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 Jeppesen

Published in the United States of America

Jeppesen
55 Inverness Drive East, Englewood, CO 80112-5498
www.jeppesen.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

ISBN-13: 978-0-88487-444-7
ISBN-10: 0-88487-444-3

Jeppesen
55 Inverness Dr. East
Englewood, CO 80112-5498
Web Site: www.jeppesen.com
Email: Captain @jeppesen.com
© 1980, 2007 Joe Schafer
All Rights Reserved.
JS312642-002 Printed in the United States of America
 Table of Contents
Preface Page v

Introduction Vii-vili

Chapter I Helicopters In Use Today 1-37

Bell; Hiller; Hughes; Sikorsky; Brantly Hynes; Enstrom;
Vertol; Robinson; Messerschmitt-Boelkow; Aerospatiale

ChapterII Principles of Flight 39-55

Aerodynamic principles; Effects on lift;
Forces on the rotor; Thrust; Dissymmetry of lift;
Rotor heads; Aerodynamic characteristics;
Blade tip stall; Autorotation; Ground resonance;
Stability; Flight control

Chapter III Documentation, Publications, 57-72

and Historical Records
FAA publications; Maintenance records;
Manufacturers publications;
Supplemental Type Certificates

ChapterIV Helicopter Fundamentals 73-90

Basic directions; Ground handling; Bearings; Gears

Chapter V Main Rotor System 91-158

Rotor heads; Semirigid rotor heads;
Fully articulated rotor heads; Rotor blades;
Rotor head maintenance — Blade alignment;
Static main rotor balance; Vibration; Tracking;
Spanwise dynamic balance; Blade sweeping;
Electronic balancing; Dampener maintenance;
Counterweight adjustment; Autorotation adjustment

Chapter VI Mast and Flight Controls 159-189

Mast; Stabilizer bar; Dampeners; Swashplate;
Flight control systems — Collective; Cyclic;
Push-pull tubes; Torque tubes; Bellcranks;
Mixer box; Gradient unit; Control boosts;
Maintenance and inspection; Control rigging
iii
Chapter VII Main Rotor Transmissions 191-221
Engine-transmission couplings; Driveshaft;
Clutch; Freewheeling units; Sprag clutch;
Roller unit; Torquemeter; Rotor brake;
Vibrations; Mounting systems; Transmissions

Chapter VIII Powerplants 223-275

Fixed wing powerplant modifications; Installation;
Radial and opposed engines; Cooling systems;
Correlation systems; Turboshaft engines;
Powerplants

Chapter IX Tail Rotors 277-308

Operation; Tail rotor system; Bell 47; Hughes 500;
AStar 350; Bell 212; Servicing; Tail rotor track;
System rigging

Chapter X Airframes and Related Systems 309-324

Tubular construction; Sheet metal construction;
Bonded construction; Stress and loads;
Wheel and skid gear; Visibility;
Structural components and materials;
Bell 206 fuselage; Hughes 500 fuselage;
Fuselage maintenance; Airframe systems;
Special purpose equipment

Glossary 325-331

Index 333-343

iv
 PREFACE

This book on Basic Helicopter Maintenance is The validity of any manual such as this is
part of a course of training and reference enhanced immeasurably by the cooperation
publications produced by Jeppesen Sanderson, shown by recognized experts in the field, and by
Inc., one of the largest suppliers of aviation the willingness of the various manufacturers to
maintenance training materials in the world. This share their literature and answer countless
program is part of a continuing effort to improve questions in the preparation of this publication.
the quality of education for aviation mechanics
throughout the world. For product, service, or sales information call
1-800-621-JEPP, 303-799-9090, or FAX 303-
The purpose of each Jeppesen Sanderson training 784-4153. If you have comments, questions, or
publication is to provide basic information on the need explanations about any component of our
operation and principles of the various aircraft Maintenance Training System, we are prepared
systems and their components. to offer assistance at any time. If your dealer
does not have a Jeppesen catalog, please request
Specific information on detailed operation one and we will promptly send it to you. Just:
procedures should be obtained form the call the above telephone number, or write:
manufacturer through appropriate maintenance
manuals, and followed in detail for the best Marketing Manager, Training Products
results. Jeppesen Sanderson, Inc.
55 Inverness Drive East
This particular manual on Basic Helicopter Englewood, CO 80112-5498
Maintenance includes a series of carefully
prepared questions and answers to emphasize key Please direct inquiries from Europe, Africa, and
elements of the study. They are contained in the the Middle East to:
supplemental Jeppesen Sanderson text Helicopter
Maintenance Study Guide. Jeppesen & Co., GmbH
P. O. Box 70-05-51
Some of the words may be new to you. They are Walter-Kolb-Strasse 13
defined in the Glossary found at the back of the 60594 Frankfurt
book. GERMANY
Tel: 011-49-69-961240
Fax: 011-49-69-96124898
 Introduction
The concept of the helicopter has been dreamed of young designer directed his talents to fixed wing
for hundreds of years. The first recorded drawings aircraft and it was many years before he redirected
of such a machine were made by Leonardo da Vinci his talents to helicopters.
in 1483. During the first quarter of a centruy, after the
This machine was an aerial screw which he envi- first flight, designers from all parts of the world
' sioned as being able to move vertically into the air became involved in building rotary wing aircraft.
with a rotor built with a 96-foot helix. It was from None of these passed the experimental stage of
this drawing that the helicopter derived its name development. Although much was learned that
— from the two Greek words heliko and pleron would result in the future development of a suc-
meaning helical wing. cessful helicopter, there were still problems to be
It was not until the latter part of the 18th century encountered by these would-be designers. These
that any further developments were achieved with fell into three main categories:
helicopters. At that time interest developed in both 1. The engine torque tended to rotate the fuse-
France and England. Jean Pierre Blanchad flew a lage in the opposite direction of the rotor.
model helicopter for the French Acadamie de Sci- 2. The rotating mass of the rotor was affected by
ences and Sir George Caley drew several helicopter gyroscopic precession. (Meaning that a tilt of
designs while making contributions to the basic the rotor would result in a movement 90° from
knowledge of the principles of flight. the applied force.)
Throughout the 19th century, with the invention The lift forces produced by the advancing blade
of the internal combustion engine, men from all na- were greater than the lifting force of the re-
tions pursued the problem of flight. In spite of the treating blade in horizontal flight, resulting in
efforts of these inventors, no real significant ad- dissymmetry of lift which would overturn the
vances were made in flight. By the latter part of the helicopter.
19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, In spite of these overwhelming problems, experi-
all emphasis was placed on powering gliders. mentation continued through the 1920’s. One of
Thomas Edison summed up the situation for ro- the experimenters was Juan de la Cierva, who had
tary wing aircraft by stating that an inherent lim- designed the first Spanish-built fixed wing air-
itation in helicopter development at that time was craft. After the crash of one of his designs due to a
the lack of a lightweight engine — a handicap stall, he devoted the rest of his life to building a
which was somewhat less restrictive to the fixed safer, slow-moving aircraft that was not dependent
wing concept. on its forward speed to make safe landings. To in-
By 1903 the Wright Brothers had made the first sure these goals he designed an aircraft which had
manned powered flight. With this success, the em- the wings free to rotate about a vertical axis, giv-
phasis shifted from rotary to fixed wing for all but a ing the wings their own velocity.
few inventors. These few realized the drawbacks of Cierva’s invention employed a conventional aircraft
the fixed wing, such as the necessity for long run- to produce forward thrust with freely rotating wings
ways and forward speed to prevent stalling. to produce lift. This wind-milling is known as auto-
In 1907 Louis Breguet and Professor Richet of rotation. Thus the autogyro received its name.
France constructed a machine of 45 horsepower The first model built by Cierva had two counter
with four rotors. This rose to a height of five feet. It rotating rotors. He had hoped that the gyroscopic
did not, however, receive the distinction of the first effects would be cancelled and the differential of
free flight because it had to be steadied by four lift would be neutralized. However, the unequal
assistants. Instead, this distinction fell to another flow conditions of the two rotors made this ar-
Frenchman, Paul Cornu, just a few weeks later, rangement inefficient.
who attained a height of five feet with a passenger Cierva next decided to build a single rotor system
hanging underneath. in spite of the known problems. His first two at-
In 1910 a young Russian designer by the name of tempts with the single rotor system ended in
Igor Sikorsky built a coaxial helicopter powered by failure. However, the next attempt was an entirely
a 25-horsepower engine. This helicopter was only new design which solved the problem of the auto-
capable of lifting its own weight. At that time the gyro and paved the way for the helicopter.
vii
 The blades of this new rotor system were hinged so Subsequent to this production, other names ap-
that they could rise and fall freely during flight. peared in the helicopter field including Bell,
The flapping hinge allowed the blades to compen- Hiller, and Piasecki. A whole new generation of
sate for any variations of velocity and lift. In addi- rotary wing aircraft evolved, and a market for such
tion to the flapping hinge, Cierva also introduced an aircraft had appeared. These aircraft formed
the lead-lag hinge. This enabled it to land without the first generation of helicopters. Most of these
power (autorotate) and added pitch change to the helicopters were built with one main rotor system
rotor. and one antitorque rotor, which was the result of
In 1936, at the time of Cierva’s death, the autogyro Sikorsky’s experimentation. Although these heli-
was well established and was being built in several copters were lacking such desirable characteristics
countries including England, France, Italy, and the as reliability and maintainability, the demand for
U.S. However, the helicopter still seemed to be far them continued. For the next decade constant im-
from successful. provement of basic designs was pursued until the
In 1937, the Focke-Achgelis FW-61 was demon- _ helicopter gained respectability.
strated by Hanna Reitsch, the first woman helicop- | One weakness that continued was the lack of a
ter pilot, inside the Deutschland Halle in Berlin in powerplant designed for the helicopter. Since so
front ofa large audience. In an area 100 by 250 feet, few helicopters were built, it was uneconornical to
she hovered, moved forward and backward, and construct an engine specifically for them. The
made 360° turns. This helicopter later broke all powerplants chosen for helicopters were modified
existing records, and helped to remove any doubts versions of the existing aircraft engine inventory.
regarding the future of the helicopter. During this time the military developed a major
Anto Flettner, another German helicopter de- interest in the helicopter. This led to the develop-
signer invented the synchro-rotor blade system ment of a specially designed turbine powerplant
which had two contrarotating two-bladed rotors for helicopters.
mounted side-by-side, so they intermeshed. By This advancement brought about a new generation of
1941 a later model of Flettner’s helicopter was put helicopters to accommodate these engines. The second
into production to protect German convoys from generation had increased capabilities, better relia-
enemy submarines. If it had not been for WWII bility, and was better to maintain. They also opened
this helicopter would have undoubtedly set new the way for a corporate transportation market.
world records. Today, with the third generation of helicopters, we
In 1940, thirty years after his first unsuccessful observe a civil fleet over three times the size of the
attempt, Igor Sikorsky reentered the field of heli- US. air carrier fleet. It is comprised of two genera-
copter development with the VS-300 which in May tions of helicopters being joined with the third to
1941 broke the world’s helicopter endurance rec- perform work in all phases of industry, easier, faster,
ord held by the FW-61. In 1942, Sikorsky started and more economical than many other methods.
the production of 4B of which more than 400 were This facet of the aviation industry is presently
produced for the U.S. Army, Navy, Coast Guard, growing at an unprecedented rate with no end to
and for Great Britain. its growth potential in the foreseeable future.

viii
Chapter I
Helicopters In Use Today
Introduction
The helicopters in use today cover a period of time To meet the ever-increasing demand to fulfill the
from 1947 to the present. They have gone from being needs of the helicopter operators, manufacturers
a novelty to being the work horse of the aviation have increased the reliability, decreased the main-
industry, performing tasks of every imaginable de- tenance requirements, and designed new helicop-
scription. In this period, the industry developed a ‘ters. They include three generations of machines,
large commercial fleet which has exceeded the air from reciprocating two-place helicopters to those
carrier and corporate aviation fleets in size. This un- that are turbine powered and carry many pas-
precedented growth did not occur by accident but sengers. Because of the many different types, it is
because of the versatility of the machine and the important to know about those in use today and
ingenuity of the operators seeking new possibilities their capabilities as described in this section.
for their use as a fast and efficient method of complet-
ing various tasks, including construction, agricul- A. Bell Helicopters
ture, forestry, and business. At this time there is 1. Bell 47
probably no area of the economy that is not touched The Bell 47, in 1946, was the first helicopter to
by the helicopter in some manner. receive civilian certification . This helicopter enjoyed

Fig. 1-1 Bell Helicopter Textron’s Model 222 mid-size twin turbine helicopter is representative of today’s genera-
tion of helicopter.
a long production life, until 1974, when it became this is no longer true, they are still in wide use
too expensive to manufacture. During this period it today, performing numerous tasks such as flight
was manufactured in a great number of models and training, agricultural work, traffic control, etc. It
its components have been used to build special pur- will undoubtedly lose its popularity as new and
pose helicopters. It is also presently being con- more modern equipment is introduced, but at this
verted to turbine powerplants. This helicopter once time it could certainly be considered the DC-3 of
enjoyed such popularity that more Bell 47’s were in the helicopter industry. Fig. 1-2 shows two models
use than any other helicopter in the world. Although of the Bell 47.

Bell 47
—6—ooeeaeae———eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeooeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits MPH Seats
47B 11-4-47/Type — Franklin 178 24 3 2200 350 Max. 92 2
Cert. H-1 6V4-178-B3 285 Min.
Remarks: 40 pounds maximum baggage — pressure fuel system.

47B3 7-2-48 Franklin 178 24 3 2200 350 Max. 92 2

6V4-178-B32 285 Min.
Remarks: 40 pound maximum baggage — revised cockpit enclosure, furnishing, and cowling.

47D 2-25-48 Franklin 178 24 3 2200 350 Max. 92 2

6V4-178-B32 285 Min.
Remarks: Similar to B3 except cockpit enclosure, wheel with brakes, 24V electrical.

47D1 3-29-49 Franklin 178 29 3 2200 350 Max. 95 3

6V4-178-B32 285 Min.
or
6V4-200-C32
Remarks: No baggage allowance — cockpit enclosure ventral fin-fixed tab combination, main rotor counterweights, movable battery, gravity fuel
system, roller bearing type transmission, elimination of cowling and tailboom covering.

~ 47E 4-18-50 Franklin 200 24 3 2350 360 Max. 98 2

. 6V4-200-C32 294 Min.
Remarks: 40 pounds baggage.

47G 6-19-53 Franklin 200 43 3 2350 360 Max. 100 3

6V4-200-C32 294 Min.
Remarks: No baggage allowance — similar to D1 except saddle tanks, battery location, synchronized elevator, ventral fin and tail rotor gear box.

47G-2 1-20-55 Lycoming 200 43 3.5 2450 360 Max. 100 3

VO-435-A1A 294 Min.
or A1B, A1D
Remarks: No baggage allowance — similar to G except for engine and relocation of the fore, aft, and lateral cyclinder hydraulic boost controls and the
installation of lock and load valves.

47H-1 3-21-55 Franklin 200 35 2.7 2350 360 Max. 100 3

6V4-200-C32 294 Min.
Remarks: Maximum baggage 200 pounds — similar to 47G except for semi-monocoque tailboom, increased cabin width, contour fuel tanks, revised
skid type landing gear, addition to baggage compartment.

47J 8-23-56/Type Lycoming 220 35 29 2565 370 Max. 105 4

Cert.2H1 VO-435-A1B 333 Min.
Remarks: Maximum baggage 250 pounds.

47G-2A-1 12-28-62 Lycoming 240 61.6 3 2850 370 Max. 105 3

VO-435-A1E 333 Min.
or A1F

2
 _4s"yolh-
rv 5085

132.50"(11' — 0.5") 328,00" (27' —

-0.75").
102.781"(8’ — 6.781")
— 9.815")
~ 4")
68.125" DIA. __
142.45 (3' - 8,125")
(11’ — 10.45")

111.613
(9 — 3.613")

113.45"
9'5.45"

90" i = 6*) , 121.02"(10'-1 256.38"(21' — 4.38")

113,58"(9' — 5.58") + 213.167 + 288.75
+ 251.753
— 88.65 +2 +36.99

= 115.00 (9'7") ———}

<—— 131.00 (10711") 2.48 (10.7116") _

o |
_ |
{ : SOLE = =
V———— S
jas rt?) Geel {|
. 519.74 (43'4-314")
— ae |

<< 388.74 (32'4.314") |

100.00 (8'4") —>
[~ , — =
70.13 DIA.
(5'10-1/8") 144.00
_ (12'0")
111.61 (9'3-5/8") 113.45
(9'5-5132")
78.00
(6'6") 37.07
72.215 (6'7/32")
| (3'1-1116")

62.00 —| "|
|
(5'2")
+— 30.00 (7'6") —>

Fig. 1-2 A-Bell 47G; B-Bell 47J.

 Bell 47
~ "Date _ Fuel Oil ——sMax. Rotor Airspeed _No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits MPH Seats
47G-3B-1 1-25-63 Lycoming 270 61.6 4.25 2950 370 Max. 105 3
TVO-435-B1A 322 Min.
or BiB
Remarks: External supercharger.

47G-4 1-3-64 Lycoming 260 61.6 3 2950 370 Max. 105 3

VO-540-B1B 333 Min.
Remarks: Similar to 47G-2A-1 except larger engine, and addition of collective boost system.

47G-4A 1-3-66 Lycoming 280 61.6 5 2950 370 Max. 105 3

VO-540-B1B-3 333 Min.

47G-5 1-21-66 Lycoming 260 28 3 2850 370 Max. 105 3

VO-435-B1A 333 Min.
Remarks: Only one saddle tank on right, low instrument panel. Approved: dual saddle tanks, 3 seat capacity.

47K 3-30-59 Lycoming 240 35 2.7 2565 370 Max. 105 2

VO-435-6A 333 Min.
VO-435-A1D
Remarks: Similar to 47J except for cabin, open engine compartment, oil system and lights.

475-2 1-14-60 Lycoming 240 48 4.3 2850 370 Max. 105 4

VO-540-B1B 333 Min.
or B1B3
Remarks: Similar to 47J except metal main rotor blades, fixed stabilizer, engine and blue tinted bubble.

47J-2A 3-4-64 Lycoming 260 48 43 2850 370 Max. 105 4

VO-540-B1B3 333 Min.
Remarks: Similar to 47J except increased weight, addition of collective boost system and main rotor tip weights, change in C.G. limits.

47G-3.-3-17-60/Type__—_— Franklin 225 43 2 2650 370 Max. 105 3

Cert.2H3 6 VS-335-A 322 Min.

47G-2A 12-10-60 Lycoming 240 43 2 2850 370 Max. 105 3

VO-435-A1E 333 Min.

47G-3B2 5-24-61 Lycoming 260 43 2 2850 370 Max. 105 3

TVO-435-A1A 322 Min.
Remarks: External supercharger.

Because of the great number of models manufac- models were modified in design and later became
tured, each individual model cannot be shown. The civilian models.
following is a list of the various models and their The 204B model was a derivative of the U-H1
major differences. Of course this list cannot point series of helicopters built for the military. Although
out all the differences of the various models of this the two helicopters appear very similar in appear-
helicopter. Because of the great numbers built for ance, many changes were made between the civilian
civilian and military use, and the continual updat- and the military aircraft, including the length of the
ing of the older models, no attempt will be made to tailboom, baggage area, and rotor blades.
give the number of them in existence.
The 204B is an 11-place helicopter with turbine
2. Bell 204 power (Fig. 1-3). Although built in small numbers,
From its beginning with the Bell 47, the com- the 204B paved the way for the turbine-powered
pany grew, building several additional models for helicopter and the use of such helicopters by the
civilian and military use. Many of the military petroleum support industry.
 Bell 204
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
204B 4-4-63/Type — Lycoming 1100 160 4 8500 324 Max. 120 11
Cert. HiSW T5309A,B,C, 310 Min.
or T5311A
Remarks: Transport helicopter — 400 pounds maximum baggage.

9’ -— 4.0"
| ° 56’ — 10.84"
44' — 8.02"

Fig. 1-3 Bell 204B

3. Bell 205 The 205-A1 has experienced a long production run

Following the development of the 204B were two since its inception in 1968, with new aircraft being
improved versions of this aircraft. These are the manufactured until 1978. The major use of this se-
Bell 205A and the Bell 205-A1 (Fig. 1-4). ries has been in the petroleum support industry.
Bell 205
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
205A 6-13-68/Type Lycoming 1100 215 3.5 8500 324 Max. 120 15
Cert. HiSW 15311AorB 314 Min.
Remarks: Transport helicopter— 400 pounds maximum baggage.

205-A1 10-25-68 Lycoming 1250 220 3.15 9500 324 Max. 120 15
T5313A or B 314 Min.
Remarks: Transport helicopter category B— 400 pounds maximum baggage.
 41'6.32" ———_____________,
4410.0" —————____—+
57'7.0"

Fig. 1-4 Bell 205

4. Bell 206 stantial outlet in the civilian market. At the pres-

During the time in which the 204 and 205 series ent time it enjoys an unprecedented popularity in
helicopters were being built to meet the market many areas which include corporate, agriculture,
of a turbine-powered 10 to 15 passenger helicopter, construction, petroleum support, and ambulance
a smaller turbine-powered helicopter was placed service. This helicopter may be found in almost all
on the market — the Model 206, better known as areas of the world performing various missions. A
the Jet Ranger. profile of a Jet Ranger is shown in Fig. 1-5A and B.
The 206 was first certificated in 1964. Because of A list of the various models and abbreviated in-
its size and versatility it immediately found a sub- formation about the helicopter follows:

Bell 206
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
206 4-28-64/Type _— Allison 250 76 5.5 2750 394 Max. 115 4
Cert.H2SW = 250-C10 374 Min.
Remarks: Same as a military model— OH-4A 1200 pounds cargo.

206A 10-20-66 Allison 317 76 5.5 3000 394 Max. 130 5

250-C18, 374 Min.
C18B, or
250-C20
Remarks: 1200 pounds cargo.

206A1 5-6-69 Allison 317 71.5 5.5 3000 354 Max. 115 4
250-C10D 347 Min.
Remarks: OH-58A— 1200 pounds cargo.
 Bell 206
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

206B 8-19-71 Allison 317 76 5.5 3200 394 Max. 130 5

250-C20 374 Min.
Remarks: 1200 pounds cargo (Jet Ranger Il).

206B-1 11-10-71 Allison 317 70.3 5.5 3200 354 Max. 120 5
250-C20 347 Min.
Remarks: 1200 pounds cargo.

206L 9-22-75 Allison 370 98 5.5 4000 394 Max. 130 7

250C-20B 374 Min.

206L-1 5-17-78 Allison 370 98 5.5 4050 394 Max. 130 7

250C-28B 374 Min.

206L3 12-10-81 Allison 370 110 5.5 4150 394 Max. 130 7
250-C30P 382 Min.

31'2.0"
1'6,0"

32.6"
-

+— 3'7.7" > |-——— 7'6.8" ———>| n1'52" |

A, - 38'9.5"

*11'7.5" _ 6'5.7"

=
Toots" 14 e DROOPED BLADE
11.5" 5'2.0"
DROOPED e 8'4.0"
BLADE

17.5"
{ 1'0.0”
+—— 5'0.0" ——
10°65"

*Measurement is taken with main rotor blade raised against the dynamic flap restraint.

Fig. 1-5 A-Bell 206.

 89.0 (NO LOAD ON GEAR)
92.1 AT GROSS WT OF 4000 LBS. (7'5.0")
{7'8.1")
18.0
52.0
48.0 (4'4.0")
ee

118.9
(9'10.9")
282.2
(23'6.2")

508.7
(42'4.7") ~
2°15’
PRECONE 62.0
8°30’ FLAPPING (5'2.0")

° 23.3 CLEARANCE
8°30' FLAPPING (1°11.3")

o000

72.0
122.4 (6'0.0")
(2'10.5")
(10'2.4") 154.2
140.3 123.8 (12°10.2")
(11'8.3") (40'3.8")

Fig. 1-5 B-206L.

5. Bell 212 the Bell fleet — Model 212. The 212 added twin en-
In addition to the large single turbine helicopters gine reliability and IFR capability to the helicopters
built by Bell, an additional twin engine was added to used for petroleum support and construction.

Bell 212

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

212 10-30-70 United A/C of 645 220 3.76 10,000 324 Max. 115 15
Category B Canada per or 314 Min.
6-30-70 PT6T-3 engine 11,200
Category A = Twin Pac
Type Cert. —_ Turboshaft
H4SW
Remarks: Transport helicopter category A or B— 400 pounds maximum baggage. One engine inoperative (emergency) 30 minute rating 928 SHP.
 57'3.25"
41'8,17"

12'1.0"

2811.12" |

12'9.05" 11.5"
11° a.
z

11° FLAPPING

86"
14’
(} —- 10’ 4.41"
CG 1.41”

C3 4'7.56" ea"
4 i
8'8.4" GROUND LINE AT 10,000 LB GROSS WEIGHT | 13.88”

9°4.0"
AT 10,000 LB
GROSS WEIGHT

Fig. 1-6 Bell 212

6. Bell 222 aimed at the corporate market because of the twin

The latest of the Bell models to go into produc- turbine reliablity and IFR capability (Fig. 1-7). A
tion is the Model 222. This helicopter is primarilly brief summary of its specifications follows:

Bell 222
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
222 10-1-79 Lycoming 615 189 3.7 7200 362 Max. 150 10
Type Cert. 2LTS101 each 338 Min.
H9SW
Remarks: 370 NMI with 20 minute reserve at 8000 feet. Flexible seating of 6, 8, and 10 place configurations.

222B 6-30-82 2 each 550 187.5 3.7 8250 362 Max. 150 9
H9OSW Lycoming 313 Min.
LTS 101
750C-1

222U 4-29-83 2 each 550 247 3.7 8250 348 Max. 150 9
Type Cert. Lycoming 338 Max.
H9SW LTS 101
750C-1
 47'9.1" |

6'6”DIA

10'8.7”
6'2.9”
a |

36’0.3”

Fig. 1-7 Bell 222

7. Bell 412
The Bell Model 412 is a growth version of the 212. system. These added features have greatly contrib-
Among the changes made to the aircraft include a uted to passenger comfort. These helicopters are
four-bladed rotor system and a nodal beam vibration widely used by the petroleum support industry.

Bell 412
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
412 1-9-81 2 each 1600 337 3.2 11900 324 Max. 140 15
Type Cert. PT6-3 314 Min.
H4Sw

10
 _2 FT.7IN.
46 FT. (777m)
(14M) TT
— 4 FT. 8 IN. 9 FT. 4 IN.
cl _AK oo (1.4 M) (2.8 M)
SO ofl] = pe
er " — ——*
if ae r : oh

14 IN. | ‘
~ a
.
(360 mm) x

4 FT. int:
7 IN -li2 er2ing | ~
(1.4 ia) Lie, ti

56 FT.21N
45 FT. 11 IN. (17.1 M)
(14 M) ALES. BIN.
(12.7 M)
|__12 FT. 10 IN.
(3.9 M) | —
fe a

8 FT.7IN._
(2.6 M)

10 FT. 10 IN.
{3.3 M)

(1.5 M)
i

|_ 9 FT.4 IN 15 FT. 1 IN.

1393 mm) (4.6 M)——
| een | La FT. 5 IN.
(3.5 M)

Fig. 1-8 Bell 412

8. Bell 214ST
The newest of the Bell helicopter line is the pleted by Bell. This model may be equipped with
Model 214ST. This model was developed as a joint either skid gear or wheels and, because of its range
venture of Bell and Iran. With the fall of their gov- and carrying capability, is basically used for off-
ernment, the helicopter development was com- shore oil work.

Bell 214
ooo eee eee eee Oo3q“03“qQqQqoqoaea

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airs| No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

214ST 2-8-85 2each 1625 435 1.9 17500 287 Max. 130 20
H10SW = GE T700/2C 284 Min.

11
 — I3FT 33H
——————_

OJO}O
RFT 2K

——

SFT 1Q6IN

FT 6M

Les as »—|
CUNDEFLECTED sxiD)
_—————— 49FT 9.2K ——— oO
ss

Fig. 1-9 Bell 214ST

B. Hiller Helicopters
1. Hiller UH-12 powered and as a turbine-powered helicopter. Like
Shortly after the certification of the Bell 47, an- the Bell 47, the Hiller has been employed in nu-
other light helicopter went into production, the merous tasks which include training, agriculture,
Hiller 12. The Hiller, like the Bell 47, was man- construction, and forestry. They are found through-
ufactured in a number of different models and en- out the world, with one of the highest concentra-
joyed popularity as both a civilian and a military tions in the northwestern United States. Many op-
helicopter. Although it may not have enjoyed the erators prefer the Hiller for sling load operations
same popularity as the Bell, a great number of because of its load carrying capabilities.
various models of the Hiller 12 are still in use today. The following is a brief summary of the specifica-
In fact, the Hiller 12E (Fig. 1-10) is still being pro- tions, and some of the major differences, of the
duced in small numbers as both a reciprocating- various models of the Hiller 12:

Hitler UH-12
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

UH-12 10-14-48 Franklin 178 27 2.50 2247 350 Max. 73 3

Type Cert. 6V4-178-B33 294 Min.
6H
Remarks: No baggage allowance.

UH-12A 5-8-50 Franklin 178 27 2.50 2400 350 Max. 73 3

6V4-178-B33 294 Min.

UH-12B =. 11-2-51/Type ‘Franklin 200 28 2.50 2500 360 Max. 73 3

Cert.6H2 6V4-200-C33 300 Min.
Remarks: No baggage allowance
 Hiller UH-12
Date . Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

UH-12C 12-12-54 Franklin 200 28 2-"/ 2500 360 Max. 73 3

6V4-200-C33 300 Min.
Remarks: No baggage allowance.

UH-12D 12-23-57 Lycoming 250 46 2.3 2750 395 Max. 83 3

Type Cert. VO-435-A1C 314 Min.
Remarks: No baggage allowance.

UH-12E 1-6-59/Type Lycoming 305 46 2.3 2750 395 Max. 83 3

Cert.4H11 VO-540-A1A, 314 Min.
B1A-B1iE,
C1A-C1B
Remarks: Modification available to 4 seats. Baggage per flight manual. 12.3 quarts oil with auxiliary fuel tanks.

UH-12E-L 9-18-63/Type Lycoming 305 46 2 2750 370 Max. 92 3

Cert.4H11 VO-540-C2A 285 Min.
Remarks: Baggage per flight manual. Engine and transmission oil systems are separate. Maximum weight 3100 pounds only with cargo sling used.

UH-12L = 2-28-64/Type Lycoming 305 46 2 3100 370 Max. 93 3

Cert. H1WE VO-540-C2A 285 Min

UH-12L4 2-28-64/Type Lycoming 315 46 2 3100 370 Max. 93 4

Cert. H1WE VKO-540-C2A trans 285 Min.
1.42
Remarks: 3 seats in UH-12L and 4 seats in UH-12L4. Maximum weight 3500 pounds, only with cargo sling used.

L ca —
/
i +
4-10"

NU] |
wx >| DS | -——_ |
= 10'-0" 95" 5, i
——/
| 2 athe 1 2 dt

TOP
} 40’ -8.5"
| | 17'-8.5" —+|
———————— 5.5”
=—=7 = 5
a
25° » \
> CENTER OF GRAVITY 5’—8"DIA =
10’-1.5" EMPTY WEIGHT
9-35" yh /
N ~~ Z °
Ni
: 46° 35° CLEARS j
61.5 28.5" ROUND LINE as
Ss TAIL DOWN 6 6'-3.5"
, STATIC AND LEVEL GROUND LINE

[W—re | ole
7-6 STA

27’ -8"

FRONT SIDE

Fig. 1-10 Hiller 12

 2. Hiller FH-1100
In addition to the Hiller 12, another model was obtain the popularity of the Hiller 12 and produc-
built and marketed. This model, known as the tion was dropped after a few years. However, the
FH-1100 (Fig. 1-11), was a five-place turbine heli- 1100 is now back into production. Today there are
copter and was marketed by the newly mergered still a limited number of the older 1100’s operating.
Fairchild Hiller Corporation. This model did not Listed is a summary of its specifications:

FH-1100
Date Fuel Qil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

FH-1100 11-10-66 Allison 274 68.5 Eng. 2750 390 Max. 110 5
Type Cert. 250-C18 2.76 295 Min.
H2WE Trans.
2.6
Remarks: 1100 pounds maximum.

“ST
/
: 35.33’DIA.
i
!
t

4.34’ t£ a ee

1.32 M. Say Sect

28.375’ ew!
oe
8.65 M.
41.334f
12.6 M.

6.0'DIA.
1.629 M. DIA.

7.23'
2.204 M.

Fig. 1-11 Hiller FH-1100

14
C. Hughes Helicopters
1. Hughes HU-269 tured for civilian use and are being used for such
Hughes began to build helicopters in the 1950's. tasks as training, agricultural, and police work.
Their first production was the Model 269, a simple Like most of the smaller helicopters, the Hughes
two-place reciprocating powered helicopter. A great 269 has been built in several different models. One
number of these aircraft were manufactured for the of these is shown in Fig. 1-12. A brief summary of
military. Large numbers have also been manufac- their specifications follows:

Hughes HU-269

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine HP. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

269A 4-9-59/Type — Lycoming 25 2 1550 530 Max. 75 2

Cert.4H12 HO-360-B1A 180 400 Min.
HO-360-B2B 165
Remarks: Maximum cargo. See flight manual.

269A-1 8-23-63 Lycoming 180 25 2 1670 530 Max. 75 2

HIO-360-B1A 400 Min.
or B1B

269B 12-30-63 Lycoming 180 25 2 1670 530 Max. 76 3

. HIO-360-A1A 400 Min.
Remarks: 2698B restricted category. 1 seat left side.

269C 4-15-70 Lycoming 190 30 2 1900 540 Max. 109 3

HIO-360D1A 390 Min. MPH

a 1-4" “| ~

6’ -6.5"
(Ei
(i ]
ry
;
“—
UYy
eh =
jt Ss ee Ls,

7-11"

=>

Fig. 1-12 Hughes 269

15
 2. Hughes 369 (500 series) found today in all parts of the world in corporate,
In the early 1960’s, Hughes started production of agriculture, and construction work.
a turbine powered helicopter in the same category Like the Bell Jet Ranger, it has been built in
as the Bell 206 and the Fairchild Hiller 1100. These several models. Fig. 1-13A and B shows the 369
three helicopters were the result of a military com- (OH-6A) and the 369D (500 D) models.
petitive contract design for a light observation Hughes helicopters are now part of McDonnell
helicopter. The Hughes entry won, resulting in a Douglas which has long been known for fixed wing
large contract with the military. aircraft. The 369 series will continue to be pro-
The civilian production of the 369, which is the duced by McDonnell Douglas, but the 269C is now
FAA designation of the 500 series, was limited dur- being produced by Schweizer Aircraft.
ing the military contract, but increased when this A brief summary of information on the various
contract ended. This helicopter series may be models in the normal category follows:

Hughes 369
OO OE OO <_—_—_—S
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Ai No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
369H 11-15-66 Allison 243 416 5.90 2400 514 Max. 130 knots 5
Type Cert. 250-C18A Ibs. 400 Min.
H3WE

369HM 4-8-68 Allison 243 402 5.90 2400 514 Max. 130 knots 4
Type Cert. 250-Ci8A Ibs. 400 Min.
H3WE

369HS 1-3-69 Allison 243 416 5.90 2400 514 Max. 130 5
Type Cert. 250-C18A Ibs. 400 Min.
H3WE

369HE 5-21-69 Allison 243 416 5.90 2400 514 Max. 130 5
Type Cert. 250-C18A Ibs. 400 Min.
H3WE
Remarks: Many engines are modified for the Allison 250-C20 - rotor limits: C-18 engines 514 RPM to 400 RPM; C-20 engine 523 RPM to 400RPM.
Maximum weight SN 101 and up: 2550 pounds. 5 seats (HM 4 seats).

