The ozone layer history: Historical background, formation of ozone layer, sources of ozone

layer. 6 hrs
A Brief History of Ozone
Story by Kasha Patel | Visualizations by Matthew R. Radcliff Released on September 30,
2014
Share on facebookShare on twitterMore Sharing Services0

Ozone is a colorless gas mainly found in Earth’s stratosphere. It forms a protective layer that
absorbs harmful ultraviolet light from the sun. In 1985, an extreme depletion of ozone over
Antarctica was discovered—the so-called Antarctic ozone hole. It soon became clear that this
drop in ozone was caused by man-made chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). To help
solve the global depletion of ozone, the international community regulated CFC production and
consumption by adopting the Montreal Protocol in 1987. Although this and subsequent actions
have now effectively banned CFC production and put the ozone layer on a path to recovery,
long-lived CFCs in the atmosphere continue to effect ozone levels to this day. Watch the video to
see more than 30 years of changes in ozone concentrations over the Southern Hemisphere.

This visualization shows maps of the lowest concentration of ozone observed each year over
Antarctica from 1979 to 2013.https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/11644
Scientists saw a significant decrease in ozone over Antarctica in 1985, shown above.
The lowest concentration of ozone over Antarctica was observed in 1994, shown above.

This is how the Antarctic ozone hole looked in 2013. Scientists expect it to recover to pre-1980
levels around the year 2070.
Ozone minimum concentrations, 1979-2013
 HISTORY OF THE OZONE LAYER

Outline

600,000,000
Ozone layer forms
B.C.

late 1830's Christian Schöenbein identifies ozone in the laboratory

Auguste de la Rive and Jean-Charles de Marignac suggest ozone is a form of

1845
oxygen; confirmed by Thomas Andrews in 1856

1858 Andrei Houzeau finds ozone present in natural air

1865 Jean-Louis Soret proves that ozone is O3

Marie Alfred Cornu measures solar spectrum and finds sharp cutoff in ultraviolet
1879
(UV) light

1881 Walter Hartley recognizes cutoff corresponds to UV absorption by ozone

1913 John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) shows absorption is not in lower atmosphere

Charles Fabry makes first spectrometric measurements of "thickness" of ozone

1919
layer

G.M.B. Dobson develops ozone spectrophotometer and begins regular

1924
measurements of ozone abundance (Arosa, Switzerland)

1925 Jean Cabannes and Jean Dufay show ozone is about 10 miles high

1928 Thomas Midgley synthesizes chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's)

Umkehr method for Dobson instrument establishes that ozone maximum is below
1929
15 miles altitude

1930 Sydney Chapman describes theory that explains existence of an ozone "layer"

Ozonesonde (balloon) measurements establish the ozone concentration is

1934
maximum around 12 miles up

1930's GM develops applications for CFC's

1950 David Bates and Marcel Nicolet propose catalytic (HOx) ozone destruction

Global network of Dobson spectrophotometers established during the

1957
International Geophysical Year (IGY)

late 1950's CFC market expands rapidly

early 1960's Catalytic destruction is necessary in order to explain ozone amounts

1960's Boeing proposes supersonic transport (SST) fleet of 800 aircraft

1969 Paul Crutzen discovers NOx catalytic cycle

Dept of Transportation sponsors intensive program of research, The Climatic

1971-74
Impact Assessment Program (CIAP)

1971 Congress axes funding for the SST

1971 Johnston calculates that NOx from SST's could deplete ozone layer

1973 Rick Stolarski and Ralph Cicerone suggest catalytic capability of Cl

1973 James Lovelock detects CFC's in atmosphere

1974 Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina warn of ozone depletion due to CFC's

First international meeting (Washington DC) to address issue of ozone depletion

March 1977
held by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)

March 1978 US bans non-essential use of CFC's as aerosol propellant

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) is launched aboard NIMBUS-7

1978
spacecraft giving global coverage of ozone layer thickness

1980's Renewed expansion of CFC market

Shigeru Chubachi measures low ozone over Syowa, Antarctica (reported at

Oct 1982
Ozone Commission meeting in Halkidiki, Greece in Sept 1984)

British Antarctic Survey scientists discover recurring springtime Antarctic ozone

1984
hole (published in Nature May 1985)

March 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (Amendments -
Sept. 1987
London 1990; Copenhagen 1992)

March 1988 DuPont agrees to CFC production phase-out

late 1980's Ten years of satellite data begin to show measurable ozone depletion globally

1991 DuPont announces phase-out of CFC production by end of 1996

1992/3 Abnormally low ozone observed globally

1995 Crutzen, Rowland, and Molina win Nobel Prize in Chemistry

mid-1990's springtime Arctic ozone dent appearing

Jan. 1996 CFC production ends in US and Europe

2000 Maximum CFC concentrations in stratosphere are reached

2010 CFC production ends world-wide

Today The Ozone Layer - Global Map

THE FUTURE

2030 Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) alternatives are phased out

2040 HCFC production ends world-wide

2050 Springtime Antarctic ozone hole disappears

https://ozone.unep.org/ozone-timeline

Formation of the Ozone Layer

Over two billion years ago, early aquatic organisms called blue-green algae began using energy
from the Sun to convert molecules of water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and recombine
them into organic compounds and molecular oxygen (O2). This solar energy conversion process
is known as photosynthesis. Some of the photo synthetically created oxygen began to accumulate
in the atmosphere, touching off a massive ecological disaster with respect to early existing
anaerobic organisms. As oxygen in the atmosphere increased, CO2 decreased.

High in the atmosphere, some oxygen (O2) molecules absorbed energy from the Sun's ultraviolet
(UV) rays and split to form single oxygen atoms. These atoms combined with molecular oxygen
(O2) to form ozone (O3) molecules, which are very effective at absorbing UV rays. The thin layer
of ozone that surrounds Earth acts as a shield, protecting the planet from irradiation by UV light.

The amount of ozone required to shield Earth from biologically lethal UV radiation, wavelengths
from 200 to 300 nanometers (nm), is believed to have been in existence 600 million years ago.
At this time, the oxygen level was approximately 10% of its present atmospheric concentration.
Prior to this period, life was restricted to the ocean. The presence of ozone enabled organisms to
develop and live on the land.

How is Ozone Formed?

Ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms, often referenced as O3. Ozone is formed
when heat and sunlight cause chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NO X ) and Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC), which are also known as Hydrocarbons. This reaction can occur
both near the ground and high in the atmosphere.

Just remember that ozone is "Good Up High, Bad Nearby."

Stratospheric ozone is good ozone . It forms about 10-30 miles above the Earth's surface and
forms a protective layer, called the ozone layer, that shields us from too much of the sun's
harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV).

Ground-level ozone is
bad ozone . Ozone harms human health and the environment when it forms close to the ground.
The most significant things that cause ground-level ozone to form are:

 NOX and VOCs (from mobile source emissions and industrial processes ), and
  UV radiation (from sunlight).

We see higher ground-level ozone amounts most often in summer, due to increased amounts of
UV radiation during the longer days, but ozone can still form in spring, fall, and even winter
given the right conditions.

