Qualitative Data

Analysis Part 2:
Content and
Discourse
Analysis
EDUC 5113
WINTER 2022

1
Focus
This slideshow addresses content analysis (based on
coding of data) and different methods of analysing
qualitative data, founded in part on discourse analysis.
It introduces key highlights about content and
discourse based analysis including:
• What is
• Content analysis?
• Discourse and critical discourse analysis?
• Narrative, biographical, and conversational
approaches

• How does content analysis and discourse-based

analysis work?

2
 WHAT IS CONTENT ANALYSIS?
Refers to a systematic process of summarizing and reporting written data – the main contents of data and
their messages.

Content analysis defines a systematic set of procedures for rigorous analysis, examination, and verification of
the contents of written data.

Reduces and interrogates text into summary form using pre-existing categories and emergent themes in
order to generate or test a theory/explanation

Content analysis can yield frequencies (quantifying/counting text).

Glaser and Laudell (2013) proposes the following intent of content analysis:
• Aims to move from the original text to the analysis of the information from that
text – focusing on text meaning and constituent parts

3
HOW DOES CONTENT
ANALYSIS WORK?
Numerical content analysis
• Define the units of analysis (e.g. words, sentences)
and the categories to be used for analysis.
• Code the texts and place them into categories.
• Count and log the occurrences of words, codes and
categories.
• Apply statistical analysis and quantitative methods
and interpret the results.

Non-numerical content analysis

• Code and categorize data.
• Compare categories and make links between them
• Conclude: draw theoretical conclusions from the text.

4
How does content
analysis work?
Ezzy (2002) outlines the following steps:
1. Determining/selecting a sample of texts
2. Defining the unit of analysis (i.e. words, sentences,
paragraphs, pages) and categories used for analysis
3. Reviewing of the texts to code them and place them into
categories
4. Counting and logging the frequency of codes
5. Analysing leading to interpretation and conclusions
Put simply … content analysis involves coding and
categorizing texts, comparing and making links between
codes/categories, and concluding based on the text.

5
 How does content analysis work?
Anderson and Breaking down the selected text into units of analysis
Arsenault (1998) note
the following steps:
Carrying out statistical analysis of those units of analysis

Presenting the results from the analysis in the most economical form as possible

Following a similar line Selecting a sample of text(s)

of thinking,
Denscombe (2014) Breaking down the sample into smaller units of analysis
sets out the following Developing categories for analysing those smaller units
steps:
Coding the units of analysis to fit the established categories
Conducting frequency counts of the units
Analysing the text based on the frequency and how those relate to other units in the text

6
 Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2018) offer the following
fuller process of content cont’d:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Define the Define the Define the Define the Define the Decide the
research population sample to be context of the units of codes to be
questions to (people, but included. generation of analysis (i.e. used in the
be addressed mainly text) the document word, phrase, analysis.
by the from which (who, how, sentence,
content units of text under what paragraph).
analysis. are to be circumstances
sampled. was the text
created?)

Step 9 Data analysis: there are several approaches/methods to the analysis …

• Extrapolations – trends, patterns and differences
• Standards – evaluations and judgements
• Indices – of relationships, frequencies of occurrence, number of
favourable/unfavourable items
• Linguistic representations
Once frequencies have been established, statistical analysis can proceed:
• Factor analysis (group kinds of response)
• Tabulation (frequencies and percentages)
• Crosstabulation (presenting a matrix where codes are used as column headings
and nominal variables are the row headings)
• Graphical representation (to indicate incidences of particular codes over time or
texts)

7
 Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2018) offer the following
fuller process of content cont’d:

Step 7 Step 8 Step 11 Step 9 Step 10

Step 7 Step 8 Step 11 Step 9 Step 10
• Construct the • Conduct the • Make speculative • Conduct the data • Summarize the
categories for coding and inferences (posit analysis main features
analysis (main categorizing of explanations and (frequency of the reached so far.
groupings of key the data. possibly their codes categories
features of the causes). – the implication
text – showing is that frequency
links between implies
codes). significance).