369D 12-8-76 Allison 350 402 11.60 3000 523 Max. 152 5
(500 D) Type Cert. 250-C20B Ibs. 410 Min.
H3WE
Remarks: This model uses a five blade rotor system.

369E 12-15-82 Allison 350 416 6 pd 3000 492 Max. 127 5

Type Cert. 250C20B pd 487 Min.
H3WE

369F 7-11-85 Allison 350 402 6 pd 3100 477 Max. 152 5

Type Cert. 250C30 pd 473 Min.
S""”202020200—0—0—2—2—200—0—————————————
—————————

16
 - (TIP OF UPPER STABILIZER)

—=s

J\. 46-1316 iy -2| ¥-

| 6'9-1/4" |

264" DIAMETER

——_______——— 30'3-3/4” (WITH BLADES REMOVED 22’9-1/2”)

Fig. 1-13 A-Hughes 369; B—Hughes 500D

17
D. Sikorsky Helicopters
1. Sikorsky S55
Production of Sikorsky helicopters began in 1942 The S55 series, however, established Sikorsky as
with the R4 helicopter for the military. This helicop- the manufacturer of large helicopters, even if they
ter was built prior to the Bell 47, but early Sikorskies would not be considered large by today’s standards
were not certified because they were built for the (Fig. 1-14).
military. The first civilian certified Sikorsky was the At present some of these helicopters are still in
S51 model. It was certified in April 1947, shortly use, mainly in lift work and large agricultural op-
after the Bell 47. Both the S51 and the S52 were erations. A brief summary of the S55 specifications
manufactured in smal] numbers and it is quite follows:
doubtful if any of these exist today.

Sikorsky S55
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
$55 3-25-52 Pratt & Max. 104 9.4 7200 245 Max. 95 9
Type Cert. Whitney Cont. 170 Min.
1H4 SIH2 550

|
15'2.5"

Fe
46'1"

Fig. 1-14 Sikorsky S55

 2. Sikorsky S58
The S55 soon led the way for the production of the airline concept and became a standard. A brief
S58 (Fig. 1-15) which was larger and more powerful summary of the S58’s specifications follows:
than the S55. This model enjoyed a long production Today the S58 is used in lift operations and has
with the civilian model and it’s military counterpart, been converted to a turbine powerplant. This will
the H34. This popularity led the helicopter to all extend the $58’s life even more. A brief summary of
parts of the world. It was used in the early helicopter the S58 turbine conversions specifications follows:

Sikorsky S58

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

S58A 8-2-56 Wright Max. 285 10.5 12700 258 Max. 117 14
Type Cert. Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
1H11 989C9HE-2

S58B 8-2-56 Wright Max. 285 10.5 12700 258 Max. 117 14
Type Cert. Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
1H11 989C9HE-2

S58C 8-2-56 Wright Max. 285 10.5 12700 258 Max. 117 14
Type Cert. Cyclone 1275 107 Min.
1H11 989C9HE-2

$58D 12-15-61 Wright Max. 254 10.5 13000 258 Max. 117 14
Type Cert. Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
1H11 989C9HE-2

S58E 5-27-71 Wright Max. 254 10.5 13000 258 Max. 117 14
Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
989C9HE-2

S58F 3-15-72 Wright Max. 254 10.5 12500 258 Max. 117 14
Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
989C9HE-2

S58G 3-15-72 Wright Max. 254 10.5 12500 258 Max. 117 14
Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
989C9HE-2

S58H 3-15-72 Wright Max. 254 10.5 12500 258 Max. 117 14
Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
989C9HE-2

S58! 3-15-72 Wright Max. 254 10.5 12500 258 Max. 117 14
Cyclone 1275 170 Min
989C9HE-2

S58J 3-15-72 Wright Max. 254 10.5 12500 258 Max. 117 14
Cyclone 1275 170 Min.
989C9HE-2
 ae603730370V—eee
Sikorsky $58T
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
S58BT 2-18-72 United A/C of Max. 279 1.6 13000 258 Max. 117 14
Type Cert. Canada PT6-3 Cont. 170 Min.
1H11 Twin Pack 1262

S58DT 2-18-72 — United A/C of Max. 244 1.6 13000 258 Max. 117 14
CanadaPT6-3 = Conf. 107 Min.
Twin Pack 1262

S58ET 2-18-72 — United A/C of Max. 279 1.6 13000 258 Max. 117 14
Canada PT6-3 Cont. 107 Min.
Twin Pack 1262

S58FT 3-27-72 United A/C of Max. 279 1.6 12500 258 Max. 117 14
Canada PT6-3 Cont. 107 Min.
Twin Pack 1262

S58HT 3-27-72 United A/C of Max. 244 1.6 12500 258 Max. 17 =. 14
CanadaTP6-3 Cont. 107 Min.
Twin Pack 1262

S58JT 3-27-72 United A/C of Max. 279 1.6 12500 258 Max. 117 14
Canada PT6-3 Cont. 107 Min.
Twin Pack 1262

56’ DIAMETER

YN
SY SA,
Y NS
~

Z
Wi

Fig. 1-15 Sikorsky S58

20
 3. Sikorsky S61 tion with twin turbine power. It has been used as a
Sikorsky introduced the S61 helicopter in 1961, | commuter transport and is used by the petroleum
and it is still being produced. The S61 is much support industry (Fig. 1-16).
A brief summary of its
larger than the S58 and was brought into produc- _ specificiations follows:

Sikorsky S61
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
S61L 11-2-61 2 General Max. 410 5 19,000 225 Max. 127 39
Type Cert. Electric Cont. 184 Min.
1hi5 CT58-110-1 1050

S61N 9-9-63 2 General Max. 654 5 19,000 225 Max. 130 39

Electric Cont. :
CT58-110-1 1050
Remarks: Same as L except hull fuselage.

S61R 12-30-63 2 General Max. 683 5.9 19,500 225 Max. 143 39
Electric Cont.
CT5I8-110-1 1050
Remarks: Same as L except modified complete hull, rear loading ramp, airfoil shaped sponsons, retractable gear, and modified tail rotor pylon.

15'4"
STATIC GROUND LINE |
x

72'8.5"

(APPROX.)
59'4”

97” ——-
0’ DIA.*
(ROTATING

16'8" ——>
‘|,
\

bgapaohoag
\

:
12'3"

14'4"

+
\\
8”

———
9

%
ht

e—
i

et — 236.5" —
|

Fig. 1-16 Sikorsky S61

21
 4, Sikorsky S64 build a special purpose helicopter. Only a few of
One of the most interesting helicopters that was these machines were ever manufactured, but it is
manufactured by Sikorsky was the S64 (Fig. 1-17). felt that this was a noteworthy accomplishment. A
It was the first attempt by any manufacturer to brief summary of its specifications follows:

Sikorsky S64
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model § Approved _Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
S64E 7-30-65 2 Pratt & Max. 1356 2.8 42,000 204 Max. 115 5
Type Cert. Whitney Cont. 671 Min.
H1EA JFTD12A-1 4000

1063.203"(ae'6*) ———_

06.8" 72.2987 — . \
| Wea" (960°) DIA.

230" (927)

162° (176)

at wey

‘asorqt'aty

6" (4'8")

wosqer)

Fig. 1-17 Sikorsky S64

22
 5. Sikorsky S76 The newest version of the S76 will soon be in
The latest of the Sikorsky models is the S76. It is production. Among other features, this version
primarily aimed at the corporate industry, but will will include a new powerplant system.
also be used in the petroleum support industry
(Fig. 1-18).

Sikorsky S76
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
S76A 7-26-79 2 Allison 650 286.4 1.27 10,000 336 Max. 156 up to
Type Cert. 250-C3 each per 255 Min. 14
HiNE eng.

84"(73 —0")213M
FUSELAGE WIDTH

8'.0”
}+— 9'- 9" —>|

16,9”
+
12'- 10" (6'—8")
t
(6’-0") a9 —
0 f 4 STATIC GROUND LINE WL 37 i /
(16'—5") /
(14' — 5.8”)
11.64")

Co) STA
19

Fig. 1-18 Sikorsky S76

23
E. Brantly Hynes Helicopters
1. Brantly B-2 and 305 hinges built into the blade. After the original
In the late 1950’s, another helicopter made its model was produced, two other models followed.
appearance on the market. This was the Brantly Most of these were bought for private use and
B-2 (Fig. 1-19). It was a two-place helicopter with training. A brief summary of the B-2 models with
a unique three-bladed rotor system having lag their specifications follows:
Brantly Hynes B-2 .
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed _—No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

B-2 4-27-59/Type Lycoming 180 31 7.3 1600 500 Max. 87 2

Cert.2H2 VO-360-A1B 400 Min.
or B1A
Remarks: 50 pounds maximum baggage.

B-2A 12-21-62 Lycoming 180 31 7.3 1600 472 Max. 87 2

VO-360-A1B 400 Min.
Remarks: Similar to B-2 except bucket seats, bubble doors, and larger instrument panel.

B-2B 7-1-63 Lycoming 180 31 7.3 1670 472 Max. 87 2

IVO-360-A1A 400 Min.
Remarks: Similar to B-2A except addition of two engine cooling fans and fuel injection system.

In 1965, a new five-place reciprocating engine Helicopters Co. was later sold and has since become
helicopter was brought out by Brantly, the Model Brantly Hynes. They now manufacture the Model
305. Although this helicopter had some unique 305 and B-2B, as well as factory remanufactured
features, it was too late to capture a portion of the units. Following is a brief description of the 305:
civilian market and very few exist today. Brantly
Brantly Hynes 305

Date Fuel oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

305 7-29-65/Type Lycoming 305 43.5 9 2900 480 Max. 104 5

Cert. H3SW_ IVO-540-A1A 400 Min.
Remarks: 200 pounds maximum baggage. Similar to B-2B except larger.

v-11"
DIA,

Fig. 1-19 Brantly B-2B

24
F. Enstrom Helicopters
1. Enstrom F-28 and 280C reach their original goals. The F28 series, however,
The Enstrom helicopter appeared on the market is still in production, with a newer model on the
by the mid-1960’s. It was designed with many fea- drawing boards. Fig. 1-20 shows the Enstrom F28
tures that would reduce cost. Although the cost helicopter. A brief description of the various En-
was lower than most of its competitors, it did not strom helicopters and their specifications follows:
Enstrom F-28 and 280

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits MPH Seats
F-28 1965/Type —_ Lycoming 195 HP 30 2 1950 385 Max. 100 3
Cert.H1CE HIO-360-C1A at 2700 315 Min.
or RPM
HIO-360-C1B

F-28A 1968 Lycoming 205 HP 40 2 2150 385 Max. 100 3

HIO-360-C1A at 2900 313 Min.
or RPM
HIO-360-C1B

F-28C 1975 Lycoming 205 HP 40 2 2200 385 Max. 112 3

HIO-360 with = at 2900 332 Min.
Rajay Super- — 36.5 in.
charger Hg.

280 1974 Lycoming 205 HP 40 2 2150 385 Max. 112 3

HIO-360-C1A —_ at 2900 : 313 Min.
or RPM
HIO-360-C1B

280C 1975 Lycoming 205 HP 40 2 2200 385 Max. 117 3

HI0-360-E1AD at 2900 332 Min.
with Rajay RPM
Supercharger 36.5
in Hig.

F28F 12-31-80 Lycoming 225 42 10 qt. 2350 385 Max. 112 3

280F HIO-360 332 Min.
——_—_—_—_—_————»
338(28" - 270.8.)

Fig. 1-20 Enstrom F-28A

25
G. Vertol Helicopters
1. Vertol 107 enter the civilian market. A small number of these
One of the most unusual civilian helicopters was machines were built and all of the remaining aircraft
the Vertol 107 (Fig. 1-21). For years Vertol and its are now owned by one company. However, they do
predecessor, Piasecki, had built military tandem-ro- deserve mentioning because of their unique design.
tored helicopters. The 107 was the first attempt to A brief summary of its specifications follows:

Vertol 107

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits MPH Seats
107 7-26-62 2 General 1250 Max. 350 4.2 Category A 299 Max. 168 41
Type Cert. Electric Takeoff 17,900 Ibs. 233 Min.
1H16 CT58-110-1 1050 Max. Category B
or-2 Continuous 19,000 Ibs.
Remarks: Minimum crew 2—maximum passengers 39.

50' 0”

25' 0"

- _— ~

f WLO
DROOP 711"
POSITION t

EXTENDED 19"
POSITION POSITION
STATION
STATION " «561.38
23.0 44' 6.83" \

re Ai wo WLO
--t+- ~

60" SS
49° 4" 68” 6'8"
13/11"
14! 6.25" 7

43' 0"

Fig. 1-21 Verto! 107

26
 2. Boeing Vertol 234
Vertol was purchased by Boeing in the mid Vertol 234. This is a derivative of the CH47 which
1960’s. Although they produced military helicop- _is widely used by the military in the United States
ters, no civilian helicopters were produced until and several foreign nations. The primary use of the
recent years, with the production of the Boeing 234 is the oil support industry.

Boeing Vertol 234

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
234 5-3-82 2 4015 2100 6 gal. 48,500 225 Max. 150 K 46
H9EA Lycoming gal. 3 each 220 Min.
AL5512 engine

36 f4 10 in,
(11.84m) ~

18 ft 7.8 in,
(5.68m)
10 ft 11.6 in, 4
(3.35m)
25 ft 9.9 in, i
(7.87m) 52 ft 1 in. | .
(15.88m)
SIDE VIEW
-
99 ft Oin,
<4
(30.18m)
74 ft Din.

ee

\ 60 ft O in.
(18.29m)
75 ft 9 in.
DIM WITH 4 BLADES FOLDED SY
PLAN VIEW

Fig. 1-22 Boeing Vertol 234LR — USA

27
H. Robinson Helicopters
1. Robinson R22 though this series of helicopter is relatively new, it
The Robinson R22 series of helicopters have has been widely used and accepted as a trainer and
been on the market for the last several years as will probably be around for years to come because
a light training and observation helicopter. Al- of its simplicity and unique design features.

Robinson R22

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
R22 3-16-79 Lycoming 124 20 1.5 1300 530 Max. 98 2
Type Cert. 0320 495 Min.

R22A 10-12-83 Lycoming 124 20 1.5 1370 530 Max. 98 2

0320B2C 495 Min.

R22B 8-12-85 Lycoming 124 20 1.5 1370 98 2

0320B2C

P22M 9-12-85 Lycoming 124 20 1.5 1370 98 2

0320B2C
Remarks: Same as R22B except floats.

44 1N
Es&

Fig. 1-23 Robinson R22

28
I. Imported Helicopters
1. Messerschmitt-Boelkow Helicopters importing helicopters to the United States. The first
a. Messerschmitt-Boelkow B0-105 of these to be imported was the BO-105 through
Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm (MBB) have a Boeing Vertol. Later the MBB Helicopter Corpora-
long history of helicopter research and development tion was formed in order to market their product in
in Germany. In recent years they have been active in North America.
Messerschmitt-Boelkow BO-105

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

BO105A 4-19-71/Type 2Allison 317 Max. 153 2.4 . 4,629 433 Max. 135 5
Cert. 250-C18 Takeoff 403 Min.
H3EU 270 Max.
Continuous
Remarks: Minimum crew t — passengers 4.

105C 4-20-72 2 each 385 153 2.4 5291 433 Max. 145 5
Allison 403 Min.
250 & C20

105S 7-25-77 2 each 400 153 24 5291 433 Max. 145 5

Allison 403 Min.
250C & 20B

~<4——_ (UNLOADED) —>

Fig. 1-24 Messerschmitt-Boelkow BO-105A

 b. Messerschmitt-Boelkow BKI17
The BK117 helicopter was a joint venture be- transmission and fuselage from Kawasaki. Be-
tween MBB and Kawasaki. It utilized the technol- _cause of its design it has been popular as a medical
ogy of the BO-105 components coupled with a new and utility helicopter.

Messerechr;iii-soelkow BK117
S3..°°-«=—weewOmnoOwonanWmO$@eS<OoOoOOwwqwoyoqoa————————EeEEEeeeeeeeeeeee

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
T17A-1 9-10-85 Lycoming 5510 160 3 7055 406 Max. 150
H-3-EU LTS101 391 Min.
QqQ60N0N06g6aRqeqaqa06o0o?020>*0*0—SS SS

42.65 {13,00 m
32.51 fV9.91 m_ ———_-----—

8.20 {1/2,50m
Fr

Fig. 1-25 Messerschmitt-Boelkow BK117.

30
 2. Aerospatiale Helicopters Alouette series, the Lama, Gazelle, Dauphin, Puma,
a. Aerospatiale Alouette and Lama ~ and the AStar. These helicopters cover a wide range
The French helicopters are manufactured by of capabilities from 4 to 17 passengers, and are all
Aerospatiale and were originally marketed by turbine powered.
L.T.V. Corporation. They are now marketed by The Alouette is the oldest model, with several
Aerospatiale in the United States. configurations. The original design dates back to
Aerospatiale Helicopters have been one of the the late 1950’s. A U.S. Type Certificate was first
leading helicopter manufacturers in Europe for issued in 1962. Two Alouette models are shown in
many years. They have exported several models to Fig. 1-26. A brief summary of the different models
this country in recent years. These include the and their specifications follows:

Alouette and Lama

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
SE160 3-27-62/Type Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 149 2.6 4630 420 Max. 113 7
Alouette Cert. H1IN Artouste 5 minutes 270 Min.
il IB 33500 RPM
S62uP
Max. Cont.
33500 Rem
444 yp
Remarks: Pilot and 2 front — 4 passengers rear.

SA319B 11-20-72 | Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 149 2.6 4960 420 Max. 118 7
Alouette Astazou 43000 RPM 270 Min.
ill XiVB 592 HP 358 Cont.
Max. Cont.
43000 RPM
494 uP
Remarks: Pilot and 2 front — 4 passengers rear.

SA316C 11-20-72 | Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 149 2.6 4960 420 Max. 118 7
Alouette Artouste 33500 RPM 270 Min.
i IID 592 HP 358 Cont.
Max. Cont. RPM
33500 RPM
494 HP
Remarks: Pilot and 2 front — 4 passengers rear.

SA316B 3-25-71 Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 149 2.6 4850 420 Max. 113 7
Alouette Type Cert. Artouste 33500 RPM 270 Min.
il H1IN IIB 542 HP 353.2 Cont.
Max. Cont.
33500 Rem
444 yp
Remarks: Pilot and 2 front — 4 passengers rear. SA316B may be obtained by conversion of SA160.

315B 2-25-72 Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 149 2.6 4300 420 Max. 113 5
Lama Artouste 33500 RPM Internal 270 Min.
HIB 592 HP 5070 353 Cont.
Max. Cont. External
33500 APM
494 HP
Remarks: Pilot and 1 front—3 passengers rear.
pees settee

31
 33.04 ft. TO BLADE TIPS
tt REAR BLADE ON G TAIL 800" |

0 6.27’ dia

°
9.84"

! 1

8.54 33.38"

a. =

— 31.28" |
Blade Tip To Blade Tip

B 33.35 {t. TO BLADE TIPS

———— REAR BLADE ON G TAIL BOOM

6.27° dia

10.14

1.98" 3.18"

-}—- 7.80
10.79

| 33.58"

H.31"
Blade Tip To Blade Tip

Fig. 1-26 A-Aerospatiale Alouette lil; B-Aerospatiale Lama.

32
 b. Aerospatiale Gazelle
In 1972 Aerospatiale introduced the Gazelle. as a four-place helicopter (Fig. 1-27). A brief sum-
This helicopter was aimed at the corporate market mary of its specifications follows:

Gazelle
Seo aSaSs>»s>wuouro=

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats

SA341G 9-18-72/Type Tubomeca Max. Takeoff 120.7 2.4 3970 430 Max. 168 4
Gazelle Cert. HEEU Astazou 43500 RPM 310 Min.
HWA 494 HP Power in flight
Max. Cont. 378 + 12 RPM
43500 RPM
494 HP
Remarks: Pilot and 1 front— 2 passengers rear.

SA342J 1977 Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 120.7 2.4 4190 393 Max. 170 VNE 4
Gazelle Astazou 43500 RPM 320 Min.
XIVH 570 HP Power in flight
Max. Cont. 349 + 12 APM
43500 APM
570 HP
Remarks: Pilot and 1 front — 2 passengers rear.

STANDARD 39.26’ STRETCHED 39.89’

11.972 m (Rotor rotating) 12.16 m
34.45’ dia
10.500 m

3.186 m
10.45’
| ‘ ry

0.310 m 0.695 m Sloss m

|

T STANDARD 31.277 * STRETCHED 31.90'

E 9.533 m 9.72m
0
al&
as
orm

6.60" DIMENSIONS WITH BLADES FOLDED

2.015 m _

a
B15 et
= [J
1 STANDARD 31.27’
[|
STRETCHED 31.90’
9.533 m 9.72m !

Fig. 1-27 Aerospatiale Gazelle

33
 c. Aerospatiale Dauphin
Aerospatiale introduced the Dauphin in 1976. (Fig. 1-28). It is used mainly for transport by the
This model was soon followed by the Dauphin 2, petroleum support operators. A brief summary of the
giving twin engine reliability to the helicopter Dauphin models and their specifications follows:
Dauphin
SS S7590°0058—8$@Oah eee
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine HP. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
SA360C 1976/Type Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 169 2.3 6400 393 Max. 170 14
Dauphin Cert. HBEU Astazou 43000 RPM 320 Min
XVIIA 871 HP Power in flight
Max. Cont. 349 + 12 RPM
43000 RPM
804 HP
Remarks: Minimum crew 1 — maximum passengers 13

SA365 10-11-78 2 Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 169 2.8 7495 420 Max. 170 14
Twin Arriel 642 uP 320 Min.
Dauphin Max. Cont.
592 HP
Remarks: Maximum passengers 1 pilot and 13 passengers.

10.72"
3.27
0.47 m
(of Y
0.80 m
1.54 13 blades
7.23m 2.95' dis

10.33

Fig. 1-28 A-Aerospatiale Dauphin; B-Aerospatiale Dauphin Il.

34
 d. Aerospatiale Puma
A few of the Puma helicopters have been ex- petroleum support industry (Fig. 1-29). A brief
ported to this country. These are being used in the summary of its specifications follows:

Puma

Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of

Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
SA330J 6-9-76 2 Turbomeca Max. Takeoff 414 6.34 7055 310 Max. 167 20
Puma Type Cert. Turmo 1494 He 220 Min.
H4EU vc Max. Cont.
1262 HP
Remarks: Crew — 2 pilots — maximum passengers 18.

AS332L 2-18-82 2 each 1515 550 4 18400 290 Max. 167 22

Super Turbomeca 275 Min.
Puma MAKILA1A

18.22 m
59.76" -

= i} 3.04 m
a S 9.98’ Dia 5.14
14m
4.54m 16.86’
14.90 oloa}] o pe
@ 2.10 m
Soo
= 6.89
y
| 4.05 m |
13.29’ 14.82 m
48.62’

oo

3.00 m
9.84’

,
3 S\,

g /~ | | —= 3.62 m
a |
} 11.87"
<>

‘
14.82 m
| 48.62’

Fig. 1-29 Aerospatiale Puma

35
 e. Aerospatiale AStar 350 the helicopter is new, the technology and desirable
The helicopter which appears to have the most characteristics have made a great number of sales
sales is the Aerospatiale AStar 350. A great number in this country (Fig. 1-30). A brief summary of the
of these were sold before production began. Although AStar 350 and its specifications follows:

AStar350
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
AStar 12-21-77/TypeLTS 101-66A2 Max. Takeoff 140 1 4190 424 Max. 147 6
350C Cert. H9EU 615 Hp 320 Min.
Remarks: 1 pilot and 5 passengers.

12.99 m
42.64’
10.69 m |
35.07’ dia |
Oe

2 Ray rE
=

o)a XN Bb ort
° O1o
=
: 0.39 m 0.58m >
, = 1 1.27’ 1.90’

10.91 m
35.79’

>|
2.53 m
8.30’

: 35.79"

Fig. 1-30 Aerospatiale AStar 350

36
 f. Aerospatiale Twin Star
Aerospatiale’s Twin Star is a derivative of the try approached thirty-seven billion dollars in sales in
AStar with twin engine reliability, greater max- 1978 and employs 25,000 people in the production of
imum weight, and comfort for the passengers. Its helicopters. This figure does not include the number
light twin design is favored for executive transpor- of people employed in the operation of these heli-
tation and medical evacuation. copters nor does it reflect their salaries.
The helicopter has gone from its infancy to a
multi-billion dollar business. The helicopter indus-

Twin Star
Date Fuel Oil Max. Rotor Airspeed No. of
Model Approved Engine H.P. Cap. Cap. Weight Limits (KIAS) Seats
AS355E 4-11-84 2 each 420 90 3 5070 390 Max. 150
and F H11EU Allison (Each) 375 Min.
250
C20F

12.94 m
42.45 ft
#10.69 m
35.07 ft dia
1s ;

91.86 m _—_

op. 6.10 ft dia 7

el< \ ft elx
+z/9° I Nf ule
1" ° {__> S|
mic {J MD

—— 0.39 m 0.53 mq
1.74 ft
1 94m
Ss AG tt

eis
als
Nl

_ 10.93 m
| 35.86 ft

Fig. 1-31 Aerospatiale Twin Star

37
Chapter II
Principles of Flight
Introduction
The helicopter as we know it today is a complex edge to the trailing edge. This line is referred to as
aircraft capable of flight maneuvers of hover, verti- the chord of the blade as shown in Fig. 2-2.
cal, forward, backward, and sideward flight. In spite
of the fact that the helicopter is capable of maneu-
vers that are not possible for fixed wing aircraft, it
still operates on of the same basic principles. CHORD LEADING EDGE
The need for maintenance personnel to study
these principles may not be apparent at first. How-
ever, it is very necessary because a thorough know-
ledge will be required to understand the mainte-
nance and troubleshooting practices of the various TRAILING EDGE
systems.
Like fixed wing aircraft, the helicopter flies be-
cause of its airfoils. The airfoils of the fixed wings Fig. 2-2 Nomenclature of the cross section of an air-
are primarily their wings. However, the tail sur- foil.
faces and sometimes the fuselage, as well as the
propeller may also be airfoils. The primary airfoil The shape of the airfoil section may take many
of the helicopter is the main rotor. For this reason different forms. This shape actually affects the
the helicopter is often referred to as a rotary wing flight characteristics of the aircraft. Certain air-
aircraft. An airfoil, by definition, is any surface foils are noted for high speed, while others are
which gets a useful dynamic reaction from the air. known for low speed, high lift, and supersonic char-
For our purposes, this reaction is the lift and acteristics. See Fig. 2-3 for the general characteris-
thrust which will be necessary for flight and ma- tics of various airfoils.
neuvering.

A. Aerodynamic Principles
The blades of the main rotor are the airfoils.
Co GENERAL PURPOSE
With these airfoils certain nomenclature is used.

Co
HIGH SPEED

SPAN
4 gz TIP

A HIGH LIFT
ROOT
Fig. 2-3 Various airfoil cross sections.

The airfoils which are used for helicopters are

Fig. 2-1 Nomenclature of the blade. usually referred to as symmetrical airfoils, mean-
ing that the airfoil section has the same shape
The span of the blade is the distance from the above and below the chord line. This curvature of
root of the blade to the tip of the blade, measured the airfoil is referred to as the camber. Some suc-
along the center line (Fig. 2-1). cessful designs have been built with an unsym-
If a cross section of the blade is shown, it may metrical airfoil, meaning that the top and bottom
have an imaginary line drawn from the leading camber are not the same shape.
 Some efforts are being made to change the airfoil the relative wind is created by the motion of the
shape along the span to achieve better flight char- rotor blades. If the helicopter is hovering in a wind,
acteristics in the blade (Fig. 2-4). the relative wind is a combination of the wind and
the rotor blade movement. When the helicopter is
in forward flight, the relative wind is created by
the rotor blades, the movement of the helicopter,
and possibly a wind factor.

AXIS OF ROTATION PITCH ANGLE

PLANE OF \
ROTATION
Fig. 2-4 A modern rotor blade.

1. Relative wind
As the rotor blade moves, it is subjected to rela- REFERENCE PLANE

tive wind. The relative wind is the direction of the

airflow with respect to the blade. This is always
opposite the flight path of the blade. For example, if Fig. 2-6 The relationship of the pitch angle to the
plane of rotation.
the blade moves forward horizontally, the relative
wind moves backward horizontally. If the blade 2. Pitch angle
moves backward horizontally, the relative wind
Pitch angle is the acute angle between the rotor
moves forward horizontally. If the blade moves for-
blade chord and a reference plane. The reference
ward and upward, the relative wind moves back-
plane of the helicopter will be determined by the
ward and downward. If the blade moves backward main rotor hub. The pitch angle is varied by move-
and downward, the relative wind moves forward
ment of the collective control which will rotate the
and upward (Fig. 2-5).
blade about the hub axis, increasing or decreasing
the pitch (Fig. 2-6). The pitch angle may also be
Fugur PATH
varied by movement of the cyclic control, which
MUTT will be discussed in detail later in this section.
Often the pitch angle is confused with the angle of
FLIGHT PATH
—___ FLIGHT PATH
attack.
—_———»
RELATIVE WIND
—_—___> ———_—____

FuGHT PATH
REL
ANGLE OF ATTACK
RELATIVE
win

Fig. 2-5 The relationship of the rotor blades and the

relative wind.
> >

DIRECTION OF RELATIVE WIND

At first, one might wonder how the blade can
move backwards. It must be remembered that this
is in relation to the nose of the helicopter. For this Fig. 2-7 The angle of attack in relation to the relative
reason the forward moving blade is referred to as wind.
the advancing blade, while the backward blade is
called the retreating blade. The relative wind may 3. Angle of attack
be affected by several factors such as movement of The angle of attack is the acute angle between the
the rotor blades, horizontal movement of the heli- chord line of the airfoil and the relative wind. The
copter, flapping of the rotor blade, wind speed, and angle of attack may be equal to the pitch angle. How-
direction. The relative wind of the helicopter is the ever, it may also be greater or less than the angle of
flow of air with respect to the rotor blade. For exam- attack (Fig. 2-7). The pilot can increase or decrease
ple: when the rotor is stopped, the wind blowing the angle of attack by moving the pitch angle of the
over the rotor blades creates a relative wind. When rotor. When the pitch angle is increased, the angle of
the helicopter is hovering in a no-wind condition, attack is increased and when the pitch angle is
40
decreased, the angle of attack is also decreased. As the angle of attack is increased the center of
Since the angle of attack is dependent upon the pressure moves forward along the airfoil surface
relative wind, the same factors that affect the rela- and as the angle of attack is decreased the center of
tive wind also affect the angle of attack. pressure moves aft along the airfoil surface. This is
of little consequence in fixed wing aircraft because
A, Lift longitudinal stability may be achieved in several
Lift is the force produced by the airfoil that is per- other ways. On helicopters, because the rotor blades
pendicular to the relative wind and opposes gravity. are moved from a fixed axis (the hub), this situation
The lift is developed by the rotor blade according to could lead to instability in the rotor, with the rotor
Bernoulli’s Principle, which simply states that as ve- blades constantly changing pitch. For this reason,
locity is increased, the pressure is decreased. This the preferred airfoil is symmetrical where the center
principle creates a low pressure at the top of the rotor of pressure has very little movement (Fig. 2-9). Ac-
blade, while the bottom of the blade has an increased companying lift and drag is stall.
pressure. This applies to both symmetrical and un-
symmetrical airfoils (Fig. 2-8). Whenever lift is
produced, drag is also produced. co
UNSYMMETRICAL

LIFT DECREASED PRESSURE

>
———= SYMMETRICAL
’
Fig. 2-9 Symmetrical and unsymmetrical airfoils.
INCREASED PRESSURE
7. Blade stalls
Stall is the condition under which the stream-
LIFT line flow of air separates from the camber of the
? blade and reverse flow occurs, resulting in an al-
most complete loss of lift. As the angle of attack
Se increases, lift increases until the stall angle is
LIFT reached, provided the velocity remains the same.

tf
However, as the angle of attack is increased the lift
increases, and so does drag. Because of this in-
crease in drag, the rotor blades have a tendency to
WN > one slow down. If this should
be reached prematurely
occur the stall angle will
(Fig. 2-10).

Fig. 2-8 Lift versus drag. LIFT

5. Drag
Drag is the force which tends to resist the air-
DRAG
foil’s passage through the air. Drag is always paral-
lel to the relative wind and perpendicular to lift. It
is this force that tends to slow down the rotor when
the angle of attack is increased in order to produce Fig. 2-10 The stall angle of the airfoil.
more lift. In fact, drag varies as a square of velocity.
This is the reason that power must also be added
6. Center of pressure in order to maintain the velocity of the rotor when
The center of pressure is an imaginary point the pitch is added to the rotor system. This also
where the result of all the aerodynamic forces of means that the lift of the rotor could be controlled by
the airfoil are considered to be concentrated. This varying speed, increasing or decreasing the relative
center of pressure can move as forces change. wind. However, this situation is avoided because of
On some unsymmetrical airfoils, this movement the slow reaction time, in favor of keeping the ve-
can cover a great distance of the chord of the airfoil. locity constant and changing the angle of attack.
41
 B. Effects on Lift C. Forces on the Rotor
Lift will also vary with the density of the air. Air Thus far the principles of flight have been much
density is affected by temperature, altitude, and hu- the same as that of the fixed wing airplane. How-
midity. On a hot day the air is less dense than on a cold ever, remember that the actual movements that
day. Because of this, the rotor system will require a govern flight will be accomplished by driving the
higher angle of attack to produce the same lift. This rotor blades in a circle rather than wings being
will require more power to maintain blade velocity. flown in a straight line. Considering this situation,
The same situation is true when changes in altitude a number of forces are applied to the rotor system
occur. Often a helicopter may be able to hover at sea that are not present with the fixed wing.
level with a certain load but not at altitude because air The rotor consists of a hub which is driven by the
is only two-thirds as dense at 10,000 feet of altitude shaft (mast), Attached to the hub are the blades.
as it is at sea level. Humidity will have the same The blades are somewhat flexible, and when at rest
effect since humid air is less dense than dry air. will droop due to the weight and span of the blade.
The lift developed by the helicopter has to be This is referred to as blade droop (Fig. 2-12).
sufficient to overcome the weight. The heavier the
weight, the greater the pitch angle and power re-

a TON
quirement to overcome the weight vs. lift action.
Also acting on the helicopter will be thrust and
drag. Thrust is the force moving the helicopter in the
desired direction, while drag is the force which tends ROTOR DROOP
to resist thrust. Therefore, before any movement may
take place thrust must overcome drag (Fig. 2-11). Fig. 2-12 Rotor droop occurs when the rotor is at rest.