Even though the emission sources that contribute to ground-level ozone are typically found in
urban areas, strong winds can also move it into rural areas, causing them to have high amounts of
ground-level ozone.

People with respiratory conditions such as asthma, or those who are active outside on days when
ozone amounts are high can feel shortness of breath, wheezing, and coughing. We can all take
actions to help protect ourselves and reduce the damaging effects of this pollutant on our health
and environment.
Science of the Ozone Layer
Image of the latest global distribution of ozone

A little closer to home, you can find the ozone overhead as measured by satellite if you know
your latitude and longitude. For the U at Albany Uptown Campus, the latitude is 42.7 degrees
and the longitude is -73.8 degrees. The minus sign is needed for West longitudes. If you forget
the minus sign, you'll find the overhead ozone for Kara-Balta, KYRGYZSTAN which is about
200 miles south of Lake Balkhash where my wife used to vacation with her family as a child.

*******
September 16th is the "International Day for Preservation of the Ozone Layer" as
designated by the United Nations
*******
Ozone is constantly being produced and destroyed in a natural cycle. However, the overall
amount of ozone is essentially stable. This balance can be thought of as a tub with a tap and a
drain. As long as the tap adds water as fast as the drain removes water, the water level in the tub
remains constant. Similarly, while ozone production and destruction are balanced, ozone levels
remain stable. This was the situation until the past several decades.

Large increases in stratospheric chlorine and bromine have upset that balance. In effect, they
have added another drain to the tub, removing ozone faster than natural ozone is created.
Therefore, ozone levels are beginning to fall towards a lower level until a new balance can be
achieved; analogous to the tub in which water drains out more slowly as the water level goes
down and eventually the tap again adds water at the same rate that water drains out but now the
water level is lower.

The ozone depletion process begins when CFC's and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
leak or are released from equipment. Winds efficiently mix the troposphere and evenly distribute
the gases. CFC's are extremely stable, and they do not dissolve in rain. After a period of a few
years, ODS molecules reach the stratosphere. Strong UV light breaks apart the ODS molecule.
CFC's release chlorine atoms and halons release bromine atoms. It is these atoms that actually
destroy ozone, not the intact ODS molecule. It is estimated that one chlorine atom can destroy
over 100,000 ozone molecules before finally being removed from the stratosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) are a class of compounds that have been used as refrigerants (the
fluid used in compressors for air conditioners and refrigerators), aerosol propellants (for spray
cans), foam blowing agents (for manufacture of styrofoam and insulation), and as solvents (for
cleaning in the electronics industry). They are chemically very unreactive, and hence safe to
work with. The CFC's have lifetimes of 50-200+ years in the atmosphere and their major "sink"
is photolysis by UV radiation. CFC's were invented in 1928, but only came into large-
scale production after 1950.

The most important CFC's for ozone depletion are:

Trichlorofluoromethane, CFCl 3 (usually called CFC-11 or R-11)
Dichlorodifluoromethane, CF2Cl2 (CFC-12 or R-12) and
1,1,2 Trichlorotrifluoroethane, CF2ClCFCl2 (CFC-113 or R-113)

"R" stands for "refrigerant". Sometimes CFC-12, for example, is called "F-12"; the"F" stands
for "Freon", DuPont's trade name for these compounds. CFC's as well as related compounds
such as HCFC's (Hydrochlorofluorocarbons) and Halons (Chlorofluorobromocarbons) are
identified by a particular numbering scheme. More info on uses and alternatives.

NOx and the SST

In 1969, Paul Crutzen discovered that oxides of nitrogen NOx (NO and NO 2) could be an
efficient catalyst for the destruction of stratospheric ozone:

NO + O3 -> NO2 + O2
NO2 + O -> NO + O2
-------------------------------
O3 + O -> 2 O2 (net result)

Harold S. Johnston made the connection to Supersonic transport (SST) emissions. Until then it
had been thought that the radicals H, OH, and HO2 (referred to collectively as "HOx") were the
principal catalysts for ozone loss; thus, investigations of the impact of aircraft exhaust on
stratospheric ozone had focussed on emissions of water vapor, a possible source for these
radicals. It had been argued - correctly, as it turns out - that water vapor injection was
unimportant in affecting the ozone balance. The discovery of the NOx cycle again threw open
the question of SST's and the ozone layer.

The natural source of stratospheric NOx is from nitrous oxide N 2O, popularly known as laughing
gas which is very unreactive - it has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 150 years - so it
reaches the stratosphere, where most of it is converted to nitrogen and oxygen by UV photolysis.
However, a small fraction reacts instead with oxygen atoms and this is the major natural source
of NOx in the stratosphere. This natural source would have been matched by 500 of the SST's,
designed by Boeing in the 1960's, each spending 5 hours per day in the stratosphere. (Boeing
was intending to sell 800 of these aircraft.) The Concorde, a slower plane, produces less than half
as much NOx and flies at a lower altitude; since the present Concorde fleet is small, its
contribution to stratospheric NOx is not significant. In the meantime, there has been a great deal
of progress in developing jet engines that will produce much less NOx - up to a factor of 10 -
than the old Boeing SST. The most recent model calculations indicate that a fleet of the new
"high-speed civil transports" would deplete the ozone layer by 0.3 to 1.8%.

One sometimes hears that the US government killed the SST project in 1971 because of concerns
raised by H. S. Johnston's work on NOx. This is not true. The US House of Representatives had
already voted to cut off Federal funding for the SST when Johnston began his calculations. The
House debate had centered around economics and the effects of noise, especially sonic booms,
although there were some vague concerns about "pollution" and one physicist had testified about
the possible effects of water vapor on ozone. About 6 weeks after both houses had voted to
cancel the SST, its supporters succeeded in reviving the project in the House. In the meantime,
Johnston had sent a preliminary report to several professional colleagues and submitted a paper
to Science. A preprint of Johnston's report leaked to a small California newspaper which
published a highly sensationalized account. The story hit the press a few days before the Senate
voted, 58-37, not to revive the SST. (The previous Senate vote had been 51-46 to cancel the
project. The reason for the larger majority in the second vote was probably the statement by
Boeing's chairman that at least $500 million more would be needed to revive the program.)
Basic Ozone Layer Science
The Earth's ozone layer protects all life from the sun's harmful radiation, but human activities
have damaged this shield. Less ozone-layer protection from ultraviolet (UV) light will, over
time, damage crops and lead to higher skin cancer and cataract rates.
Source of Ozone Layer
Most atmospheric ozone is concentrated in a layer in the stratosphere, about 9 to 18 miles (15 to
30 km) above the Earth's surface (see the figure below). Ozone is a molecule that contains three
oxygen atoms. At any given time, ozone molecules are constantly formed and destroyed in the
stratosphere. The total amount has remained relatively stable during the decades that it has been
measured.

Source: Figure Q1-2 from Michaela I. Hegglin (Lead Author), David W. Fahey, Mack
McFarland, Stephen A. Montzka, and Eric R. Nash, Twenty Questions and Answers About the
Ozone Layer: 2014 Update, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2014, 84 pp., World
Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.

The ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs a portion of the radiation from the sun, preventing it
from reaching the planet's surface. Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of UV light
called UVB. UVB has been linked to many harmful effects, including skin cancers, cataracts,
and harm to some crops and marine life.
Scientists have established records spanning several decades that detail normal ozone levels
during natural cycles. Ozone concentrations in the atmosphere vary naturally with sunspots,
seasons, and latitude. These processes are well understood and predictable. Each natural
reduction in ozone levels has been followed by a recovery. Beginning in the 1970s, however,
scientific evidence showed that the ozone shield was being depleted well beyond natural
processes.
Ozone Depletion
When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the stratosphere, they destroy
ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules before it is
removed from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed more quickly than it is naturally created.
Some compounds release chlorine or bromine when they are exposed to intense UV light in the
stratosphere. These compounds contribute to ozone depletion, and are called ozone-depleting

substances (ODS ODSA compound that contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.

ODS include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), halons,

methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride, hydrobromofluorocarbons, chlorobromomethane, and

methyl chloroform. ODS are generally very stable in the troposphere and only degrade under

intense ultraviolet light in the stratosphere. When they break down, they release chlorine or

bromine atoms, which then deplete ozone. A detailed list

(http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/ods/index.html) of class I and class II substances with

their ODPs, GWPs, and CAS numbers are available. ). ODS that release chlorine

include chlorofluorocarbons chlorofluorocarbonsGases covered under the 1987

Montreal Protocol and used for refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, insulation, solvents,

or aerosol propellants. Since they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere, CFCs drift into

the upper atmosphere where, given suitable conditions, they break down ozone. These gases

are being replaced by other compounds: hydrochlorofluorocarbons, an interim replacement for

CFCs that are also covered under the Montreal Protocol, and hydrofluorocarbons, which are

covered under the Kyoto Protocol. All these substances are also greenhouse gases. See

hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, ozone depleting

substance. (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons

hydrochlorofluorocarbonsCompounds containing hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, and carbon

atoms. Although ozone depleting substances, they are less potent at destroying stratospheric

ozone than chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They have been introduced as temporary

replacements for CFCs and are also greenhouse gases. See ozone depleting

substance. (HCFCs), carbon tetrachloride carbon tetrachlorideA compound

consisting of one carbon atom and four chlorine atoms. Carbon tetrachloride was widely used

as a raw material in many industrial uses, including the production of chlorofluorocarbons

(CFCs), and as a solvent. Solvent use ended when it was discovered to be carcinogenic. It is

also used as a catalyst to deliver chlorine ions to certain processes. Its ozone depletion

potential is 1.2. , and methyl chloroform methyl chloroformA compound consisting

of carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine. Methyl chloroform is used as an industrial solvent. Its

ozone depletion potential is 0.11. . ODS that release bromine include halons

halonsCompounds, also known as bromofluorocarbons, that contain bromine, fluorine, and

carbon. They are generally used as fire extinguishing agents and cause ozone depletion.

Bromine is many times more effective at destroying stratospheric ozone than chlorine. See

ozone depleting substance. and methyl bromide methyl bromideA compound

consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and bromine. Methyl Bromide is an effective pesticide used to

fumigate soil and many agricultural products. Because it contains bromine, it depletes

stratospheric ozone and has an ozone depletion potential of 0.6. Production of methyl bromide

was phased out on December 31, 2004, except for allowable exemptions. Much more

information is available (http://www.epa.gov/ozone/mbr/index.html). . Although ODS are

emitted at the Earth’s surface, they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a process that
can take as long as two to five years.
In the 1970s, concerns about the effects of ozone-depleting substances () on the

stratospheric ozone layer ozone layerThe region of the stratosphere containing the bulk

of atmospheric ozone. The ozone layer lies approximately 15-40 kilometers (10-25 miles)

above the Earth's surface, in the stratosphere. Depletion of this layer by ozone depleting

substances (ODS) will lead to higher UVB levels, which in turn will cause increased skin

cancers and cataracts and potential damage to some marine organisms, plants, and plastics.

The science page (http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/index.html) offers much more detail on

the science of ozone depletion. prompted several countries, including the United States, to ban

the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs CFCsOrganic compounds made up of atoms of

carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. An example is CFC-12 (CCI2F2), used as a refrigerant in

refrigerators and air conditioners and as a foam blowing agent. Gaseous CFCs can deplete the

ozone layer when they slowly rise into the stratosphere, are broken down by strong ultraviolet

radiation, release chlorine atoms, and then react with ozone molecules. See Ozone Depleting

Substance. ) as aerosol aerosolA small droplet or particle suspended in the

atmosphere, typically containing sulfur. Aerosols are emitted naturally (e.g., in volcanic

eruptions) and as the result of human activities (e.g., by burning fossil fuels). There is no

connection between particulate aerosols and pressurized products also called aerosols. (See

below) propellants. However, global production of CFCs and other ODS continued to grow
rapidly as new uses were found for these chemicals in refrigeration, fire suppression, foam
insulation,
Some andprocesses,
natural other applications.
such as large volcanic eruptions, can have an indirect effect on ozone
levels. For example, Mt. Pinatubo's 1991 eruption did not increase stratospheric chlorine
concentrations, but it did produce large amounts of tiny particles called aerosols

aerosolsSmall particles or liquid droplets in the atmosphere that can absorb or reflect sunlight

depending on their composition. (different from consumer products also known as aerosols).
These aerosols increase chlorine's effectiveness at destroying ozone. The aerosols in the
stratosphere create a surface on which CFC-based chlorine can destroy ozone. However, the
effect from volcanoes is short-lived.
Not all chlorine and bromine sources contribute to ozone layer depletion. For example,
researchers have found that chlorine from swimming pools, industrial plants, sea salt, and
volcanoes does not reach the stratosphere. In contrast, ODS are very stable and do not dissolve in
rain. Thus, there are no natural processes that remove the ODS from the lower atmosphere.
One example of ozone depletion is the annual ozone "hole" over Antarctica that has occurred
during the Antarctic spring since the early 1980s. This is not really a hole through the ozone
layer, but rather a large area of the stratosphere with extremely low amounts of ozone.
Ozone depletion is not limited to the area over the South Pole. Research has shown that ozone
depletion occurs over the latitudes that include North America, Europe, Asia, and much of
Africa, Australia, and South America. More information about the global extent of ozone
depletion can be found in the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2014 developed by the
United Nations Environment Programme.
 The Ozone Layer

"The ozone layer" refers to the ozone within stratosphere, where over 90% of the earth's ozone
resides. Ozone is a reactive oxidant gas produced naturally in trace amounts. Ozone is an
irritating, corrosive, colorless gas with a smell something like burning electrical wiring. In fact,
ozone is easily produced by any high-voltage electrical arc (spark plugs, Van de Graff
generators, Tesla coils, arc welders). Each molecule of ozone has three oxygen atoms and is
produced when oxygen molecules (O2) are broken up by energetic electrons or high energy
radiation.

Variations in temperature and pressure divide the earths atmosphere into layers, shown below,
and mixing of gases between the layers happens very slowly.

