is probably the most straightforward. Also referred to as full stop,
the period denotes at the end of a sentence. E.g. She is dancing.
2. Question mark (?) a question mark also ends a sentence; however it ends a sentence
that is direct question. E.g. have you eaten your lunch?
3. Exclamation mark (!)An exclamation point or exclamation mark is also used at the
end of the sentence when the sentence expresses an intense emotion. E.g. joy, anger,
excitement etc.
4. Comma (,) Commas are used to insert a pause into a sentence. E.g. Joe, is nice to see
you again.
 5. Colon (:) It is used when introducing something, such as quote, an examples, a series,
or explanation. E.g. They didn’t have time to waste: it was already late.
6. Semicolon (;) similar to colon, semicolon links to independent clauses. However, in
this case, the clauses are more closely related than when you would use a colon. E.g. I
have a meeting tomorrow morning; I can go out tonight.
7. Dash (-) there are two types of dashes that vary in size and use. End dash, typically
shorter in length, the end dash is used to denote a range, such as between numbers or
dates. For example. The company was operated from 1990-2000.
8. Hyphen (-) hyphen is used in compound words when two or more words are
connected. E.g. step-by-step, mother-in-law, ex-boyfriend.
9. Parenthesis (()) parenthesis are used to supply further details or information or as an
inside. E.g. Kate (who is matt’s wife) likes to go for walks.
10. Apostrophe (‘) Apostrophes are meant to show letter or letters has been omitted and
also to indicate possessive or contractions. E.g. I’ve, isn’t, haven’t etc.
11. Quotation mark (“) quotation marks are used t denote a text, speech, or words
spoken by someone else. E.g. I don’t like this “said mark”
12. Ellipses (...) an ellipsis is three periods used together to represent an omission of
words or letters. E.g. at midnight, she began to count down: “ten, nine, eight...” and
then the ball dropped.
13. Slash (/) forward slash is commonly used to separate words, lines of poetry
abbreviations, dates and fractions etc. E.g. she was born on 31st/July/2022.
14. Caret (^) the caret is a mark that we use to indicate that an item (letter, word, phrase
or mark ) is missing. E.g. the teacher arrived (^) the class before the students (at
the).

IDIOMS
An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special different meaning from the meanings of the
separate words of which it is composed. We cannot derive its meaning from its constituent
elements. Example:
a. Spill the beans.
b. He kicked the bucket.
c. Birds of a feather.
d. To see eye to eye.
AFFIXATION
An Affix is a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some
way or indicates for example, person, number, gender or tense.
Classification of Affixes:
1. Prefix: This is an affix which occurs before the root or base of a word. Example:
Unhappy, overwork, nonsense, uncover, whiteboard autobiography, ex-wife etc.
 2. The suffix: suffix is an inflection which occurs after the base or stem of a word.
Examples: childish, worker, painter, singer, waterproof, legal cooked, classify etc.

PARAGRAPH
A paragraph is a self-contained unit of a discourse in writing dealing with a particular point
or idea. A paragraph consists of one or more sentences. A paragraph like an essay, has a
beginning, a middle and a conclusion. The beginning of a paragraph is a sentence which is
usually called the topic sentence. The middle can be one or more sentences. The number of
sentences in the middle of the paragraph depends on the units of the major idea expressed in
the topic sentence. What the sentences in the middle of the paragraph do is develop the topic
sentence. The conclusion which is the last part of the paragraph either sums up the idea in the
paragraph or restates the topic sentence or state the last unit of the major idea in the topic
sentence. That is why it is either called a restatement or a conclusion.
There are two ways of organising a paragraph these are:
1. Deductive pattern of organisation which states the topic sentence at the beginning,
develop, explain, or illustrate by the sentences that follow.
2. Inductive method of organisation here a paragraph may start by giving bits and bits
of information which is later generalized at the end of the paragraph.