THRUST When the rotor is turned, this droop is overcome

LIFT by centrifugal force, which will straighten the
blade (Fig. 2-13). This centrifugal force will be
dependent upon the weight of the blade and its
velocity. On small rotor systems this could be ap-
proximately 20,000 pounds. Larger systems may
wl WEIGHT
DRAG
approach 100,000 pounds of centrifugal force per
blade. With forces of this magnitude, the utmost
VERTICAL ASCENT care must be taken in maintenance procedures.

|
i THRUST
T) ur

ah {}| WEIGHT
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
APPLIED

By DRAG Fig. 2-13 Arotating rotor system.

HOVER In addition to centrifugal force, lift will react per-

pendicular to the rotor as pitch is applied to the
THRUST
rotor. This will result in the blade seeking a new
LIFT
position which will be the result of centrifugal
force and lift (Fig. 2-14).

WEIGHT LIFT RESULTANT

— a
DRAG

VERTICAL DESCENT CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

Fig. 2-11 Lift, thrust, weight, and drag components

in relationship to the helicopter. Fig. 2-14 A loaded rotating system.

42
 This movement of the blades is referred to as coning directionally, thrust is most important. It is thrust
of the rotor. The amount of coning is dependent upon that gives this directional movement.
the amount of lift and the weight of the helicopter. A Thrust is obtained by movement of the tip path
helicopter with a light load will have less coning plane of the rotor or rotor disc. If the helicopter is
than a heavily loaded one (Fig. 2-15). Note that the ascending vertically or at a hover, lift and thrust
are both in the same direction, vertical. However,
in order to obtain forward, backward, or sideward
directional flight, the rotor disc will be tilted in the
direction of the movement desired. This will result
in lift and thrust being perpendicular to each
LIGHT LOAD
other, giving the helicopter the ability to maintain
rm O ee flight and move directionally (Fig. 2-18).

HEAVY LOAD LIFT

.
RESULTANT '\\\
Fig. 2-15 Coning is affected by the weight of the \\
helicopter. THRUST ON
wet
blade tips will pass through a circular surface
formed by the rotor blades. This circular plane is
referred to as the rotor disc or the tip path plane
(Fig. 2-16). WEIGHT
HELICOPTER MOVEMENT

¥, RESULTANT
oe MFT //

i, HRUST
= SS

TIP PATH PLANE DRAG

Fig. 2-16 The rotor disc or tip path plane.

—>
HELICOPTER
WEIGHT
MOVEMENT
The satisfactory relationship of the rotor blades
to each other in flight is referred to as track. If this RESULTANT \\ LIFT
relationship is incorrect, it is referred to as being
wl
out of track. Such a condition will result in vibra-
tions in the rotor stystem (Fig. 2-17).
DRAG

i
MOVEMENT WEIGHT

a,> RESULTANT
/;//
ae THRUST
te,

OUT OF TRACK

Fig. 2-17 In track and out of track condition.

WEIGHT HELICOPTER MOVEMENT
D. Thrust
Thus far we have discussed the flight of the heli-
copter only in regards to obtaining lift, with little
mention of thrust. Since the rotor will produce lift Fig. 2-18 Aeodynamic force vectors applied during
force and at the same time propel the helicopter modes of flight.

43
 Movement of the tip path plane to change the is used to place the input of the cyclic to main rotor at
direction of the helicopter is accomplished by the location required for the movement of the heli-
changing the angle of attack of the individual copter in the desired direction as shown in Fig. 2-22.
blades as they pass along the disc. In order to ac-
complish this the hub must have provisions for a
feathering axis, which simply allows the pitch to be
moved as shown in Fig. 2-19. ROTATES
mts

FEATHERING
AXIS TITS
WITH CYCLIC CONTROL
IT DOES NOT ROTATE
Fig. 2-19 The feathering axis or pitch axis of the rotor.
Fig. 2-21 Basic principles of the swashplate.
1, Collective pitch
By changing the pitch angle of the blade, more or
less lift will be created. This pitch change can be LOW PITCH APPLIED
accomplished by the pilot by use of the collective to HIGH FLAP RESULT

raise or lower the helicopter in the air. This raises

or lowers the pitch angle of all the blades the same
amount throughout the tip path plane. If this lift is
increased at one point and decreased at another
point 180° apart, the blades will climb and dive, LOW FLAP RESULT

thus moving the disc. This is accomplished as the —— __ HIGH PITCH APPLIED

pilot moves the cyclic control, which in turn moves

each blade a predetermined and equal amount as
shown in Fig. 2-20.
Fig. 2-22 The results of gyroscopic precession as
applied to the main rotor system.
DIRECTION OF ROTATION

3. Torque
Newton's third law states that for every action
there is an opposite and equal reaction. Therefore
when power is applied to the rotor system the fuse-
lage of the helicopter will tend to move in the
opposite direction of the rotor. This tendency is
referred to as torque. The torque problem has
plagued designers since the inception of the heli-
copter. Several designs of rotor systems were tried
Fig. 2-20 Cyclic pitch change through the swashplate. to eliminate this problem.
One such design was the coaxial helicopter in
2. Gyroscopic precession which two main rotors were placed on top of each
Another property of the rotor must be discussed other rotating in opposite directions. Another de-
before the total directional control can be under- sign requires two main rotors placed side by side.
stood. Since the rotor path is considered as a disc, it Some of these designs actually used intermeshing
has the same properties as that of any other rotat- rotors turning in opposite directions. Still other
ing mass. The property of most interest is gyro- designs have used single rotors powered at the tip
scopic precession which means that action occurs by ramjets or hot air passing through the blade and
90° from the force applied in the same direction as ejected through nozzles at the tip.
rotation. This means that the blades do not raise The disadvantages of these systems seem to out-
and lower the maximum deflection until a point 90° weigh the advantages to the point that most heli-
later than the input (Fig. 2-21). For this reason a copters use one main rotor with an auxiliary rotor
device which is called a swashplate or star assembly on the tail to counteract torque.
44
 This system, however, absorbs a great percent- that different parts of the rotor are moving at dif
age of the power available. To give the helicopter ferent speeds. The fastest portion is at the tip of the
fuselage this directional control, a variable pitch rotor with the least amount of speed at the root
rotor is vertically mounted on the tail. In order to portion of the blade. The blade will often have a
keep the fuselage straight when increasing power, twist built into it, in order to improve the lift char-
the pitch of the tail rotor is increased to counteract acteristics of the rotor throughout the blade. The
the torque. This is accomplished by foot pedals twist will increase from the tip to the root. This
moved by the pilot (Fig. 2-23). twist will increase the angle of attack of the slower
portions of the blade, thus increasing the total lift
of the blade (Fig. 2-25).

ROTATION A < Be, C

OF THE
ROTOR

a B Cc

TAIL ROTOR a — —_—

A-A B-B c-c
COUNTER ROTATION ROOT CENTER TIP
OF THE FUSELAGE

Fig. 2-25 More twist at the root of the blade in-

Fig. 2-23 Anti-torque control is applied by the tail rotor. creases the lift.
Many of the conventional helicopters using tail
rotors have found methods to help reduce this
E. Dissymmetry of Lift
The speed of the rotor is also affected by both
power requirement in flight. One of these methods
wind and forward flight (Fig. 2-26). In this situa-
is a vertical fin, which is offset in order to keep the
tion the helicopter is traveling at a forward speed of
fuselage straight during forward flight. This in
100 miles per hour. It should be noted that the right
turn unloads the tail rotor.
half of the rotor disc is moving at 200 miles per
hour faster speed than the left half. This right half
HOVERING

FORWARD FLIGHT
100 MILES PER HOUR

ADVANCING
HALF

ADVANCING
HALF

Fig. 2-24 The rotor speed increases from the root of

the blade outward.

4, Blade twist Fig. 2-26 Forward speed increases the difference in

In viewing the main rotor from the top in a no- speed between the advancing and retreat-
wind hover condition (Fig. 2-24), it is quite evident ing blades.
of the disc is referred to as the advancing half of the 3. Coriolis effect
disc while the left half is referred to as the retreat- Systems that utilize the individual flapping
ing half. Consequently, the rotor blades passing hinge are subjected to the coriolis effect to a greater
through these disc areas will be referred to as the degree than the seesaw system. The coriolis effect
advancing blades and the retreating blades. is the change in blade velocity to compensate for
It is quite easy to see that the lift on the retreat- the change in distance at the center of the axis of
ing half of the disc will be less than that of the rotation as the blade flaps. In other words, as each
advancing half of the disc. This difference in lift is individual blade flaps upward on the advancing
referred to as dissymmetry of lift. Many of the early side, the center of gravity moves closer to axis of
helicopter inventors could not achieve forward rotation (the mast). This has a tendency to acceler-
flight because of this dissymmetry of lift. It was ate the blade in much the same manner as a figure
Juan De Cierva who incorporated the flapping skater accelerates a spin by moving his arms in-
hinge into each blade, eliminating this problem. ward. The opposite reaction occurs on the retreat-
ing blade, with its center of gravity moving out-
1, Klapping hinge ward and the blade tending to slow down. If the
This system is still used today in most multi-
coriolis effect is not corrected, it will cause geo-
bladed systems. This flapping hinge allows each
metric imbalance of the rotor system, if the blades
blade to move freely about its vertical axis or to
are held in their respective positions. This geo-
move up and down. This movement is referred to as
metric imbalance will cause severe vibration and
flapping. Since more lift is created by the advan-
undue stress on the blade roots, due to the bending
cing blade, the blade has a tendency to move up.
action in a chordwise direction.
This decreases the amount of lift on the advancing
side of the disc. At the same time, the retreating 4. Drag or lead-lag hinge
blade takes a more horizontal position, which Rotor systems which incorporate individual
creates more lift because less lift is being created flapping hinges are also provided with a drag
by the retreating half of the disc (Fig. 2-27). hinge, which is sometimes referred to as a lead-lag
hinge. This hinge allows the blade to hunt, or move,
FLAPPING about the chordwise axis, as shown in Fig. 2-29.
HINGE This allows the advancing blade, which has a tend-
ency to accelerate due to the center of gravity move-
ment closer to the rotation axis, to move forward. The
ADVANCING
RETREATING BLADE retreating blade will likewise seek an aft position,
BLADE thus the terms lead and lag. This movement of the
blades will correct the geometric imbalance caused
by the coriolis effect by relieving the lead-lag motion
Fig. 2-27 The flapping hinge is used to control dis- placed on the blade roots and hub. Associated with
symmetry of lift. these hinges are dampeners which assist the lead-
lag hinge by limiting travel and making smooth
2. Seesaw system movements in the lead-lag position.
Another method which is quite widely used for
the correction of dissymmetry of lift is the seesaw
system. This system utilizes two blades. System
one blade is advancing while the other is retreat-
BLADE MOVEMENT
ing. Since the advancing blade has the greatest
lift, the advancing blade moves up, and because the
two blades are connected, the retreating blade
moves down a like amount, thus creating the LEAD
seesaw action (Fig. 2-28). “LAG
HINGE »

ROTOR
HUB

Fig. 2-28 This seesaw action is used on semirigid Fig. 2-29 Lead-lag action is required on systems
rotors. using the flapping hinge.
46
 5. Underslung rotor system have been neglected over the years due to
The rotor systems utilizing the seesaw system, or the inability to correct for dissymmetry in lift. The
that flap as a unit, are subject to the coriolis effect to certified helicopters that make use of the rigid ro-
a much lesser degree than the individual blade flap- tors today use fiberglass blades which are designed
ping system. This is the result of underslinging the to flex, giving flapping motion as well as the lead-
rotor. The underslung rotor is mounted below the top lag properties to the blade rather than to the hub.
of the mast, which keeps the distance from the center At least one other rigid rotor was built and used
of gravity of the blades to the axis of rotation small. experimentally in which the blade angles of each
In addition to this feature, some of the rotors are individual blade were changed during rotation. By
double gimbaled, which means that additional using this method, corrections in dissymmetry in
movement may take place in the chordwise direc- lift were made (Fig. 2-30). However, experimental
tion or allowing the hub to rock about the mast. work in this area has been discounted at this time.
The mast is always quite long and mounted with 2. Semirigid rotor
flexibility between the rotor and the airframe to The semirigid rotor is probably the most popular
absorb any geometric imbalance that might occur. rotor system. However, some of the newly designed
Other systems that are not gimbaled for hub heads may change this situation within a few
rock make corrections in blade pitch throughout years. The semirigid rotor, like the rigid rotor,
the rotation of the motor. makes use of a feathering axis for pitch change. In
addition to this movement, the rotor is allowed to
F. Rotor Heads
flap as a unit. For this reason it is sometimes re-
There are actually three major types of rotor
ferred to as a seesaw rotor system. Some are built
heads in use today. They are described as rigid,
with additional movement about the chordwise
semirigid, and fully articulated. The latter two
axis by use of a gimbal ring. The reason for this
(semirigid and fully articulated) are the most
additional movement is to compensate for the cor-
widely used.
iolis effect as described earlier. Other semirigid
1. Rigid rotor systems correct this problem with a built-in correc-
The rigid rotor system makes use of a feathering tion factor in the swashplate, which changes pitch
axis only. For this reason the possibilities of this angles during rotation.

FORWARD
FLIGHT ROTATION

4-BLADED ROTOR
PITCH LINK FROM EACH
CONTROL GYRO ARM IS
CONNECTED TO FEATHERING
ARM OF EACH ROTOR BLADE
NOTE 1
FORWARD MOTION
OF CYCLIC PITCH
CONTROL STICK CONTROL RODS, WITH
LOADS SPRING ENGINE TRANSMISSION UNIVERSAL JOINTS AT EITHER
CARTRIDGE. COMPONENTS CUTAWAY END, CONNECT SWASH PLATE
SEE NOTE 2. TO CONTROL GYRO

FREE SWASHPLATE
DOUBLE-ACTING
SPRING CARTRIDGE. NOTE 2.
SEE CROSS SECTION FORWARD MOVEMENT OF CYCLIC PITCH
CONTROL STICK LOADS SPRING CARTRIDGE
TO APPLY FORCE ON SWASHPLATE AND
GYRO IN DIRECTION OF ARROW.
HOWEVER, GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION CAUSES
GYRO AND SWASHPLATE TO TILT IN
DIRECTION SHOWN BY ARROWS.

Fig. 2-30 This rigid rotor system was used experimentally by the U.S. Army.
 Function and Effects
of the Fully Articulated Rotor
1. The rotor disc may tilt without tilting the mast
because of the flapping hinge.
2. Flapping hinges relieve bending forces at the
root of the blade, allowing coning of the rotor.
3. The flapping hinge reduces gust sensitivity
due to the individual blade flap.
4. Flapping hinge bearing areas are subject to
heavy centrifugal loads.
5. The flapping hinge introduces geometric
imbalance.
6. This geometric imbalance requires an addi-
tional drag hinge.
7. The drag hinge relieves bending stresses dur-
ing acceleration of the rotor.
8. Drag hinge bearings are subject to high cen-
trifugal loads.
A smoother operation might be obtained by the
Fig. 2-31 The head shown in the top view has move-
ment on two axes while the bottom head fully articulated rotor. However, until quite re-
has movement on one axis only. cently this could be obtained only by making a
more complex rotor head. For this reason the fully
An example of both types of semirigid rotors is articulated head did not reach the great popularity
shown in Fig. 2-31. that was attained by the semirigid rotor system.
3. Fully articulated rotor
The fully articulated rotor system is one that uti- H. Aerodynamic Characteristics
lizes the feathering axis for the blade pitch, an indi- Regardless of the type of rotor system employed,
vidual flapping hinge for each blade, and a lead-lag there are a number of aerodynamic characteristics
hinge for each blade. At the present time there are which are common to all.
probably not as many fully articulated heads as semi-
rigid heads, but because of new technological develop-
1. Translating tendency
One of these characteristics is the translating
ments in this area, this trend may soon be reversed.
tendency. This is a tendency for the whole helicopter
G. Relative Merits of Rotor Systems to drift in the direction of the tail rotor thrust. This is
Both the semirigid rotors and fully articulated the result of the thrust of the tail rotor acting on the
rotors have advantages and disadvantages which entire helicopter. The situation is normally corrected
we will attempt to point out: by offsetting the mast, which will change the tip
path plane of the rotor. The built-in tilt of the rotor
Function and Effects of the Semirigid Rotor
will cancel the translating tendency during hover. In
1. The elimination of flapping and drag hinges other helicopters, the tip path plane is altered by
simplifies construction. rigging the cyclic system to give the required tilt
2. The blades are fixed to the hub and do not de- when the cyclic is level (Fig. 2-32).
pend on centrifugal force for rigidity.
3. Because of the seesaw flapping it is more sub-
ject to wind gusts.
4. More bending forces are applied to the blade
roots because of the lack of hinges. TILTED TO THE
LEFT
5. Semirigid rotors require underslinging of the
rotor. Fig. 2-32 Mast tilt is sometimes used to cancel trans-
lating tendency.
It is quite obvious that semirigid rotors can be
built simply, and can also perform quite well, but 2. Ground effect
are not as smooth as the fully articulated head Another rotor characteristic is ground effect, and
when both are functioning correctly. as the name implies, it appears when the helicopter
48
is within one-half of a rotor diameter from the revolution beat and lateral cyclic feedback. The vibra-
ground. What actually takes place is that the rotor tion happens when the rotor blades are in the fore and
is displacing air downward at a much faster rate aft position. This lift-drag imbalance may also result in
than it can escape from beneath the helicopter. a roll force to the right as effective translational lift
This air will become more dense and form an air occurs. The roll effect is caused by gyroscopic preces-
cushion beneath the helicopter. The cushion aids sion of the rotor due to the imbalance. This tendency
in supporting the helicopter while at hover in close is not noticeable in fully articulated heads because of
proximity to the ground. If the helicopter moves the effect of the hinges in the head. As the forward
from this position at a speed greater than 3 to 5 speed of the helicopter is increased, the ram effect of
miles per hour, the ground effect will be lost. the airflow will decrease the transverse flow effect of
the rotor system and any results of the tendency will be
3. Translational lift unnoticeable at approximately 20 miles per hours of
Although the ground effect is lost as the helicop- airspeed.
ter gains forward speed, a new force makes its
appearance. This is called translational lift, an I. Blade Tip Stall
additional lift which is obtained when entering The helicopter rotor blades, like any airfoil, are
horizontal flight due to the increased efficiency of subject to stall. However, a stall of the rotor is quite
the rotor system. The inflow of air into the rotor different from that of the fixed wing.
during forward flight increases. The increase in
As a brief review, it was learned that in forward
flow also increases the mass of air at the rotor disc
speed the advancing blade is moving at a faster
which in turn increases the lift.
speed than the retreating blade. As the speed of the
Although this increase takes place any time the helicopter increases, this speed differential be-
helicopter moves horizontally, it is readily noticed comes greater.
at an airspeed of 15 to 20 miles per hour. The addi- Because of the dissymmetry of lift, the retreat-
tional lift which is available at this speed is re- ing blade will be seeking a higher angle of attack
ferred to as effective translational lift. It might also than the advancing blade. This, coupled with the
be noted that since this is an effect of air speed, it low airspeed of the retreating blade, can lead to
may happen at various points, including hover, if blade tip stall.
the wind velocity is great enough. Also note that
An airfoil may stall due to any of the following
this additional lift will eventually be cancelled by
reasons:
the increased drag of the fuselage.
1. Insufficient airspeed
A transverse flow effect takes place in the rotor sys-
2. Too great an angle of attack
tem as forward flight begins because the air is being
induced or pulled into the rotor system when the disc 38. Heavy wing loading
is tilted. The airflow at the rear of the disc is at a high- FORWARD FLIGHT
er downwash angle than the air on the forward portion
(Fig. 2-33). Because of this situation, the lift-drag ratio
will change between the rear and front portions of the
disc, with the greater lift being on the rear portion. The
first noticeable effect on a semirigid rotor is a two-per-

INDUCED PARTICLE VELOCITY VERTICAL ADVANCING

SSP
COMPONENT
HALF
VERTICAL
COMPONENT

FOREWARD PORTION
OF ROTOR DISC.
AFT PORTION
OF ROTOR DISC,

Fig. 2-33 The variation in downward airflow causing Fig. 2-34 Forward speed is a major factor in retreat-
the transverse flow effect. ing blade stall.

49
 In a helicopter flying at 200 miles per hour, the J. Autorotation
advancing blade will have a tip speed of approx- Autorotation is the process of producing lift with
imately 600 miles per hour, while the retreating the rotor blades as they freely rotate from a flow of
blade tip speed is reduced to 200 miles per hour air up through the rotor system. This ability of the
(Fig. 2-34). At this point, the root areas are produc- helicopter is one of the features which separates it -
ing no lift. The retreating blade must continue to from the fixed wing aircraft from a safety stand-
seek a higher angle of attack in order to maintain point. With an engine or power train failure, the
lift. Even though the blade has a twist built into it, rotor system will be disengaged, leaving the rotor
the inflow of air into the rotor will be such that it system to move freely in its original direction and
will increase the angle of attack at the tips. This is produce lift, allowing the helicopter to glide.
due to the tilting of the rotor and its relationship to
During normal operation, the flow of air going
the inflow of air to the rotor.
through the main rotor is downward. When the
It is not possible, however, to predict at what engine is no longer producing power or it is disen-
point the rotor will stall each time due to the for- gaged from the rotor, the flow of air is upward. This
ward speed because several other factors must also upward flow of air through the rotor will allow the
be considered. One of these is wing loading. It is rotor to continue turning.
more likely for the blade to stall under heavy loads
than under light loads. Heavy loading will only The autorotative region is an area approximately 25-
decrease the speed at which the stall will occur. 75% of the blade that drives the rotor with the upward
Other factors, such as temperature, altitude, and ma- flow of air. The outer portion of the blade is known as
neuvers must also be considered. For these reasons a the propeller region of the rotor. This area tends to
stall may occur at rather low operating speeds. slow down the tip speed of the rotor due to a small
drag force. These regions are shown in Fig. 2-36.
In Fig. 2-35, a rotor system is shown with the
stall area marked. It can be seen that as the tip
enters the stall condition, only a few inches are
involved; but as the blade continues, several feet
towards the middle of the blade travel in the stall
area, and then it will move out toward the tip.

FORWARD

STALL
AREA VERTICAL
(71 Proreten REGION
0 REGION
fT FLIGHT
STALL REGION AUTOROTATION

Fig. 2-36 The autorotative region changes in forward

flight.
Fig. 2-35 Stall occurs first on the retreating half of
the disc. During autorotation, it is most important that the
RPM of the rotor be controlled. When the aerodynamic
The indication of a stall condition will first be a forces of thrust and drag equalize on the rotor blades,
vibration as each blade passes through the stall the RPM of the rotor will stabilize. If the rotor entered
region. The beat could be 2:1, 3:1, or 4:1 depending an updraft, the RPM would increase and a general
upon the number of blades in the rotor system. If lessening of the angle of attack will follow along the
the stall continues, the helicopter will pitch up. entire blade. The change in the angle of attack will
Although the stall will occur on the left side of the change the force vectors, which will tend to slow the
helicopter, due to gyroscopic precession, the result rotor down. The opposite will happen if the rotor is
will be at the tail of the helicopter, which will pitch caught in a downdraft, with the autorotative forces
the nose up. tending to accelerate the rotor back to normal speed. If
When a stall is experienced, the corrective ac- the collective pitch remains constant, an overall in-
tion is to reduce forward speed, reduce pitch, and crease in the angle of attack will increase rotor RPM.
increase rotor speed if possible; but the important For example: placing the helicopter in a flare. If the
factor is always to unload the rotor system. helicopter is tilted nose down, the RPM will decrease.
50
 Once forward speed is established in the auto- effect. It is this correction factor which allows the
rotative descent, the rotor disc may be inclined rotor blades to become out-of-phase and result in
rearward. This will cause a flare. When this occurs, ground resonance.
the greater lift will cause the forward speed to de- What actually occurs is that the blades take ab-
crease and will cause the descent rate to zero. normal positions, one blade leads while the adjacent
When this occurs on landing, the helicopter may be blade lags. This imbalances the rotor and moves the
landed with no roll or skid. center of gravity of the rotor off center. This im-
Autorotation is most critical to forward speed, as balance of the rotor causes an oscillation which is
well as descent. The actual height in which success- transmitted throughout the entire helicopter, giving
ful autorotation may occur is directly dependent on movement from side to side as well as fore and aft. If
the forward speed. Although an autorotation may be this action becomes violent enough, it may roll the
sucessfully completed at a 300-foot hover, it would helicopter over or cause structural damage.
not be possible at a 100-foot hover due to the inertia This situation may be further aggravated by the
of the blade. At the 300-foot hover the blade will reaction of the helicopter and the ground through
carry enough inertia to allow autorotation. the gear struts and wheels. During landing, a set
On most helicopters, an area from approxi- of blades that are already out-of-phase may be fur-
mately 12 feet to 300 feet would not be a safe area ther aggravated by the touchdown, especially on a
for autorotation without forward speed (Fig. 2-37). one-wheel landing such as occurs on a slope land-
It should be noted that autorotation characteristics ing or with a flat tire or strut.
are affected by the same elements that alter flight When this occurs, the forces of the vibration can-
performance, such as density, altitude, and max- not be absorbed by the strut or tire and a counter-
imum weight. wave is sent back through the helicopter, usually
resulting in further imbalance of the rotor.
Although ground resonance is associated with
landing, it may also occur during ground run-up or
take off, when the helicopter is partially airborne.
UNSHADED AREA SAFE FOR
AUTOROTATION LANDINGS It will be further aggravated by incorrect strut
ALTITUDE, pressure and tire inflation.
FEET

When this situation occurs, immediate power

application and takeoff will stop this condition by
changing the natural frequencies of the helicopter.
In recent years, manufacturers have reduced these
occurences considerably by redesigning the damp-
°
o 2 0 60 eo 100
eners, oleo struts, tires, and the gears.
MPH.

Fig. 2-37 Autorotation is not safe at low altitude and L. Stability

low airspeed. Stability is a term used to describe the behavior
of an aircraft after it has been disturbed from its
During autorotation, the tail rotor will be at a trimmed position.
negative pitch rather than a positive pitch as in
normal flight. This is caused by the change in 1. Static stability
torque effect of the main rotor. Statically stable means that after a disturbance,
the tendency is to return to its original position,
as shown in Fig. 2-38. If an object is statically
K. Ground Resonance
Ground resonance is a self-excited vibration
which, as the name implies, occurs on the gound. It DISTURBING FORCE ORIGINAL
may manifest slowly with a gradual buildup or it FORCE APPLIED RELEASED POSITION

may appear very rapidly. If ground resonance is not > Z|

corrected immediately, it will often destroy the
helicopter. This problem is associated with fully
articulated rotor systems and is the result of geo- - POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY
metric imbalance of the main rotor system. The
fully articulated head is hinged about the lead-lag Fig. 2-38 All aircraft must be able to demonstrate
axis in order to provide corrections for the coriolis stability.

51
 that contribute to the dynamic instability of the
CONE FAILS TO helicopter. They are as follows:
FORCE APPLIED CONE FALLS
RETURN TO
ORIGINAL POSITION
1. The rotor disc will follow the fuselage. Any
DS
'G
\ pitch of the fuselage about its axis will cause a
pitch change to the rotor head through the
cyclic controls. This in turn will affect the
UNSTABLE blade flapping which will tilt the rotor disc in
NEGATIVE STATIC STABILITY the direction of the disturbance. This will
cause the pitch to accelerate in the direction of
the disturbance.
Fig. 2-39 Negative stability will result in problems of
controllability. A change in speed will cause the rotor to tilt. As
speed is increased, the rotor will tend to tilt
unstable, it will continue to move in the direction of backwards. If the speed is decreased, the rotor
the disturbance as seen in Fig. 2-39. will tend to tilt forward. This will accelerate
If the helicopter is statically unstable and a dis- the movements of the helicopter.
turbance pitched the nose upward, the helicopter A change in the rotor system speed will cause
would continue upward. If it were statically stable the center of gravity to oscillate the tilt of the
it would try to return to its normal position. fuselage, which in turn will aggravate the rotor
disc. This is because the helicopter’s center of
2. Dynamic stability gravity is below the rotor head.
Dynamic stability is related to all objects that
The helicopter will tend to repeat the motions
possess static stability. This term is used to de-
scribe the behavior of the object after the distur- with increasing magnitude because these condi-
bance. If an object continues to oscillate at the tions cannot be tolerated without a correction fac-
tor. Some of the methods used to correct this situa-
same rate after a disturbance, it is said to be of
tion are as follows:
neutral dynamic stability. If the object continues to
oscillate at a slower rate after the initial distur- 4. The Bell method
bance, it has positive dynamic stability. The Bell method makes use of a stabilizer bar
The helicopter is usually considered statically which acts as a gyroscope with the property of
stable and dynamically unstable, if the pilot keeps rigidity. Once the object is in motion, it tends to
the controls in a fixed position after a disturbance stay in its same plane of rotation. Control levers
(Fig. 2-40). This instability is greater in the long- from the cyclic are attached to the stabilizer bar,
itudinal direction than in the lateral direction, with mixing levers attached to the pitch change of
mainly due to the inertia of the tail. In other words, the rotor head (Fig. 2-41). By using this method,
most helicopters are directionally stable.

DISTURBANCE
—-g
Fig. 2-40 The helicopter is usually considered stat-
ically stable and dynamically unstable.

3. Causes of instability
Remember that the helicopter obtains forward
flight by tilting the rotor. If any change to the rotor
Fig. 2-41 The stabilizer bar is the most common
tilt occurs, the helicopter will move in that direc-
method used to obtain dynamic stability on
tion. For this reason, there are three basic items semirigid rotors.
52
the rotor remains independent of the mast. Any tilt the blades decreases, decreasing the altitude of the
of the rotor head is automatically corrected by the helicopter. The purpose of the collective is primarily
mixing levers of the stabilizer bar and any move- an altitude control.
ment of the fuselage is not transmitted to the rotor. This movement of the collective increases the
In recent years this stabilizer bar system has been pitch of the rotor blade which also increases the
eliminated by new designs. amount of power required to maintain the same rotor
5. The offset hinge RPM. For this reason most reciprocating powerplant
The offset hinge is used on some of the fully articula- helicopters have additional linkage attached to the
ted helicopters in order to correct for dynamic in- collective in order to increase the throttle linkage
stability. Placing the flapping hinges of the rotor more as the collective is raised. This addition is referred
outboard of the mast allows the movement to take to as the correlation linkage, or correlation box,
place further from the center of gravity of the fuselage. because it provides the correct relationship between
the engine power and the rotor pitch (Fig. 2-44).
Another method that has been used is the Delta
Three system. The flapping hinge is placed at an CORRELATION BLADE PITCH
angle, rather than at right angles, with the blade. BOX c—
This system will allow the blade to change to a COLLECTIVE /
lower angle of attack whenever it is flapped up. /
This may also be accomplished by off setting the \ /

ys (
_pitch-change horn (Fig. 2-42).

: THROTTLE

Fig. 2-44 Raising of the collective requires more en-

OFFSET gine power.
FLAPPING
HINGE On turbine-powered helicopters, two different
systems are used. The free turbine engines make
use of a cam, referred to as a compensating cam,
Fig. 2-42 Two methods used with fully articulated
heads are shown here.
which feeds a signal to the fuel control to increase
the power output as collective is added. On the di-
M. Flight Control rect-drive turbine engines a constant RPM is main-
This section has dealt mainly with the main ro- tained by a governor on the engine, and no linkage
tor system, but there are other factors that affect is required between the collective and the engine.
the flight characteristics of the helicopter. 2. Anti-torque pedals
The helicopter has three basic controls that are The anti-torque pedals are sometimes referred
used to control its flight. These are the collective, the to as the rudder pedals. They are operated by the
anti-torque pedals, and the cyclic control (Fig. 2-43). pilot’s feet and change the pitch of the tail rotor,
PO Srtt te Cet tt Le
which is used to control the torque of the main
rotor. In addition to the anti-torque correction, the
CYCLIC pitch of the tail rotor is changed to give the helicop-
ter heading control. During takeoff, the power ap-
COLLECTIVE
plied to the main rotor is at its maximum. At this
PEDALS time the highest positive pitch will be required by
the tail rotor. On U.S.-made helicopters, this is
Fig. 2-43 Controls used to maintain flight. added to the tail rotor by depressing the left pedal.
NOTE: Foreign-made helicopters have main ro-
1. Collective tors that turn in the clockwise direction, which
The collective is a lever which is located on the left means that the torque will react in the opposite
side of the pilot’s seat. The lever pivots from the aft direction, requiring right pedal to be added during
end and moves up and down. When the collective is takeoff. During cruising flight, the pedals are held
moved upward, pitch in all rotor blades increases in the neutral position, which applies some posi-
simultaneously, causing the helicopter to increase tive pitch to the tail rotor in order to correct for the
altitude. When the collective is lowered the pitch of lesser amount of torque applied by the main rotor.
53
 The right pedal is applied when it is desirable to
move the nose of the helicopter to the right. This =
moves the tail rotor pitch to a negative angle. By °
°a
applying the left pedal, the nose of the aircraft may =!
be moved to the left (Fig. 2-45). =
w
3
a OFFSET
2 TO UNLOAD
TAIL TAIL ROTOR
ROTOR

Fig. 2-46 The offset fin method is often used to un-

load the tail rotor.

TAIL MOVES S NEGATIVE OR LOW Another method used is the ducted fan tail rotor
POSITIVE PITCH (Fig. 2-47). With this system the shroud of the tail
rotor is an airfoil which assists in creating thrust,
eliminating some of the power requirements.

MEDIUM
POSITIVE PITCH

HIGH POSITIVE - TAIL MOVES Fig. 2-47 The ducted fan may be used to increase the
PITCH tail rotor efficiency.

Fig. 2-45 The movement of the anti-torque pedals is

3. Cyclic control
directly related to the amount of main rotor The cyclic control is used to tilt the tip path
pitch. plane of the main rotor. This moves the thrust of
the rotor and lift of the helicopter, pulling the heli-
In addition to giving directional control to the copter in the direction of the tip path plane. As the
helicopter under engine power, the tail rotor must be cyclic is moved forward, the disc tilts forward, mov-
able to supply negative thrust during autorotation. ing the helicopter forward. Likewise, when the
Since the tail rotor absorbs power from the engine cyclic is moved aft, the disc moves aft, moving the
which could be used to produce lift and thrust, it is helicopter aft. The cyclic may also be moved from
advantageous to unload the tail rotor as much as side to side, moving the helicopter sideways (Fig.
possible in forward flight. This is usually accom- 2-48). This tilt of the main rotor is accomplished by
plished by a vertical fin on the tail of the helicopter. changing the pitch of each individual rotor blade
This fin is often offset from the centerline, assisting 90° prior to the displacement of the cyclic stick
in torque correction during forward flight (Fig. 2-46). because of gyroscopic precession.
 SS

LEFT SIDEWARD FLIGHT RIGHT SIDEWARD FLIGHT

cr 7 =
HOVER

Fig. 2-48 The cyclic control is used to obtain directional control of the helicopter.