Step 9 Data analysis: there are several approaches/methods to the analysis …

• Extrapolations – trends, patterns and differences
• Standards – evaluations and judgements
• Indices – of relationships, frequencies of occurrence, number of
favourable/unfavourable items
• Linguistic representations
Once frequencies have been established, statistical analysis can proceed:
• Factor analysis (group kinds of response)
• Tabulation (frequencies and percentages)
• Crosstabulation (presenting a matrix where codes are used as column headings
and nominal variables are the row headings)
• Graphical representation (to indicate incidences of particular codes over time or
texts)

8
 Example of Content Analysis in Education
Research: Citizenship Education and Social
Studies:
An Historical Analysis of Citizenship Education in
the Social Studies 9 Curriculum

My masters thesis examined the influence that political, societal,

and educational trends and characteristics have on citizenship
education within official curriculum documents.
Sample: Social Studies 9 curricular documents of 1971, 1991,
1999, and 2008
Context: Curricular documents were analysed in light of
prevailing currents and countercurrents in Canada during the
period from 1970 to the present and a typology of citizenship
education ranging from traditional to social activist and
reconstructionist.
Findings: History of competing and complimentary currents
and countercurrents within the curriculum; movement in
citizenship education from less active roles for students to
increasingly socially and globally aware citizens which
continually rests on democratic values; influence of regional
development concerning the role of participation and the
natural environment in citizenship education in Saskatchewan

9
 Conception A Conception B Conception C Conception D
Description/Core Acting responsibly Participation to resolve public issues Global understanding Seeking out and addressing issues
Assumptions of inequality and oppressive
Obeying laws Improving society through Planning for alternative futures
structures.
leadership in organizational
Recycling, giving blood Individual actions have global
structures.
consequences
Knowledge Core knowledge Knowledge required to participate World systems and global issues The ways that structures oppress
in society.
Arriving at the same answers Environmental sustainability and Examining structures for oppressive
Liberal democratic institutions are issues and discriminatory nature
Focus on politics and military history
the best option for social
presented in a progressive narrative Issues are presented from varying
organization but are flawed in
perspectives.
practice
Values Particular set of values which lead to Encouraged to question issues to Multicultural perspectives Equal participation of all members
improvement of society value Environmental responsibility of society
Equality
Clarify and defend personal value Justice Speaking out and working against
positions Pluralism oppressive and discriminatory
structures
Skills/Participation Informed voting Critical thinking in order to Skills to effect change in issues of Skills to effect change to rectify
participate to resolve issues sustainability and equality. oppressive and discriminatory
Donating/contributing to
structures
community efforts Active participation Critical and cross cultural thinking

Working collaboratively across

cultures
Theoretical/Philosop Traditionalism Progressivism Communitarianism Social reconstructivism
hical Links
Elitism Critical inquiry Global/peace education Critical theory

Essentialism Critical inquiry Critical inquiry

Multicultural education

This chart was developed from Sears and Hughes 1996 and Westheimer and Kahne
2004 conceptions of citizenship in Canadian education (curriculum as well as
classroom practice) – in this way my categories were predetermined. Key word
analysis began with identification of the key words within the curriculum document.
In order to keep analysis focused, organized, and easy to interpret, a chart was kept for
each of the curriculum documents which detailed the frequency and location (i.e. aims
or outcomes) of the key word and the categorical theme within which the term fit.
Further analysis considered the frequency within the categories which
determined the emergent patterns in relation to prevailing societal, political, and
philosophical trends. Since the study considered three separate curriculum documents
from the 1970s through to the most recent 2008, the process repeated three times over.
In addition to the thematic keyword analysis of the sources, each will also be
considered through the lens of Werner’s (2012) five critical analysis concepts. The
thematic analysis provides the content organization required to weave the connections
between society and curriculum, while the critical analysis concepts provide the lens

10
 through which all documents will be considered. Using Werner’s five
concepts of critical analysis will afford the necessary lens that will contribute to
deeper insight into the trends at work within the documents. It is crucial to a critical
approach to contemplate not simply what appears in the documents, but also what
does not appear and how it appears.

