KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

NAME: DERICK OPPONG (REV.)

STD REF NUM.: 20897654

STD. INDEX NUM.: PG2470122

COURSE: SEMANTICS (ENGL 675)

LECTURER: PROF. SEKYI-BAIDOO

TERM PAPER FOR SEMESTER ONE

MAY, 2023

TOPIC

SEMANTIC CHANGE
Introduction

Change is very important in every facet of human life. It is a way by which mankind develops. In

the same way, languages are always in a state of constant flux. Every living language undergoes

a change. Language as a facility for human communication undergoes a change from time to

time. Words undergo change in their meaning and usage as the society also changes. In other

words, the meaning of words is not constant in any language because language is inherently

dynamic. Understanding the processes that lead to change can provide us with more general

insights into how language is used to interactively create meaning and to perform socially

recognized actions. Some words are lost or missing in the vocabularies of a particular language

in the course of time. Others too lose their purity or originality. Their forms change with passage

of time so do their meaning. Some words too, shift their meaning from one form to another: from

positive to negative and vice versa. The study of how changes occur in words over a time is

known as semantic change. This paper therefore discusses some issues in semantic change

(definition, historical overview, types of semantic change, etc).

Definition of semantic change

According to Sheard (1966), semantic change is the change in the meanings of words

with the passage of time. It is the development and change of the semantic structure of a word

which is always a source of qualitative and quantitative development of the vocabulary.

Bloomfield (1933) defines semantic change as “innovations which change the lexical meaning

rather than the grammatical function of a form.” This definition is an indication that the

meanings of lexical items are not static. The meanings of words grow as the society grows.

Semantic change is therefore the change of the meaning of a word through expansion or

restriction or any other form. In other words, semantic change is the new meaning a word

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acquires, either positively or negatively; expansion or restriction; or any different form of

meaning as the society may assign or use it. The branch of semantics that studies how meaning

occurs with the passage of time is known as Historical Semantics.

Historical semantics

According to Stern Gustaf (1931), Historical Semantics is the study of the change of meanings of

expressions through the passage of time. Historical Semantics is a diachronic study of language

(Saussure, 1960). A diachronic study is a comparative study of language: the study of language

used in two different periods, Time A and Time B (Sekyi-Baidoo,2002). Example, the language

used in 19th and 21st centuries can be studied and compared to identify the changes that have

occurred (in terms of form, meaning, etc.) Historical Semantics looks at:

 What forms have changed?

 How the change has occurred

 Why does change work?

Process of Historical Semantic

According to Sekyi-Baidoo (2002), the historical study of semantics passes through 3 stages:

1. Observation Level

2. Description Level

3. Explanation Level

Observation Level

At the observation level, we observe a meaning of a word in time A and time B. Example, work

of art (like Shakespeare), dictionaries, published works and other linguistics materials are used to

study the change of meaning of a word at this level. This level involves at least two synchronic

study of meaning of a word. Sekyi-Baidoo (2002).

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Description Level

The description level asks the question: What changes have occurred between times A and B?

The description stage seeks to describe the nature of the deviation between the meaning of a

word in two different times. Sekyi-Baidoo (2002).

Explanation stage

This stage involves all the methods that are employed to explain the nature of change and the

causes of the change: whether observation, whether we conducted interviews, whether we

consulted dictionaries, books, etc. Sekyi-Baidoo (2002).

Types of semantic change

There are different ways in which semantic change can be observed. In other words, the change

in the meaning of words over a given time takes different form. Some of these are discussed

below:

Narrowing/Restriction/Specialization

In this type, the meaning of a word becomes limited in scope. A word which once had a general

or broader meaning becomes restricted. The meaning of a word is narrowed to refer to only one

object or entity than it used to be in the past. Example, the word “undertaker” originally meant

"one who undertakes a task, especially one who is an entrepreneur". However, with the passage

of time, the word has been narrowed to mean a person who takes contract to organize a funeral.