 The altitudes on the diagram are logarithmic so an analogy in the glossary might give you
a better idea of the relative thicknesses of these layers.
 Notice that the lowest 10% of the atmosphere holds 90% of the air. This is because gases
are compressable. In a huge pile of feathers the bottom-most feathers become compressed
under the weight of the feathers above them. Likewise the lower levels of the atmosphere
are filled with compressed air while the upper levels, such as the stratosphere, contain
very 'thin' uncompressed air. Although the stratosphere layer is over four times thicker
than the lower atmosphere, the stratosphere holds so little gas that ozone is still
considered one of the minor trace-gases of the overall atmosphere.
 Anthropogenic emissions could lead to ozone increases in the troposphere whereas
stratospheric ozone is essential for screening of solar ultraviolet radiation.
 This paradoxical dual role of ozone in the atmosphere has an occasion led to the dubbing
of stratospheric ozone as good ozone and troposphereic ozone as bad ozone
  The peak in ozone molecular number density (concentration) occurs in the region of 20 to
30 km.

The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet light , light which is
potentially damaging to life on earth. Every 1% decrease in the earths ozone shield is projected
to increases the amount of UV light exposure to the lower atmosphere by 2%. Because this
would cause more ozone to form in the lower atmosphere, it is uncertain how much of UV light
would actually reach the earths surface. Recent UV measurements from around the northern
hemisphere indicate small UV increases in rural areas and almost no increase in areas near large
cities.

Units used to measure ozone concentration

When describing the amount or concentration of gas, scientists resort to several different units:

1. Dobsin unit (DU)- the principle unit for measuring ozone concentration. One DU is about
twenty-seven million molecules per square centimeter ( the palm of your hand covers an
area of rougly a hundred square centimeters). The ozone concentration over the US is
about 300 DU and the antarctic hole during the late spring can drop to 117 DU.
2. Mixing ratios: within a specified volume, it is a fraction of the number of molecules of a
particular gas divided by the total number of molecules in that given space. Terms of
usually abreviated, like ppmv for parts-per-million or ppbv which is parts-per-billion .
For example the concentration of HCl at 3 km is said to be about 0.1 ppbv; this means
that if you selected a volume of air that contained 10 billion molecules of air, one of those
molecules would be an HCl molecule.

Factors influencing Ozone concentrations

1. Stratospheric sulfate aerosols: large explosive volcanoes are able to place a significant
amount of aerosols into the lower stratosphere, as well as some chlorine. Because more
than 90% of a volcanic plume is water vapor most of the other compounds, including
volcanic chlorine, get ''rained-out'' of the stratosphere. The effects of a large volcano on
global weather are significant, which in turn can affect localized weather patterns such as
the antarctic ozone hole. Many observations have linked the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption
to a 20% increase in the ozone hole that following spring[Solomon et al. 1993]) . The
effects of a large volcanic eruption on total global ozone are more modest (less than 3%)
and last no more than 2-3 years.
2. Stratospheric winds: every 26 months the tropical winds in the lower stratophere change
from easterly to westerly and then back again, an event called the Quasi-biennial
Ocillation (QBO). The QBO causes ozone values at a particular latitude to expand and
contract roughly 3%. Since stratospheric winds move ozone, not destroy it, the loss of
one latitude is the gain of another and globally the effects cancel out.
 3. Greenhouse gases: to the degree that greenhouse gases might heat the planet and alter
weather patterns, the magnatude of the stratospheric winds will certainly be affected.
Some of the more popular senarios of global warming predict cooler stratospheric
temperatures, leading to more polar stratospheric clouds and more active chlorine in the
area of the antarctic ozone hole.
4. Sunspot cycle: ozone is created by solar UV radiation. The amount of UV radiation
produced by the sun is not constant but varies by several percent in a rougly 11year cycle.
This 11year cycle is related to magnetic changes within the sun which increase the solar
UV output, and is heralded by an increase sunspots which appear on the surface of the
sun. Comparisons of yearly ozone concentrations show a small 11 year variation in global
ozone of about 2%. Episodes of unusual solar activity, solar storms and large solar flares,
could certainly alter this value.
5. Stratospheric chlorine, coming mostly from man-made halocarbons. Careful subtracting
of other natural factors yields a net decrease of 3% per decade in global ozone,1978-
1991; due most likely to catalytic degredation by stratospheric chlorine.

Decrease in global ozone The measurement period is from November 1978 through November
1987, and combines depletion due to natural and man-made causes. This analysis and graphic
comes from the United Nations Environmental Protection Agency(UNEP).
 Climate Change and Ozone Depletion

The earth’s climate is predicted to change because human activities are altering the chemical
composition of the atmosphere through the buildup of greenhouse gases – primarily carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. The heat-trapping property of these gases is undisputed.
Although uncertainty exists about exactly how earth’s climate responds to these gases, global
temperatures are rising.
Atmospheric greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the
outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of a greenhouse.
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide
have increased nearly 30%, methane concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide
concentrations have risen by about 15%. These increases have enhanced the heat-trapping
capability of the earth’s atmosphere.

This phenomenon is related with the depletion of the ozone layer – caused by our release of
chlorofluorocarbons –, which has led to cooling of the upper atmosphere. Scientists think these
temporary cooling effects have been masking some of the long-term warming being caused by
human emissions of greenhouse gases. Over the 21st century, the ongoing buildup of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere is likely to be the most dominant influence on our planet's climate.

Additionally, several Ozone Depletion Substances could be considered greenhouse gases. The
following tables illustrates the GWP (Global Warming Potential)* of the ODS substances:

*Gases in the atmosphere can contribute to the greenhouse effect both directly and indirectly.
Direct effects occur when the gas itself is a greenhouse gas; indirect radioactive forcing occurs
when chemical transformations of the original gas produce a gas or gases that are greenhouse
gases, or when a gas influences the atmospheric lifetimes of other gases. The concept of a Global
Warming Potential (GWP) has been developed to compare the ability of each greenhouse gas to
trap heat in the atmosphere relative to another gas. Carbon dioxide was chosen as the reference
gas to be consistent with IPCC guidelines.
 SOLVE II Science Implementation

1.0 Science Overview

1.1 General Description of Stratospheric Ozone

1.1.1 What is ozone?
1.1.2 UV Effects and Ozone
1.1.3 Ozone Production and Loss
1.1.4 Polar Ozone Science
1.1.4.1 Antarctic and Arctic Ozone Levels
1.1.4.2 Polar Stratospheric Clouds
1.1.4.3 Dynamics and Transport
1.1.5 Ozone and Public Policy
1.2 General Description of SOLVE-II Mission
1.3 SAGE III Validation
1.4 SOLVE-II Science Objectives
1.5 Measurement Priorities
1.6 SOLVE I Results

2.0 Science Implementation

2.1 Instruments
2.2 Platforms
2.2.1 Aircraft
2.2.2 Balloons and Rockets
2.2.3 Ground-based Observations
2.3 Geography
2.4 Forecasting

1.0 Science Overview

1.1 General Description of Stratospheric Ozone

1.1.1 What is ozone?

Ozone is an atmospheric gas which screens a harmful form of solar radiation,

known as ultraviolet radiation, from reaching the Earth. About 90% of the ozone
in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere (the region from about 30,000
feet to 180,000 feet above the Earth's surface between the tropopause and
stratopause). Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 50,000 and
100,000 feet, but these ozone concentrations are very small, typically comprising
only a few molecules per million molecules of air (air is composed of about 78%
nitrogen molecules and 21% oxygen molecules).