Sometimes the cyclic linkage of the main rotor is On some helicopters the horizontal stabilizer is
connected to a horizontal stabilizer placed on the fixed in one position. It may be shaped as an inver-
tail. This is sometimes referred to as an elevator, ted airfoil, forcing the tail downward with
a spoiler
however, its function is different than that of a strip for landing flares. (Fig. 2-50): Some of the
fixed wing elevator. In cruise flight the normal newer helicopters are moving the stablizer elec-
tendency is for the tail of the helicopter to be high tronically in order to meet the demands of the heli-
and the nose to be low, due to the thrust of the main copter’s airspeed and attitude.
rotor. This tendency increases the drag ratio, which
is undesirable when speed is important. For this
reason, the stabilizer keeps the tail down so that a
level flight attitude may be maintained. Under
other circumstances, such as takeoffs, it may be
desirable to fly in a nosedown attitude in order to
build up airspeed by obtaining maximum thrust
from the main rotor. Then the stabilizer may be
used to allow the tail to come up, allowing the max-
imum thrust to be obtained as in a landing config-
uration. It is important that the nose be allowed to
come up and be brought down. This may also be
assisted by the movable stabilizer (Fig. 2-49).

Fig. 2-50 A typical fixed position horizontal stabilizer.

This discussion of the principles of helicopter flight

is by no means complete, but should be sufficient to
help the maintenance technician to understand more
thoroughly the principles regarding various mainte-
Fig. 2-49 Atypical movable horizontal stabilizer. nance practices that are performed on helicopters.
55
Chapter ITI
Documentation, Publications,
and Historical Records
Introduction
The helicopter, like all fixed wing aircraft, has a “Fach person performing a 100-hour, annual, or pro-
certain amount of documentation and publications gressive inspection of a rotorcraft shall inspect the
which attest to its airworthiness. This paperwork following systems in accordance with the mainte-
not only assures legality, but the physical air- nance manual of the manufacturer concerning:
worthiness of the helicopter itself In. many in- 1. Driveshafts or similar systems
stances the same paperwork is utilized by both
2. The main rotor transmission gearbox for ob-
fixed wing aircraft and helicopters. In other in-
vious defects
stances the helicopter has additional require-
ments. The common items will be discussed quite 3. The main rotor and center section (or equiv-
briefly, and detail will be presented for the addi- alent area)
tional information that is required. 4. The auxiliary rotor on helicopters.”
FAR 43.16 has a paragraph which reads as fol-
A. FAA Publications lows: “For rotorcraft for which a Rotorcraft Mainte-
The FAA material mainly covers the same areas nance Manual containing an Airworthiness Lim-
that are covered for fixed wing aircraft. However, itations section has been issued, each person perform-
some of the material varies slightly from the fixed ing an inspection or other work specified in that sec-
wing due to flight capabilities and the differences tion of the manual shall perform the inspection or
in mechanical operation. work in accordance with that section of the manual.”
These two paragraphs are quite typical of the
1, Federal Air Regulations additional information that may be contained in
Federal Air Regulations are written for both fixed the FARs applying to both fixed wing and rotory
wing and rotory wing aircraft. Many of these apply aircraft.
to both types, while some apply to one or the other.
The first of these to be observed by maintenance 2. Type certificate data sheets
personnel are the FARs regarding requirements In addition to FARs, rotorcraft have the same
for airworthiness. Rotor wing aircraft are covered type certificate information as do the fixed wing.
by FAR Parts 27 and 29. Part 27 refers to Normal These are either in the form of Aircraft Specifica-
Category Rotorcraft and Part 29 refers to Trans- tion Sheets or Aircraft Specification Data Sheets,
port Category Rotorcraft. These regulations refer as found in Volume 4 of the Specifications. They
to the requirements for certification of helicopters, usually follow the same format as the fixed wing
and contain the same type of information that is specifications. There are, however, variations in
found in Parts 23 and 25 which apply to fixed wing these sheets, such as maximum rotor limits, that
aircraft. are peculiar to helicopters. The retirement time of
In addition to those parts that refer to External various components is always mentioned either by
Load Operations and Scheduled Air Carriers, the listing the various components that have finite
other FARs which are familiar to fixed wing air- lives, or by referring to the maintenance manual
craft, such as 48, 91, 135, and 187, refer to both fixed section which contains this information.
wing and rotorcraft. Additional information may Most sheets have a note stating that the helicop-
be contained regarding rotorcraft. ter must be maintained in conformance with the
One of the FARs containing additional in- instructions given by the manufacturer.
formation is FAR 43. In this publication rotor- Many civilian helicopters are either military de-
craft are referred to in two specific areas which rivatives or have military counterparts. Additional
are of importance to maintenance personnel. information may be given as to where the informa-
These areas read as follows. FAR 43.15(b) states: tion or the conversion data are to be obtained.
57
 3. Airworthiness directives and maintenance technician. Items which might have
certificates finite lives include rotor hubs, blades, and other
Airworthiness directives and inspection infor- rotating parts. If these records are lost or de-
mation are handled in the same manner for ro- stroyed, it can become very difficult to establish the
torcraft as for fixed wing aircraft, and are con- time on the component. Estimates of time in ser-
tained in the same summary and directives. vice are not permitted, and no option is open except
for the technician to replace any item with a finite
Other documentation, such as the airworthiness
life when the time cannot be established. The loss
certificate, is issued by the FAA at the time of man-
of these records on one helicopter could amount to
ufacture or when the helicopter receives its original
thousands of dollars in replaced parts.
airworthiness inspection. For example, a military sur-
plus helicopter may have an airworthiness certifi- The system used in keeping these records varies
cate issued long after the manufacture of the aircraft considerably from one operator to another. The
had been moved to a “restricted” category only, as is most common systems are of three basic types —
often the situation with surplus military aircraft. sheet, card and. computer method. In some situa-
This document remains in the aircraft and is valid as tions a combination system is used to insure that
long as it is maintained in accordance with the FAR. no costly errors are made. The system utilized usu-
ally depends upon the number of helicopters oper-
4. Registration ated, and the components owned.
The second document that is found in the aircraft For example: the single-ship operator who is in-
is the Aircraft Registration. This simply states who volved in seasonal work will probably schedule ma-
the owner of the aircraft is, and his address at the jor inspections and overhauls of components in the
date given. off-season. For this reason, his spare components will
All aircraft are required to carry a current be limited or nonexistent. In this situation the same
Weight and Balance Report and Equipment List. components would always return to the same heli-
This may have been made up during the life of the copter, making recordkeeping quite simple, and even
helicopter. These documents may vary somewhat on a single piece of paper attached to the logbook.
from those normally found on fixed wing, with This record would contain the following information:
movable ballast and lateral centers of gravity on the part number, serial number, aircraft time when
the Weight and Balance Report. Their explana- installed, the time on the component when installed,
tions will be contained in the operators manual. the hour-life of the part, and the aircraft time that
The equipment may also be different because it is to be removed (Fig. 3-1).
many older generation helicopters have been up- a. Sheet and card methods
dated several times. This is done by the use of kits, The operator who owns several of the same type
service bulletins, and supplemental type certifi- of helicopter and operates on a year-round basis
cates. All of these will show up on the Equipment will have spare components in his inventory so
List and the Weight and Balance Report. that a maximum utilization factor might be real-
ized. In this situation components may be removed
B. Maintenance Records prematurely for repairs and a different component
1. Retirement schedule installed rather than grounding the helicopter
In addition to these documents, the helicopter while repairs are made.
must have a retirement schedule. This schedule isa It is necessary for this type of operator to use a
historical record of the critical parts which have a card system in order to keep a record of parts with
finite life. They indicate that certain parts of the heli- finite lives. Basically the same information that
copter are to be scrapped after the flight-hour re- was kept on the sheet would be kept on the card,
quirement has been reached. The service life of these but it should also include the helicopter on which it
components depends upon the continual stresses im- is installed. A number of cards may be placed to-
posed upon them, and the service record. In many gether to form the retirement schedule of parts.
instances, these lives have been extended or short- Fig. 3-2 shows a sample parts card.
ened as information about the part has been ob- b. Computer method
tained. Sometimes a part with no finite life has been When helicopter operation becomes larger still
given a retirement life while others have gone from the possibility of the same component ever return-
having a finite life to being a conditional item. ing to the same ship becomes more remote as several
This record is the responsibility of the owner and sets of components are kept as spares. The task of
operator, but it is usually kept up-to-date by the retirement schedules becomes monumental. It may

58
 Bell Helicopter, Model D-1 COMPONENT TIMES and OVERHAUL
Serial #476, N2215 or RETIREMENT SCHEDULE
Date of Mfg., June 1952 DATE 4-12-78 A/C TT 3828.5 Hrs.

REPLACE
ACFT TT ACFT TT WHEN OR OVERHAUL TACH
COMPONENT WHEN NEW LAST OVERHAULED ACFT TT TIME
M/R Hub yoke 2731.5 3739.2 6331.5 3343.3
4I-120-177-E
Inspect _ NA NA 4339.2 1351.0
M/R Grip 3828.5 NA 6328.5 3354.6
S.N. SR-01017
47-120-135-5
Inspect NA NA 4339.2 1351.0
M/R Grip 3828.5 NA 6328.5 3354.6
S.N. SR-00953
47-1207135-5_
Inspect NA NA 4339.2 1351.0
Gimble Ring 3828.5 NA 5028.5 2054.6
S.N. RE-1505
47=120-014-023, ee
Inspect NA NA 4339.2 1351.0
Mast 1967.8 3739.2 Unlimited
47-130-114-7_ Le
Inspect NA NA 4339.2 1351.0
Mast Controls _ _§ _ = _—_—s 2903.3 3739.2 Unlimited =
Inspect NA NA 4339.2 1351.0
T/R Blade Grip 3828.5 NA 4428.5 1454.6
Retaining Bolts
47-641-194-1 ee
Inspect NA NA 4339.5 1351.0
T/R Hub yoke 3828.5 NA 4194.5 1220.6
S.N. N29-1395
(34 Hr. since new
when installed)
T/R Shafting 3739.2 NA Unlimited
(R) 47-644-187-17
(F) 47-644-180- 9

Inspect NA NA 4339.2 1351.0

T/R Gear box 2848.5 3739.2 Unlimited
47-640-044-7 ne
Inspect NA NA 4039.2 1051.0
T/R Blades 3739.2 NA 4339.2 1351.0
47-642-102-49 Le
Inspect NA NA 4039.2 1051.0
Engine YO-355-5 3828.5 NA 4421.5 1447.6
S.N. E-590135
(7 Hr. since new
when installed)
Fan Belts 3828.5 NA 4728.5 1754.6
47-661-041-3
Inspect (Check tension every 50 hrs.)
Transmission 22 2 2 2 2 =e 3739.2 4339.2 1351.0
47-620-600-5
Inspect (Inspect clutch shoes at 300 hr.)
Engine Mount 2988.2 3739.2 5488.2 2500.0
47-612-135-) ee
Inspect NA NA 4039.2 1051.0
END OF PAGE ONE

Fig. 3-1 Sheet method used for retirement and overhaul schedule.

59
 NOMENCLATURE Sa
NOTICE: WHEN COMPONENT IDENTIFIED BELOW IS RE-
OWNER. = TURNED TO BHC. FOR A REASON iT IS MANDATORY
PAGE — oe THAT THIS SERVICE RECORD ACCOMPANY THE COM.
PONENT

HISTORICAL SERVICE RECORD PIN: SEA. NO.

INSTALLATION DATA REMOVAL DATA

INSTALLED BY INSTALLED COMP. HRS. REMOVED COMPL HRS
DATE REASON FOR
ON ACH (ACTIVITY) AT AIC HAS AT AIC HRS SINCE O/H REMOVAL

TECHNICAL DIRECTIVES AND HISTORY OVERHAUL

DIRECTIVE NO. COMPLIANCE
IF APPLICABLE DESCRIPTION SIGNATURE
BY (ACTIVITY) DATE

COMPONENT ASSY. SERIAL ITEM TOTAL TIME HELICOPTER OR COMPONENT T.T. T.T. ON PART ASSY.
OR PART NOS. PRIOR TO INSTL. AT INSTL. AT REMOVAL OR COMPONENT
NAME;
NO:

Fig. 3-2 Card method used for keeping records.

60
 DATE MODEL REPORT DATE LAST MODEL REG.
PAINTED CODE DATE FLIGHT NO. NO.

Fig. 3-3
01/76 30 9/20/78 9/18/78 2068 N 7612S

COMPONENT SERVICE COMP T.T. OR T.S.1. TIME TO O/H RETIRE-CYC REMOVE AT

DESCRIPTION LIFE SIN CYCLE T.S.O. OR INSP. OR T.T. AIC HOURS

A/F IN DUE 8/00/79 UL 5 10339.50

* TURB TEMP SYS 300 IN 10339.50 194.15 105.45 10445 *
ENGINE C-20 UL CAE-821029 2992.50
COMPRESSOR 3000 OH CAC-30282 5221.50 2011.50 988.10 11328
IMPELLER 6876873 3050 RT H-29021 2729.05 320.55 10660
IMPELLER CYC 9150 cy H-29021 5144, 4006
GEARBOX ASSY UL CAG-31041 2992.50
TURB-AD 77-15-12 500 IN CAT-38088P 2679.05 121.55 378.05 10717
TURBINE-W/RIM 1500 IN CAT-38088P 2679.05 1200.35 299.25 10639
TURBINE-W/RIM 3000 OH CAT-38088P 2679.05 2679.05 320.55 10660
1ST STG WHL 1550 RT X47087 1200.35 349.25 10689
1ST STG CYC 3000 CY X47087 2298. 702
2ND STG WHL 1550 RT X33893 1200.35 349.25 10689
2ND STG CYC 3000 CY X33893 2298. 702
3RD STG WHL 4550 RT X33530 2679.05 1870.55 12210
3RD STG CYC 6000 X33530 4127. 1873

Typical computer method for ki eepin ig records.

4TH STG WHL 4550 X27333 2679.05 1870.55 12210

61
4TH STG CYC 6000 X27333 4127. 1873
FIC-A11-A10 3500 4AAC2826 3123.45 3123.45 376.15 10716
FUEL NOZZLE 1500 AG-27939 UNK 4011.15 488.45 10828
GOV-A13 2000 7AAD4100 367.10 367.10 1632.50 11972
*#FUEL PUMP-SE 750 PE-2746 UNK 619.20 130.40 10470#*
FUEL PUMP-SE 2250 PE-2746 UNK 1306.05 943.55 11283
BLEED VALVE 2000 FF-11907 5270.15 994.25 1005.35 11345
#OIL FILTER 1000 1921 546.20 453.40 10793#
FUEL FILTER 6 Mo
INSP DUE 12/00/78
STARTER GEN 300 14859 906.15 44.40 255.20 10595
#STARTER GEN 600 14859 906.15 333.55 266.05 10605#
#BOOST PUMP 500 GOO86A 5236.50 171.20 328.40 10668#
#BOOST PUMP 500 G-0012 6946.00 333.55 166.05 10505#
INPUT DR SHAFT 600 ALF-60140 6618.15 2.35 597.25 10937
TRANS-25 2600 BKW-10660 4371.00 2190.00 410.00 10749
FREEWHEEL 2400. B12-5813 UNK 1475.15 924.45 11264
MAST 2600 NJF-51001 4220.35 2167.50 432.10 10772
SWASHPLATE 600 JIJG-51110 4330.25 391.45 208.15 10548
SWASHPLATE 900 JIIG-51110 4330.25 391.45 508.15 10848
SWASHPLATE 1200 JISG-51110 4330.25 391.45 808.15 11148
SWASHPLATE 2400 JISG-51110 4330.25 1578.50 821.10 11161
COLL IDLER LINK 4800 J119-2960 4330.25 469.35 10809
COLL LEVER 4800 J119-2740 4330.25 469.35 10809
SWASHPLATE SUPT 4800 TR-003 1578.50 3221.10 13561
 DATE MODEL REPORT DATE LAST MODEL REG.
PAINTED CODE DATE FLIGHT NO. NO.

Fig. 3-3
01/76 30 9/20/78 9/18/78 2068 N 7612S

COMPONENT SERVICE COMP T.T. OR T.S.l. TIME TO O/H RETIRE-CYC REMOVE AT

DESCRIPTION LIFE S/N CYCLE T.S.0. ORINSP. | ORT.T. AIC HOURS

120500 SW/PLATE SLEEVE 4800 RT J119-3674 3423.30 1378.30 11716

120600 DUPLEX BRNG 2400 RT 6261 1578.50 821.10 11164
121000 M/R YOKE 1200 OH J11-2164 6393.20 ‘938.00 262.00 10801
121100 RET STRAP FIT 1200 RT J1-2564 938.00 262.00 . 10601
121105 RET STRAP FIT 1200 RT J1-5019 938.00 262.00 10601
121300 RET STRAP PIN 1200 RT A19-19887 938.00 262.00 10601

Computer sheet continued.

121305 RET STRAP PIN 1200 RT A19-19915 938.00 262.00 10601
121500 RET STRAP 1200 RT 3225 660.20 539.40 10879
121505 RET STRAP 1200 RT 3217 660.20 539.40 10879
121700 M/R GRIP 1200 IN J11-6010 4271.20 938.00 262.00 10601
121705 M/R GRIP 4800 RT J11-6010 4271.20 528.40 10868
121710 M/R GRIP 1200 IN J11-6181 4271.20 938.00 262.00 10601
121715 M/R GRIP 4800 RT J11-6181 4271.20 528.40 10868
122100 M/R BLADE-33 3600 RT TKK-6012 2741.55 858.05 11197
122105 M/R BLADE-33 3600 RT TKK-2836 3313.15 286.45 10626
125000 #SERVO-750-17 2400 OH 951 9418.25 21.00 2379.00 12718#
126000 #SERVO-750-009 2400 OH 3353 8362.40

62
1170.25 1229.35 115694
127000 #SERVO 750-17 2400 OH 1000 9254.00 1046.25 1353.35 116934
131000 SHAFT #4-SBC/W 1500 OH VNLB17280 6805.10 1081.10 418.50 10758
132000 *#T/R SHAFT LUB 300 IN 194.15 194.15 105.45 10445#*
132001 SERVO T/R 2400 OH 368 7877.25 1684.15 715.45 11055
133000 T/R GEAR BOX-O/S 2800 OH ALO-10627 5036.55 789.10 2010.50 12350
134000 TIR HUB 2400 OH J129-2196 2215.10 21.00 2379.00 12718
136000 TIR BLADE 1200 RT TKM-6641 21.00 1179.00 11518
136005 TiR BLADE 1200 RT TKM-6812 21.00 1179.00 11518
143000 TAIL BOOM-11 UL NNJN-0235 10678.25
145000 LOWER COLL TUBE 4800 RT MS-1046 ~ 757.20 4042.40 14382

*
146000 T/R CNTR TUBE 300 IN PHIN7612S 10339.50 194.15 105.45 10445 *
147000 FLOAT INSP
147100 DUE 12/00/78
147500 LIFLOAT-13313575
148000 RIFLOAT-13278475

74 TOTAL COMPONENTS
become even more complicated by maintenance crew spare part support, as well as to detect maintenance
changes and distances from the maintenance facil- trends that could result in the issuance of Service
ity, so a computerized system is established. Bulletins. Others send this additional page directly
With this type of system maintenance is sched- to a computer service which specializes in aircraft
uled, components are shipped, and accuracy is main- maintenance service. These companies perform the
tained. Such a system often includes other informa- same essential services that the operator would, in
tion, such as recurring AD notes and overhaul sched- regard to furnishing information for logistical sup-
ules. It may also be used to analyze maintenance port.
trends to include extended life on components. A
sample of this type of form is shown in Fig. 3-3. C. Manufacturers Publications
Besides necessary records of the helicopter, there
2. Overhaul or major inspection records are a wide range of materials written by the man-
In addition to a retirement schedule, an overhaul ufacturer. These include such items as the Operators
or major inspection record is kept on the rotating Manuals, Maintenance Manuals, Service Bulletins,
components. These, like the mandatory retirement Overhaul Manuals, Advisory Letters, and Inspec-
schedule, may be kept in several systems such as tion Manuals. It is most unfortunate that at this
the sheet, card, or computer method. The system time, no standardization has taken place for all heli-
used is the owner’s option and is frequently com- copters. An effort is being made, however, to stan-
bined with the retirement schedule, not only for dardize the maintenance and parts manuals with
convenience, but because it gives a better overall the Airline Transport Association (ATA) system for-
view of the maintenance program. mat. This appears to be the system that will be
Information as to the life of the component or part adopted throughout the aviation industry. The sys-
is obtained from either the Aircraft Specification tem has been in use for several years on transport
Sheet or the Manufacturer’s Maintenance Manual. aircraft. It only recently has been adopted by general
The maintenance manual is updated more often. If aviation and the helicopter industry. For this reason
the operator keeps up with the amendments, the both types of manuals will be found in use today, with
information will be most accurate. the newer aircraft manuals following the ATA sys-
Like the fixed wing operator, the helicopter oper- tem, and the older aircraft following the company
ator keeps a Service Bulletin and an Airworthi- system, which was usually adopted from the mili-
ness Directive Record on the aircraft. This is usu- tary format.
ally kept separate from the aircraft’s logbook, but A change in the manuals on the older aircraft is
may be incorporated into it in small operations. It not likely to occur because of the cost of reproducing
must be understood, however, that such a list does this material. Therefore, until the older helicopters
not replace an entry. It is used to simplify the search are no longer in operation, there will not be complete
for compliances and items of a recurring nature. standardization. This slow process will probably
take at least twenty years or more to evolve.
3. Logbooks
Logbooks, like the other helicopter records, vary 1. Operators manual
from operator to operator. With small one-ship op- The first of the manufacturers publications to be
eration they often appear much the same as those discussed is the operator’s manual, sometimes re-
found with any small general aviation aircraft, ferred to as the flight manual. At this time most
with replacement of parts and inspections written manufacturers follow the same format regarding
in by hand. the information contained and the order, or sec-
For many of the newer helicopters and larger tions, in which it is presented.
operations, books in which the material is ana- a, First section
lyzed in order to determine maintenance trends The first section contains the operating limi-
and life expectancies ‘are available. These include tations of the helicopter, which includes general
carbon copies of each page to be sent to operation’s weight and balance limitations, the engine limita-
headquarters and used for logistic support purposes, tions to include temperatures, RPMS and power,
including billing, cost analysis, spare parts, and the rotor limitiations including minimum and
necessary computer information, including finite maximum operating RPM, autorotation RPM, and
life and overhaul time. correction factors if any are required. It will also
In some of these logs an additional page is sent to include any placard information. For example:
the manufacturer, who uses this information to “Maximum Allowable Weight in Cabin — 440
analyze the product for product improvement and pounds’ or “Protracted Rearward Flight Prohibited.”
63
 b. Second section his own components because of special tooling in-
The second section of the manual contains operat- volved, and so do not include overhaul information.
ing procedures, which would include preflight in- All of the manufacturers provide a renewal ser-
spection, servicing requirements such as fuel and oil, vice with these publications. This means that as
pre-operation cockpit check, starting procedure, new material becomes available or text revisions
warm-up, ground check, and shutdown procedure. It are necessary, this information will be sent to the
will also include emergency procedures such as en- purchasers of the manual. This is usually done for
gine failure, tail rotor failure, and hydraulic failure. a period of one year after the purchase of the man-
c. Third section ual. After that a subscription fee is charged. The
The third section includes performance informa- price of a maintenance manual varies — $100 is
tion such as maximum rate of climb with variables not unusual and some of the larger helicopter
like temperature, altitude, and weight; hovering maintenance manuals will cost over $1000.
performance charts, airspeed correction charts, At least one company, other than a manufac-
and power calculations. turer, furnishes microfiche copies of manuals with
d. Fourth section a subscription service on updates. This microfiche
The fourth section includes loading instructions system has some disadvantages because a viewer
with seat occupancy and cargo limitations. must be used and a printer is necessary in order to
e. Fifth section make copies. The prime advantage of this system
Since most helicopters of the same model may be is the small space required to store information
equipped in various configurations, additional infor- and the time saved during the revision process.
mation is contained in a fifth section. This section a. Manufacturers older format
includes all items that are other than a standard The older type of maintenance manuals are di-
configuration, such as external load equipment, vided into areas dealing with sections of the heli-
floats, non-conventional skid gear, and any other copter very similar to the manner in which the
equipment that will affect flight characteristics or military manuals or light fixed wing manuals are
alter operating limitations. printed. The beginning includes such information
Maintenance personnel usually have very little to as inspections, weight and balance computations,
do with the operating manual unless they are allowed and general servicing. Each of the additonal sec-
to ground operate the helicopter. Some companies have tions covers the maintenance of a certain area of
only certain maintenance personnel authorized for the helicopter such as main rotor, tail rotor, electri-
operating the machine. Others require a pilot to be at cal system, and airframe sections.
the controls anytime the helicopter is running. Each of these sections is further broken down
with a general description, troubleshooting, re-
2. Maintenance manuals moval, teardown inspection, reassembly, and in-
The maintenance manuals are of two basic for-
stallation. This system may have as many sections
mats: the old manufacturers format and the ATA
as required in order to cover the entire helicopter.
100 system. Besides the difference in the way the
An alphabetical index is included in the manual
information is assembled, there is also a difference for reference purposes. A breakdown per section of
in the amount of information contained in the a typical maintenance manual follows:
maintenance manuals. Some contain only the in-
Section I General Information
formation necessary for field maintenance while Section II Main Rotor System
others contain maintenance, overhaul, inspection Section Ill Mast and Controls
criteria, and structural repair information in one Section IV Transmission System
volume. This is the manufacturer’s preference and
Section V Powerplant and Related Systems
is often influenced by the equipment nereaeary tot (Franklin & Lycoming)
perform the various tasks.
Section VI Tail Rotor System
Some helicopter manufacturers do not allow any Section Vil Flight Controls
overhaul work on their components other than at (Standard & Hydraulic)
the factory. Such companies operate exchange pro- Section VIII Instruments
grams for such components as transmissions, gear- Section IX Electrical
boxes, and rotor heads. For these companies there Section X Body and Landing Gear
is no need to add overhaul information to the Section XI Wiring Data
maintenance manual. Others realize that it is Alphabetical Index
economically unfeasible for everyone to overhaul OLD FORMAT
64
 b. ATA system format Powerplant 71-00-00
The newer manuals that are written in the ATA Engine 72-00-00
system format are quite different. Under this sys- Engine Fuel and Controls 73-00-00
tem each area is assigned a number which repre- Engine Ignition 74-00-00
sents a chapter in the manual. For example, fuel Engine Controls 76-00-00
systems would be covered in Chapter 28 and hy- Engine Oil 79-60-00
draulic systems in Chapter 29. These chapter Instruments. 95-00-00
numbers remain the same regardless of the air- Electrical 96-00-00
craft or the manufacturer. Also, if a helicopter does Avionics 97-00-00
not have a specific system, that chapter would be Wiring Diagrams 98-00-00
excluded from the manual. For example, if there TYPICAL ATA SYSTEM
were no hydraulic systems in the helicopter, Chap-
Although the ATA system appears quite diffi-
ter 29 would be excluded from the text.
cult, it will soon become apparent through practice
The ATA system is further divided into sub- that regardless of the helicopter model or the man-
systems by an additional numbering system. ufacturer, the information desired will be located
For example, 28-10 designates the fuel storage sys- in the same chapter/section/subject area.
tem while 28-20 designates the fuel distribution
system. An additional set of digits is added to 3. Illustrated parts breakdown
designate the details of the subject. For example, The illustrated parts breakdown, like the main-
28-10-01 discusses fuel cells and 28-10-02 the aux- tenance manual, has different formats. They follow
iliary fuel cells. basically the same system as in the maintenance
The information is broken down still further into manuals - the old system and the ATA system.
three categories for each chapter/section/subject Although there are some variations in the old
by page number as follows: system, the manual is fundamentally divided into
Description and Operation pages 1-100 sections. The First Section contains all the infor-
Troubleshooting pages 101-200 mation necessary to use the manual and to pur-
Maintenance Practices pages 201-300 chase parts. It will contain the following informa-
A list of chapters is found at the front of the tion: Terms and Conditions of Sales - How to Use
_ manual through which one can determine which the Illustrated Parts Breakdown - Vendors Codes -
chapter contains the information needed. A typical Exploded View of the Helicopter.
chapter system sample is as follows: The Terms and Conditions of Sales explains how
LIST OF CHAPTERS the parts are shipped, the warranty of the man-
Name Chapter/Number ufacturer, and what items are covered by the war-
Inspections 5-00-00 ranty of other manufacturers.
Dimensions and Charts 6-00-00 The information included in the use of the IPB is
Lifting and Jacking 7-00-00 the table of contents, page numbering system,
Leveling and Weight and Balance 8-00-00 group assemblies, figure and index numbers, part
Towing 9-00-00 numbers, part relationships, oversized parts, alter-
Parking and Mooring 10-00-00 nate parts, special notations, units per assembly,
Placards 11-00-00 model usage, and how to find a part.
Servicing 12-00-00 These items are most important to maintenance
Torquing 13-00-00 personnel because correct use helps to increase
Special Tools 14-00-00 speed and enhance the quality of the work that is
Air Conditioning 21-00-00 performed.
Fire Protection 26-00-00 The Table of Contents in the front of the book
Flight Controls 27-00-00 assigns a section to each large area of the helicop-
Fuel 28-00-00 ter, which in turn is divided into smaller units with
Hydraulic Systems 29-00-00 figure titles and page numbers, always preceded by
Ice and Rain Protection 30-00-00 the section number. For example: 7-10 means the
Landing Gear 32-00-00 tenth page of the seventh section. The figures con-
Doors 52-00-00 tained in the various sections include an illus-
Fuselage 53-00-00 tration and a text page or pages. The illustrations
Windows 56-00-00 are exploded with guidelines to show relationships
Rotors 65-00-00 with each part numbered to correspond with the text
65
Fig. 3-4 A Typical IPB breakdown of a rotor head.

66
Fig. 3-4B Rotor head breakdown continued.
67
page or pages. There are four page numbers between The next column of the text page contains de-
illustrations which means that some pages have scription of the part, including assembly. The as-
more than one page number. For example: 2-11/2-12. sembly is always listed first with the parts that
The first illustration in a section is the large com- make it up indented. Parts that are oversized are
ponent. Each following illustration is a sub-compo- listed in the description directly below the stan-
nent of the larger component (Fig. 3-4). dard part description with the oversize. Other in-
The text page number for any illustration is first formation such as the use of alternate parts and
shown in the left-hand column with a figure index special notations such as “matched sets” may also
number. For example: 5-4 would be the figure num- be included in the description.
ber for the 5th illustration and number 4 item in The next column. of the text page gives the num-
the illustration. This is followed by the part num- ber of units per assembly that are used. (Fig. 3-6).
ber, which often specifies the helicopter model and If the same manual is used for more than one
the area of the part. It may also be a standard num- model a useage code is placed in the next column
ber such as AN, MS, or NAS, or may be a vendor’s showing to which model, the item refers (Fig. 3-7).
number. Those that represent a vendor are further When trying to locate a part when the part num-
supplied with a code next to the part number to rep- ber is known, one can use the cross reference index
resent the manufacturer of the item (Fig. 3-5). located in the back of the manual. Every part num-
ber is listed with the figure index number so that
the part may be located in relation to other parts or
FIGURE &
INDEX
NUMBER
PART NUMBER any other appropriate information may be found
(Fig. 3-8).
3- 47-120-184-31

47-120-184-33
When the part number is not known, but the
1
47-120-184-29
47-120-252-7 general location is, one can use the exploded views
2 MS15002-1
47-120-113-2 of the helicopter shown in the first section of the
47-120-913-3 manual. Each major section is numbered with an
4 47-120-418-1 appropriate code on the view showing the first il-
5 47-120-265-1 lustration number for that area (Fig. 3-9).
6
7
ANSOOA10-5
ANS02-10-10
In the ATA system manuals the IPB is broken
9
8 AT-A20-178-4
AT-A20-179-1 down in the same manner as in the maintenance
10
"
47-120-417-3
AN6230B811 manual, with each system having chapter num-
12
13
47-420-182-1
47-120-185-1 bers that correspond to those in the maintenance
14 47-120-183-1
15 71X7095 manual, For example: Chapter 28 is still Fuel Sys-
16 47-120-177-4
47-920-128-1 tems. Each chapter, however, contains an index.
Ww 47-120-253-1 The index lists the illustration pages for each view
18 ANO60-516L
19
20
ANS60-516
AN320-5
in the chapter. The page numbering system is ba-
21 47-120-128-2
sically the same as that used in the old system,
22
23
MS20201KP5A
4T-120-114-4
with page numbers for illustrations every fourth
24
25
MS16625-81
47-120-184-23
page. The text pages are also set up in the same
26 47-120-155-1
manner with the figure index number, part number,
27 AN960-716 description, units per assembly, and usage code.
28 NAS679A7
29 47-120-259-1 The same methods are used for part location ei-
30 MS20074-06-10

32
un ANI74H5A
ANS60P0616
ther by part number or by location on the exploded
B
“4
ANS6OPD416L
ANI73-13
view.
35 AN173-14
36 ANS60PD10
37
38
AN310-3
47-120-126-5
4, Service bulletins
47-120-025-11
47-120-025-5
Additional maintenance information is given in
3”
40
ANSSIREB3N
100-035-72-14 the form of service bulletins. These are also referred
a
42
47-120-025-9
ANS15-4AR to as service information notices. Although the name
43
“4
47-120-025-13
ANI73-11 varies from one manufacturer to another, the content
4s AN960PD10
46 AN310-3 is always similar. While the service bulletin may
a7 100-037-1
deal with any item on the helicopter, it is used to
inform the operator of a problem area. It may call for
Fig. 3-5 Typical figure number/part number an inspection, the replacement of a part, or the re-
breakdown. duction of the life of a component (Fig. 3-10).
68
 FIGURE & UNITS MODELS USAGE
INDEX PART NUMBER | DESCRIPTION PER USABLE ON
NUMBER ASSY. lee] ee
1234567 47 | 47
g2
72
| o3
130]
| 23
3%
G4 | Gaa =
9- 47-150-257-9 Support and Swashplate Assy... REF x x x
See Fig. 8 for next assy
47-150-175-29 | .Swashplate Assy.... 1 x Xx x
741 AN502-10-12 8 x x
- 2 MS20074-04-04 8 x x
- 3 ANS06PD416 8 x x
- 4 47-150-206-3 1 x x x
> 5 47-150-207-1 1
- 6 47-150-183-3 1 x x xX
- 7 47-150-021-1 1 x x xX
- 6 47-150-240-1 1 x x x
30-729-592-5 1 x x x
- 9 MS15002-1 2 xX x x
-10 30-729-476-1 2 x x x
“11 30-729-592-7 --Ring... 1 x x x
47-150-184-5 | ..Swashplate Assy 1 xX xX xX
-12 RR81 ..-Ring (80756)... 2 x x xX
- 13 47-150-214-1 2 x x x
-14 47-150-245-1 2 x x xX
-15 47-150-212-3 2 X x x
- 16 22-006- 15-30-16 2 x x x
“17 22-006- 15-22-16 2 x x xX
- 18 1191-3CNXO-570| .. 8 x x x
-19 47-150-184-7 1 x x x
+20 47-150-213-1 4 x x x
47-150-180-9 1 Xx x xX
-24 NAS516-1 4 xX x x
+ 22 AN502-10-20 8 x x xX
+23 47-150-180-11 1 x x x
x x
+24 47-150-180-3 1 x x X

47-150-175-19 | .Support Assy.. 1 xX x x

- 25 MS 16624-1087 | ..Ring.... 2 x xX x
- 26 47-150-034-1 «Seal... 4 x xX
-27 47-150-243-4 ..-Bearing.... 2 x x x
- 28 47-150-018-1 -Shaft....... 1 x x x
47-150-152-10 | .Support Assy.. 1 x x x
+29 RRB1 +.Ring (80756)... 2 x X x
- 30 45-150-214-1 2 x x x
-H 47-150-245-1 2 x x x
+32 47-150-212-1 2 x x x
- 33 47-150-152-9 1 x x

Note 1:
47-150-180-11 and 47-150-180-3
cannot be procured separately.
as they must be used in matched
sets. Procure 47-150-180-9.