In Ghana, it refers to a person who dresses corpse to be laid in state. Another example is the

word “girl.” It formerly meant “a young person (of either sex), but now “girl” denotes only a

young female person. The word “deer” once meant “animal in general” but now it is applied

only to a cervine animal. The word “corpse” comes from Old French word “cor” which meant

“body.” The original meaning of the word can be seen in the word, “corpus” which is borrowed

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from Latin. With the passage of time, the meaning of this word became restricted in its scope and

in the present-day English, it is used only for dead bodies. Another example is the word “desert.”

The noun form of the word means a sandy area with little or no rain and the verb form means “to

leave, abandon, forsake”. Both forms (noun and verb) are derived from the same Latin root. In

modern usage, the word is used mainly for those uninhabited places where there is little or no

rain. In Latin, the word “doctor” was used for a teacher, or for someone who was known for his

scholarly work, for his expertise in any branch of knowledge. Now, the word is mostly used for

someone who has specialized in medicine. In old English word “hound” referred to domestic dog

of any breed but now the meaning has been restricted to refer to a hunting dog.

Another word which has been narrowed in meaning is “broadcast.” In old English, the word

meant “to disperse upon the ground by hand,” in reference to seed. It was an agricultural term

(even though some farmers still use it today). However, the advent of electronic media,

especially radio in the 1920s narrowed the meaning of the word to mean the widespread

distribution of information electronically. Thus, “broadcast” is now used largely as a media term

instead of its original usage in agriculture (farming).

Extension/Broadening

Extension is the opposite of narrowing. Extension is the process whereby the meaning of a word

extends or enlarges in its scope. The meaning of a word changes from specificity to

generalization

It is the spread of meaning from a narrowed to a broader class of things. Here, a word

increases its range of meaning overtime. For instance, in Middle English “bridd” was a term

for small bird, later the term bird came to be used in a general sense. Also, the word dog

once denoted only a particular type of canine, but now it is a generic term for all canines.

(Trask, 1996).

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Henning (1995) defines the extension of meaning as a metaphorical extension of meaning in a

new direction through popular adoption of an originally metaphorical meaning. He indicates that

“crane” at a construction site for example, was given its name by comparison to the long-necked

bird of the same name. Henning (1995) indicates that “metaphorical extension is almost a

natural process a word undergoes”. For example, the word “illuminate” originally meant "to light

up", but its meaning has broadened to mean "to clarify", "to edify".

The word, “business” can be regarded as an example of semantic generalization since it

originally meant “the state of being busy, anxious or careworn”, but now it denotes all types of

work or occupation. Again, according to Trask (1996), the word “arrive” is a loan word from

French. The word formerly meant “come to shore”, but now it means more generally “come to

any place.”

The word “allergy” was first introduced as a medical term. If someone gets ill as a result of

eating something or as a result of coming into contact with something (which doesn’t make

others ill), that person is said to be allergic to that thing he has eaten. As time went by, the

meaning of the word has been generalized to mean a strong repulsion or dislike for something.

Again, the word butcher has its origin from the French word “bouc” which originally referred to

someone who slew a goat (Wikipedia). In modern English, the word is used to refer to someone

who slaughters, cuts up and sells animals like goats, sheep or cow for food (and not necessarily a

goat).

Again, etymologically, the word “companion” means “someone who shares bread with you.” In

modern English, however, the word means someone you spend time with, someone who shares

your burden with you. Another example is the word, “field.” In old English, the word meant a

piece of land but in modern English, its meaning has been broadened to cover or include an area

of study, a discipline. The word “junk” was originally used by sailors to refer to old and

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discarded ropes. In modern English, the word has acquired a broader meaning to mean any

useless or discarded thing.

Amelioration

Trask (1996) defines amelioration as “an improvement in meaning.” Amelioration is a situation

where a word acquires “a more positive or favorable meaning (Sekyi-Baidoo, 2002).

Amelioration is shift of meaning from negative to a positive connotation. Amelioration is also

known as elevation. Thus, it is the elevation of the meaning of a word. This means that a word

which once had a negative or ill connotation changes and gains a more positive and pleasant

connotation as the society grows.