Qualities of a Good paragraph

1. Unity: this is the relationship that occurs between sentences in a paragraph. All the
sentences in a paragraph must be related and contribute to the development of a single
major idea. Any sentence that falls out of this relationship is extraneous and such a
sentence should be removed.
2. Coherence: When all the sentences in a paragraph read smoothly without jerks and
gaps we say the paragraph has coherence. To achieve coherence, there are usually
some certain rules of grammar and rules of discourse to be observed. Sometimes
pronouns are used in place of an earlier noun in the passage. At some other times,
some words in the preceding sentences are repeated. In addition, there are some
linking words which are called connectives, transitional markers or paragraph
linkers, because they help to create a bridge between an earlier sentence and the new
sentence. It is the use of such features that gives a paragraph its continuity.
 APPRECIATION OF LITERATURE
The term “literature” is of two natures as it were. One refers to the build-up of all material
that is written in a particular discipline. The other literature refers to product of imaginative
or creative writing, namely: Prose, Poetry and Drama. All these artistic products are fictional,
that they supposed to have occurred in real life.
Literary Genres
They are:
a. Prose
b. Poetry
c. Drama
A prose: Is a sequence of event in a piece of writing which goes straight on continues to the
very end.
Types of Prose:
A. The biography (non-fictive prose)
B. The autobiography (non-fictive prose)
C. The memoir (non-fictive)
D. The essay etc.
Short stories, Novella, novel, fable, allegory, romance, parable, faction, All these are
fictional.
Poetry: This refers to the deployment of certain devices such as figures of speech, feelings,
(emotion) rhyme and rhythm, stanza is divisions, subject matter in a body of work in order to
express an idea or one’s impression.
Types of poems:
a. Lyric: is a short, highly musical verse that conveys powerful feelings. The poet may
use rhyme, meter, or other literary devices to create a song-like quality.
b. Ballad: is a poem that tells a story usually (but not always) in four lines stanzas
called quatrains.
c. Ode: an ode is a short lyric poem that praises an individual, an idea, or an event.
d. Sonnet: is a poem that has fourteen lines and follow a specific rhyme scheme.
e. Epic: is a lengthy narrative poem typically about extra-ordinary deeds of
extraordinary characters who in dealings with gods.
Drama: This concerns with the dramatization of experience; it is a representation of human
action. The basic elements of drama are plot, characters, actions, acts/scenes, and setting,
while dialogue serves as its distinguishing style.
 FIGURES OF SPEECH
1. Simile: A simile states that one thing is like another; it draws comparison between
two things which are not always taken to be similar to each other.
2. Metaphor: This converses the similarity between two things by insisting that one
thing is another.
3. Personification: It is a figurative device which gives the features of human beings to
inanimate objects.
4. Hyperbole: This is an extravagant exaggeration of fact, often deployed for acute
comic effect.
5. Irony: Is the satirical use of words to infer a meaning which is directly opposite of
what is really uttered.

Functions of Literature

Literature has numerous functions in our society, some of which are:

1. Entertainment function: It is because man in the early society recognised the

entertainment value of literature that he developed it. He composed poetry and sang
songs while working in the fields to relieve hardship.
2. Psychological function: literature provides the escape we seek by taking us away
from the reality of our existence and mentally transporting us to another form of
reality.
3. Educational function: literature served as a means of education right from the
earliest time and has continued to do so even today in its written form, it educates in a
very subtle way.
4. Instrument of Government propaganda: Governments use literature to propagate
cultural values or popularise their ideas, for example: PRINN, SOCIETY FOR
FAMILY HEALTH, etc.

References
A grammar of English language: The student’s companion. Joy Eyisi Ph.D (2006)

An Introduction toLanguage: Rodman and Fromkin, (2010)

Mekuri, O.N. (2007). Readings on Language

English language module for NCE/DLS course National Teachers’ Institute Kaduna
(2000)

National Open University of Nigeria study modules (NOUN), (2010)

Exam Focus Literature In English: (2011-2015)

Students’ companion: Geddes and Grosset. (2002)

Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication: Akmaijian et al (2008)

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Jyotsna Gupta Types of Libraries (2019)