10
 Theme Keyword Frequency
Identity culture 38
heritage 2
Sample Political politics/political 14
Efficacy/Participation democracy 3
frequency table participate/participation 1
1971 Social Studies 9 government 14
ideology 2
Rights/duties rights 6
Social values equality 2
freedom 4
value 2
Global/social justice community 4
oppression/oppressive 1
conflict 12
land/environment 7
nature/natural 7
geography/geographic 10
conquest 5
imperialism 7
social stratification 2
authority 11

11
Experimenting with
Content Analysis: Photo
Album Contents
We are going to conduct a quick content analysis of
your photos on your phone.
1. Determine some categories you think will be
applicable to your photos.
1. For instance, I chose: selfies; pets; friends;
family; scenery
2. Once you have your categories
1. Record frequency
3. What conclusions can your draw about
yourself from this content analysis?

12
Less Systematic
Approaches
Six approaches outlined in “Data Analysis Part One”
and the overview of content analysis provided in the
previous slides suggest a considerable degree of
systemization and coherence
• Such is not always feasible or the priority of
qualitative research (remember to always keep
fitness for purpose in mind)
Discourse-based approaches are less systematic
• Such approaches are employed where:
• Coherence and reduction is not the priority
• The priority is in being faithful to the
phenomenon and participants
• Favouring richness of detail above
frequency

13
 WHAT IS A
DISCOURSE?
More than language:
• Refers to the overall meanings conveyed by
language in context.
• meanings that are given to texts which create and
shape knowledge and behaviour by the exercise
of power through texts and conversations.
• Context: social, cultural, political, and historical
background of the discourse – essential to
understanding the meaning expressed through
language
• is a way of thinking (culturally or institutionally
mediated) legitimated by communities - often
those with power

Influenced by hermeneutics and poststructural theory, the concept of discourse

became central to studies focused on interpretative and deconstructionist aims. The
concept of discourse itself is defined and characterized in a variety of ways depending
on the context of the discussion or study. But there are a few key points that are
helpful in framing its general nature/definition – as outlined above

14
WHAT IS DISCOURSE?

Discourse is the
‘tactical dimension’ of A text can
Discourses are often
the operation of power contain/reflect several
emic.
in individuals, groups discourses.
and organizations.

15
 WHAT IS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS?
Discourse analysis:
• Seeks to investigate the form and
function of discourse – aims to
uncover how particular discourses
support particular aims and the
resulting implications
• Reveals how power operates and is
legitimated or challenged in and
through discourses.
• Must take account of the social
contexts in which the texts are set

Texts are set in social contexts and reality is a social construction – this means that
discourse analysis has to take into account the social contexts of the texts under
examination; discourses analysis looks at and considers talk and texts as social
practices – as agentic, interactive and socially constructed

16
WHAT TO LOOK AT IN
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

The discourse in context, in the form of:

• text, conversation, narrative, biography etc.
• Whose perspective/version is reflected
in/presented by the discourse, and possible
alternatives
• Absences, silences
• Linguistic devices are present in the discourse
• For instance, how pronoun usage and
conjunctions enable people to build
explicit relationships between entities
and events

17
Experimenting with discourse
analysis Political Slogans
1. “Forward. For everyone”
2. “Secure the future”
3. “Fighting for you”
Have you heard these expressions before?
Do you think the three words that make up this slogan
have been strategically chosen? What information does
each one convey?
What do you know about the context in which this
slogan appeared? Does it have meaning outside of that
context?
Skim the following article for a bit more context. Does
knowing this context change your thinking?