Example, the word “minister” originally denoted “a servant” but now it means “a civil servant of

higher rank, a person administrating a department of state”. According to Trask (1996), the

words “queen” and “knight” formerly just meant “woman” and “boy” respectively but today

these terms are applied only to people occupying certain exalted positions. In Greek the word

“angel” meant “messenger.” The influence of early Christianity has elevated the word from

“messenger” to “God’s messenger.” Another example is the word “chancellor.” This word is

derived from the Latin word “cancellarius” which meant “porter, secretary” who was stationed at

the bar of a law court. Today, the Chancellor of the Exchequer is a person having the highest

responsibility for finance in Britain. Vice-chancellor is used for a person who heads a university.

The word “nice” is derived from Latin “nescius”, which meant “ignorant” and came at the time

of its borrowing from Old French to mean silly, simple and stupid. The word has, however,

acquired a more positive meaning to mean “pleasing and agreeable.” In the fourteenth century,

the word “fond” meant “foolish, silly” but in modern English this word has been ameliorated to

mean “having a strong liking for someone or something.”

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Pejoration/Deterioration/Degeneration

Pejoration is the opposite of amelioration. Pejoration comes from the Latin word “pejor” which

means to “worsen.” Pejoration occurs when “a previously favorable word acquires a negative,

unfavorable sense” (Sekyi-Baidoo, 2002). By this, a word which once had a positive denotation

deteriorates or degenerates in meaning with the passage of time. Pejoration is usually due to the

fact that the word is linked to an unpleasant reality or to a socially undervalued concept. It is thus

usually related to taboo (Trask, 1996). Example, the word “knave” once meant only “boy”, but

then came to be demoted to a term of abuse, a “dishonest man”. In old English, the word “crafty

meant “skillful, strong” but in modern English the meaning of the word has deteriorated to mean

someone who is “cunning, deceitful.”

Another word which has deteriorated in meaning is “villain.” The word was used for peasants

who lived in a simple and rustic life in villages but in modern English it is used for scoundrels

(Trask, 1996). Another example of a word which has pejorated is “notorious.” Notorious is

derived from the Latin root “notus, which means “known.” However, with the passage of time,

the word has acquired a negative meaning as someone who is “criminal, dishonest.”

Again, in old English, the word “lust” meant “desire” but during the last few centuries it has

acquired a negative connotation. It is used for someone with intemperate desires, particularly the

desire for sex. The word “silly” in old English meant “holy, happy, defenseless, blessed or

blissful.” In modern English, however, the word has acquired a pejorative meaning as someone

who is stupid.

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Weakening

The change in the semantic contest of certain words can be understood in terms of a movement

from a stronger to a weaker meaning. According to Sekyi-Baidoo (2002), when a word weakens,

“it means its meaning has lost its intensity and it is no longer as strong as it used to be.” The

change of meaning through weakening implies that the strength, power or the urgency associated

with the word has been reduced or lessened. Example, in old English, the word “sona” meant

“immediately.” The modern English word “soon” has lost that sense of urgency and immediacy

and has acquired a milder meaning of “in a short time or short while.” In the same way, the

adverb “presently” meant “at once, immediately.” The intensity of the word has lost and in

modern English it has acquired a weaker or milder meaning of “soon or in a short time.” The

word “naughty” in the Elizabethan time meant “wicked, evil” but in modern English, the word

has weakened or has acquired a milder meaning of “disobedience.”

Semantic shift

Semantic shift generally refers to the way in which a word shifts from its original meaning, that

its meaning will nearly reverse (Henning ,1995). Henning calls this as “semantic reversal.” In

semantic shift, the meaning of a word changes entirely from its original meaning. example, the

word “brutal” meant “cruel, merciless” but now the meaning has shifted, especially in Ghanaian

English to “extraordinary, attractive or excitement.” Another word that has shifted its meaning is

“doom.” The word originally meant “that which is done” but now it means “a terrible fate.” The

word “aggravate” meant “to add” but now the meaning has shifted to mean “to worsen a

situation or make it more serious.” According to Sekyi-Baidoo (2002), the shift in meaning of a

word is purely as a result of cultural change.

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Metaphorical change/Polysemia/Multiplication

Trask (1996) states that one of the commonest of all types of semantic change is metaphor. This

means applying a word to something it does not literally denote in order to draw attention to a

resemblance. Metaphor is so frequent that it might reasonably be taken as the paradigm type of

semantic change (Trask, 1996).