Scientific studies of ozone are important because we do not yet understand how
the ozone layer may be changing, and how that may affect the habitability of the
planet. Without protective upper-level ozone, there would be no life on Earth.
Exposure to ultraviolet radiation is a primary cause of skin cancer, and will be
exacerbated as ozone levels diminish. In contrast, low-level or tropospheric
ozone is a greenhouse gas. Stratospheric ozone losses are believed to cool the
Earth's surface, while ozone increases in the lower atmosphere will act to warm
the Earth's surface.

Figure 1 shows a typical profile of ozone density versus altitude (yellow line) in
the midlatitudes of the Northern Hemisphere (units=Dobson Units/kilometer).
The stratosphere lies between the tropopause and stratopause (marked in red).
Superimposed on the figure are plots of UV radiation as a function of altitude for
UVa (320-400 nm, cyan), UVb (280-320 nm, green), and UVc (200-280 nm,
magenta). The width of the bar indicates the amount of energy as a function of
altitude. The UVc energy decreases dramatically as ozone increases because of
the strong absorption in the 200-280 nm wavelength band. The UVb is also
strongly absorbed, with a small fraction reaching the surface. The UVa is only
weakly absorbed by ozone, with some scattering of radiation near the surface.
 Figure 1: Ozone Density Profile for the Northern Hemisphere

1.1.2 UV Effects and Ozone

Absorption of harmful solar ultraviolet radiation is critical for our well being,
since ultraviolet light can break the bonds of DNA molecules (the molecular
carriers of our genetic coding), and thereby damage cells. While most plants and
animals are able to either repair or destroy their damaged cells, on occasion,
these damaged DNA molecules are not repaired or eliminated, and can replicate,
leading to dangerous forms of skin cancer in humans (basal, squamous, and
melanoma). Fortunately, ozone strongly absorbs UV. Note how the magenta bar
in Figure 1 above quickly diminishes as the solar energy penetrates to levels
where ozone is found. UVb is also strongly absorbed, but some UVb can
penetrate to the surface. If ozone were reduced by 1%, there would be about a
2% increase of surface UVb. Diminished levels of ozone lead to increases of
UVb and UVa radiation at the surface with a consequent adverse biological
response.
1.1.3 Ozone Production and Loss

Ozone is produced by the intense ultraviolet radiation in the upper stratosphere at

wavelengths generally less than 240 nm. This radiation breaks apart an oxygen
molecule into oxygen atoms and these atoms in turn react with other oxygen
molecules to form ozone molecules. This ozone production process is shown
schematically in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Ozone Production Process

Ozone is destroyed when it reacts with one of a variety of chemicals in the

stratosphere such as chlorine, nitrogen, bromine or hydrogen. This process
occurs in a three-step catalytic process. The first ozone molecule is photolyzed to
form an O atom and the first oxygen molecule. Second, the catalyst reacts with
another ozone molecule to form XO and the second oxygen molecule. Finally,
the XO molecule reacts with the O atom to form a third oxygen molecule, and to
reform the original catalyst. The catalyst converts two ozone molecules into 3
oxygen molecules without being affected itself. A typical chlorine atom can
destroy thousands of ozone molecules in this fashion. Figure 3 portrays the
destruction of ozone in a homogeneous gas phase reaction.
 Figure 3: Ozone Destruction Process

The catalyst (X, the black molecule) in Figure 3 represents a chlorine, bromine,
hydrogen, or nitrogen atom. Such reactions occur naturally, and the global ozone
levels are approximately balanced between the solar production and chemical
losses from these processes. Increasing the levels of chlorine and other pollutants
in the stratosphere could increase the chemical loss process, and subsequently
decrease the ozone levels.

Substantial polar ozone loss requires three key ingredients. First, there must be
significant levels of inorganic chlorine for conversion into radical forms. This
condition has been true since the early 1980s as a result of pollution of the
stratosphere by chlorofluorocarbons. Second, temperatures must be cold enough
(below about 195 K) for PSCs to form. This always happens in the Arctic by
early December. Finally, the cold temperatures must persist late into the winter
and early spring when the sun is fully risen over the Arctic.

1.1.4 Polar Ozone Science

The lower stratosphere during the Arctic winter is a strange environment for both
chemistry and meteorology. During the winter, Arctic temperatures at about 20
km can fall below -120 F (-83 C). In the Antarctic, the temperatures are even
colder, occasionally falling below -136 F. Although the stratosphere is very dry,
these extremely cold temperatures cause clouds to form. These polar
stratospheric clouds (PSCs) enable very interesting chemical reactions (known as
heterogeneous chemical processes) that accelerate ozone loss. In fact, these
heterogeneous reactions cause the Antarctic ozone "hole." Scientists are
increasingly worried that cooler temperature in the Arctic may lead to increased
formation of PSCs, and thereby massive ozone losses. The ability to predict these
losses requires detailed understanding of the chemistry, dynamics, and radiative
properties of the Arctic stratosphere.

1.1.4.1 Antarctic and Arctic Ozone Levels

The Antarctic ozone "hole" is a region of extreme ozone loss that has been
appearing annually since the 1970s. Ozone amounts over Antarctica drops
dramatically (up to 50%) in the course of a few weeks during the August-
September period. The ozone hole results from the increased amounts of chlorine
and bromine in the stratosphere, combined with the peculiar meteorology and
extreme cold of the Southern Hemisphere winter. Figure 4 shows October
averages of satellite data for a series of early years, prior to the appearance of the
ozone hole (top panels), and the last few years (bottom panels). These averages
are determined from satellite column ozone as measured by Nimbus-4 BUV
(1970, 72, 72), Nimbus-7 (1979), Meteor-3 (1994), SBUV (1996), and EP-
TOMS (1997, 98) satellites. The color scale on the bottom indicates high ozone
levels in red, and low ozone in the blues and purples.
 Figure 4: Antarctic Ozone Levels

The growth of chlorine and bromine levels in the stratosphere has produced very
large losses of ozone over the polar regions, producing this Antarctic ozone hole.
During the 1990s, ozone levels are less than half of what was observed during
the 1960s and 70s. Losses of a similar magnitude have been observed over the
Arctic for a number of years.