18
Experimenting with discourse
analysis: Recommendation letter

What is the purpose of the letter?

Which adjectives and adverbs help to emphasize
the good qualities of the applicant?
How does the teacher reinforce the truthfulness of
their statements?

19
 CRITICAL DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
• Stems from the three overlapping traditions of discourse
studies, feminist poststructuralism and critical linguistics
• Aims to:
• highlight the implicit and hidden meanings contained
within text and a critical tool that can be used to expose
those underlying assumptions
• uncover and make transparent social inequalities that
appear in and are constructed by discursive acts.
• History, power and ideology that figure prominently across
CDA studies.
• Direct links to critical theory:
• nature of what counts as knowledge, the acquisition and
maintenance of power in society, the function of
ideology, and the ways in which discourse is constructive
of and constructed by social institutions

Although CDA is identified as a distinct approach to discourse analysis that’s stems

from the three overlapping traditions of discourse studies, feminist poststructuralism
and critical linguistics (Rogers et al., 2005), Meyer (2011) explains that one of CDA’s
defining characteristics is that is represents a diverse set of approaches and does not
adhere to one set of methods or operate within just one discipline. It is set of
assumptions that can be combined with any sub discipline in the humanities and the
social sciences. As such, it is better defined as a perspective, a critical one, (vanDijk,
2001) rather than an approach, theory, or method. Orlowski (20011) views it as an
approach that aims to highlight the implicit and hidden meanings contained within
text and a critical tool that can be used to expose those underlying
assumptions. Despite the diverse nature of CDA, Meyer (2001) offers some unifying
points that CDA researchers and studies share. Meyer (2001) argues that the most
evident unifying factor amongst studies that adopt the CDA perspective “is a shared
interest in the social processes of power, hierarchy building, and exclusion and
subordination” (p. 30). Wodak (2001) points to three unifying concepts within CDA
noting the centrality of history, power and ideology that figure prominently across
CDA studies. Rogers eat al. (2005) also identify the nature of power relations in their
discussion of some unifying factors that emerge across the field of CDA studies
arguing that many CDA studies share the assumption that facts are always grounded in

20
the context of historically constituted power relations; that there is always privilege in
society and that privilege leads to unequal access to various aspects of life. It is here
where we can start to see the link between critical theory and CDA become
evident. The aim of CDA is to uncover and make transparent social inequalities that
appear in and are constructed by discursive acts. Put another way by Wodak (2001),
CDA adopts the approach taken in critical theory to raise awareness in agents; the aim
is not only to explain and describe the inequalities as created and reproduced in
discourse, but to “root out a particular kind of delusion” (p. 10). Most CDA studies
take the side of the underprivileged and attempt to show the ways that the privileged
in society use language to stabilize and even intensify inequities (Meyer,
2001). Wodak (2001) argues that a number of direct and indirect links between CDA
research in the tradition of critical theory become evident when one considers some of
the central concepts and social phenomena that CDA studies focus on. These include
the attention afforded to the nature of what counts as knowledge, the acquisition and
maintenance of power in society, the function of ideology, and the ways in which
discourse is constructive of and constructed by social institutions (Wodak, 2001).

20
 When should you use
discourse analysis?
The purpose of discourse analysis:

• investigate the functions of language (i.e., what language is

used for) and how meaning is constructed in different contexts
(social, cultural, political, and historical background)
• can also tell you a lot about power and power imbalances –
specifically, how language can be used to create, maintain, or
disrupt inequity

So, you may want to consider discourse analysis if

you are interested in exploring…
• Linguistic constructions of power or inequality
• How people communicate in a specific context (such as in a
social situation with colleagues versus a board meeting)
• How ideas are shared using language
• How language/communication is used to achieve social goals