Fig. 3-6 Typical parts catalog page showing units per assembly.

Due to the seriousness of these matters, most involve modification of the helicopter and kits that
manufacturers consider them mandatory and will are available from the manufacturer, such as a new
eventually include them in the maintenance man- tail rotor, radio installations, or an alternator kit to
ual. Service bulletins will very often become air replace a generator. These are available on a sub-
worthiness directives. Like revisions to the mainte- scription basis or may be obtained with the kit.
nance manuals, they are obtained on a subscription
basis from the manufacturer, usually on a yearly
D. Supplemental Type Certificates
The last item available for the helicopter operator
basis with an annual summary and index.
is the Supplemental Type Certificate (STC). Al-
Additional information is often given to the oper- though these are not available from the manufac-
ator in the form of a service letter or technical bul- turer of the helicopter, they may be available from
letin. This may include information on new alter- the manufacturer of an item, or from an operator
nate parts with a longer life, a change in rebuild who has modified a helicopter and has obtained FAA
facilities, or any other technical information that approval for the STC. They could include a number of
may benefit the operator. These items again are items including baggage racks, skid gear modifica-
available on a subscription basis and are usually tions, different engine installations, or a litter-am-
included in the cost of the service bulletins. bulance configuration. Some of these are available in
Manufacturers also furnish service instructions kit form while others are simply purchased informa-
(SIs). These cover many procedures which usually tion containing specifications for the modifications.
69
 MODELS USAGE Part Number INDEX
USABLE ON Wy AND

47G4 || G4A
47 28
232 [25/8
|g2|z8
FIGURE
NUMBER
3°13?
30 : 20
xX xX x 47-620-234-4 18 :
30 : 20
X X 47-620-234-5 18 :
X xX x 30- : 20
xX X xX x 47-620-235-1 11 : 74
x x X 12 : 73
X X x 47-620-238-1 18 :
47-620-238-2 18 11
X x X 47-620-240-1 18 : 8
x xX X 47-620-241-3 18 : 1
X X X 47-620-242-1 11 : 24
12 : 19
X xX 47-620-243-1 11 20
xX xX 47-620-246-1 21 . 1
x X X 47-620-247-1 21 : 2
x X X 47-620-249-1 21 5
x xX xX 47-620-250-1 11 58
X X 47-620-251-1 11 : 56
xX x X 47-620-252-1 21 :
X x X 47-620-252-2 21 : 9
X X x 47-620-253-1 21 : 1
X X xX 47-620-254-1 12 66
xX X xX 21 13
x X X 47-620-255-1 1 . 54
47-620-256-1 12 : 71
x xX X 21 8
X X 47-620-256-2 17 : 17
X xX 19 : 1
xX X 20 : 17
47-620-256-3 16 : 15
X x X 18 10
X x X 47-620-278-3 11 : 29
xX X x 47-620-280-1 50 : 52
X X 50A_ - 52
x x Xx 47-620-280-2 50 52
50A 52
xX X xX 47-620-280-3 50 : 52
50A - 52
X X 47-620-280-4 50 : 52
X X 50A - 52
X x X 47-620-280-5 50 : 52
SOA - 52
xX X
47-620-287-1 11 : 57
X Xx
21 :
X X
47-620-293-2 5 :
X X
47-620-297-1 11 55
x X
21 :
xX X
47-620-298-1 18 : 3
X x
47-620-299-1 18 : 4
xX X 47-620-301-1 21 : 7
x X X 47-620-302-1 21 : 6
x x xX 47-620-332-1 11 . 2
X x X 47-620-344-2 25 : 8
xX X X 47-620-349-2 23 . 4
xX x X 47-620-374-1 28 . 10
X x x 47-620-424-1 25 . 9
x x 47-620-425-1 23 : 7
X x xX 47-620-426-1 23 : 3
xX X 47-620-426-2 23 :
X x 47-620-426-3 25 7
X X 47-620-426-4 25 .
x x x 47-620-426-5 23 .

Fig. 3-7 Useage code designating the model. Fig. 3-8 Cross reference indexes.

70
 The helicopter of today will not fly on the for the safety of the aircraft, if it is used in conjunc-
paperwork alone. The material that is avail- tion with good maintenance practices. Neither the
able to the operator will help ensure that the paperwork nor the maintenance can accomplish
aircraft is maintained in a manner that provides this by itself

index Figure
Number Number

1 Cabin Enclosure Assembly. 83

2 Landing Gear Installation (Skid Type)..........sssssesssesensteereesenene 90
3 Center Fuselage Frame A nbly 82
4 VO540 Reciprocating Engine Powerplant installation............... 27
5 Main Rotor Hub and Blade Installation..........ccescseesesereeneneeee 2
6 Tail Boom Frame Assembly. 82
7 Tail Rotor Drive Installation 48
8 Ventral Fin and Tail Rotor Guard Installation..............scsseseees 89
9 Aft Synchronized Elevator Installation.........sseseeenseesecnsreneees 68

Fig. 3-9 Parts catalog general figure location page.

71
 SERVICE BULLETIN NO. 47-76-4
BELL DATF 4-5-76
DATE HELICOPTER <:OmMPAN
REV . Wt amt tee texto). on ane PAGENO. 1 of 1
SERVICE ROV ENGINEER e APPROVAL FAA/DER APPROVAL

Ay f.7,
Ohya SWHITR OD Sf De Asepacd
sume 1200 HOUR MANDATORY RETIREMENT OF MAIN ROTOR
GIMBAL RINGS P/N 47-120-014-5, -6, -7, -9,
-1l, -13, -15, -17, -19, AND -21.

REASON: Reduction of service life based on field re-

ports of cracked gimbal rings.

HELICOPTERS AFFECTED: All Model 47B, B-3, D, D-l, G, G-2, G-2A,

G-2A-1, G-3, G-3B, G-3B-1, G-3B-2, G-3B-2A,
G-4, G-4A, G-5, G-5A, H-l, J, J-2 and J-2A
helicopters that have the subject P/N gim-
bal rings installed.

ACCOMPLISHMENT: At the next 1200 hour inspection, but not

later than September 1, 1976 regardless
of the number of flight hours in service.
DESCRIPTION:

1. Main rotor gimbal rings P/N 47-120-014-5, -6, -7, -9, -ll, -13,
-15, -17, -19, and -2]1 must be replaced with gimbal ring P/N
47-120-014-23.
2. The inspection specified in Service Bulletin No. 47-04-1-73-1
dated 4-27-73 does not apply to gimbal ring P/N 47-120-014-23.
3. Add the following data to all Model 47 Mandatory Retirement
Schedules:

MAIN ROTOR SYSTEM

Item Part Number Replace at

Gimbal Ring 47-120-014 all dash 1200 hours

numbers -l thru -21

Gimbal Ring 47-120-014-23 4800 hours

4. The part required to make this change may be procured from

your usual BHT part supply source:

Part Number Nomenclature Quantity

47-120-014-23 Ring, Split, Main Rotor 1

Fig. 3-10 Typical service bulletin.

72
Chapter IV
Helicopter Fundamentals
Introduction
The helicopter technician must have a basic un-
derstanding of maintenance practices particular
to each aircraft. The A&P may be quite familiar
with fixed-wing aircraft, but the helicopter is dif
ferent in such areas as basic directions, ground
handling, and the use of bearings and gears. Al-
though most technicians are aware of some of these
areas, additional information may be required.

A. Basic Directions
Basic directions on a helicopter may be confusing to
the new mechanic. When viewed from the rear, the
right and left are the same as on fixed-wing aircraft. It
is not uncommon, however, for the pilot to be placed on
the right side rather than the left, as is the case in a
Fig. 4-1 Typical skid gear utilizing ground handling
fixed-wing aircraft. This is because of the relative posi-
wheels.
tion of the cyclic and collective. In some instances the
collective arm must be free to do other functions in the 3. Ground handling
helicopter, such as tune radios, etc. This is accom- Ground handling of helicopters differs from
plished by setting the tension on the collective. fixed-wing aircraft. Many helicopters in use today
1, Right and left of engine are equipped with skid gear rather than wheels. In
Another feature of older aircraft, confusing to many respects this system is quite practical, be-
the novice with helicopters, is the right and left of cause helicopters do not require takeoff or landing
the engine. Early models of helicopters made use of rolls, but does not aid in ground handling of the
engines designed for fixed-wing aircraft that were aircraft. The skid-gear equipped helicopters use
modified for helicopters. For this reason, engines ground handling wheels (Fig. 4-1). On the larger
normally mounted horizontally had been mounted helicopters, they are often raised and lowered with
vertically or backwards, changing the relative posi- a hand-operated hydraulic pump. Regardless of
tions of the magnetos. It would be helpful if a set of whether the wheels are raised manually or hy-
rules could be given for the positions on reciprocat- draulically, the following safety precautions must
ing engines, but they cannot because the early be observed in order to avoid injury:
problems were corrected on the newer reciprocat 1. A bar must be used both for raising and lower-
ing powered helicopters by the manufacturers. ing manually operated wheels.
Prior to working on older helicopters, it will always 2. This bar must be secured firmly to the ground
be necessary to consult the maintenance manual handling wheel unit.
for each particular model regarding positions. 8. The personnel must stand clear of the bar, in
case of slippage, when the helicopter is raised
2. Color codes and lowered.
Since so many of the components on the helicopter
rotate, there can be no right or left side established. 4. Hands or feet must never be placed under the skid
Because of this situation, color coding is used to de- gear during the raising or lowering operation.
termine location and to facilitate removal and in- 5. All locking devices and pins must be firmly in
stallation of parts. Red and white dots and stripes place prior to releasing pressure from the bar.
are commonly used on parts of the semirigid rotors. 6. Under no circumstances should the helicopter
Often, blue and yellow are used on multibladed sys- be started with the ground handling wheels in
tems as additional colors for identification purposes. the down position.
73
 At best, the ground handling wheels are quite
awkward for moving the aircraft. Most of the time
the wheels are located near the center of gravity.
Because of the wheel locations and differences in
aircraft, some upward or downward pressure may
be required to keep the skids from scraping while
moving the aircraft on the ground handling wheels.
Most smaller aircraft are moved by hand, pushing,
or pulling only on prescribed areas. Damage may
occur if the tail rotors, antennas, and/or brush
guards are used for pushing. The normal pushing
points are usually designated in the maintenance
manual, but if any doubt exists, the cross tubes of
the skids may be used. On some larger skid-gear
equipped helicopters provisions are made for tow- Fig. 4-3 Typical platform for skid gear helicopters.
ing, with attachments for two bars on the skid gear
(Fig. 4-2). Even when observing precautions it must be re-
membered the landing gear is stressed for land-
ings only.
4. Mooring
Ifa helicopter is to be stored outside, it should be
properly moored. Whenever parked, it should face
the prevailing wind or wind direction of an ex-
pected storm. If the helicopter is equipped with
skid gear, the wheels should always be retracted
(or removed) any time the helicopter is to remain
in a static position. If the helicopter is equipped
with landing gear wheels, they must be properly
1. Tow Bar
2. Tow Ring
chocked.
3. Ground Handling Gear Assembly
Most helicopters have provisions for tiedowns on
the fuselage (Fig. 4-4). These may also be the jack-
Fig. 4-2 One method of ground handling using points of the aircraft. These tiedowns, or mooring
wheels and towbar.

If the helicopter is to be kept inside, or if mainte-

nance is to be accomplished, the helicopter may 1, Main Rotor Tladown Strap
land on a platform or dolly. A number of these 2. Tell Rotor Tiedown Strap
3. Exhaust Cover
4. intake Cover
are available from various sources. Some are self- 5. Aft Mooring Fitting (2)
6. Forward Mooring Filting (2)
propelled, using an electric motor to move the plat- 7. Pitot Tubs Cover oo

form, while others are towed. One particular model

fits under the helicopter and lifts it at the jack-
points. A typical platform is shown in Fig. 4-3.
Helicopters having a wheel gear system make
ground handling simpler because tow bars may be
used. The following precautions, which also apply
to moving fixed-wing aircraft and the operation of
the tow vehicle must be observed:
1. No movement should be made without suffi-
cient help to watch all areas of the helicopter.
2. The tow must be moved slowly and evenly with
no jerky movements occurring on starts or
stops.
3. All rotating components must be secured.
Fig. 4-4 One mooring and tiedown system used ona
4. Tow bar turning radius must be observed. semirigid rotor helicopter.
74
 rings, on the fuselage may be used to anchor the
helicopter to the ramp. Any time the helicopter is
parked the rotors must be tied down. The tiedown
will always include the main rotor, and may include
the tail rotor. It will prevent damage from wind and
other helicopters landing in the immediate area
(Fig. 4-5). The tiedowns should be tight enough to
absorb blade flexing associated with fully articula-
ted rotors and the hub movement of semirigid rotors.
If too much flexing of the blade takes place, the
POSITION BLADES AT AN APPROXIMATE
45° ANGLE TO THE CENTER LINE OF tiedown may come off. The mast may be damaged if
™ A THE HELICOPTER
flapping of the rotor occurs. The tail rotor restraint
must be strong enough to prevent tail rotor damage.

5. Protection
Most helicopters have covers that can be installed if
it is to remain outside overnight. The most commonly
used covers are inlet and exhaust covers for the turbine
BLADE TIE HELICOPTER GROUND CAUTION engines and a pitot tube cover. Additional covers may
DOWN Tle DOWN LINE WHEN WORKING INSIDE
THE TAIL CONE SUPPORT
THE TAIL WITH A SUITABLE
be applied when the helicopter will be exposed to the
CRADLE AT STA. 456P weather for long periods of time or to severe weather
conditions. These include windshield protectors, blade
covers, and rotor head protection. Most of the time
Fig. 4-5 One tiedown system used on a fully articula- such added protection is not required, unless ex-
ted rotor system. treme weather conditions exist (Fig. 4-6).

ROTARY RUDDER
ROTARY RUDDER HEAD: BLADE PROTECTOR
ROTARY WING AND TAIL GEAR BOX
BLADE PROTECTOR PROTECTOR

PITOT TUBE ROTARY WING HUB

PROTECTORS PROTECTOR

ENGINE COMPARTMENT
PROTECTOR AIR INTAKE PROTECTOR

Ps

ENGINE AiR
INTAKE SHIELD

BLADE TIP TIE DOWN

ENGINE EXHAUST SHIELD

WINDSHIELD PROTECTIVE COVERS

PROTECTOR

Fig. 4-6 A protective covering system used in extreme weather conditions.

 6. Lifting and leveling
At times it may be necessary to lift the entire
helicopter. This would occur when the helicopter
was damaged or needed to be retrieved. The most
logical point is the mast assembly, because it nor-
mally supports the helicopter in flight and is very
close to the center of gravity. Hoisting eyes which
attach to the mast nut are often provided for this
purpose (Fig. 4-7). Additional hoisting areas are
provided on large helicopters for removing large
components that could not normally be handled by
hand. At least one manufacturer provides a work
crane that will attach to the helicopter for removal
of components.
Many maintenance procedures, such as rigging
the controls, will require the helicopter to be level.
Jackpoints are provided to lift the helicopter. These
are found at points of the structure that can support
the weight. In addition to the jackpoints, a leveling
indicator is provided. This may be leveling lugs on
Fig. 4-7 Typical hoisting methods used to lift large which a spirit level may be placed, or a leveling plate
components. over which a plumb bob is suspended (Fig. 4-8).

1. Slotted Level Plate

2. Aft Jack Fitting
3. Jacks
4. Level Plate
5. Forward Jack Fittings
6. Plumb Bob

Fig. 4-8 Typical jacking and leveling provisions for helicopters.

76
 TORQUE VALUES MUST
BE RECOMPUTED AS
<&———~-—— ADAPTER LENGTHENS
ARM OF TORQUE WRENCH
SHOWN AT RIGHT
ANGLE,NEED NOT
BE COMPUTED

CONVERTING TORQUE VALUES

EXAMPLE - TORQUE VALUE CONVERSION 1153, which Is the torque reading to be used when this
particular adapter Is Installed on the torque Indicating
handle and the torque called for is 1325 inch-pounds.
8. Dimension A on the torque wrench Is 12.5
Inches, With an adapter installed, demension B Is 14.3
Inches. A + B = 12.5 + 14.3=0.87. This Is the con- c. If the torque indicating handle and adapter In
verston factor. the preceding example are used, and the torque value
ts not recomputed, actual torque applied to the nut
would be approximately 1516 Inch-pounds. With a tol-
b. Assume that the torque wrench with the adapter erance of plus or minus 125 inch-pounds, actual
installed is to be used to tighten “B” nuts for which torque would exceed the maximum permissible torque
the torque value is 1325 Inch-pounds. 0.87 x 1325= by approximately 66 Inch-pounds.

Fig. 4-9 Torque wrench extension formula.

TORQUE VALUES
IN INCH-POUNDS HEX NUTS
High- Cor
Strengths An. Number | Steet Steel Resls- | Stee! Con
STANDARD NUTS, BOLTS, AND SCREWS Nuts, Bolts, and Cad | Cad | tant | Cad | Resistant
And Screws Description Plated | Plated | Steel Plated | Steel

Bolt, Tension Shear- AN363

Stud Wrench Type Type Any Nut Reg Helght & ®&
orScrew] Size Nuts AN310 | Nuts AN320 Except 550°F Max
Size and AN365 And AN364 Shear Type AN363C
Reg Height * &
836 11/32 12-45 7-9 15-18 800°F Max
10-32 318 20-25 12-25 25-35 ANS64
114-28 716 50-70 30-40 70-90 Thin © &
816-24 2 100-140 60-85 140-203 250°F Max
318-24 916 160-190 95-110 190-351 AN365
716-20 518 450-500 270-300 500-758 foo evant i) @ ®&
412-20 34 480-690 290-410 690-990 ax
9116-18 718 800-1000 480-600 1000-1440 ansz0 &®
518-18 156 1100-1300 660-780 1300-2160 250°F Max
W416 | 1-16 2300-2500 1300-1600 2500-4500 AN310
718-14 1-114 2500-3000 1500-1800 3000-6300 Reg Height &
1-14 | 1-716 3700-5500 2200-3300 5500-9000 250°F Max

BOLTS CLOSE-TOLERANCE BOLTS

Basic Threads STEEL. Basic Threads | CLOSE

Number | Diameter | Per Inch “LENGTH Number | Diameter | Per inch} ~TOLERANCE “| LENGTH
DIA DA
ANS 10° 32 HEAD AN173 10° 32 S) HEAD
4 wae 28 lerip— 174 14° 28 Igrip
5 56 24 THD 175 5i6 24 THD
6 ae 2 ANG-10A 176 318 24 AN176-10A
7 7HE6 20 - UNDRILLED (in 177 7H6 20 UNDRILLED {am
8 12 20 178 412 20
9 9/16 18 | weap ONLY A —s 179 916 18 HEAD ONLY AN176H10
10 618 18 DRILLED (jm 180 518 18 DRILLED gE To.
12 a4 18 182 a4 16
14 1 14 | SHANKONLY pp ANG10 488 78 14 | SHANK ONLY pp AN176-10
DRILLED DRILLED
16 1 14 “Bolt shank should be with- 186 1 4 *Bolt shank should be with-
out cotter pin hole when out cotter pin hole when
used with self-locking nuts used with self-locking nuts

Fig. 4-10 Standard torque tables and hardware identification charts.

77
 7. Special tools and hardware insert to prevent wearing out the cotter pin due to
Many special tools and hardware are used on vibration. In addition to these devices, locking tangs
helicopters, and the basic principles of their use are frequently used to hold nuts or bolts in place.
should be reviewed. The maintenance technician These locking tangs are a onetime-use item and must
should be familiar with torque wrenches. It is quite be replaced each time the bolt or nut is removed.
common that various nuts and bolts on helicopters
be assigned special torques. This is the result of B. Bearings
their use, the materials involved, and the modifica- It is most important the helicopter technician
tions of hardware. Many torques are found in the understand the different types of bearings, their
text of the maintenance manual and should be function, care, handling, and installation. Im-
closely adhered to. It is not always possible, how- proper care of these bearings may lead to cata-
ever, to obtain the torque without modifications to strophic failure. A great number of bearings are
the torque wrench. The addition of a crowfoot will used in the helicopter because of the many rotating
change the effective length of the arm, changing components. Each of these bearings serves a special
the reading of the wrench. In all such cases, the purpose carrying rotational loads, thrust loads, or
formula in Fig. 4-9 should be used for computing oscillating movements which are associated with the
the torque reading. A great number of special tools unique flight characteristics of the helicopter.
are used on helicopters. These often have arm ex- In order to understand the various functions, it
tensions that must be considered in the total will first be necessary to know the common parts of
torque value. Some manufacture’s simplify this by bearings and their terminology (Fig. 4-11).
stamping the torque value on the tool.
The outer race, or outer ring, provides a surface
The helicopter is made up of many different types to retain the bearing and one of the groove areas in
of materials. It is not unusual to see materials such which the ball will travel. This may be provided
as aluminum and steel joined by bolts or other fas- with chamfered corners for installation purposes,
teners. For this reason dissimilar metal corrosion and face markings in the form of a part number.
may occur. To reduce this possibility, aluminum The inner race provides the inner groove area for the
washers may be used. The use of close tolerance bolts balls, and the bore opening which contains the rotat-
is common. It is of the utmost importance that head ing component. The balls are held in their respective
markings and parts manuals be followed in the re- positions by the separator or cage. The cages vary
placement of hardware. If these guidelines are not considerably in construction, from wire to micarta,
carefully followed, the result will be damage beyond depending on the application and the lubrication.
repair. Fig. 4-10 shows a chart of standard torques The grooves may be designed so that more shoulder
and common bolts used in helicopters. is given to one side than the other in order to allow
The safetying of hardware is basically the same thrust loads in one direction. The bearing may be
as that found on fixed-wing aircraft. However, more equipped with such features as snap ring grooves,
of it will be found because of the vibration levels shields for lubrication, self-alignment features, and
found in helicopters. As a result, the hardware is ground faces for duplex arrangements (Fig. 4-12).
safetied with wire, cotter pins, and self-locking
nuts. A variation, not normally seen on fixed-wing
aircraft, is castle nuts with a self-locking fiber

1
Typas of

WIDTH - 0.D. Anti-{rietion Bearings

CORNER
OUTER RACE fy
SHOULDERS
INNER RACE
BORE
CORNER

OUTSIDE BORE INNER RING

DIAMETER BALL RACE

SEPARATOR
Single Seal Selt-aligning Front Wheel Ball Thrust

OUTER RING
BALL RACE
Fig. 4-12 Various types of ball bearings that may be
Fig. 4-11 Cutaway of a typical ball bearing. found in helicopters.

78
 airframe manufacturer’s part numbers, which
TAPERED ROLLER BEARING
must be adhered to with no substitutions made.
BEARING Quite often these bearings are modified or require
WIDTH
closer tolerances than those of the bearing man-
cup ufacturer. Ball bearings are used in so many dif-
RADIUS Cup?| |*— STANDOUT ferent functions that, although each uses balls to
LENGTH
reduce friction, they are designed quite differently
_ CONE
aa RADIUS for their particular function.

OUTSIDE
DIAMETER
Roller Boarings

CONE
ROLL
4 CAGE Straight Roller Straight Roller Straight Roller Tapered Roller
Double Row
cup Separadie outer ring Separable inner ring Non-sepsrable

Mm Yi
NEEDLE ROLLER BEARING Riss

y wen
we!
PASSyy

SHELL Needle
Roller

ROLLERS

OUTSIDE Fig. 4-14 Various roller bearings that may be used in

a ne DIAMETER
helicopters.

2. Roller bearings
The second most widely used bearing in helicop-
STRAIGHT ROLLER BEARING
ters is the roller bearing. It is normally thought of
as carrying radial loads, but by tapering the races,
it may be used to carry thrust loads where more
0.D. CORNER surface area is desirable than that provided by the
ball bearing. Roller bearings may also be used in
] OUTER RING ROLLER combinations with ball bearings to support thrust
INNER RING loads. The radial loads are carried by the rollers. In
light load carrying areas, a needle roller is some-
BORE CORNER
times used. Shown in Fig. 4-13 is a straight roller, a
OUTSIDE SHOULDERS tapered roller, and a needle roller bearing. These
DIAMETER
BORE bearings, like the ball bearing, may contain sev-
| y SEPARATOR eral features such as different styles of cages, re-
movable inner or outer races, barrel, or concave
rollers (Fig. 4-14).
FACE \
3. Spherical bearings
Another type of bearing used in helicopters, es-
Fig. 4-13 Standard terminology used with roller
pecially on control linkages, is the spherical bear-
bearings. ing. This type of bearing is used where movement
in more than one direction is desirable (Fig. 4-15).
1. Ball Bearings Like other bearings, they may include such fea-
Ball bearings are used extensively in helicopter tures as lubrication provisions, dry film lubricant,
construction. Many appear to be standard bear- and dust seals. When used on rod ends they are
ings that might be found in any piece of equip- often adjustable with a threaded portion to enable
ment. However, they will quite often carry the the length of the rod to vary for rigging purposes.
79
 RODEND CONTROL ROD
FEMALE
THREADED lx \ I
ROD ENDS
Cc o QO J
LJ 4 CJ
ADJUSTABLE TRAMMEL
SET TO LENGTH
MALE
THREADED Fig. 4-17 The use of a trammel for adjusting rod.
ROD ENDS
Typical rod ends are seen in Fig. 4-16. These rod
ends are often high-usage items due to vibrations
SPHERICAL BEARINGS in the helicopter. Spherical bearings may be in-
with bearing inserts
spected by checking for radial movement of the
spherical portion of the rod end.
In the replacement of rod ends, the actual length of
the rod is often measured by use of a trammel, or the
exposed threads are counted so control tubes may be
returned to their original length without rerigging
SPHERICAL BEARINGS the control system (Fig. 4-17). Since spherical bear-
2-piece type ings are used to compensate for misalignment, it is
important that they be properly aligned when in-
stalled, because they are often used with forked
Fig. 4-15 Various spherical bearings used in helicop- ends and the movement of the part may be limited
ter applications. as a result of this misalignment (Fig. 4-18).

LUBRICATION LUBRICATION
GROOVE GROOVE
AROUND AROUND \
BALL BALL

BRONZE INSERTS + R¢
BRONZE INSERTS
— KZ
HEIM cais\ “ |!
LUBRICATION OPTION :
RESERVOIR INSPECTION
HOLE FE
nt | |
Fe
==
rex
jt a

Fig. 4-16 Typical spherical bearings used with control rods.

 a. Roller staking
In other places where spherical bearings are used
they often require a process called roller staking for
replacement. This process involves pressing out the
old bearing and replacing it with a new bearing and
sleeve. The sleeve and bearing are held in place by a
CORRECT
INCORRECT base with shims laid in the bottom of the base to
INSTALLATION
mile INSTALLATION
center the new bearing. The roller stake is placed in

A
a drill press and rotated against the sleeve. This pro-
PARALLEL
cess compresses the sleeve on one side, swagging the
] ip ef

AN895-C32
LOCKWIRE
bearing in place. The part is turned over and the
process is repeated with a different base (Fig. 4-19).
NOTE:

SAFETY WIRE LINKS 4, Care of bearings

WITH BARREL
ADJUSTMENT AS All pitch contro! links must be The care of bearings is a major consideration.
SHOWN. installed parallel as shown.
Because of the basic design of these ball and roller
bearings, they will require lubrication in order to
insure long life and prevent failure. Many of these
bearings may be lubricated by grease. The type of
Fig. 4-18 Correct and incorrect methods of installing
rod ends. grease will be specified by the manufacturer and
may be a high temperature, low temperature, or
multi-purpose type grease. This will depend upon
the temperatures to which the bearing is exposed.
In some instances the bearing may be sealed with
7101529-7
HOUSING
its own supply of grease (Fig. 4-20).

BEARING SLEEVE

7101529-29 7101529-3
SHIM BASE FOR FIRST
OPERATION

Fig. 4-20 Typical seal bearings used in helicopters.

_ 7101529.7 Sealed bearings require no additional lubricant,

HOUSING while others require grease frequently. This fre-
quency will be determined by the manufacturer
f and should be considered as a minimum require-
Ww PI
AMY IN ment. More frequent lubrication is recommended
when conditions such as dust, sand, and salt water
exist, in order to remove the foreign material from
i T101529-5 the bearings and prevent wear. Dust and dirt will
BASE FOR
SECOND adhere to the grease and cause wear between the
Lt | OPERATION races and balls or rollers. Salt water will cause
corrosion which will pit the surfaces. Bearings re-
quiring grease have various means of lubrication,
Fig. 4-19 Steps used in the roller staking process for from hand packing to the normal grease zerk or
spherical bearings. needle-type grease zerk. The latter type seems to
81
 OIL LEVEL SIGHT GAUGE LOCATED
RIGHT SIDE MAIN TRANSMISSION
LOWER CASE

Fig. 4-21 Typical needle type grease filling for hand Fig. 4-22 Typical sight gauges used for checking
greasing. fluid levels.

NOTES:
A MIL-G-81322 grease is an authorized replacement for MIL-
G-25537 grease, but intermixing of greases is prohibited.
When changing from one grease to the other, grease gun
purge, or equivalent.

A Lubricate with one “shot” of grease from a standard

grease gun. CAUTION: Over lubrication will cause bearing
to overheat.

MAIN DRIVESHAFT
~ REFER TO M&O FOR DETAIL
INSPECTION AND LUBRICATION
INSTRUCTIONS

SEE DETAIL C (8) 205-040-004-17

EP

SEE DETAIL B
204-040-617-15
HANGER BEARINGS

SYMBOLS

50 HOURS

100 HOURS

300 HOURS

500 HOURS

600 HOURS

1000 HOURS

SIX MONTHS

HAND
1. Collective Servo Actuator Support LUBRICANTS
2. Driveshaft Hanger Bearings
3. Flex Couplings Symbol Specification GREASE GUN

GAP = MIL-G-25537
EP 204-040-755
GWT = MIL-G-61322

Fig. 4-23 Typical lubrication chart used as a lubrication guide.

82
be the most popular today (Fig. 4-21). Regardless of bearings are built to carry tremendous loads at high
the type of grease zerk, the lubrication should be speeds, they are quite delicate and must be treated
limited to hand-type grease guns to reduce the pos- carefully. Any work involving bearings should be
sibility of damage to seals. performed under clean working conditions. This in-
Other bearings are lubricated with oil. This may cludes cleaning the area surrounding the bearing
be done by splash, spray, or pressure feed. The pres- prior to removal. It should also include cleaning
sure feed system is usually limited to plain or bab- the tools and equipment used for removal.
bitt bearings, which are present in reciprocating Removing bearings may require special tools made
engines but are not found in helicopter compo- by the manufacturer of the helicopter. Other bearings
nents. The splash system may amount to no more can be removed with universal pullers and splitters
than an oil level maintained in a gearbox which (Fig. 4-24). If pullers are not used, the item is usually
insures that the gears and bearings are lubricated. supported on an arbor press and pressed off Under no
Lubrication systems require that a certain level of circumstances should a bearing be driven off with a
oil be maintained. This is often done with the use of hammer making direct contact with bearing races.
sight gauges to determine the level (Fig. 4-22). Bear- This may chip the races, damage the balls or rollers,
ings receiving a spray are usually contained in or destroy the bearing. Proper procedures for remov-
transmissions with a separate oil system consisting ing bearings are shown in Fig. 4-25. |
of pump, spray nozzles, and plumbing. This is usu-
ally separate from the engine oil system except in
older helicopters. This type of system usually makes
use of sight gauges to maintain the proper oil level.
Today certain areas of the helicopter may be lu-
bricated by a dry film lubricant placed on bearings
surfaces at the time of manufacture. These surfaces
are identified by the manufacturer and require no
additional lubricant. Other such devices used are
Teflon and oil-impregnated bronze for bushing areas
to reduce friction and yet require no lubricant.
Most manufacturers provide a lubrication chart WRONG-: Blocks con- RIGHT-- Blocks con-
for their helicopters (Fig. 4-23). Notice that these tact the bearing outer
ting only.
tact inner ring - or
both rings if bearing is
charts not only denote the type of lubricant, but flushed faced.

the method and frequency of its application.

When situations dictate, and during specific inspec-
tion, it will be necessary to remove bearings for inspec-
tion purposes. The bearing may be replaced or merely BRASS OR OTHER
- SOFT METAL SLUG
inspected and reinstalled. The utmost care must be SMALLER THAN
| BEARING BORE
taken to insure that no damage is done to the bearing TAPE OR TIE
TO PREVENT
or the mating surfaces of the bearing. Although JARRING OUT
FROM INNER _ |
RING

<I
To drive shaft out of bearing, use
a soft metal slug which will not
mar the shaft.

Never pound directly on a bear:

Ing or ring. It will likely damage
both shaft and bearing.

Fig. 4-24 Standard bearing pullers used for removal Fig. 4-25 Proper and improper procedures for bear-
of roller and ball bearings. ing removal.

83
 Once the bearing is removed it should be properly Other ball bearing sets may be installed in several
cleaned. This is accomplished by washing it with a systems. This is to allow the bearings to carry thrust
neutral solvent and drying it. Bearings should never loads in one direction or sometimes in both direc-
be spun with air while cleaning. After cleaning they tions. Often a bearing will have “Thrust” stamped
should be oiled and stored by wrapping in oil-proof on the outer race of the bearing (Fig. 4-27).
paper, if they are to be reused. After cleaning, the
bearings are inspected. To inspect the bearing, it
should be held by the inner race and turned by the
outer race slowly to determine roughness. If rough-
ness is felt, it is suggested that the bearing be re-
cleaned before rejection. Some bearings may be
separated to facilitate the inspection.
The common defects found in bearings are as
follows: Fig. 4-27 Thrust side location of a ball bearing.
Broken or cracked rings.
Some ball bearings may not be marked in this
Dented seals and shields. manner, but still have a surface which clearly indi-
Sob

Cracked and broken separators. cates that it is built to carry a thrust load in one
Broken or cracked balls or rollers. direction only. This is indicated by the shoulder of
Oe

Flaked areas on balls, rollers or races. the races (Fig. 4-28).