Figure 5 shows polar averaged Arctic ozone levels. Because of the different
climates of the Arctic and Antarctic, the Arctic ozone levels are naturally higher,
yet both polar regions have shown reduced ozone over the last decade. The
March averages of total ozone as measured by Nimbus-4 BUV (1971, 72),
Nimbus-7 (1979, 90, 93), NOAA-14 SBUV-2 (1996), and EP-TOMS (1997)
satellites. Note the differences in color scales between Figures 4 and 5; northern
ozone levels are naturally much higher than southern levels.
 Figure 5: Arctic Ozone Levels

1.1.4.2 Polar Stratospheric Clouds

The extremely low ozone which occurred in the Arctic during the 1990's also
coincided with colder than normal temperatures. The cold temperatures led to an
increase in the occurrence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). The PSCs led to
increased ozone loss via the heterogeneous reactions that occur on the cloud
surfaces. This is discussed in the following sections.

As the stratosphere cools to very cold temperatures over the Antarctic during the
southern winter, PSCs form. Figure 6 shows a photograph of a PSC taken by
Brian Toon near Iceland during the AASE I campaign in 1989. PSCs are
particularly prevalent in the Northern Scandinavia region during the winter
period. Kiruna, Sweden is an optimal site (see section 2.3) for sampling PSCs,
since the stratosphere above Kiruna is normally quite cold, and the local
meteorology (mountain forced waves) creates even colder conditions, leading to
PSC formation.

Figure 6: PSC observed during AASE I near Iceland

(Photo courtesy of O. B. Toon).

PSCs are principally responsible for the observed ozone losses in the polar
region. These PSCs convert inorganic chlorine from reservoir species (HCl and
ClONO2) to free radical form as in the Antarctic [see Brune et al., 1990; Toohey
et al., 1993]. This conversion occurs via heterogeneous reactions on the surfaces
of stratospheric particles and aerosols. Direct in-situ observations of PSCs are
rather rare, having only occurred during a few flights of the ER-2 during the
SOLVE-I, AAOE, AASE-I, and ASHOE/MAESA campaigns.

1.1.4.3 Dynamics and Transport

The polar lower stratosphere becomes extremely cold during winter, since the
polar night jet acts to contain the polar air during mid-winter. This polar air mass
is known as the polar vortex. As viewed from space above the North Pole, this
appears as a counterclockwise swirl of air. Because of this containment, this
polar vortex air has a distinctive chemical composition as compared to air in the
mid-latitudes. This containment makes the polar vortex a "containment vessel"
for the chemical ozone loss that takes place during the winter and spring.

The air found in the polar vortex principally originates from higher stratospheric
altitudes. The air generally moves poleward and downward over the course of the
winter period. Since ozone values increase with altitude, this poleward and
downward motion increases the column ozone amount. Therefore, the average
transport of air toward the pole during the winter will act to increase the column
ozone over the course of winter.

1.1.5 Ozone and Public Policy

Reported ozone losses and predictions of ozone loss have heightened our concern
with the effects of increased UV levels. Such concerns have led to international
treaties such as the Montreal Protocol, which have regulated the production of
certain gases which can harm the ozone layer. Further research and
measurements have begun to provide insight into how other atmospheric
processes (such as greenhouse warming) can effect ozone. This further research
in necessary to refine our understanding of the stratosphere, leading to well based
policy decisions.

1.2 General Description of SOLVE-II Mission

The second SAGE III Ozone Loss and Validation Experiment (SOLVE-II) is an
atmospheric science measurement campaign in the Arctic high-latitude region
planned for January-April 2003 that will focus on acquiring correlative data
needed to validate measurements from the Meteor-3M/Stratospheric Aerosol and
Gas Experiment (SAGE) III satellite mission. This includes measurement of
ozone, aerosols, and trace gases from NASA's DC-8 aircraft along with balloons,
rockets, and sondes. The DC-8 will fly a series of flights in and around the polar
vortex on a variety of flight trajectories for temporal and spatial coincident data
acquisition using both remote sensing and in situ detection measurements. The
field campaign will also acquire correlative measurement with the atmospheric
chemistry instruments onboard the POAM and ENVISAT satellite missions to
enhance comparison and science activities utilizing these data sets.

The SOLVE-II mission will include profile measurements of ozone, water vapor,
nitrogen dioxide, temperature, pressure, and aerosol size distribution from small
balloons. These measurements will provide linkage to previous satellite
validation activities and will serve as a valuable cross-reference to other long-
term records. It is envisioned that such balloon payloads will be launched from
the Esrange facility near Kiruna, Sweden, which will be at approximately the
same latitude of measurement for SAGE III sunset occultation events during the
campaign. It is anticipated that approximately 6-8 balloon launches will be
conducted during the campaign. It is also possible that one or two heavy lift
balloons carrying remote sensing instrumentation will be launched during the
January-March, 2002 timeframe.
This campaign will be conducted in close collaboration with the VINTERSOL
(Validation of International Satellites and study of Ozone Loss) campaign
sponsored by European Commission. More than 350 scientists from the United
States, the European Union, Canada, Iceland, Japan, Norway, Poland, Russia,
and Switzerland will participate in this joint effort. SOLVE-II is co-sponsored by
the Upper Atmosphere Research Program, the Radiation Sciences Program, the
Atmospheric Chemistry Modeling and Analysis Program, and Earth Observing
System of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise.

1.3 SAGE III Validation

A major objective of SOLVE II is the validation of the SAGE-III instrument,

which was launched on the Russian Meteor 3M spacecraft on December 10,
2001. SAGE III is the latest in a family of solar occultation satellite instruments
designed to monitor distributions of stratospheric and upper tropospheric aerosol,
ozone, water vapor, and other important chemically active trace species with
very high vertical resolution of approximately 0.5 km. Measurements from
SAGE III will extend the approximately 17 year data record collected by SAGE
II (1984-present) and provide a valuable data resource that will enable an
examination of long-term climate variations and trend analysis.

For the Meteor 3M/SAGE III mission, solar occultation measurements will occur
mostly at high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere and mid latitudes in the
Southern Hemisphere. This coverage will allow measurements to be made within
the Arctic polar vortex where polar stratospheric clouds form and rapid ozone
loss occurs locally in winter and early spring. Greater latitudinal coverage is
available from lunar occultation events. Figure 7 shows the expected latitudinal
coverage of SAGE III measurement locations throughout the year.
 Figure 7: Predicted coverage of the SAGE III measurement locations for 2003
solar and lunar occultation events.

Validation of SAGE III science data requires airborne and balloon correlative
measurements that are in close temporal and spatial coincidence to reduce
uncertainties in representative sampling. Added correlative measurements are
also needed along the line-of-sight between the satellite and the sun (or moon) to
assess the impact of constituent inhomogeneity on the retrieval algorithm. This is
especially true in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds or cirrus. The
measurement requirements specified below are discussed further in the SAGE
III Validation Plan 2000.

1.4 SOLVE-II Science Objectives

The SOLVE-II campaign is designed to pursue five basic science objectives.

These objectives are:

1. Understanding polar ozone loss rate in early to mid-winter. Observations

during the first SOLVE campaign (see section 1.6) showed a larger than
expected loss of ozone during the January-February period. During
SOLVE-II DC-8 flights and balloon observations will be designed to
again measure ozone losses.

2. Improving our understanding of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).

Observations during the first SOLVE campaign revealed the unexpected
presence of very tenuous PSCs composed of large particles in the high
Arctic region. These large particles were shown to be composed of nitric
acid and water and contribute to ozone depletion. However, the formation
of these large particles is not understood.