21
An Example of CDA in educational research:
National History and Identity in Saskatchewan Social
Studies Curriculum 1970-2008: Narratives of Diversity,
Tolerance, Accommodation, and Negotiation
Focus: Historical critical discourse analysis of the development of the myths and meta-narratives of the nation as
they appear in social studies and history curriculum in the province of Saskatchewan from the 1970s to 2008.
Research questions:
1) What kind of national narrative(s) has/have been developed through social studies and history curricula in
Saskatchewan since 1970?
2) How have ideas about land and place been represented in the social studies and history curricula in
Saskatchewan since 1970?
3) How might we use the historical development of ideas concerning nation, identity and land/place in
curriculum to uncover the shortcomings and then posit a direction for curriculum that aims to:
a. Honour truth and reconciliation
b. Acknowledge the omissions and myths of the past national narratives
c. Promote a progressive citizenry that works for an equitable and sustainable Canada?

22
An example of CDA in educational research:
National History and Identity in Saskatchewan Social Studies
Curriculum 1970-2008: Narratives of Diversity, Tolerance,
Accommodation, and Negotiation

Findings:
• Interplay of continuity and change that we see manifest in the broader context of the field of education as well as
the prevailing socio-political climate.
• Saskatchewan during this era (1971-2008) broadly defines Canada and Canadian identity as based on plurality,
diversity, and inclusivity
• Social studies in the province of Saskatchewan have become increasingly inclusive and critical of the benign,
meta-narrative of Canada prevalent prior to the 1970s.
• History courses at the secondary level are concerted in their efforts to recognize some of the injustices
experienced by minorities.
• Despite such adjustments, curricular renewals have made limited progress in terms of addressing those issues in
meaningful ways.- The shortcoming is the simultaneous maintenance of fixed identity referents rooted in primarily
Euro-Canadian military and political narratives.
• Despite these shortcomings, this historical analysis also provides some optimistic insight into potential paths
towards developing curricula that recognize histories and contemporary patterns of exclusion and
marginalization.

Social studies curriculum in Saskatchewan mirrors the same interplay of

continuity and change that we see manifest in the broader context of the field
of education as well as the prevailing socio-political climate. Swept up in the
dominance of liberalism and neoliberalism both with respect to educational
and socio-political trends, social studies in Saskatchewan during this era
(1971-2008) broadly defines Canada and Canadian identity as based on
plurality, diversity, and inclusivity. Similar to larger trends in curriculum
development across the country, social studies in the province of
Saskatchewan have become increasingly inclusive and critical of the benign,
meta-narrative of Canada prevalent prior to the 1970s. In the formulation and
dissemination of historical narratives focused explicitly on the development of
Canada, history courses at the secondary level are concerted in their efforts to
recognize some of the injustices experienced by minorities. Despite such
adjustments, curricular renewals have made limited progress in terms of
addressing those issues in meaningful ways. Social studies in Saskatchewan
has developed a narrative increasingly distanced from British ties in favour of
developing narratives that accept the role of pluralism in the national
landscape. The shortcoming is the simultaneous maintenance of fixed identity
referents rooted in primarily Euro-Canadian military and political narratives.

23
Despite these shortcomings, this historical analysis also provides some optimistic
insight into potential paths towards developing curricula that recognize histories and
contemporary patterns of exclusion and marginalization.

23
 Discourse Analysis
Political ideologies: liberalism, conservatism, social democracy, neoliberalism (economic ideology)

Markers/key words/phrases Interrogative/Interpretive Questions

 Fundamental ‘Canadian’ values: i.e. equality, tolerance, diversity, - How are these markers, words, and phrases taken up,
freedom, liberty framed? i.e. is balance and order valued more than
 Balance between order and freedom individual freedoms?
 Individual versus group or collective rights - How do curricular content and leaning objectives reflect
 Consumption, material wellbeing; economics tenets of dominant ideologies (liberalism, conservatism,
 The collective; the common good; cooperation; cooperatives versus social democracy, neoliberalism)?
privatization - Does one ideology dominate? Does this change over time?
 Social stability/tradition versus change - To what extent is the regional political culture of
 Social hierarchies – meritocracy Saskatchewan reflected in curricular content and learning
 Social welfare state and programming objectives? What are the larger implications for the broader
 Keynesian economic policy nation identity?
 Workers’ rights, unions, unionization - How can a historical examination of the influence of political
 Political activism ideologies help to think about our current curriculum and
future curricular renewals?