Discoloration due to heat.
SS

Brinelled bearings. DEEP

SHOULDER
SHALLOW
SHOULDER
When components are torn down in a shop, bear- TAKES
THRUST
DOES NOT
TAKE THRUST
ings are often not inspected because shop experi-
ence indicates that they should be replaced. This
Fig. 4-28 Thrust shoulder location in relation to the
may be due to wear or because the bearing will be ball and race.
damaged when it is removed.
If such a bearing were installed wrong, it would
5. Installation not be able to withstand thrust loads and could
To properly install bearings, a number of items
lead to part failure. In most instances the mainte-
must be considered. All surfaces contacted by the
nance manual will indicate the correct method of
bearing must be clean. If a new bearing is to be in-
installation, such as face-to-face, back-to-back, or
stalled, it should not be cleaned of grease before in-
tandem installations (Fig. 4-29).
stallation. Ball bearing installation in helicopters
often requires two or more bearings used in conjunc-
tion with each other. The bearings may be marked as
a set, or specific part numbers may determine the
bearing set. When two bearings are to be used as a
specific set, their faces are ground to form the mating
surfaces. This is referred to as a duplex bearing.
Three matched bearings are called triplex, etc. The
TANDEM BACK TO BACK FACE TO FACE
matched sets are marked with a large V scribed
across the outside surface of the bearing and should Fig. 4-29 Typical ball bearing installations.
be installed in the manner shown in Fig. 4-26.
The two bearing tandem system carries thrust in
BEARINGS the same direction, sharing the load. Both the face-
to-face and the back-to-back installations allow

\ thrust loads in both directions. The two systems are

\_/
used primarily to lock the races. For example: if the
\ installation requires the outer races to be held so

aw \/
that no rotation takes place, the bearings would be
installed face-to-face.In other installations the inner
DUPLEX TRIPLEX race may be stationary while the outer race rotates.
This would require a back-to-back installation be-
Fig. 4-26 Proper duplex and triplex bearing installation. cause more area is available for holding the race.
84
 The actual installation of the bearings is varied SHIM PEELED TO THICKNESS DESIRED

because of their uses. The following are general

procedures which should be used regardless of the BEARING CAP
FEELER
GAUGE
HELD DOWN
specific installation: USED TO
DETERMINE
1. Clean the shafts and bearing housings. SHIM THICKNESS

2. Clean splines, grooves, and keyways. Inspect N

SS
for burrs, nicks, and slivers.
3. Press bearing on straight and square.
4, A hand-operated arbor press should be used BALL BEARING HOUSING +
whenever possible.
5. Press only on the race that requires the tight EXAMPLE: FEELER THICKNESS 030
PINCHED DESIRED 003
fit.
SHIMTHICKNESS 027
6. Press bearings until they are seated against
the shaft or housing shoulder. Fig. 4-31 Feeler gauge method of determining bear-
ing pinch.
Other methods are used in special installations:
heating the bearing in an oil bath to 250°F so that The other method requires the use of a depth
they will slip over the shaft; placing the outer race in micrometer placed on the top of the housing of the
a housing first; using burr marks for the placement bearing. This distance is recorded. The next meas-
of inner races and outer races to maintain close toler- urement is taken from the cap to the cap flange. By
ances; and heating the housing before installation. subtracting one measurement from the other, the
When required, all special procedures are covered thickness of the shim is obtained. The shim is re-
in the appropriate maintenance manual. duced the required amount to obtain the correct
Often when bearings are placed in a housing, it interference fit required (Fig. 4-32).
is desirable to prevent the outer race of the bearing
DEPTH
from rotating. This is accomplished by an inter- MICROMETER
ference, or pinch fit. This means the bearing cap
pinches the outer race of the bearing. This fit could BEARING HOUSING
be .003 to .004 inch greater than the space the
bearing requires (Fig. 4-30). Since the dimensions — -800"
i -—— MEASUREMENT
may vary slightly, this distance is normally set by

BEARING
CAP HOLDS
E
BEARING OUTER RAC
CAP GAP OF .300 TO .004
BEARING BEFORE TIGHTENING
HOUSING
DEPTH
))

MICROMETER
a

BEARING CAP INVERTED

Fig. 4-30 Typical bearing cap installation.

DISTANCE FROM CAP TO CAP FLANGE 850
the use of peelable shims. Two methods are used to DISTANCE FROM TOP OF HOUSING TO OUTER RACE 800

determine the pinch. The first method is by plac- DIFFERENCE 050

ing the bearing in the housing and placing the cap DESIRED PINCH 004
over the bearing. After the cap is placed snugly THICKNESS OF SHIM 046
over the bearing, a feeler gauge is placed between CC .046 SHIM |
the cap and the housing. The shim is then peeled
to obtain this measurement less the desired pinch Fig. 4-32 Micrometer method of determining bearing
(Fig. 4-31). pinch.
 6. Elastomeric bearings Now that we have seen that elastomers may be
Another type of bearing used in the helicopter used as a lubricant, elastomeric bearings may be
industry is the elastomeric bearing. The actual de- better understood. The basic construction is the
velopment for helicopter use started in the early placement of alternating layers of elastomers and
1960s. The U.S. Army experimented with elasto- metal laminates (Fig.4-33). The alternate layers
meric bearings in their helicopter rotor heads. The are modified to carry various loads and motions,
early experiments proved to be quite acceptable depending upon their application. The elastomers
and led to further development of materials found layered between the metal layers are bonded to the
in rotor systems today. The characteristics of these metal. This bonding may be to almost any material
bearings should not be confused with roller or ball such as aluminum, stainless steel, or titanium.
bearings used for rotational and thrust purposes. The material choice will be governed by load
The elastomeric bearing is used for oscillating factors and other conditions. The bonding of the
loads where complete rotation is unnecessary. This elastomer to the metal laminates eliminates bri-
is why their application to rotor heads has been nelling, gives structural stability, and forms a seal
found so desirable. This type of bearing uses an to keep out dirt and moisture, which affect the life
elastomer (rubber) as the lubricating surface be- of a conventional bearing.
tween two or more surfaces. Using elastomers and metal is not a new idea.
The elastomer is certainly no lubricant in the These materials are used in the construction of en-
terms that lubricants are usually described. How- gine mounts, shock mounting of instrument panels,
ever, a lubricant may be any material which is used landing gear springs, and flexible couplings. It has
to reduce friction between two surfaces. The com- only been quite recently that new manufacturing tech-
mon lubricants used today are greases and oils. niques have allowed this technology to be extended.
Other materials such as water, soap, and graphite a. Elastomeric bearing types
may also be used. These lubricants possess a fluid The elastomeric bearings are sandwich type
characteristic referred to as high internal mobility. bearings. The helicopter industry uses this type of
This means that the molecular structure allows bearing because of its wide range of applications.
these materials to move from one shape to another. The most common types used are the:
Although rubber is a solid, it is highly elastic. Its
1) Cylindrical bearings
structure, however, is such that it allows for the
same high internal mobility found in lubricants. Cylindrical bearings absorb high radial loads
Because of this ability to exhibit both fluid and and provide movement in a radial oscillation, such
solid behavior, rubber may serve as another meth- as the teeter-totter motion of a two bladed main
rotor assembly.
od of lubrication. By the use of synthetic materials,
rubber compounds can be altered to meet the dif-
ferent demands that may be placed upon it.

Fig. 4-34 Typical cylindrical bearing for high radial —

loads.

2) Spherical bearings
Spherical bearings provide movement about the
three axes and absorb heavy torsional loads. This
bearing could be used for the tail rotor pitch
Fig. 4-33 Axial load elastomeric. change mechanism.
86
 CONICAL
ELASTOMERIC
BEARINGS

ALUMINUM
FORGING
ELASTOMERIC
BEARINGS
Fig. 4-35 Typical spherical bearing.

MAIN ROTOR HUB.

Fig. 4-39 Semirigid rotor using elastomeric bearing.

b. Advantages and disadvantages

The advantages of the elastomeric bearing are
numerous.
1. No lubrication is necessary because the elas-
tomer is the lubricant.
2. No disassembly is required for inspections be-
cause the bearing is exposed.
No seizure is possible because of its design.
~

4. Elimination of the brinelling, pitting, and gal-

ling associated with conventional bearings.
5. Reduction of vibration and shock due to the
use of the elastomers.
6. Boots and seals are eliminated because no
grease or oil is required.
7. Environmental resistance is increased be-
cause the bearing is bonded forming one unit.
8. Controlled stiffness may be obtained by the
elastomers.
9. Extended service life is quite common, with a -
life of five times that of an ordinary bearing.
10. Reduction of parts necessary for the compo-
nent has been made by elimination of close
tolerances, seal retainers, and lubrication
systems.
Accompanying these advantages, as in any
other mechanical item, certain disadvantages are
Fig. 4-38 Typical conical bearing. encountered. These disadvantages are:
1. The cost of an elastomeric bearing is higher in
3) Conical bearings most cases than a conventional bearing, but
Conical bearings are capable of absorbing high often the extended life will offset the addi-
radial and axial loads with some movement in both
tional cost.
directions.
2. The size of the elastomeric bearing is depend-
_ These types of bearings used in combinations, can ent upon the loads and motion required. This
provide the movements necessary and carry the loads may exeed the size of a conventional bearing
required for a complete rotor system (Fig. 4-39). carrying the same load.
87
 STANDARD YOKE STANDARD AH-L
MAIN ROTOR
FLAPPING
AXIS

ELASTOMERIC
PITCH CHANGE
WY) BEARING

MAST YOKE
EXTENSION
ELASTOMERIC
FLAPPING BEARING

Fig. 4-40 Rotor head using various elastromeric bearings.

The elastomeric bearing only requires a visual Gears are primarily replaced at overhaul but the
inspection, which can be accomplished quite easily, helicopter technician should have an understand-
by observing the conditions of the elastomer and ing of their operation. In order that gears may
its bond to the laminate. This can be accomplished function properly with each other they must have
by moving it within the various ranges allowed. lash and pattern.
Often the replacement may be accomplished with-
out complete disassembly. Fig. 4-40 shows an elas- 1. Lash and pattern
tomeric bearing typically used in a rotor head. The lash and pattern is determined by how the
teeth of one gear mate with the teeth of another. If
C. Gears the teeth of one gear are set too tightly into the
teeth of another, there will be no lash and the gears
Gears are used, in conjunction with the various
will not be properly lubricated because a film of oil
component bearings and shafts, to transmit power,
change directions, and to increase or decrease must be present between the teeth of the gears as
they mesh. If the gears are meshed too high in
speed. These gears are in various sizes and types,
relation to the teeth, the load will be transmitted
doing specific jobs, throughout the helicopter. The
to the smallest portion of the tooth, breaking the
gear may be a familiar straight tooth gear, or they
may be helicial or spiral bevel gears. Fig. 4-41 teeth because of the load area. The ideal placement
of the teeth is in the middle area (Fig. 4-42). At this
shows some typical gears used in a helicopter.
position the teeth will receive proper lubrication
and loading. A measurable amount of lash may
STRAIGHT
sometimes be felt by holding one gear and trying to
(ooo TOOTH GEAR
move the other. In most instances, this is a minute
amount of lash and will be measured with a back-
AAA A*™ S848 lash flag and a dial indicator. A typical gear may
have .003 to .004 inch lash. In all instances the
amount of lash will be given in the maintenance
/TITIITU AS er manual and must be followed.
The pattern of two gears is also very important,
x“ SPIRAL
BEVEL
and closely related, to the lash. The lashes and pat-
GEAR terns are generally most critical where directional
changes are made, because they are adjustable by
Fig. 4-41 Types of gears used in helicopters. moving the gears inward or outward in order to
88
 [\T
\_ |
\*~
GEAR
TEETH
100 nen
” BN Toe
——o

THE TEETH WILL BREAK

PINION ~~ "\ HEEL

TOR (===
CORRECT
_ GEAR TEETH
TOO LOW
Fig. 4-45 Ideal no-load pattern.
THE TEETH WILL NOT
Fig. 4-44 shows the pattern set too close to the
BE LUBRICATED toe and heel. If it is a straight tooth bevel gear, the
proper pattern should be at the middle of the tooth.
However, most gears used in helicopters are not
CORRECT
pee MESH straight tooth gears, but are helical in design. By
being helicial, more strength may be developed in a
smaller gear. With this type of gear a different pat-
TOOTH WILL BE LUBRICATED
CONTACT IS AT MID TOOTH.
tern is developed in a no-load condition than under a
load. The ideal no-load pattern is shown in Fig. 4-45.
Fig. 4-42 Various gear tooth positions with mating
gears. TYPICAL ACCESSORY GEAR TOOTH PATTERN

obtain the correct relationship. The pattern is sim-

ply the print that one gear leaves on another gear
with which it mates. Each tooth of a beveled gear
ACCESSORY GEAR
{LOAD SIDE CONCAVED)
[a> [> ES
=
has a heel and toe. The heel is located at the largest _—

KAN
<a
_—
QUILL PIONS
diameter of the bevel gear, and the toe is located at (LOAD SIDE CONVEX) ——o

the smallest diameter (Fig.4-43). Ifthe gears mate in INCORRECT

MOVE PINION AWAY MOVE PINION TOWARD

such a manner that the teeth ride too close to the

FROM CONE CENTER ONE CENTER

heel or toe, the load will not be distributed evenly

and breakage of the teeth will occur. Fig. 4-46 Patterns may be changed by moving the
gears.
HEEL

vo
The gear pattern is taken by using Prussian
Blue which leaves the imprint of the other gear on
the teeth. Shown in Fig. 4-46 are some typical pat-
terns and directions on the movement of the gears.
TOE The gears are moved in and out by shims (Fig. 4-47).

\ GEAR TOOTH
The thickness of these shims determines the posi-
tion of the gear and changes the lash and pattern.

SHIM TO MOVE
GEAR IN OR
Fig. 4-43 Gear tooth nomenclature used with gear OUT
patterns.

HEEL HEEL
—_— -_—

——— a

Tor (~~ TOE oa

SHIM
HEEL
=> HEEL => TO MOVE
— Org GEAR IN OR
OUT
Toe Toe (==
Fig. 4-47 Typical shim method of moving gear
Fig. 4-44 Gear tooth patterns. positions.

89
 Often gears on which lashes and patterns must Anytime that one half of a unit such as these is
be obtained are matched sets and are replaced as removed, the shim must not be misplaced. If the
matched sets. Some of the older gears of this type shim is lost, a new lash and pattern must be taken.
have match marks. X’s and O’s are scribed on the Since most of the gears are matched, the mating
teeth to match the gears. This is to keep the high gears may not be interchanged.
and low spots contacting each other at the same On most newer helicopters, only a lash check is
time. Today this system is almost forgotten be taken. This lash check is used as a wear and assem-
cause modern methods of manufacturing have bly check only. With new manufacturing techniques
eliminated the problem. control rings are placed in the housings. These rings
Opinions may vary considerably as to whether are ground for a specific case and will control the way
lash or pattern should be determined first. Most the gears will mesh for lash and pattern. This sim-
technicians prefer to obtain lash first, then check plifies gear replacement and eliminates the time
the pattern. However, the reverse will also work. If consuming process of mating gears. Ifa control ring
either lash or pattern cannot be properly adjusted, is ever removed and lost, the case will have to be
it is a good indication of excessive wear in the gear returned to the factory for a new ring.
teeth and the gears must be replaced. In such sit- These are a few of the peculiarities that will be
uations, it is most probable that if pattern is ob- found in helicopter maintenance. Most of these
tained, the lash will be out, and when the lash is items will repeat themselves several times in other
set, the pattern will be out. maintenance problems as the various systems of
the helicopter are studied.

90
Chapter V
Main Rotor System
Introduction
The main rotor is the wing of the helicopter. In
addition to the normal stresses placed on the wing, >= Fr, FLAPPING
there are stresses imposed on the rotor system by
centrifugal force. These forces are coupled with mo- Fig. 5-2 Flapping axis associated with semirigid rotors.
tion which induces vibration, twisting movements,
and flexing, placing the rotor system under contin- The semirigid rotor heads are a two-bladed type
uous stress during operation. Because of the critical and are underslung. This means that the major por-
nature of the rotor system, maintenance and inspec- tion of the head is below the top of the mast. This
tion of the helicopter’s rotating components must be increases stability (Fig. 5-1). The head must have a
entrusted to a trained technician who understands seesaw action or flapping axis, using a gimbal or a
the rotor system and its complexity. pillow block trunnion arrangement at the top of the
Since its inception, it has been the goal of every rotor. This equalizes the lift forces of the advancing
helicopter manufacturer to build the most reliable, and retreating blades (Fig. 5-2). The head must also
maintenance free, and best performing rotor system have a feathering axis for changing pitch (Fig. 5-3).
possible. Through continuous efforts in research and
development, many improvements have been made FEATHERING AXIS

in rotor systems. New improvements have increased

the finite life of components, decreased maintenance,
and increased performance in both lift and speed.
Many improvements resulted in various rotor sys- Fig. 5-3 Feathering axis of a rotor system.
tem designs, each having advantages and dis-
advantages. The final result is a compromise, adapt- The fully articulated rotor head has provisions for
ing the greatest advantages with the least adverse independent flapping of the rotor blades by using a
characteristics possible. Only by incorporating these hinge mechanism for each blade (Fig. 5-4).There must
various designs have advances been made. This has also be a means of allowing the blades to lead and lag
resulted in a number of different rotor systems being independently for equalization of lift of the advancing
produced. The maintenance technician should be and retreating blades. Lead and lag are accomplished
familiar with the various systems to insure proper by another hinge mechanism and a dampener to con-
servicing and inspections. The purpose of this sec- trol the lead and lag of the blade (Fig. 5-5). The head
tion is to familiarize the technician with some ro- must also provide a pitch change for each blade.
tor systems and maintenance techniques.

A. Rotor Heads HORIZONTAL

le FLAPPING
The rotor heads in use today are of two basic ai AXIS

types: the fully articulated and the semirigid rotor. HUB

A rigid rotor system has been used experimentally onmale ame
* HELICOPTER,
and at least one manufacturer used a rigid head BLADE
GRIP
t
|
with blades that bend.
VERTICAL |
=f) SIMBAL DRAG AXIS

fio
rotor —/ Z anp

mast

Fig. 5-1 Typical underslung rotor. Fig. 5-4 Fully articulated rotors flap independently.
 grips (14). The grips are attached to the yoke by an
LEAD LAG HINGE LEAD adapter nut that screws into the grip and is held to
the yoke by two thrust bearings, a spacer, and a yoke
retaining nut (23, 17, and 16 respectively). Shown in
Fig. 5-8 is a cutaway view of this relationship. The
grip assembly will retain the blade and support the
drag brace (2) which is used to prevent fore and aft
LAG
movement of the blade. The drag brace is retained to
DAMPENER
the grip by a rod of the counterweight assembly (1).
Fig. 5-5 Lead and Lag must be provided on fully ar- The purpose of the counterweight is to ease move-
ticulated rotors. ment of the feathering axis of the main rotor blades.
Movement of the blades is accomplished through the
The different rotor heads may also be classified by pitch horn (9) bolted to the grip. On the rear of the
the lubrication system used. The original rotor grip is an equalizer horn (10). This, in conjunction
heads needed grease for lubrication of the bearing with four links (4) and two equalizer beams (8), will
surfaces, requiring frequent maintenance to insure ensure that the same pitch angle will be obtained in
proper lubrication. The next improvement included both blades. On top of the yoke assembly are bolted
an oil system in the head. This allowed the bearing two pillow blocks (40) used to support the gimbal
to be enclosed in oil, needing less maintenance. The ring (26) through a set of bearings. The gimbal in
heads are now classified as wet or dry heads accord- turn supports the trunnion (83), which allows the
ing to the lubrication requirements. Some heads in rotor to be driven from the mast and forms a pivot for
the newer technology will require no lubrication. the rotor system to tilt during flight.
The rotor heads are usually made of steel and
2. Bell 206
aluminum alloy. As a result, many of the parts are
A more modern semirigid rotor head is that used
time-life limited because of stresses imposed on the
on the Bell 206 (Fig. 5-9). This head was designed
head components. One manufacturer has a new
as a WET head, although many have been con-
head of fiberglass that presently does not have a
verted to DRY heads.
replacement life. If this head proves successful in
the field, other manufacturers possibly will adopt The yoke (1) is the main structural member of
its technology. the head. This steel unit is shaped to give a 21/2
degree precone angle to the rotor blades. On the
inside of the blade bore of the yoke is a cap and pin
assembly (6, 7, 8) used to retain a tension-torsion
strap (11) to the yoke. This tension-torsion strap is
made of fine wire wrapped around two spools thou-
sands of times. The cap assembly is held in place by
the static stops (9) bolted to the yoke. The grip as-
sembly (21) is supported by two bearings (20) on
the yoke. It is secured to the yoke by a latch bolt
passing through the grip and the tension-torsion
strap and is secured to the yoke with the cap and
Fig. 5-6 Bell 47 rotor head. pin. The pitch horn (17) bolts to the grip for pitch
change. This is also the attachment point for the oil
B. Semirigid Rotor Heads reservoir (14) and sight glass to lubricate the grips.
Due to the different manufacturers and models Another interesting feature of the grips is the hollow
of helicopters, there are many different semirigid blade bolts (25) used for the addition of weight for
rotor head designs. One early design is shown in spanwise balance. It might also be noted that no drag
Fig. 5-6. Even though the parts change from design braces are used. The blade is supported by a latch
to design, the nomenclature of the basic unit re- mechanism in place of the drag brace (Fig. 5-10).
mains much the same. A breakdown of the head Placed on the top of the yoke is a trunnion assembly
components is shown in Fig. 5-7. (Fig. 5-11). It is bolted to the yoke with two pillow
blocks (10) which act as oil reservoirs and bearing
1. Bell 47 retainers for the trunnion (3). The flap restraint is
The basic member of the head is the yoke (21), This placed on top of the trunnion (2) which limits the
unit is of steel construction and is used to support the flapping action of the rotor at low RPM.
 1. COUNTERWEIGHT ASSEMBLIES 15. BEARING INNER YOKE 29. SHIMS
2. DRAG BRACES 16. YOKE BEARING NUT 30. FITTINGS
3. PILLOW BLOCK BOLTS 17. SPACER 31. BEARINGS
4, EQUALIZER LINKS 18. SHIM 32. SEAL
5. BEARING 19. O-RING SEAL 33. TRUNNION
6. SPACER WASHER 20. SEAL RING 34, BEARING CAPS
7. SNAP-RING 21, YOKE 35. BEARINGS
8. EQUALIZER BEAM 22. SEAL 36. SHIMS
9. PITCH HORN 23. BEARING 37, ROLLER BEARINGS
10. EQUALIZER HORN 24. ADAPTER 38. SEALS
11, BLADE GRIP LOCKING PLATE 25. CAP SCREW 39, PILLOW BLOCK PINS
12. BLADE GRIP BEARING 26. GIMBAL RING 40. PILLOW BLOCK
13. SEAL 27. BEARING CAPS 41. RETAINER RING
14. GRIP 28. BEARINGS

Fig. 5-7 Disassembled Bell 47 rotor head.

ROUND OFF ANY SHARP EDGE "_ ADJUST TO CLEARANCE OF 0.064 TO 0.160
OF SEAL RING IN CONTACT EQUAL AT BOTH SIDES OF HUB WITHIN 0.030
WITH YOKE SPINDLE BY SHIMMING HERE

DETAILA

1. THRUST BEARINGS Willi» TA NYY

2. ADAPTER SEE DETAIL
CHAMFERED EDGE
N
NN |
3. ADAPTER BEARING SEAL DETAIL B A
INBOARD
4. SEAL RING

oly
5. O-RING SEAL
6. SHIM
7. PILLOW BLOCK
8. GREASE FITTING
9. BLADE GRIP
10. SPACER INBOARD RADIUS FREE OF NICKS
11, HUB YOKE SPINDLE AND BOTTOM OF FILLET FREE
12. BEARING RETAINING NUT OF NICKS AND TOOL MARKS SEE DETAIL B
13. LOCK SCREW
14, BEARING OUTER RACE
15, BEARING INNER RACE
16. SEAL (DISC)

Fig. 5-8 Cutaway view of the grip retaining method used on Bell 47.

93
 YOKE

PN OAPeNna
SLEEVE
GLYD RIND
. SEAL RETAINER
O-RING
- INBOARD FITTING
. RADIUS RING
PIN
. STATIC STOP
. SHIM
. TENSION STRAP
. SHIELD
. GRIP SEAL
. RESERVOIR
. SIGHT GLASS
. TRUNNION
. PITCH HORN
- O-RING
. SPACER
. BEARING
. GRIP
- CLOSURE
. BLADE LATCH FITTING

24. SPRING
25. BLADE BOLT
. LATCH BOLT
27. . NUT
. WASHER
. NUT
30. PIN
31 . WASHER
32. PLUG
33. O-RING
34. WASHER
. NUT
36. RUBBER STOP

Fig. 5-9 Semirigid rotor used on the Bell 206.

 2. WASHER
3, HUB GRIP
4. WASHER
5. NUT
6. BLADE
7. PITCH HORN
8. MAIN ROTOR HUB ASSEMBLY
9. NUT
10. SPRING
11. BLADE LATCH
12. NUT
13. BOLT
14. STRAP
15. PLUG
16. O-RING

HUB GRIP (REF)

11

DETAIL A

Fig. 5-10 Latch assembly used on the Bell 206

95
 1. SCREW
2. FLAP RESTRAINT KIT
3. TRUNNION
4. SCREW
5. THRUST PLUG
6. O-RING
7. SEAL
8. BEARING (OUTER RACE)
9. BEARING (INNER RACE)

10. SIGHT GLASS

11. PILLOW BLOCK
12. BOLT
13. WASHER
14. SPACER
15. YOKE
16. WASHER
17. NUT

Fig. 5-11 Trunnion and flap restraint used on the Bell 206.

ie

S } Z SOS 7 =

Fy Nw 7:
XS be
em
Fig. 5-12 Fully articulated rotor used on the S-58.
 7. TRUNNION 64. SPACER
12. DAMPENER ASSEMBLY 65. SPACER-SHIM
15. HORIZONTAL PIN 75. HUB
18. SLEEVE-SPINDLE ASSEMBLY 91. LOWER PLATE
48. UPPER PLATE 113. HINGE

Fig. 5-13 Disassembled view of the S-58 rotor.

97
 DIFFERENTIAL
CHECK VALVE
BLEED PLUG SUPPLY

I —~ — S ©
PRESSURE RELIEF] |
VALVES 2-316" >

ORIFICE }
~ STOPPING
STARTING SSS STOP
STOP
DUST COVER
RUBBER BOOT TRUNNION

Fig. 5-14 Typical hydraulic dampener used on the S-58.

C. Fully Articulated Heads loads of the blade are taken up by a thrust bearing
The fully articulated rotor heads, like the semi- stack (57) which allows pitch change of the blades.
rigid heads have many designs. Although they The flapping and drooping action of this rotor is
have always given a smoother operation, until limited by flap and droop stops attached to the
quite recently the number of parts required in the lead-lag hinge (Fig. 5-16).
manufacture and maintenance has always been
greater: With some of the newer designs, the num- 2. Hughes 500C
ber of parts, as well as the maintenance require- Another fully articulated head of a different
ments, have been reduced. style is the head of the Hughes 500C. The head is
mounted to a stationary mast and is driven by a
1.S-58 driveshaft passing through the center of the mast
One of the early rotor heads is used on the S-58 (Fig. 5-17).
helicopter (Fig. 5-12). Although this head is not the The hub assembly is supported on the static
earliest, it is similar in design to many of the heads mast by two opposed tapered roller bearings con-
used on Sikorsky helicopters. nected with a special lock nut and locking device.
Fig. 5-13 shows that the head consists of a hub The hub assembly consists of the hub, lower shoe
(75) which is splined to the mast and flanged to (which attaches to the hub), four pitch change
accommodate an upper and lower plate assembly housings holding the bearing for pitch change of
(48, 91). The plate assemblies form the support for the blades, and a steel droop stop ring attached to
the four lead-lag hinges (113) that are placed on the lower shoe (Fig. 5-18). Mounted between the
tapered roller bearings and form the support of the hub and the lower shoe is the strap pack. This
individual flapping hinge for each blade. The unit is the unique feature of the rotor head and
sleeve spindle assembly (18) comprises the other is the reason for its light weight and simplicity.
half of the flapping hinge and is pinned to the lead- It not only reacts to the centrifugal loads imposed
lag hinge by a horizontal pin (15). The forked end of on the head by the blades, but also replaces the
the pin acts as part of a hinge mechanism for the flapping and feathering hinge found on other fully
dampeners (12) which control the rate of the lead- articulated heads (Fig. 5-19). Each strap assembly
lag of the rotor blades (Fig. 5-14). The sleeve spin- is made up of 15 straps of .009 inch stainless steel
dle assembly also provides the feathering action of with .004 inch thick Teflon-impregnated cloth be-
the blade (Fig. 5-15). The sleeve (53) attaches to the tween each strap. The Teflon eliminates fretting
pitch horn and slides over the spindle (63). Thrust corrosion.
98
 a
j

~~
SPINDLE

9
WINDINGS

DROOP RESTRAINER
OUT AT 125-150 RPM
IN AT 75-85 RPM
KICK-BACK
SPRING LOCKS OUT
LOWEST SIX(6°)
DEGREES OF FLAP
030” MIN

FLAP RESTRAINER
OUT AT 85 RPM
IN AT 35-50 RPM

ALLOWS MAX.
OF 36° FLAPPING

Fig. 5-16 Droop stop assemblies used on the S-58.

100
 The pitch housing arrangement consists of an
aluminum housing in which the pitch bearing is
held by the striker plate. The spherical pitch bear-
ing has a Teflon lining. The housing itself is se-
cured to a stud in the hub (Fig. 5-20).
The lead-lag bearings are press fitted into the
links. The bearings have Teflon-lined shoulders
and bores. In the link bearings are steel bushings
that bear against the Teflon surfaces of the link
bearings. These bushings have a slightly longer
length than the link bearings, which allows the
bushing to extend from the pitch housing ear to the
strap pack shoe, while the lead-lag bolt tightly
clamps in the strap pack. At the same time, the
Fig. 5-17 Driveshaft through center of mast on S-58. lead-lag links are free to rotate (Fig. 5-21).

4 SEAL RETAINER

DAMPER

PITCH BEARING ASSEMBLY

STRIKER PLATE
STRIKER STRIP

oN NN DROOP STOP RING

x ae seat
Y PLUNGER/FOLLOWER

Fig. 5-18 Hughes 500C rotor head.

101
 . << CONING ANGLE
FEATHERING a

FLAPPING AXIS
0.002" WHITE TEFLON 0.002” SHIM
ANTIFRETTING STRIP , A CROSS.
STRAP 7 SECTION
VIEW (TYP)

SHOE SERIAL NUMBER PLATE

; B
\ PARTIAL
A EXPLODED
BUSHING view
0.004”
0.004" SHIM f
CALENDERED
TEFLON FABRIC FABRIC STRIP SE
ANTI-FRETTING STRIPS STRAP
0.004" SHIM
$f
0.004” BD, STRAP
FABRIC STRIP

BALANCE

LOWER SHOE
PLL WASHER

STRAP PACK TO HUB ATTACHMENT

FLOATING BUSHING
0.020 MAX INSERTION
LEAD-LAG BEARING ARRANGEMENT

Fig. 5-21 Lead-lag bearing assembly for the Hughes

500C.

At the bottom of the shoe assembly is the droop

stop ring. In the groove of the stop rings are four
followers which are pressed into the bodies of the
Fig. 5-20 Cross-sectional view of the Hughes 500C plungers. A roller attached to the plunger rides
rotor head. against the striker plate of the pitch change assembly.
102
This is spring loaded so that during static conditions
the striker plate bears against the roller, which
presses the plunger assemblies against the droop
stop ring. At flight RPM, the coning angle raises the
striker plate off the roller (Fig. 5-22).

Zz
ear tlt .
lati
1]
N
onone SSSy Nerina PLUNGER
STOP RING WAS RETAINING RING
LINER

Fig. 5-25 Strap pack system used on the Hughes

500D rotor system.

Attached at the inboard trailing edge of each blade

(2 PER ABW) PENOULUM
(5 PER REY)
is a dampener arm which is attached to the damp-
ener. This unit, as the name implies, dampens the
Fig. 5-23 Pendulums used on the Hughes 500C rotor hunting action of the lead-lag hinge of the rotor. This
system. particular type is a mechanical unit.

y VIBRATING | AXIS OF ROTATION

Y MEMBER ( ROTOR BLADE (EDGEWISE VIEW)
SPRING Ay i ~{ oy, RESTORING (SPRING) COMPONENT
2+ a sconBER MASS | ---- SO oF CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
MASS . AMPLITUDE ' Ce CENTRIFUGAL FORCE ACTING
CJ LOW FRICTION ~--¥ Ey) UPON ABSORBER MASS
CLASSICAL, SPRUNG MASS SELF-LUBRICATING MASS
RESONANT ABSORBER BEARING CENTRIFUGAL PENDULUM,
. | RESONANT VIBRATION ABSORBER
, 1

i OFFSET FLAPPING AXIS i 3X VIBRATION ELIMINATED BY

AXIS OF ROTATION 3X/REV. RESONANT ABSORBER
BLADE BENDING (GREATLY EXAGGERATED)
EXCITED BY 3X/REV. INPUTS

—S Sa

5X VIBRATION ELIMINATED BY
LADE BENDING (GREATLY EXAGGERATED) 5X/REV. RESONANT ABSORBER
EXCITED BY SX/REV. INPUTS

Fig. 5-24 Pendulum theory to eliminate 3 and 5 resonant vibrations.

103
 One unique feature of the head is the use of a The first unusual feature of the rotor head is the
vibration dampener, a two-part pendulum used to bifilar vibration absorber that is mounted on top of
detune the first and second harmonics of the main the rotor. This system has been used on other
rotor blade. These vibration absorbers are secured Sikorsky helicopters, such as the S-61-N, with
to the root end fitting of the main rotor blade much success in reducing the vibration levels and
(Fig. 5-23). They are used to absorb 3-per-revolu- stresses placed on the helicopter. The bifilar sys-
tion and 5-per-revolution vibration (Fig. 5-24). tem works on the same principle as the dynamic
3. Hughes 500D dampeners used for many years in reciprocating
The head used on the Hughes 500D is of similar engines. It is made up of a blade assembly placed
construction to that of the 500C with a few exceptions. on top of the rotor, with four weights attached at
intervals between the main rotor blades. The
The 500D is a five-bladed rotor. Since the blades
weights are attached by bolts, thus forming a very
cannot be tied to each other as was done in the four-
loose fit. This loose fit allows the weight to oscil-
bladed system, they are tied to the hub (Fig. 5-25).
late. As the rotor turns, centrifugal force holds the
The mechanical dampeners are replaced with the
weights outward, causing impulses to be absorbed
elastomeric type, which are discussed in the damp-.
by the oscillating weights (Fig. 5-26).
ener maintenance portion of this section. The
vibration absorbers are also eliminated from the The hub is one unit bolted to the mast, with four
blades because of the blade differences. sockets for the rotor blades. The blade itself con-
tains an integral spindle with a lug for pitch
The rotor improvements have added much to the
change, two elastomeric bearings, and a spindle
performance and lifting capabilities of the helicopter.
nut (Fig. 5-27).
4. S-76 The blade is attached to the hub by a row of bolts
One of the newer rotor heads is that of the S-76. It fastening the elastomeric bearing to the hub. This
has simplified construction considerably by the use of elastomeric bearing is built up of laminations of
elastomeric bearings. The head design is improved by metal and elastomers bonded together in a soup
the elimination of lead-lag hinges and flapping hinges. bow] design with a hole in the bottom. With this
The movement is accomplished by elastomerics. design the blades may flap, lead, and lag. This

NUT BIFILAR VIBRATION

THRUST N
ABSORBER
BEARING (a)
BLADE RETENTION
BEARING
FLAPPING
RESTRAINER

HUB
SPINDLE ASSEMBLY
COMPONENTS

SWASHPLATE

PITCH CONTROL
SPINDLE
ASSEMBLY ROTATING SCISSORS

Fig. 5-26 S-76 rotor head disassembled.