3. Improving our understanding of the chemistry of ozone loss. Arctic ozone

is destroyed by chlorine and bromine gases that primarily come from
human-produced compounds. Measurements of these compounds during
the first SOLVE campaign showed that the observed decrease of ozone
was in reasonable agreement with the observed levels of chlorine and
bromine. During the SOLVE-II campaign, we will also be testing our
observed ozone losses against these chlorine and bromine levels.
 4. Meteorological impacts on polar ozone levels. Over the course of the
winter, ozone typically increases in the polar region, as ozone rich air in
the mid and high altitudes is carried poleward by the winds. This motion
also acts to warm the polar region. Because meteorological conditions
vary widely between winters, this transport of ozone-rich air must be
carefully identified during a winter campaign.

5. SAGE III instrument validation. Ozone, aerosol, water vapor, and

nitrogen dioxide measurements from the DC-8 will be compared to
SAGE III measurements to demonstrate the quality of satellite
observations. The satellite observations are key components of the
international effort to determine the current state of the ozone layer, and
to determine how it will evolve in the future.

1.5 Measurement Priorities

Based on the five science objectives described above, the SOLVE-II

measurement priorities (and selection of appropriate measurement instruments)
were developed as follows:

1. Ozone Concentration

SAGE III will measure ozone concentration from cloud top to 85 km with
an accuracy of about 6% at the peak and a vertical resolution of 0.5 km.
By contrast, this mission will focus on obtaining correlative ozone
measurements in the upper troposphere and lower to mid-stratosphere.
Accurate knowledge of ozone trends in this region near the tropopause is
critical for assessing radiative forcing. Historically, this is the same
altitude regime in which SAGE II has had its greatest uncertainties in
ozone trend assessments.

To address the vertical extent of the SAGE III and other ozone
measurement variability over the slant path (line-of-sight) of
approximately 200 km for a given altitude, we will include zenith and
nadir viewing lidar measurements of ozone concentrations on the DC-8
instrument payload. Lidar measurements provide high precision, but have
lower accuracy; thus, an in situ ozone concentration measurement will
also be included. Lidar profile measurements will extend to an altitude of
at least 10 km above flight altitude. In situ observations will also cover
the operational altitude range of the aircraft.
2. Aerosols

SAGE III will measure aerosol extinction at seven wavelengths ranging

from 385 to 1550 nm in the troposphere and stratosphere. Validation of
these measurements, as well as derived products such as aerosol surface
area, will be based on data comparisons between instruments.

Lidar aerosol and cloud measurements

Vertical lidar backscatter measurements provide an excellent method for

examining the vertical and horizontal variability of aerosol and optically-
thin clouds along the SAGE slant path. Because the aerosol lidar retrieval
is strongly affected by the normalization procedure, measurements should
reach heights above 30 km, where Rayleigh scattering dominates the
backscatter return. Measurements must have 0.5 km vertical resolution or
better. Depolarization measurements are further required to discriminate
between spherical and non-spherical particles.

In situ particle samplers

The multi-wavelength SAGE III aerosol measurements provide estimates

of aerosol surface area. Well-calibrated instruments are needed to validate
these estimates over aerosol particle size distributions in the sub-micron
size range. Aerosol composition in the stratosphere and upper troposphere
is needed to examine variability of the backscatter-to-extinction
conversion factor. Instruments should be able to measure particle optical
surface area to better than a factor of two.

Solar radiometer

Radiometers can provide slant-path optical depth measurements at many

of the same wavelengths measured by SAGE III. Such measurements can
further be differentiated during aircraft ascents or descents to yield
vertical extinction profiles for intercomparison. These data will also
enable profiles of aerosol extinction to be compared with those derived
from in situ particle samplers or inferred from lidar backscatter
observations.

3. Water vapor In situ water vapor measurements will be needed with an

accuracy of approximately 10% for the upper troposphere and less than
25% for the stratosphere. Lidar profile measurements will also be needed
to examine its variability in the troposphere along the SAGE III slant
path. Measurements are also desired in the stratosphere, where variations
near PSCs could provide insight on cloud formation. Such profile
 measurements should extend at least 10 km above and 5 km below flight
altitude in clear sky conditions.

4. Temperature, Pressure and Altitude Registry Temperature profiles also

will be used to help interpret PSC measurements and to calculate the
altitude of the tropopause. Profile measurements are needed from a point
several kilometers below the aircraft to a height of about 35 km.

The accurate determination of the transmission profile is fundamental to

the retrieval of all species. For SAGE I, altitude registration errors of
about 200 to 400 m resulted in biases in ozone mixing ratio and other
species. For SAGE III, altitude registration with an uncertainty of < 100
m is desired. Validation may be achieved by measuring the altitude of the
top of an optically thick cloud that lies along the slant path. It may also be
achieved by matching profiles of aerosol, ozone, and water vapor,
especially near the tropopause where strong vertical gradients exist. A
combination of upward and downward viewing lidar profiles acquired
along aircraft survey and staircase flights should provide this information.

5. Nitrogen Dioxide and Chlorine Dioxide Correlative observations of NO2

and OClO are needed to compare with SAGE III measurement profiles.
Nitrogen dioxide will be observed during both solar and lunar occultation
events and are needed over the altitude range of about 20 km to 35 km.
OClO will only be observed during lunar occultation events.

6. In situ Conditions DC-8 facility measurements of time, position (latitude,

longitude, and both radar and pressure altitude), attitude angles, and in
situ temperature will be made to time correlate data sets obtained during
mission operations.

1.6 SOLVE I Results

Between November 1999 and April 2000, two major field experiments, the first
Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) III Ozone Loss and
Validation Experiment (SOLVE) and the third European Stratospheric
Experiment on Ozone (THESEO 2000), collaborated to form the largest field
campaign yet undertaken to study Arctic ozone loss. This international campaign
involved more than 500 scientists from over 20 countries. These scientists made
measurements across the high and middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.
The main scientific aims of SOLVE/THESEO 2000 were to study the processes
leading to ozone loss in the Arctic vortex and the effect on ozone amounts over
northern midlatitudes. The campaign included satellites, research balloons, six
aircraft, ground stations, and scores of ozonesondes. Campaign activities were
principally conducted in three intensive measurement phases centered on early
December 1999, late January 2000, and early March 2000. Observations made
during the campaign showed that temperatures were below normal in the polar
lower stratosphere over the course of the 1999-2000 winter. Because of these low
temperatures, extensive polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) formed across the
Arctic. Large particles containing nitric acid trihydrate were observed for the first
time, showing that denitrification can occur without the formation of ice
particles. Heterogeneous chemical reactions on the surfaces of the PSC particles
produced high levels of reactive chlorine within the polar vortex by early
January. This reactive chlorine catalytically destroyed about 60% of the ozone in
a layer near 20 km between late January and mid-March 2000, with good
agreement being found between a number of empirical and modeling studies.
The measurements made during SOLVE/THESEO 2000 have improved our
understanding of key photochemical parameters and the evolution of ozone-
destroying forms of chlorine.