For a full description of method see attached document here

Broad themes were developed from initial analysis of guides. First round of analysis
targeted looking for themes of metanarratives concerning particular aspects of
Canadian history and identity formation. From here, I established 5 themes to
examine – above is the theme of political ideologies. For each theme, secondary
research into the context and historical background provided the development of
markers/keywords/phrases (codes) – from here I coded the curriculum documents
and used a set of interrogative questions to carry out the critical discourse analysis.

24
Conversational
Analysis
• Is a rigorous investigation into the features
of conversation:
• How it is generated
• How it operates
• What its distinguishing features are
• How participants construct meaning in the
conversation
• How conversations are located within their
several contexts

25
Conversational
Analysis
• Conversation between two or more people in a specific context
examining:
• What they say
• How they say it
• For what reasons or what purposes
• Using what kinds of interactions, sequences, contexts and
structures in the conversation
• The aim to uncover:
• How participants create meaning of their conversational
situations
• How participants achieve their intended outcomes and actions
• How participants get things done through conversation

26
Narrative and
Biographical Approaches
Stories enliven data and bring a personalization to
generalizations
• Catch the chronology of events as they unfold
overtime
• Highlights causality
As such … narratives present an interesting foil to the
systematic supremacy of coding and coding-derived
analysis
Biographies too tend to follow a chronology and help
to provide insight into critical moments and decisions
in peoples’ lives

27
Narrative and
Biographical Approaches
Selective focus is adopted based on
researcher’s criteria – could include:
• Key decision points
• Critical events, behaviours, themes
• Meaningful events to the
participants

28
Narrative Analysis
Riessman (2008) suggests that narrative analysis can use:
• Thematic analysis: identifying categories and themes
• Structural analysis: how the narrative is structured and
what the language used does at a cultural and textual
level
• Performance analysis: how narratives are
constructed/done/performed
• Visual analysis: narratives being constructed using
visual media

29
Narrative Analysis
Constructing a narrative as a:
• Chronology
• Logical analysis
• Thematic analysis
• Story or series of stories
See Goffman for examples of this approach
• Stigma: Notes on the Management of
Spoiled Identity (1963)
• Asylums (1968)
• The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
(1969)

30
 Narrative Analysis:
Events

May or may not be in a time series

Important to determine the “events”:

typical/atypical; planned/unplanned; reinforces
or interrupts current situation; positive/negative

Could be unique/change
Could be critical incidents:
Could be routine related: curriculum reform,
turning points in lives of
incidents: staff meeting, introduction of a program,
teachers, students,
parent night change to major
teaching, schooling etc.
assessment practice

31
References
Anderson, G. & Arsenault, N. (1998). Fundamentals of educational
research. London: Routledge.
Cohen, L. Manion, L, & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in
education. London: Routledge.
Denscombe, M. (2014). The good research guide. Maidenhead, UK: Open
University Press.
Ezzy, D. (2002). Qualitative analysis: Practice and innovation. London:
Routledge.
Porter, G. (2014). Citizenship education and social studies: An historical
analysis of citizenship education in the Social Studies 9 curriculum.
[Masters thesis, University of Saskatchewan].
https://harvest.usask.ca/handle/10388/ETD-2014-09-1720
Porter, G. (2020). National history and identity in Saskatchewan social
studies curriculum 1970-2008: Narratives of diversity, tolerance,
accommodation, and negotiation. [Doctoral dissertation, University of
Saskatchewan]. https://harvest.usask.ca/handle/10388/12923
Riessman, C.K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. London:
Sage.

32