104
 eliminates the flapping and lead-lag hinge from
the system. The pitch axis passes through this
bearing by use of the integral spindle. The thrust
BLADE load is carried from the spindle nut, through an-
ATTACHMENT BOLTS hi other thrust type elastomeric bearing to the reten-
INTEGRAL CUFF/SPINDLE "Y tion bearing, which is bolted to the hub. The damp-
SHEAR BRG ening action of the blade is accomplished through a
BONDED ANTI-
FRETTING LINERS conventional hydraulic dampener.
INTEGRAL DAMPER
ELASTOMERIC
RETENTION BRAG LUGS 5. AStar 350
Sn) The AStar 350 rotor head is the most unusual
DAMPER design to appear on a helicopter. This rotor head is
DAMPER ATTACHMENT made of fiberglass rather than of the conventional
SHEAR BRG
BONDED ANTI-FRETTING
Se THRUST BRG LINERS metal construction. The head does not have the
SPINDLE NUT finite life that is found with heads of conventional
design. It behaves like an articulated head, but is
without the usual articulation mechanisms, thus
eliminating the weight and mechanical complex-
Fig. 5-27 Spindle and blade assembly of the S-76. ity of the conventional rotor of this type (Fig. 5-28).

4.3.3.M.R.H. COMPONENTS
SLEEVE FLANGE HOISTING RING SELF LUBRICATING
OSCILLATING BEARING

All main rotor head parts are

either perfectly symetrical or
murphy proofing is provided:
NO ERROR IS POSSIBLE ON
FREQUENCY REMOVAL OR ASSEMBLY
ADAPTOR STAR
BLADE HORN
(ELASTOMERIC FLANGE)

12

- SPHERICAL BEARING FRAME-ALUMINIUM ALLOY 10 - BEARING HOUSING - ALUMINIUM ALLOY

- SLEEVE FLANGE - GLASS/RESIN ROVING 11 - LAMINATED SPHERICAL BEARING
WD

- STAR ARM - GLASS/RESIN LAMINATES 12 - BLADE HORN

- BONDING BRAID 13 - LOCATING BOSS
OMS

- ELASTOMERIC FLANGE. FREQUENCY ADAPTOR

+ SLEEVE SPACER
- WASHER (REFER TO NOTE) NOTE: Washers (7) can be replaced as required by
COnN

--PARALLELISM PLATE balancing plates for head and rotor shaft. The plates are
- SELF LUBRICATING OSCILLATING BEARING equally distributed on the upper and lower sleeve flanges.

Fig. 5-28 AStar 350 rotor head.

105
 The hub assembly has three arms made of super- thrust bearing absorbs the centrifugal loads of
imposed layers of glass cloth. The center of the hub the blades and transmits the forces to the hub.
is the thickest portion, with a taper to the three Attached to the thrust bearing are two sleeve
arms. The hub bolts to the mast assembly. The flanges having a fiberglass composite structure.
arms of the hub are used to drive the hub, not sup- The flanges form the sleeve for coupling the flight
port the centrifugal forces, although they will sup- control linkages and the main rotor blades through
port the droop of the blades when they are static. a lever. Located between the two sleeve flanges is
Passing through the slots in the hub are elasto- the frequency adapter consisting of two rubber
meric spherical thrust bearings which allow pitch plates bonded to a housing. This housing accom-
change, flapping, and lead-lag movements. The modates a self-lubricating ball joint which pro-
bearings eliminate the conventional hinges and vides a bearing for the fork of the hub, which flexes
associated bearings. The elastomeric spherical during blade movements.

A FLAPPING FUNCTION
(A)
The star arms are flexible. Flapwise they bend
upward or downward under the action of flapping forces...

-.causing the flapping of the blade and sleeve assembly

about the center 0 of the laminated spherical bearing
(elastic distorsion of bearing)