Example, the word “head” originally just meant the part of the body on top of the shoulders. But,

since this is both the highest part of the body and the part that is perceived as being in charge of

the whole body, head has come to be used as a metaphor for all kinds of things and people that

are “high, in front, in charge.” We can say the head of a valley, the head of a nail, the head of a

large corporation, the head of a school, the head of a river, the head of a tape recorder and so on.

Trask (1996) adds that the names of body parts are particularly subject to metaphorical use.

Example, we speak of the eye of a needle or of a hurricane, the mouth of a river, a cave or a jar, a

hand of bridge, a neck of land, the foot of a mountain, the teeth of a comb and so on.

In his study, Ullmann (1962) concludes and summarizes the various forms of semantic change as

follows:

• The narrowing of meaning results in loss of quantity.

• The widening of meaning results in rise of quantity.

• The pejoration of meaning results in loss of quality.

• The amelioration of meaning results in rise of quality.

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Factors responsible for semantic change

Semantic change doesn’t take place in a vacuum. Certain factors in the society result in the

change of meaning of a word over a given period. Some of these factors are discussed below:

Social factors

Changes in society and culture can affect the meanings of a word. For example, the word "gay"

used to mean happy, but now it is primarily used to refer to people who are identified as

LGBTQ+.

Borrowing:

When a word is borrowed from another language, its meaning can change over time as it

becomes integrated into the new language. For example, the word "déjà vu" in English word is

borrowed from French which means “already dreamed.” But the meaning in English is quite

different from its roots. In English, the word means the feeling that arises when parts of your

brain recognize familiar situations.

Meillet (1926) indicates that a borrowed or loaned word can induce a shift in the meaning of an

earlier word. In this circumstance, one of three things is likely to happen: the native word will

force out the borrowed word, the borrowed word will force out the native word or both words

will remain but with different meanings (Meillet, 1926). Here is an example of what Meillet

means: the Old English word “dōm” referred to any kind of judgement: civil, criminal or divine.

In the aftermath of the Norman’s seizure of power in England in 1066, the existing Anglo-Saxon

words for the legal and political process were replaced almost entirely by French words, one of

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which was the ancestor of Modern English “judgement.” As time went by, “dōm” changed to

“doom” and it became associated primarily with divine judgement, while judgement became

associated with civil and criminal judgement (although a judge would have pronounced

someone’s doom when giving a death sentence). Over a time, judgement has gradually

trespassed upon doom’s to the extent that Judgement Day is now probably more common than

Doomsday. Doom, on the other hand, has gradually become more intimately connected to an

individual’s or a collective’s fate.

Change in linguistic context

Trask (1996) indicates that one principle of semantic change is change in the linguistic context.

He indicates that this includes the case of taboo. According Trask, in English taboo subjects

include sex, reproduction, excretion, death, etc. Since taboos prohibit the use of plain language,

speakers are constantly forced to resort to euphemisms. These euphemisms are pushed into

contexts in which they did not occur formerly, while older terms become relegated.

Technology Advancement

Advancement in technology can lead to the creation of new words or changes in the meanings of

existing words. For example, the word "spam" used to refer to canned meat, but now, because of

technology, it also refers to unwanted emails.

Conclusion

From the discussions above, it can be seen that spoken languages are not static. The meaning of a

word or linguistic expression can change over a time within a speech community. The study of

semantic change helps us to gain a deeper appreciation of these changes in the society. It can be

concluded that as the society continues to grow, the meaning of words today will change or shift

over a period of time, may be the next generation.

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References

Bloomfield, L. (1933). Language. Chicago. The University of Chicago Press

Henning, J. (1995). Model Languages. www.Conlang Profiled at Lang maker .com.

Meillet, Antoine (1926). Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion.

Saussure, F. De (1960). Course in General Linguistics. London: Peter Owen

Sekyi-Baidoo, Y. (2002). Semantics: An Introduction. Winneba. Wilas Press Ltd.

Sheard, J.A. (1966). The Words of English. New York: Norton.

Stern, G. (1931). Meaning and change of meaning. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Trask, R.L. (1996). Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold.

Ullmann, S. (1962). Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. Oxford: Blackwell.

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