2.0 Science Implementation

2.1 Instruments

Once the science objectives and measurement priorities of the SOLVE campaign
were identified, a NASA Research announcement (NRA-02-OES-02) was issued
to select appropriate investigations and instruments. The selected aircraft
instruments are mapped to these priorities in Table 1. Detailed information on the
instruments which comprise the SOLVE-II mission can be found here.

Measureme
Desired Priorit Principal
nt Instruments
Measurements y Investigators
Techniques
E. Browell/LaRC
lidar, DIAL M. Avery/LaRC
microwave FASTOZ McGee/Burris/GS
O3 Concentration 1 radiometer, AROTAL FC
in situ AEROSOL C.
techniques AATS Hostetler/LaRC
P. Russell/ARC
 M. Reeves/U.
lidar, FCAS/NMA
Denver
Aerosol Extinction solar S
E. Browell/LaRC
(wavelengths 385 1 radiometer, DIAL
B.
nm - 1550 nm); particle DIAPER
Anderson/LaRC
samplers AATS
P. Russell/ARC
lidar,
diode laser
hygrometer,
photofragm DACOM/DL
H2O ent H G. Diskin/LaRC
1
Concentration fluorescent GAMS/LAA M. Pitts/LaRC
hygrometer, BS
& other in
situ
techniques
lidar,
Temperature/Press microwave
1 MTP M. Mahoney/JPL
ure radiometer,
in situ probe
solar
radiometer,
DIAS
FTIR, R. Shetter/NCAR
NO2 2 GAMS/LAA
UV/Vis M. Pitts/LaRC
BS
spectromete
r
inferred
from
OClO 2
microwave
radiometer
Solar Imager 2 CCD imager DIAS R. Shetter/NCAR
Long-lived
Tracers in situ DACOM/DL
2 G. Diskin/LaRC
N2O, CO2, techniques H
CO,CH4
Mass
spectrometr
HNO3 2 y, PANTHER J. Elkins/NOAA
Microwave
radiometer
 Microwave
ClO, BrO 2
radiometer
Reservoir Remote-
Compounds 2 sensing
ClONO2, HCl Techniques

Table 1: Measurement requirements and candidate instrumentation for the DC-8

2.2 Platforms

2.2.1 Aircraft

The DC-8 aircraft, based at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center, is the
primary measurement platform for the SOLVE-II mission. The DC-8 provides a
unique airborne science platform for a wide variety of experiments, collecting
data in support of scientific projects which serves the world scientific
community. Included in this community are NASA, federal, state, academic, and
foreign investigators. Data gathered at flight altitude and by remote sensing from
the DC-8 have been used in many studies including: archaeology, ecology,
geology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, volcanology, atmospheric
chemistry, soil science, biology, and other earth science disciplines.

The DC-8 aircraft used for this campaign is a medium altitude, moderate to high
speed aircraft flying up to 41,000 feet above sea level between 425 and 490 knots
True Air Speed (TAS). The DC-8 is capable of precise flight line navigation by
means of an integrated inertial and GPS navigation systems from which line
guidance is provided to the pilots. Further information on the capabilities of the
aircraft can be found here.

In addition, VINTERSOL scientists will concurrently take measurements of the

stratosphere using a large suite of instruments aboard the European high-flying
M55 Geophysica aircraft, and the German DLR Falcon. A temperature profiling
instrument from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory will also fly on the M55
Geophysica. These aircraft will also be based in Kiruna, Sweden.

2.2.2 Balloons and Rockets

Balloon-borne in situ or remotely sensed observations of O3, NO2, and H2O will
provide valuable profile data at latitudes near coincident with SAGE III sunset
occultation measurements of these same species. In situ measurements of aerosol
size distribution and surface area will similarly provide validation for SAGE III
estimates of these parameters. Concurrent temperature and pressure
measurements are also required to determine altitude and aid in scientific
analysis. Additional measurements HNO3, BrO, ClO, CO, CO2, CH4, CFC-11,
CFC-12, N2O, ClONO2, HCl, and HF will aid validation efforts for ILAS-II and
SCIAMACHY, other atmospheric chemistry instruments, as well as enhance the
interpretation of SAGE III observations.

The Esrange balloon and rocket launch facility near Kiruna, Sweden is the
primary SOLVE-II balloon launch location due to its proximity to the latitude of
SAGE III sunset occultations. Launches will be centered on the 3-4 week DC-8
deployment period in January/February 2003. However, launches may occur as
early as late November 2002 and as late as April 2003 to maximize satellite
comparison opportunities.

2.2.3 Ground-based Observations

During SOLVE-II, concurrent ground-based observations will also be made from

Sweden, Norway, Finland, Germany, and Switzerland.

2.3 Geography

Kiruna, Sweden is located at 67.8 deg N latitude, 20.4 deg E longitude, about
200 km (125 miles) north of Arctic Circle. The town of Kiruna is approximately
500 m above sea level and has a population of about 25,000. It is the northern
most municipality in Sweden, in the region known as Lapland. Wintertime
conditions in and around Kiruna can be very severe, and during the coldest
months, December, January and February, the average temperature is normally
around -15 degrees Celsius (5 degrees Fahrenheit).

Kiruna was chosen as the deployment site for the SOLVE campaign for two
reasons. First, the Arena Arctica facility at the Kiruna airport is a superb hangar
and laboratory for operations during the arctic winter for the DC-8 and the
European aircraft, and the hangar can easily house the many scientific
instruments which will be flown during the mission. Second, Kiruna's extreme
northern latitude is ideally located for measurements of the lower stratospheric
polar vortex. Since Kiruna is at the edge of the winter polar vortex, the campaign
aircraft can easily measure from the edge to the center of the vortex. Kiruna is
also located near the climatological average coldest region in the Arctic.
Proximity to the cold temperatures in this region is essential for the sampling of
the PSCs during the winter period.

Figure 8 shows the SOLVE II operations region, with Kiruna, Sweden, noted at
the center of the image with the green star. The magenta line indicates a distance
of 2700 km from Kiruna. The blue dots indicate ground observation sites, while
the red dots indicate ozonesonde sites. Also superimposed are 50-hPa January
average temperature contours (1979-1999).
 Figure 8: SOLVE II Area of Operations

2.4 Forecasting

Meteorological forecasts of ground conditions and stratospheric fields will be

required for directing DC-8 and balloon operations. The investigators will
actively participate in mission development activities and in-field operations.

Information Sources

Newman, P. A., et al., An overview of the SOLVE/THESEO 2000 campaign, J.

Geophys. Res., 107(0), XXXX, doi:10.1029/ 2001JD001303, 2002.

NASA Research Announce ment, NRA-02-OES-02, April 1,2002.

SAGE III Ozone Loss and Validation Experiment (SOLVE) website.

Newman, P. A., SOLVE-II/VINTERSOL Science Goals and Mission

Description, SOLVE-II Science Meeting, Dryden Flight Research Center,
December 11, 2002.

Miller, C., SOLVE II Experimenter's Bulletin, September 13, 2002.