B DRAG FUNCTION

\ The star arms are rigid dragwise

under the action

of drag forces...
~~~
_-~—.

..both elastomeric flanges are

distorted under shear toads...

«and the assembly (blade and sleeve)

moves about center 0 of the laminated
spherical bearing (elastic distorsion
of the bearing)

Fig. 5-29 A-—Flapping axis movement of the AStar head.; B-Lead-lag movement of the AStar head.
 Fig. 5-29 shows the action of the rotor in flap,
drag, and pitch function.
The rotor system also makes use of a dampener
system. This operates on the same principle as the
bifilar system used on the S-76. This system, how-
ever, makes use of a weight installed on top of the
rotor head, with the bottom of the weight attached
to a ball joint that fits into the mast. Three springs
keep the vibrating weight in the center, but allow
the weight to flap in all directions in the horizontal
plane. This system is excited by the periodic alter-
nate loads applied to the rotor head which re-
sponds to the excitation frequency that opposes the
excitation loads (Fig. 5-30).

|- MAIN ROTOR HEAD

' CENTER LINE

Fig. 5-31 BO 105 rotor head usinga rigid motor.

-
Anti-vibrator fairing
7. Bell 412 Rotor Head
For many years, Bells designs included only two
—
Oarhwnhnd

-
Coil spring (3 springs)
-
Vibrating weight bladed rotor systems. The Model 412 came out witha
-
Ball joint (5) locating barrel
-
Ball joint guiding weight (3) in the horizontal plane
four bladed rotor system. This rotor head is referred
-
Protective boot (preventing ingress of external agents: to as a soft in plane rotor. Although all of the move-
dust, rain...) ments usually associated with a fully articulated ro-
7 - Rotor head star
tor occur, there is no flapping or lead-lagging as
Fig. 5-30 Vibration absorber used with the AStar would normally be associated with this type of head.
head. All movements of the head are possible through the
use of flex beams and elastomers. This produces a
6. BO 105 very simple design with a minimum of parts.
Another rotor head of unusual design is the The two basic parts of the rotor head are the hub
BO 105. The rotor system of the BO 105 is close to and flexbeams, which are attached to each other by
being a rigid rotor system. The head itself is a one the mast adapter forming a cross. The yokes are
piece titanium forging incorporating provisions for made of titanium and provide the flapping action for
a feathering axis only. The blades are of reinforced the rotor. Mounted in the hub are yoke spindles,
glass fiber with a great amount of elasticity. Due to mounted on two elastomeric bearings, which give
this elasticity and the forces applied, the blades lead and lag movement and pitch change to the rotor.
lead-lag and flap independently. Although the The lead-lag movement is somewhat limited by the
head is rigid, it is still a fully articulated interac- elastomerics. Thus the term soft in plane. The sim-
tion (Fig. 5-31). plicity of this rotor system will in all likelihood
107
 Aluminum Damper Bridge
(Upper)

Steel Pitch Horn

Upper Elastomeric

Y = | Elastomeric
+ KZ _ Lead-Lag
™N XQ: Stop
Titanium ; “
*Yoke ee gy
inboard Elastomeric Bearing

WY
—

mle,
____——— Steel Spindle
SP Grip Lug
<2)
= Oo Outboard Elastomeric Bearing

S_
Lower
Elastomeric
Damper

Steel Adapter Fitting

Aluminum Damper Bridge
Steel Mast (Lower)
Adapter

Fig. 5-32 Bell 412 main rotor hub.

result in similar designs on other Bell products. D. Rotor Blades

The Bell Model 222 and some versions of the Cobra The first rotors were made of wood and used on
use a similar soft in plane two bladed system. As an several of the early models. Many are still in use
after thought, eight pendulum weights were added today. Next came metal blades, generally of bonded
to the rotor head to dampen any vibration associ- constructions, with some still used in current
ated with the four bladed rotor Fig. 5-32. production.
108
 CENTER OF GRAVITY PIN ~ > Cc

& 2 2 2 2 Nv 2 2

—» D | | | L. c |
10.75 39.84 56.93 74.02 91.11 108.20

7 CENTER OF PRESSURE PIN > B te

° 2 o 2.84 4 £ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Joo

—-eeE?,

| s
ee A
125,29 142.38 159.47 176.50 193.66 210.75

9 10
6 7 8 |
1. Tip Cross Section
2. Steel Core a=
3. Birch Filler Block SY,
4. Trailing Edge Birch Spline SECTION A-A 1 \
h
5. Trim Tab
6. Stainless Steel Leading Edge Cap SECTION C-C
7. Birch Gluing Strip 2 3 4
8. Fiberglass Cloth Covering 5 +1
9. Balsa Trailing Edge S 12 13
10. Spruce Reinforcing Strip et NZ cn “~
11. Birch Leading Edge |
12. White Pine Body SECTION B-B ag WN VIVE:
13. White Pine Trailing Edge tc NAY
LV}CAN W777 te
C\ VAG PTT?
=
Fig. 5-33 Typical wooden blade construction

The next type of construction is the composite The exterior of the blade is covered with resin im-
blade. Utilizing several types of materials, includ- pregnated fiberglass cloth. Approximately two-thirds
ing fiberglass, in its construction. This is the new- of the outboard portion of the leading edge of the blade
est type of blade. is protected with a stainless steel cap for abrasion pur-
Since the rotor blade is the wing of the helicopter, poses. This cap is placed flush with the contour of the
it is very important that its care and inspection are blade and riveted into place (Fig. 5-33). At the butt of
well understood. The blade produces the lifting force the blade are metal plates attached with screws. These
of the helicopter and is exposed to many load factors plates are commonly referred to as cheek plates and
not common to the fixed wing. This includes cen- provide a surface for the grip attachment and the
trifugal force, twisting movements and rapid span drag brace assembly. Located on the upper surface
movements. For this reason, the blades are a most are tow pins, tacks with the heads protruding, for the
critical item and should be treated as such. center of gravity and center of pressure locations.
These are used as reference points for maintenance
1. Wooden rotor blades
The first production rotor blades were laminated purposes (Fig. 5-33). On the outboard trailing edge is
wood. Various types of wood were used, such as
a trim tab riveted through the wood. The tab is used
birch, spruce, pine, and balsa, in combinations to to adjust each blade for track by bending the tab
obtain the strength and aerodynamic shape neces- (Fig. 5-33). At the tip of the blade is a tip pocket used
sary for rotor construction. A steel core was placed for spanwise balance. Weights are added as necessary.
within the wood lamination near the leading edge Due to the variations of wood, most blades are in
of the blade. This steel core acts as a mass balance matched pairs, meaning that one blade cannot be
of the blades (Fig. 5-33). changed by itself During construction each blade is
109
matched to a master blade and then matched to the manufacturers recommendations. Most shops will
pair. At least one manufacturer has a system of send the blade out for repair if the damage is exten-
matching blades of different pairs. A disadvantage is sive. However, any damage may be serious and
the effect of moisture on the blade. This situation can should be taken care of immediately.
be corrected with a short runup of the helicopter. Normal maintenance of the wooden rotor blade
An advantage of this type of blade is its lifetime. Its consists of inspection and blade cleaning. The blades
use depends upon its condition, unlike metal blades may be washed with soap and water. A soap quite
which must closely meet inspection requirements. often used for this purpose is flax soap. It is quite mild
It would be difficult to discuss the specific inspec- and will not corrode the blade. Any caustic solution
tion requirements of each manufacturer, therefore or solvent may harm the blade and should be
the inspection requirements will be discussed in avoided. The blades are often waxed after washing.
general terms only. The two ways the integrity of the An abrasive cleaner type wax should not be used
blade will be affected are deterioration and damage. because this will be detrimental to the finish.
Deterioration is usually a very slow process of ex- Localized areas may be painted as required. If
posure to the elements. It leads to problems with the refinishing of the entire blade is necessary, re-
covering, attachment point, and the butt area of the balancing will be required. Paints for these pur-
blade. The first sign of covering problems is deterio- poses should be used as directed by the manufac-
ration, or actual loss, of the finish. This will leave the turer for compatability reasons. If new paint is
glass cloth exposed and allow moisture to enter the to be applied to the complete blade, precautions
blade, leading to rot of the wood. Any exposed cloth should be taken to remove all foreign material and
must be repaired immediately. The blade must be to distribute the paint evenly over the entire blade.
examined for loose screws and rivets. Even though Prior to painting, the paint should be mixed and
one loose screw or rivet will not result in the ultimate divided into equal amounts to ensure that each
failure of the rotor blade, it may lead to the identifica blade receives the same amount of paint. This will
tion of other problems, including rot in the wood, or simplify the balancing procedure after the paint-
moisture in the blade. Repairs should be made to the ing is completed.
affected areas. The butt of the blade is subject to Other maintenance may include the replacement
checking or delamination. The maintenance man of trim tabs, stainless steel leading edge repairs,
ual must be consulted as to the crack allowance. If cover, and wood repairs. If damage is extensive, the
cracks are within limits, they should be repaired as blades are sent to a repair facility. Often exchange
prescribed in the appropriate manual. units are used if the repairs are extensive, depending
Damage to the blade may occur either while the on the time available.
blade is static or rotating. The latter is the more
serious damage, because the force of the impact 2. Metal rotor blades
may be transmitted through the blade causing ad- Metal rotor blades have been in production for a
ditional damage elsewhere. Since the blade is cov- period of at least twenty years. Because of con-
ered, it is often difficult to detect damage at a point struction expense and the various manufacturers
other than where the strike occurred. This type involved, the construction varies considerably.
of damage can often be discovered by observing A distinct advantage to the metal blade is the
bulges or buckles in the cover, especially when quality control during construction. Single blades
flexing the blade. For these reasons, visual inspec- may be changed without the use of matched sets.
tion of the leading edge is important. Impact in All blades are matched to the master blade at man
that area will have the most transmitted force. If ufacture. This system allows additional weight to
the impact is great enough to stop the rotor, a spe- be added to the blade at manufacture to obtain the
cial inspection of the helicopter will be required, best aerodynamic characteristics and give the
and a possible rotor system replacement. blade sufficient weight to develop the inertia ne
More damage probably occurs to rotors in the cessary for autorotation.
static position than while rotating. Often it is the Like any other metal component exposed to
result of careless ground handling techniques. stresses induced in flight, the blade must be time
This type of damage, while not as serious as rotat- life limited. This is a disadvantage compared to the
ing damage, could still result in blade failure. Com- wooden blade that has no finite life limitations.
mon damage of this type will be tears in the cover, One item that all blades have in common is a
damage to the wood, and leading edge damage. In bonded type of construction. This is done by a heat
most instances, this is repairable by following and pressure process and has some advantages

110
that are very important to the integrity of the rotor I-channel and the trailing edge strip. A stainless steel
blade. They are: strip is attached in the same manner to the leading
1. Even distribution of stresses edge and acts as an abrasion shield to the blade. With-
out this protection the blade would erode quite rapidly
2. Continuous contact between mating surfaces
in adverse conditions such as sand and dust.
3. Smoother contours
Grip plates and doublers are added at the root of
4. Flexible joints the blade to spread the attachment stresses over
5. Reduced weight a wide area of the blade. A trim tab is placed on
The disadvantage to this type of construction is the outboard trailing edge for track adjustment.
the inability to rebond the structure in the field. Weights may be added at the tip pocket for balance
The blade construction is usually of aluminum purposes. These are mounted directly to the spar
alloy. Fig. 5-34 shows the typical construction of an and are accessible by removing the tip cap. Addi-
early type of metal blade. The spar is of box con- tional weights are often placed inboard of the tip
struction, running the full span of the blade. This weight for inertia. These are sometimes referred to
is the main structural component of the blade. The as midspan weights and are attached at manufac-
skin is simply a wrap-around, giving the blade its ture of the blade. The midspan weight should not
aerodynamic shape. This skin is bonded to the spar be disturbed for field balancing.

STAINLESS STEEL > P< 0.12

[ LEADING EDGE BLADE ALIGNMENT
PIN LOCATION
Ss 2.724

Ait
T T
STA STA STA
33.75 MINUMUM S 158.063 190.75 222.75
15.875 \ DRAG PLATES TWO INCH RADIUS ANS95-002
DRIVE SCREW
Any nick or scratch in this area in excess of 0.012"
deep, running within 15° of span line
Any nick or scratch in this area in excess of 0.008" REPLACE BLADE
deep, running within 75° of chordline
Sharp dents in excess of 0.020" deep

|
Non sharp dents in excess of 0.060" deep

Nicks or scratches which go through outer skin

REPLACE BLADE
Sharp dents in excess of 0.060" deep
Non sharp dents in excess of 0.120"

Install weights on both sides of spar equally

MAIN SPAR (BOX BEAM) as near as possible but not to exceed 0.90”
dimension on either side
TRAILING EDGE 7

BALANCE STRIP

STAINLESS STEEL OUTER SKIN

LEADING EDGE

J moon” 2p , 0.200

Nicks and tears may be trimmed

TRAILING EDGE STRIP from the trailing edge a maximum
depth of 0.200”

Fig. 5-34 Early metal construction as used on the Bell 47.

111
 1. CUFF
MAIN BOLT HOLE BUSHING 2, AIR VALVE
AL ALY DOUBLERS 3. SPAR
DRAG BOLT HOLE 4. RUBBER CAP T 8
DRAG PLATES S. ABRASION STRIP
6. ABRASION STRIP CAP
7. ABRASION STRIP
8, TIP CAP
9. TIP POCKET
10, POCKETS
ABRASIVE STRIP. s ROOT END COVER E0GE 11, ROOT POCKET
GRIP PLATE PLATE ‘STRIP 12. ROOT POCKET CAP
STEEL GRIP PAD
13. BIM TRANSDUCER
SECTION THAU MAIN AND DRAG BOLT HOLES 14, ENO PLATE
AND VIEW OF ROOT ENO OF BLADE 15. BIM INDICATOR

HONEYCOMB CORE
TRIM TAB

Cc Wh ion [tines
a TRAILING EDGE
NOSE BLOCK BOX BEAM DOUBLERS SKINS. STRIP
SECTION AT TRIM TAB LOCATION

Fig. 5-37 Sikorsky type rotor blade of metal

Fig. 5-35 Cross section of a metal blade using construction
honeycomb construction
Another type of metal blade construction is shown
Another type of construction is shown in Fig. 5-35. in Fig. 5-37. This blade is constructed of one spar
With this blade, the same basic techniques are used that serves as the structural support and the leading
in the blade construction with a wrap-around skin edge of the blade. Bonded to this main spar are sec-
bonded at the trailing edge to a strip. The interior of tions of airfoil referred to as pockets. The butt section
the blade is quite different. The box beam is the main of the blade is quite unique because a steel cuff sec-
structural component, with a honeycomb core giving tion is bolted to the spar. This type of blade also
the support and shape to the skin of the blade. makes use of a blade crack indicator system. This
system is referred to as BIM, or Blade Inspection
Method. The spar is pressurized with an inert gas.
= |a > An indicator is placed at the blade root. This indicator

YELLOW
OR
WHITE

MANUAL TEST
LEVER

PRESSURE ‘AR
NORMAL
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
(LED) Fig. 5-38 BiM indicator showing normal pressure.
© o © 4é P is nothing more than a pressure switch that moves a
striped tube up and down with changes in pressure.
RESET TEST
FLASHING:OK ‘0 A normal indication is shown in Fig. 5-38. If a crack
© © STEADY:CRACK ‘O should occur in the spar, the pressure will be lost and
the color of the indicator will change (Fig. 5-39).
Fig. 5-36 BIS System used by Bell helicopter
RED
This particular blade is also equipped with an in- OR
BLACK
tegral inspection system (BIS). This system consists
of an electronic detector unit with a memory and
crack detection circuits. The detector is activated by
a centrifugally operated mercury switch when the
main rotor is turning, or by depressing the test but-
ton on the detector unit. During testing, a flashing
red light indicates a satisfactory condition, and a
LOW PRESSURE INDICATION
steady red light indicates a possible blade crack, re-
quiring a more detailed blade inspection (Fig. 5-36). Fig. 5-39 BiM indicator showing low pressure.
112
 There are several other types of construction in exposure, however, will be detrimental to the corro-
use, but most of these are quite similar to pre- sion factor of the blade. Any corrosion must be
viously mentioned types. carefully removed and the manufacturer’s limits
As with wooden blades, metal blades may be must be observed.
washed with soap and water and waxed. Some solu- The other items of concern in blade inspection are
tions of a caustic base and certain solvents should be nicks and scratches. They will set up stresses in the
avoided because of their effect on the bonding, which blade which can lead to cracks. They may be removed
may destroy the integrity of the blade. In some areas with a smooth contour much as nicks are removed
where the blades are exposed to salt water, they are from a propeller blade (Fig. 5-40). The closer to the
washed daily and a thin film of oil is applied. butt of the blade, the more critical they become.
Unlike the wooden blade, exposure to the ele- The manufacturer’s recommendations must be
ments does not lead to rapid deterioration. Constant strictly adhered to in this regard.

AREA A AREA E
[e-anea B AREA C AREA D

TIP
FAIRING
CUFF |<§——_—___—— 14 Pockets 6 POCKETS
SCRATCHES TOA
DEPTH OF 0.010" NOTE; ALL AREAS APPLY TO
MAY BE CLEARED BOTTOM SIDE OF BLADE ALSO
UP IN THIS AREA
AREA E AREA A pe 0.010" MAX 0.010" MAX.) 0.015" MAX
*\ \ 1/16 (REF) SEE 1/16 (REF) SEE 1116 (REF) SEE
BLEND BLEND AREA A AREA A AREA A
1/8” MAX 116" MAX
AREA AREA
B

AREA E AREA A AREA B AREA B

BOTH SIDES BOTH SIDES

|< 0.015" MAX. 0.020" MAX 0.020" MAX |e— 0.035" MAX
4116 (REF) SEE 116 (REF) SEE 1/8 (REF) SEE "8 (REF) SEE
AREAA AREA E

ONE SIDE ONLY ONE SIDE ONLY

SPANWISE WIDTH OF BLEND AREA

WARNING

ANY DAMAGE TO THE SPAR OR CUFF IN EXCESS

OF THE LIMITATIONS SPECIFIED NECESSITATES
“X” TIMES DEPTH
REPLACEMENT OF THE BLADE. DO NOT DRILL
OF REWORK (MIN)
HOLES IN, OR MODIFY THE SPAR, OR CUFF IN
‘DEPTH
FAIR IN ANY MANNER EXCEPT FOR CLEANING OUT
GOUGE
LIMITED SCRATCHES, NICKS OR DENTS.

N. NOTE: REWORK CAN BE DONE WITHIN THE ABOVE

DEPTH OF REWORK LIMJTATIONS PROVIDING A COMBINATION OF NO
MORE THAN TWO OCCUR WITHIN A 2 INCH DIS-
TANCE SPANWISE.

Fig. 5-40 Typical repair limits on a Sikorsky metal blade.

113
 NOTE
PATCHING LIMITATIONS APPLY TO UPPER AND LOWER
BLADE SURFACES INDEPENDENTLY OF EACH OTHER. 1X 4 OBLONG WITHIN 15° OF
LEADING EDGE OR TRAILING
EDGE OF nae 2" MIN.
3"
\ dE 2" MIN... 4
© 2 «nt Q
IP NDF
1 be on min ( J
AUTHORIZED ww Aan
TIP OF BLADE 7 288.00
“AREAS OF REPAIR ON MAIN ROTOR BLADES

Fig. 5-41 Typical patch limitation on a Bell metal blade.

Delamination of both the bonding and the skin to A typical fiberglass spar blade makes use of a pre-
the honeycomb may also occur. Some delamination cured roving spar. The rovings are strings or strips of
may be field repairable (Fig. 4-41), while others will glass material. This material is impregnated with ep-
require the blade be returned to the factory for re- oxy resin (1) (Fig. 5-42). In the figure are rovings (2)
pairs. At least one company has a blade rental sys- wound round a foam core (3). The skins of the blade are
tem whereby blades may be rented while repairs are preimpregnated glass cloth (4). In addition, root rein-
being made. This is due to the blades being a time- forcement plates are added (9). A trailing edge foam
life item which makes exchange units impractical. filler is shown (5) and the trailing edge is another
roving strip (6). The leading edge of the blade is pro-
3. Fiberglass or composite blades tected with a stainless steel strip covering the span of
Another material for blades is fiberglass. The con- the leading edge (7). For additional protection poly-
cept of fiberglass blades started in the mid 1950’s methane is incorporated in the blade profile, on the
with about four companies involved in the develop- lower face aft of the stainless steel leading edge strip
ment. These were Parsons, Aerospatiale, Boelkow, (11). The balancing weight is added to the tip of the
and Boeing-Vertol. Although other manufacturers blade (12).
have become involved, these manufacturers were re-
sponsible for much of the early development and re- WIRE MESH
Le.
NICKLE
‘STRIP
L
search. This type of blade, with many variations, will 10° WASH OUT

undoubtedly be around for many years.

[-.
t
1% 14 «#12 «13 WL" AM TAB ‘
STIFFER rer
GIE ROOT END
DOUBLER

FIBERGLASS/NOMEX
POCKET

WELD

v7
TITANIUM

O
Fig. 5-43 S-76 blade construction

Fig. 5-42 Basic construction of a fiberglass blade Many other materials may be used with this con-
struction, such as carbon fiber skin, kevlar skin, ti-
The blade is manufactured of several types of ma- tanium leading edges and honeycomb fillers. The con-
terials even though it is covered with fiberglass. Sev- struction materials will differ with the manufacturer
eral different construction concepts have been tested and the characteristics desired in the blade. The com-
or are presently being tested. At present two systems posite blade should not be referred to as a fiberglass
are in use on production type helicopters. They are a blade, because it is in reality a metal spar using fi-
fiberglass spar blade and a metal spar blade. berglass materials to build the remainder (Fig. 5-43).
114
 There are several apparent advantages of the be accomplished in the field unless teardown ca-
fiberglass construction over the metal. The major pabilities are available. It is quite normal, however,
one is the life of the blade. From all indication the for the greased head to sling grease, especially im-
fiberglass blade will have no finite life, as does the mediately after service. Both the grease and oil
metal blade. In addition, the fiberglass blade will be should be removed so that no accumulation occurs.
less susceptible to notch damage (Fig. 5-44), due to This accumulation would not only make visual in-
the threads of the roving. Corrosion of fiberglass is spection impossible, but it would retain moisture
non-existent. Bonding or delamination problems and dirt that can be harmful to the head.
can often be repaired by epoxy resin injections and Normal rotor head inspections are visual. Loose
may be performed in the field. For these reasons items, such as rod ends, will only add to a more
there will be undoubtedly more fiberglass or com- rapid deterioration of the head. The feel of the
posites on the market with the new helicopters. movements and the possibility of cracks should not
be omitted from any inspection criteria.
NOTCH DAMAGE CHARACTERISTICS On certain heads, periodic inspections may be
FIBERGLASS required. These might include such items as DYE
CHECK® inspections, partial disassembly, and
NOTCH UNDER LOAD AFTER CONTINUED LOADING
rotation of bearings. These could be required at
SSS me SBE LSS different intervals of time or as the result of
Airworthiness Directives.
UNNOTCHED FIBERS LIMITED NOTCH GROWTH. The rotor head is a highly stressed unit and usually
CONTINUE TO CARRY UNNOTCHED FIBERS
LOAD. CONTINUE TO CARRY has many time-change and mandatory retirement
LOAD.
items. The constant checking of logbooks, replace-
STEEL ment/retirement schedules, and historical records
NOTCH UNDER LOAD AFTER CONTINUED LOADING
prior to each inspection is a time consuming task.
WY
RADIATING STRESS
W_
NOTCH HAS GROWN AND
PATTERN DEFINES AREA CRACK HAD DEVELOPED.
OF WEAKNESS. AREA OF WEAKNESS HAS
GROWN. FAILURE IS
IMMINENT.

Fig. 5-44 Notch damage comparison of metal and

fiberglass.

F. Rotor Head Maintenance

The servicing of the rotor head normally consists
of lubrication. Proper lubrication of the rotor head
cannot be stressed enough. The greasing of the
head is done with a hand-type grease gun, using
the manufacturer’s specified grease. The intervals
are also specified by the manufacturer. However,
when operations are conducted in certain areas,
more frequent greasing is advisable. For example:
a sandy environment would require more frequent
lubrication to remove the sand from the greased
areas. Although the wet head should require less
servicing and lubrication, leaks may occur. Most
systems will have some leakage, but excessive
leakage will cause bearing damage.
Leakage of the head is quite obvious and the
procedure for locating leaks is the same as in any
other rotational item. The head must be clean be-
fore the origin of the leak can be discovered. Then Fig. 5-45 Bracket used to prevent damage to the ten-
the helicopter must be run for a short period and sion-torsion straps during removal and
inspected. Quite often the repair of a leak cannot installation.

115
 Some manufacturers will allow the major inspec- the requirements of the manufacturer. Depending
tions and overhaul to be performed in the field, while upon circumstances, the inspection required may
others have exchange programs or certain autho- be only a through visual inspection, while in other
rized repair stations that do work of this nature. situations it may require a complete teardown or
Because of the complexity and specific require- replacement of the rotor. Manufacturer’s publica-
ments of this type of work, it will not be discussed tions cover the special inspections in detail.
in this section. General overhaul procedures will
Removal and installation varies from design to
be discussed in a later section of this text. design. Some rotor heads may be removed with the
Special inspection of the rotor system will be re- blades installed, while others will require blade
quired when certain circumstances exist, such as removal prior to removing the heads. This is usu-
overspeeds, sudden stoppage and hard landings. The ally dictated by the size of the rotor and the equip-
inspections will vary with the design of the head and ment available.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
STABILIZER BAR ASSEMBLY
MIXING LEVER
PITCH CHANGE LINK
CONTROL TUBE
DAMPENER LINK TUBE
STABILIZER SUPPORT
ws 5
AN }

7. RETAINING NUT LOCK

8. RETAINING NUT :
9. WASHER rs
10. MAIN ROTOR
11. MAST
12, CONE SET
13. STABILIZER DAMPENERS
14. SCISSORS AND SLEEVE ASSEMBLY 4
15. SWASHPLATE AND SUPPORT ASSEMBLY (A
16. BOLT a8
17. NUT

Fig. 5-46 Typical rotor head removal for a semirigid rotor

116
Fig. 5-47 Special multiplier wrench used to remove a rotor head.
The first step in the removal of any rotor system Often when pitch controls are disconnected, spe-
is to disconnect the flight controls attached to the cial holders are required to keep the blade pitch
rotor head. The controls are usually attached by arms from moving to the point that damage may
bolts through rod ends and close tolerance bolts. occur to the head. Specifically, damage can occur to
tension torsion straps, equalizer links, or strap
packs. Fig. 5-45 shows a typical pitch horn holder.
HOISTING ADAPTER After the controls are disconnected, some have
other items that may be required to be removed, such
as stabilizer bars, collective controls, dampener res-
ervoirs, and driveshafts (Fig. 5-46), The mast nut
used to hold the rotor head to the mast assembly are
of a special nature and will require a specia! wrench
HOISTING for installation and removal. The torque used may
EYEBOLTS \d
(4 PLACES) require a hydraulic wrench or multiplier wrench
(Sweeny wrench) (Fig. 5-47). Once the nut is re-
moved, the head may need special hoisting slings or
eyes for lifting the rotor system (Fig. 5-48).The rotor,
removed with the blades, requires a suitable stand
on which to sit the rotor assembly (Fig. 49).

MAST
STAND

AFT JACKING PAD

STA 197.703

cv
f
FWD JACKING
FITTING
BOTH SIDES
STA 96.89

Fig. 5-48 Hoisting eyes are often used to remove the Fig. 5-49 Typical stand used to place the rotor after
rotor system. removal.

117
 FORCE GRIP occur between the bolt and grip. This transfer will
elongate the hole and destroy the airworthiness of
Vie
Ss BLADE | the grip. Damage to the blade retaining bolt, the
blade hole, bushing, or spreading of the fork of the
| CL
. BLADE MUST BE RAISED grip may occur by heavy pounding. The bolt removal
TO RELIEVE PRESSURE should only require moderate pressure (Fig. 5-50).
ON THE BOLT Some blades required a special puller to remove
Fig. 5-50 Blade removal requires lifting the blade. the bolt (Fig. 5-51). Other blades are retained by
Different rotor heads and blade systems have dif: taper pins (Fig. 5-52), requiring special pullers.
ferent means of securing the blades to the rotor head. Another method is where a circle of bolts is used to
One method is the use of a blade retaining bolt in the retain the blade (Fig. 5-53). Regardless of the
grip assembly. Before the blade is removed, it must method, the blade must be properly supported
be properly supported to prevent binding between when it is removed, in order to prevent damage.
the grip and the blade. If an attempt is made to re- When blades are to be removed and the rotor
move the bolt without proper support, galling will system is installed on the helicopter, the support of
the blade is even more critical because of the
{ SEE DETAIL 8
height and the damage that may occur during re-
moval. For this reason the blades are usually re-
moved from the aft of the helicopter. This may also
require support to the remaining blades.
After the blades are removed, it is important that
they be stored on blade racks. This will prevent blade
damage. The rotor heads should be placed on a suit-
able stand to prevent damaging the head.
OETAILA
As previously mentioned, the disposition of the
head that has been removed varies with the dif-
ferent manufacturers. If the head is the type re-
quiring a major inspection and return to service,
adherence to the overhaul instructions is very crit-
NLF. THREAD 0,875-14
DETAR B
NOTE
ALL DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE IN INCHES, ical. The steps are as follows: Determine which
parts have time lives and if that time has been
1,PULLER AOD ASSEMBLY 4130 (OR BETTER), 1.0 0.0, - 15.0 LONG reached. Parts that have reached maximum life
2. 2 HEX NUTS 0.676 NF (14) THREAD.
2.
4.
BEARING (THRUST) INNER RACE 1.0 1.0,
PLATE OR WASHER, STEEL OR ALUMINUM, 4.05044, 125 0.D.,
will be discarded without an inspection.
The head will have to be disassembled for inspec-
1,125 L.O., 0.260 THICK
5. PLATE OR WASHER, STEEL OR ALUMINUM, 3.750 0.0. 1.1251.0.,
0.250 THICK
6. TUBE, STEEL OR ALUMINUM, WALL THICKNESS 0.083 - 0.125
tion. This procedure requires several special tools.
No rebuilding should be attempted without the proper
Fig. 5-51 Special tool used to remove blade retaining equipment. After disassembly, clean the parts and
pins. check part dimensions. Quite often these dimensions

sD — a)
—_

Fig. 5-52 Taper pin method of retaining the blades.

118
are in 10ths of thousandths, rather than thou- components has a direct relationship to the required
sandths. This will require micrometers capable of maintenance during service life. The reassembly
these readings. Typical dimensional checks are will require such procedures as shimming, bearing
shown in Fig. 5-54. pinches, and end play measurements that will be
After these checks are taken, the parts of ferrous discussed in another section of the text. When the
metal are magnafluxed and the nonferrous parts are head is reassembled, a color code of the component is
zygloed to locate cracks. Usually the amperages usually placed on the parts for identification pur-
used for magnafluxing and areas of concern are poses because no left and right is present (Fig. 5-55).
given in the overhaul manual. At this point, some After the head is reassembled, the blades may be
part may require rework or updates. This could in- reinstalled, taking the same precautions used in
clude adding bushings, changing radii, and remov- disassembly. At this point, a series of maintenance
ing nicks or scratches. At this time the finish of the procedures may begin.
part is examined and refinished. Manufacturers do
not recommend replacement of plating in the field 1. Blade alignment
due to hydrogen embrittlement. If any plating is to Blade alignment is necessary on semirigid rotors.
be done, it must be only in accordance with the This procedure is sometimes referred to as chordwise
manufacturer’s recommendation. This will usu- balance, but this is really a misnomer. The procedure
ally require stress relieving of the part. involves moving the blades about the lead-lag axis
After the parts have been inspected, they are ready held stationary during the operation by the drag
for reassembly. The disposition of certain items, such brace or latch pins, depending upon the design of the
as bearings and hardware, is done at the discretion of head. This movement is for the specific purpose of
the operator. Some operators will never use certain placing the blades in correct relationship with the
items twice, while others will. Rebuilding of hub of the rotor. This relationship places the center of

BLADE NO. 3 BLADE NO. 2

(CODED YELLOW) (CODED BLUE)

BLADE
ROTATION
SS
t ) —

ay __t
BLADE NO. 1
(CODED RED)

BLADE
NO. 5

BLADE NO. 4 \
(CODED WHIT (CODED BLACK)

——

DETAIL A

Fig. 5-53 Blade removal and storage method used on S-76 helicopter.
119
 EA
ek |
a
\A
x)

29

Ze 4 UW

ITEM NOMENCLATURE MIN. MAX. REPLACE

1 Bolt - Blade Retaining oD 0.9990 1.0000 0.9980

2 Grip - Blade Bolt Hole ID 1.0000 1.0010 1.0040
3 Grip - Outer Bearing Bore ID 3.5423 3.5433 3.5443 (mean)
4 Outer Bearing OD 3.5427 3.5433
5 Outer Bearing ID 2.1648 2.1654
6 Yoke - Outer Bearing Seat OD 2.1650 2.1655 2.1638
7 Yoke - Thrust Bearing Seat oD 2.9519 2.9525 2.9499
8 Thrust Bearings ID 2.9522 2.9528
9 Thrust Bearings OD 4.1331 4.1339
10 Adapter - Bearing Bore ID 4.1337 4.1347 4.1352
11. Pillow Block - Pin Bore iD 0.9995 1.0000
12 Pin oD 1.0000 1.0005
13 Pin - Gimbal Bearing Seat OD 0.9840 0.9844 0.9835
14 ~~ Bearings - Gimbal Ring ID 0.9839 0.9843
15 Bearings - Gimbal Ring oD 2.4404 2.4409
16 Gimbal Ring - Bearing Bore ID 2.4400 2.4410 2.4420
17 ‘Pin or Trunnion - Thrust Bearing Seat OD 0.5840 0.5850 0.5800
18 Thrust Bearings ID 0.5903 0.5906
19 Trunnion - Gimbal Bearing Seat OD 0.9836 0.9840 0.9830
20 ~=CBolt - Equalizer Beam OD 0.3125 0.3135
21. ~+Bearing - Equalizer Beam ID 0.3120 0.3125
22 ~Bearing - Equalizer Beam oD 0.8120 0.8125
23 Equalizer Beam - Bearing Bore ID 0.8124 0.8129 0.8134
24 Trunnion Bearing Cap - End Play (each) in. 0.000 0.002
25 =~ Pillow Block Bearing Cap - End Play (each) in. 0.004 0.007
26 Grip Adapter to Pillow Block - Clearance in. 0.064 0.160
27 ~—C Bolts - Pillow Block - Torque infib 300 350 *

28 Grip Adapter - Torque ft/lb 350 375 “*

29 Nut - Yoke Bearing - Torque in/lb 1000 1500 ake

30 ~=Hole-Pitch Horn 0.250 0.251 0.255

31 ~—-Bolt 0.2487 0.2492 0.2465

*Maximum total for assembly 0.004, recommend 0.002. Slight drag when had turned.
**Equal within 0.002. Total play for assembly 0.008 to 0.014, recommend 0.010.
***Equal both sides of hub within 0.030

Fig. 5-54 Typical dimensional checks that are taken at major inspection intervals.
120
 NOTE
Use .3M600 Tape for red
and white color banding.

Fig. 5-55 Typical color coding used on rotor heads.

gravity and the center of pressure in perspective. If

this relationship is incorrect, the stability of the
blade will be destroyed. For this reason, correct ALIGNMENT
POINT
alignment is critical. The use of a poor procedure or
inaccuracy can result in loss of stability of the heli-
copter. Always remember that the blades may not go
forward of the alignment point. If static spanwise
balance is also to be achieved, as is often the case,
the alignment will affect the spanwise balance by Fig. 5-57 Typical alignment point on a rotor blade.
changing the weight-arm relationship (Fig.5-56).
On metal blades only one pin exists. It is simply
LENGTH referred to as the alignment pin. This pin will be
located very close to the tip of the blade (Fig. 5-57).
G 9 Additional marks may be placed on the grips of the
rotor head for the blade relationship to the head.
MOVING THE BLADES These marks, if present, are in the form of scribe
FORWARD OR AFT WILL marks (Fig. 5-58).
SHORTEN THE BLADE
SPAN.

Fig. 5-56 Blade alignment moves the blades in rela-

tion to the hub.

The points to be used in alignment are marked

on the blade by the manufacturer. On wooden
blades this mark is in the form of a tack, referred to
as the center of pressure pin. Care must be taken
when working with this type of blade because an-
other identical pin is present in each blade. The
other pin is used in checking the center of gravity
after repairs are made. The C/P pin is always out-
board of the C/G pin. Fig. 5-58 Typical alignment on a rotor.

121
 One variation to this procedure is used on large
semirigid rotors. With these rotors, the grip angle
is set and the blades are preconed as was done pre
viously. In place of the string, a scope is placed ona
special fixture attached to the yoke of the main
rotor. The alignment points are then sighted from
the scope to the blade pin in each direction. This
system eliminates any errors which might occur
due to placing a string over a long span (Fig. 5-62).
Another method is used on the Jet Ranger. This
helicopter has no drag brace, so adjustments are
made to the blade latches (Fig. 5-63). In all other
respects, the same string method is used.
The alignment of the blades is accomplished
when major components of the head or blades are
Fig. 5-59 String and mirror method used in blade
alignment. replaced and during a major teardown inspection.
Blade alignment is sometimes referred to as chord-
Regardless of the method in which the reference wise balance. It is quite likely that the blades will
points are chosen on the grips, the grip angle must require further adjustment during static balance
be carefully set to insure accurate sighting. For and initial run-up to correct dynamic chordwise
this purpose different manufacturers use various imbalance in a procedure referred to as blade
fixtures to hold the blade angle (Fig. 5-59). During sweeping.
the alignment procedure the blades are held at a
precone angle and are usually supported towards 2. Static main rotor balance
the tip of the blade by a roller mechanism so that The main rotor system, like any other rotating
the blades may be moved freely about the lead-lag object, requires balance. This procedure is accom-
axis as the drag brace is adjusted (Fig. 5-60), After plished both statically and dynamically in order
the reference marks are located, the grip angle is to insure smooth trouble-free operation of the
set and the blades preconed. A string is placed from helicopter. Since the rotor may be affected by
the alignment point on one blade to the alignment either spanwise or chordwise vibrations, it is ne-
point of the other blade. This string may be taped cessary to balance the rotor in both directions.
or held by some other method so that it is taut. Although static balance in no way ensures dynamic
Either try squares or mirrors may be used to sight balance, achieving it first will eliminate problems
the alignment points on the grips (Fig. 5-61). that would be encountered if dynamic balance was
attempted first. With an object as large as a main
rotor, if no static balance was achieved prior to
run-up, it would quite likely result in catastrophe.
The care and precision with which balancing
procedures are accomplished have a direct rela-
tionship to the maintenance required in the future.
Because of the wide variations in rotor design,
static balance of the main rotor system becomes
rather complex. No one procedure can be adequate
for all systems.
With some rotor systems, the head is balanced
Fig. 5-60 Roller placed under the blade during separately from the blades, and then the whole sys-
alignment. tem is balanced as a unit. In other configurations,
the head and blades are balanced as a unit. The
The next step in the alignment procedure is to adjust determining factor as to what method will be used is
the drag braces so the string passes over the reference dictated by the size of the head and its complexity.
points on both grips. It must be noted that the move- Larger, more complex heads are usually balanced
ment of either drag brace will affect the relationship separately, while smaller less complex heads are
of both reference points. The sightings must be re- generally balanced as a unit. Balance procedure, re-
checked after the final tightening of the drag brace. gardless of the method used, will include spanwise
 * * | e le

2.5° £.—. —! i | 4 al
\
|

DETAIL A
DIAGRAM, 5 POINT ALIGNMENT
& 2.5° PRECONE ANGLE SETTING

PLACE CHORDWISE
TOLERANCE WASHERS
HERE (6 AN960-416
TOLERANCE CHECK WASHERS
MAXIMUM.)
DETAIL B
ALIGNING FIXTURE
ASSY (92052-3)
ALIGNING WIRE

MACHINISTS SQUARE
DETAIL B

SHIM AS REQ’D
TO LOCATE INSIDE
EDGE OF SQUARE
STAND ASSY 0.750 TO 0.770-INCH
(92060) AFT OF BOLT CENTER
C G(CENTER OF GRAVITY)
NOT USED IN ALIGNMENT
\ ALIGNING WIRE (0.010” DIA)
\ CP (CENTER OF PRESSURE)
S : APPROX 6” FROM TIP
SWEEP BLADE AFT TO —— ,
CORRECT CHORDWISE ALIGNING WIRE
ASSEMBLY BALANCE RETENTION WEIGHT

MAIN ROTOR
INCIDENCE SETTING 0° _~

eB
Pow |
DETAIL C S
TIP FAIRING \VU-7
ASSEMBLY PLACE SPANWISE
TOLERANCE CHECK
DETAIL C WASHERS HERE
HILLER UH-12E (4 AN960-416
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS IN INCHES WASHERS MAX.)

Fig. 5-61 Alignment procedure used on the Hiller 12 using try squares.

123
 STA
SSNS yp = 4 287.63
-

LDS AC J] =O _ >> =
RO (CC©C—SCr'
R o 1C 5.120

287.63 3

1. & Pitch Change Axis

2. Biade Alignment Point (Rivet Head)
3. & Trunnion Axis
4, Support Assembly, T101400
5. Scope Assembly, 1101401

1, BOLT
2. WASHER
3. HUB GRIP
4. WASHER
5. NUT
6. BLADE
7. PITCH HORN
8, MAIN ROTOR HUB ASSEMBLY
9. NUT
10. SPRING
11, BLADE LATCH
12. NUT
13. BOLT
14, STRAP
15. PLUG
16. O-RING

DETAIL A

Fig. 5-63 Blade latches are used on the Bell 206 to adjust alignment.

124
 and chordwise balancing. The chordwise balance,
as the name implies, is with the direction of the
chord of the blade, while the spanwise balance will
be in relation to the span of the blade. In most cases
where the head and blades are balanced as a unit,
the chordwise balance must be established prior to
the spanwise balance, because the chordwise bal-
ance will affect the spanwise balance.
The equipment used in the balancing procedure
Fig. 5-64 Simple balancing stand used on the Bell 47. varies considerably, depending upon the manufacturer

NOTE

Index parts 1,4,8,11 and 12

with pencil or ink to keep
parts aligned during balance
procedures as shown. Special
tools sets T101544 and
7101576 must be used
in conjunction with each other.

oa?

ot aS
< a

7101576-3 MANDREL ase eee ot" 2

;
Saget a
YooMe sy
7T101576-21 SPACER '
o”*

MS134366 BALL le * * od
te

MS29561-113 PACKING

DETAIL A

REFER TO NOTE

SEE DETAIL A

- BULL’S EYE LEVEL (810550)

. SCREW (NAS1351-6-16)
PNBPAPONa

. WASHER (AN960-616)
. PLUG (T101576-15)
PIN (MS20392-4C53)
LOCK (T101544-7)
ADJUSTER (T101544-9)
BASE (T101576-13)
WASHER (AN960PD416)
10. SCREW (NAS135-4-16)
11. MANDREL ASSEMBLY (T101576-3)
12. STAND ASSEMBLY (T101576-7)
13. SCREWS (NAS1351-4-16) AND NUTS (AN316-4R)
14, PLATE (T101576-19)
MAIN ROTOR HUB AND BLADE ASSEMBLY-STATIC BALANCING

Fig. 5-65 Typical special purpose balancing stand.

125
of the helicopter. Usually this equipment is designed Regardless of the system used, the balance pro-
to be used on one particular rotor head on which the cedure is dependent on the rotor seeking a level
rotor assembly is placed (Fig. 5-64). Another system position. For this reason all balancing work must
made for a specific rotor uses a base plate with a post be carried out under ideal conditions. This in-
in the center. Resting on the post is a steel ball which cludes clean equipment and a work area free of
is inside a mandrel. The mandrel slides through a drafts. Balancing is often accomplished in a sepa-
base plate, used in conjunction with the pitch change rate room, or if it must be done in a large hangar
horns, to hold the blade angle. Next, the mandrel area, the rotors are placed in a box.
passes through the trunnion, supporting the rotor Some rotor heads are serviced prior to balanc-
head. This places the rotor head assembly on the ing. Usually wet heads are filled with the correct
surface of one ball bearing, allowing the head to level of oil in all the reservoirs, while the dry heads
move in all directions (Fig. 5-65). are normally balanced prior to greasing. This is

PLACE TOLERANCE CHECK

WASHERS HERE (NOTE 6)

gS FA, DETAIL A CONTROL ROTOR

gS | BALANCE WEIGHT DRAG STRUT
INCIDENCE SETTING 0°

a WASHERS (NOTE 1) HEAVY BLADE

BALANCE WEIGHT SCREW
RING ASSEMBLY (92062) qj

LEVEL (92096)

BLADE LEVELING ARM

FIXTURE (92202)
LIGHT BLADE LIGHT FORK
DETAIL B

PLACE TOLERANCE CHECK WASHER HERE

(NOTE 5) —~

DETAIL A STAND ASSEMBLY

(92060)
NOTES:

1. Maximum weight: 6 washers or 6 oz.

2. This dimension required for balance

procedure only.

3. Length of drag struts equal. Dimen-

sion from G to G of terminal bolt
holes equal within + 0.010 inches. (NOTE 4)

4. Notch outboard, color code down.

Identification to match light end col-
or code.

5. Spanwise balance to be within the DETAIL B

weight of one AN960-416 tolerance
check washer.

6. Chordwise balance to be within the

welght of 5 AN960-416 tolerance
check washers.

Fig. 5-66 Balancing the rotor independently of the rotor blades.

done because of the difficulty of determining the or a bull’s eye level, placed at a designated point on
amount of grease placed in each point of the head. the rotor head. Either chordwise or spanwise bal-
An uneven amount of grease would lead to an ance can be acquired first, because one will not
unbalanced condition which would correct itself affect the other at this point.
by running. In all cases the servicing of the head Fig. 5-66 shows a typical head balance procedure
prior to balancing must follow the manufacturer’s in which weight is being added to the head in order
recommendations. to obtain a balanced condition. In this procedure,
If the head is to be balanced as a separate unit weight in the form of a special washer, is being added
due to its size and complexity, it would warrant the to the grip retaining bolt to obtain spanwise balance.
addition of weight in manufacturer’s designated Washers are added to the paddles to obtain chord-
areas to accomplish a balanced condition. Of course, wise balance.
the unbalanced condition is directly related to the A similar type of balancing procedure is shown in
parts and tolerances that make up the rotor head. Fig. 5-67. In this situation washers are attached to
In this situation, the addition of weight is most the outer face of the pillow block liner to obtain
often accomplished by simply adding the weight re- chordwise balance and lead weight to the inside of
quired while viewing either the balance indicator the blade retaining bolt to obtain spanwise balance.

BALANCE
WEIGHT

\y

u
TLV oa
sree --- -+ . fi

wt
ee ee sw}
7, sweniess,
wm ee.

1. T101865 FLAP STOP

2, LEVEL, BULL’S-EYE
3. T101458-3 SOCKET AND T101458-7 SPACER
4. HUB ASSEMBLY
5. T101356 BUILD-UP BENCH
6. T101458-5 PLUG

Fig. 5-67 Balance weight is added to the trunnion caps to obtain chordwise balance.
127
 After the head is statically balanced, the blades these weights were added when manufacturu
are placed on the rotor head and balanced as a unit. either to act as ballast or to obtain the same char-
This is accomplished in much the same manner as acteristics as the master blade and should not be
the head static balance. On semirigid rotor sys- disturbed.
tems the blades are moved aft to obtain chordwise On rotor systems in which the head and the
balance by shortening the drag braces. On semi- blades are statically balanced as a unit, much the
rigid rotors the chordwise balance must be ob- same procedure will be used as when the head is
tained first because the effective length of the arm balanced separately (Fig. 5-69). The head and
is affected by moving the blade. blades are simply placed on the balance stand and
The spanwise balance is obtained in one of two the weight added to the appropriate place to obtain
manners. Weight is placed either in tip pockets on balance. In this particular procedure, the chord-
the blade or in the hollow blade retaining bolts wise balance is obtained by sweeping the blades
(Fig. 5-68), NOTE: The addition or subtraction of aft while viewing the level placed on the hub yoke.
weight in other than the manufacturer's approved loca- The spanwise balance is accomplished by placing
tions could be dangerous. Although it may appear that the level on the yoke and adding weight to the tip
weight has been added in these unauthorized areas, pocket.

INSTALL WEIGHTS ON BOTH SIDES OF SPAR EQUALLY

MAIN SPAR (BOX BEAM) AS NEAR AS POSSIBLE BUT NOT TO EXCEED 0.90”
DEMENSION ON EITHER SIDE

TRAILING EDGE

0.90
Brass mass MAX MAX
BALANCE STRIP
STAINLESS STEEL
LEADING EDGE

1. BOLT
2, WASHER
3. HUB GRIP
4, WASHER
5. NUT
7. PITCH HORN
8. MAIN ROTOR HUB ASSEMBLY
15. PLUG
16. O-RING

Fig. 5-68 Weight may be added to the blade tips or blade retaining bolts to obtain spanwise balance.
Fig. 5-69 Head and blades balanced as a unit.

Fig. 5-70 shows another example using the univer-

sal balancer. The blades are again balanced chord-
wise by moving the blade aft with adjustment of the
latch pins. The weight for spanwise balance is added
to the hollow blade retaining bolts.
At present there is one manufacturer of universal
type balancing equipment. Several different heads
and rotor systems may be balanced with the same
basic equipment by using a series of adapters. This
system is used to balance not only main rotor, but
also tail rotors, propellers, and a variety of other
rotating components (Fig. 5-71). Fig. 5-71 Universal balancer.

The basis of this equipment is a suspended arbor on

which the main rotors or various components may be
placed, with adapters to adapt the head to the arbor
and control sensitivity (Fig. 5-72). The arbor itself is
hollow and suspended by a flexible element placed in
the center of the arbor and filled with oil. The oil acts
as a dampening device to slow down the movement of
the arbor. Attached to the flexible suspension ele-
ment at the top is an indicator bushing. As the arbor
is moved by an unbalanced condition, the suspension
element and the indicator bushing will remain in
position, attached to the arbor. In the area of the
indicator bushing is the indicator disc. It is the rela-
tionship of the bushing and disc that indicates if a
balanced or unbalanced condition exists. If the item
is in balance, the relationship of the disc and bushing
will be concentric (Fig. 5-73). If the item is slightly
out of balance, the relationship of the disc and bush-
ing will be slightly eccentric. If the relationship of
the disc and the bushing overlaps, the item has ex-
ceeded the measurable tolerances (Fig. 5-73).
The specific type of equipment for individual rotor
systems varies considerably in design and sen-
Fig. 5-70 Rotor system balanced ona universal sitivity. This is due not only to the head design, but to
balance. the sensitivity of the head to vibration.
 1 INDICATOR BUSHING
2 INDICATOR DISC
3 SUSPENSION ROD
4 BALANCING ARBOR

eS
_—<—<—<—
rz
5 FLUID RESERVOIR
6 FLEXIBLE SUSPENSION ELEMENT
7 ASSEMBLY BEING CHECKED
UNBALANCED
WEIGHT

/\

VIEW A VIEW B
BALANCED ASSEMBLY UNBALANCED ASSEMBLY

Fig. 5-72 Arbor used with the universal balancer.

3. Vibration
One of the greatest concerns of any technician ve
should be vibration. No other factor will contribute
so much to the general deterioration of components SHAFT
as will excessive vibration. For this reason it is ne- Y
cessary that the technician understand its causes
and effects.

Fig. 5-74 Wheel placed on an axle.

The cause of vibration is an unbalanced condition.
Regardless of the processes used in manufacture, it is
almost impossible to obtain a perfect balance of a
component. Suppose a cast and machined wheel is
VIEW A
placed on a shaft (Fig. 5-74). By moving the wheel
INDICATOR CIRCLES from Point A to Point B, it may be that it will return
CONCENTRIC (ASSEMBLY
IN PERFECT BALANCE) to point A (Fig. 5-75). This is an indication that the
wheel is heavier at Point A than at Point B. This

ADD WEIGHT TO POINT A

INDICATOR CIRCLES SLIGHTLY
ECCENTRIC (ASSEMBLY
OR REMOVE WEIGHT FROM
SLIGHTLY OUT OF BALANCE POINT B
BUT WITHIN ALLOWABLE
UNBALANCED TOLERANCE)

INDICATOR CIRCLES
Q
OVERLAPPING (ASSEMBLY
OUT OF BALANCE
BEYOND ALLOWABLE
UNBALANCED TOLERANCE)

Fig. 5-73 Views of the arbor indicator showing various Fig. 5-75 The wheel will rotate until the heavy spot
balance conditions. reaches the bottom.
130
wheel may be statically balanced by placing

THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH (MIL)

weight at Point B or removing weight from Point A.

_ AMPLITUDE OF VIBRATION
NOTE: Usually if the wheel is to be exposed to
high RPM and centrifugal forces, material is re- 20 x
moved from the wheel rather than material added

ZL
for weight.
Even if this wheel is statically balanced, it does
not mean that the wheel will be dynamically bal-
anced. To check the dynamic balance, the wheel ~~ _
_ could be placed on the same axle as used previously —— FE J Re ees eH

with a dial indicator placed on the outer rim (Fig. 200 400 600 800 1000
FREQUENCY - CYCLES/MIN
5-76). It may be found that as the wheel is moved at a
low RPM, the dial indicator will remain at the “O” ——— -—— ~ — THRESHOLD OF FEELING
_———_——- LIMIT OF/ UNCOMFORTABLE] VIBRATION
point but as the RPM increases, a movement will take
place on the dial indicator. This movement indicates Fig. 5-77 Points at which vibration may be felt by man.
a dynamic imbalance and is known as displacement
or amplitude. The rate at which this condition occurs Often these vibrations are sensed through sta-
is known as frequency. tionary or nonrotating components, such as anti-
torque pedals, the back of the seat, or the seat it-
self. Even if these components are not the source of
the vibration, they will move in sympathetic vibra-
tions and are, to the trained technician familiar
with a particular type of helicopter, always a good
Q source for determining which rotating component
that is causing the vibration.
Another aspect of vibration with which mainte-
nance personnel should be familiar is the fact that
all rotating components have a natural frequency
LOW R.P.M. NO DIAL INDICATOR MOVEMENT
at which they are susceptible to vibration. In the

nd
design of components, these areas are avoided, or
0 the component is redesigned. In some instances,
when the situation is unavoidable, a transit range
is established so that the component is not continu-
Q ously operated at that speed, but merely passes
through that range in order to obtain the operating
speed. Such areas are denoted in the operations
manual and are usually marked on the tachometer
by ared arc placed on the instrument in the area of
HIGH R.P.M. DIAL INDICATOR MOVEMENT the RPM range.
Fig. §-76 A-No dial indicator movement will be Vibrations in helicopters are usually classified
shown at low rem; B-At high rpm the dial in- into three main groups-(1) low frequency, (2) me-
dicator will move. dium frequency, and (8) high frequency.
The example of the wheel could be compared to a. Low frequency vibrations
any rotating component of the helicopter, such as the Low frequency vibration is at a rate of 0 to 500 RPM,
main rotor, tail rotor, cooling fans or shafts. Although expressed in terms of cycles per minute (CPM). This
some vibrations could be of a frequency that they range is usually associated with the main rotor,
could not be sensed by the human body, most vibra- which rotates in a 300 to 500 RPM range. The 1:1
tions in the helicopter, other than those of the tur- vibration is probably the most common and the easi-
bine engine, can be sensed. In many cases they can est to detect. It will be identified as a beat, with one
not only be sensed, but also be distinguished as to the beat for each revolution of the rotor. This beat may be
area in which they originate. The amplitude, like the either lateral or vertical in nature (Fig. 5-78). Ver-
frequency, has limitations in the human ability to tical vibration is normally associated with track,
distinguish the vibration. However, it is possible to while lateral vibration is associated with an un-
distinguish the more harmful vibrations (Fig. 5-77). balanced condition.
131
 VIBRATION they are distinguishable only as a buzz and some-
times felt as a tingling sensation. This type of
vibration is often sensed in stationary components
such as the antitorque pedals in sympathy with
the tail rotor. The three general areas of high fre-
quency vibration are the tail rotor, engine and
drive train systems.
All helicopters are susceptible to vibration be-
cause of the great number of rotating components.
LATERAL VERTICAL For this reason, it is most important to keep the
Fig. 5-78 Lateral and vertical vibrations. vibration level to a minimum, because wear factors
will be increased. The wear factors will affect not
It is also possible to obtain other vibrations, such only the life of the rotating components, but also
as a 2:1 or 3:1, etc., beats depending upon the rotor the fatigue life of stationary components that are
system of the helicopter. Although the 1:1 and 2:1 in sympathy with the rotating components.
vibrations are easily identifiable, the multiple beats It must be observed that these wear factors do
are not. The main rotor vibrations may be caused by not follow a proportional wear rate, but actually
numerous features of the main rotor, such as span- work in multiples. For instance, if the wear factor
wise and chordwise balance, dampeners, lead-lag on acertain bearing was one thousandth of an inch
hinges, and defective head components. in 500 hours, it may take no more than 50 hours to
b. Medium frequency vibrations accomplish the next one thousandth of an inch
The medium frequency vibrations are in the wear. In the following 500 hours, 20 to 30 thou-
area of 500 to 2000 cpm. This wide range is difficult sandths of an inch of wear may occur. If excessive
to distinguish as medium frequency. A multiple vibration is allowed to continue, each extra one
beat from the main rotor would fall into this cate- thousandth of an inch movement that is allowed
gory, as well as a cooling fan. For this reason the will occur at a shorter interval. Since each compo-
medium frequency vibrations may be anything nent is attached to another, the wear factor of the
from a distinguishable beat to a buzz. Although adjoining components also increases. One can
the medium frequency vibration exists both in the- readily see that this progression may eventually
ory and practicality, it is most difficult for the tech- affect a whole system and even cross into another
nician to identify a vibration in the medium fre- system through sympathetic vibration. Such prob-
quency range. As a result, most vibrations are lems can lead only to high maintenance costs in
often simply identified as high and low frequency, replacement parts and labor, which is often the dif-
with the low frequency having a distinctive beat, ference of operating at a profit or a loss.
and the high frequency an undistinguishable beat
resulting in a buzz.
4. Tracking
Tracking is a procedure used to check that all
c. High frequency vibrations blades are traveling within the same tip path plane
The high frequency vibrations are in the range (Fig. 5-79). If a blade is out of track, the helicopter
of 2000 cpm and above. As previously described, will have a 1:1 vertical vibration. Track problems

Fig. 5-79 Tracking by the stick method.

132
can occur on all types of helicopter rotor heads.
Usually the helicopter requires tracking when the
blades, heads, or pitch change components of the
head are replaced. During initial run-up, tracking

4
should always be. the first procedure performed oT
WHITE BLADE AED BLADE
when heads or blades are rebuilt or replaced. It will
be impossible to correct unbalanced conditions un-
| — MARK ——_}_,
til the track is correct. Often an out-of-track condi-

\
tion will be so outstanding the lateral vibrations
will not be felt until the track is corrected. WHITE BLADE RED BLAOE

There are a number of methods used to deter-

mine track on helicopters. These vary with the |_— MARK

manufacturer and the system most appropriate for

-
the rotor design. Some of these methods are the: aan
WHITE BLADE REO BLADE
a. Stick Method
b. Flag Method Fig. 5-81 Typical marks made on the blades by the
c. Light Reflector Method stick method.
d. Pre-track Method
The wick portion is coated with a substance such as
e. Electronic or Strobe Method
Prussian Blue. With the helicopter operating at
Regardless of the method used, all tracking pro- the specified RPM, the wick attached to the stick
cedures will begin with ground tracking. In some will be placed in contact with the rotor blades.
instances it may be required to do a low speed track When contact is made, the stick is removed. Note
as well as a high speed track. NOTE: Low speed the position of the maintenance personnel in rela-
and high speed track are in relation to rotor RPM. tion to the rotor’s advancing blade. This position
Many of the helicopters in use today will also will avoid injury if the stick is placed too high.
require in-flight tracking because of the rotor de- After shutdown, the blades are checked for the
sign. This will require a hover track and track at mark left by the wick (Fig. 5-81).
various air speeds, as specified by the manufac- If both blades are marked the same amount, the
turer. Remember that regardless of the method, all blades are in track as shown in Fig 5-81A. If one
tracking must be accomplished in relatively calm blades carries a heavier mark than the other, the
air, with the helicopter facing into the wind. blade with the lighter mark must be lowered. In
a. Stick method many instances only one blade will be marked
The first method to be discussed will be the stick (Fig. 5-81C). This means that only one blade was
method. This system is adaptable only to ground use. low enough to recieve a mark and the blades will be
A rubber wick of 2 to 4 inches is placed on a stick of raised or lowered until all blades are in the same
sufficient length to touch the rotor (Fig. 5-80). plane of rotation. The disadvantage of this system
is that the process may have to be repeated several
APPLY times before the track can be adjusted. If only one
PRUSSIAN >
mark appears, it is not possible to determine the
BLUE <—— RUBBER
a WICK exact position of the other blade.
b. Flag method
The flag method, like the stick method, may be
used only for ground track. The flag consists of a
frame of a height to accommodate the rotor of the
}t—— STICK helicopter (Fig. 5-82). The flag itself is covered
APPROX. 3’
with cloth, with masking tape on the outer edge.
Coloring such as Prussian Blue or waterbase color
is placed on the blade tips with a different color on
each tip (Fig. 5-83). The helicopter is operated at
the manufacturer’s prescribed RPM, and the flag is
rotated into the tip path of the rotor. This will leave
notches in the outer edge of the flag with the color
Fig. 5-80 Typical tracking stick. on the edges of the notches (Fig. 5-84).
133
 Fig. 5-82 Tracking by the flag method.

In Fig. 5-84A, only one notch appears, indicating light showing on both sides. Fig. 5-86B shows the
that both blades are traveling in the same tip path plain reflected blade too high, while Fig. 5-86C
plane and no adjustments will be required. Fig. 5-84B shows the striped reflected blade too high. As men-
shows that the red blade is higher than the blue tioned, this system may be used at a hover and in
blade, indicating that the red blade must be lowered flight, at which time the blades may act differently.
or the blue blade raised. The opposite has occurred in This system may also be used on a 3-bladed sys-
Fig. 5-84C and the adjustments will have to be made tem, although the striped reflector will have to be
in the opposite manner. This method has an advan- moved from blade to blade if adjustments are ne-
tage over the stick method in that the distance of the cessary to other than the striped blade.
tip path plane is clearly indicated on the flag and
adjustment may be made accordingly.
ce. Light reflector method
The light reflector method may be used on the BLUE
ground or in the air. This has a distinct advantage

Li
RED
because all blades do not track the same on the
ground as they do in flight. Reflectors are placed on
the blade tips of the helicopter facing inboard to-
ward the cabin. One of these reflectors will be plain
CORRECT TRACK
while the other will have a strip placed across the
' middle (Fig. 5-85). A hand spotlight operating on
battery power will be placed in the cabin. The heli-
copter is run at the prescribed RPM and the light
shows on the reflectors, giving images (Fig. 5-86).
The image in Fig. 5-86A represents an in-track (8)
rotor system with the same amount of reflected

APPLY
RED RED BLADE HIGH

(Cc)

BLUE BLADE HIGH

—— APPLY BLUE
Typical flag markings after track check.
Fig. 5-83 Marking the blade tips.
 HILLER UH-12E

il \\\
<p>
=
s7

BLUETIP YELLOW TIP TRACKING LIGHT lJ Vf

(92197) i
mu l a

REFLECTOR REFLECTOR \|
(92108) (92109) \NL
Nate: A set of two reflectors, con-

<>
taining both 92108 and 92109
parts is designated as 92107
for stock purposes

{To

b lt
ai
STNG
BEND LINE

PARALLEL
~ .

SAW OUT
FORMING {TO FIT TAB)
BLOCK
APPROX 1” DEPTH MAKE FROM
WOOD (2X4)

TRIM TAB(S)
TRACKING CORRECTIONS

Fig. 5-85 Light reflector method of tracking.

d. Pretrack method
One manufacturer used the pretrack method. With
this method, the blade is matched to a master blade in
the factory and pre-flown in a spin test. The pitch
change rod is adjusted at that time so the blade is
flying in the same tip path plane as the master blade.
The amount of adjustment is recorded and stenciled on
= BLADES 1-1/4”
OUT-OF-TRACK
the butt of the blade (Fig. 5-87). The pitch change rods
are in turn set ona standard to a predetermined length
1/2 BLUE TIP HIGHEST and decaled so they may be set to the corresponding
BLADES OUT-OF-
stenciled measurement (Fig. 5-88). When a new blade
TRACK 1/2”
is installed, the correct length is simply set on the pitch
BLUE TIP LOWEST NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS change rod and the blade is in track, provided there are
ARE IN INCHES. no other problems that may affect the track.
Fig. 5-86 Typical images as seen with the light reflec- Another manufacturer uses a system very similar to
tor method. the pretrack method. The blades are pre-spun at the
135
 REFLECTORS

Fig. 5-89 Reflectors used for the strobe system of

tracking.

_| TRACKS
ground, but also in flight. Reflectors are placed on the

LL
tips of the blades facing the cabin. These reflectors will
use a stripe system to identify the blades (Fig. 5-89).
Fig. 5-87 Pretrack adjustment recorded on the blade. Since the biggest problem in adjusting track is the
inablility to determine the position of the blades dur-
factory and tabbed. At that time the blades are marked ing rotation, the strobe light is used to view the reflec-
on the butt on the blade with the length of the pitch tors. This strobe is triggered by an interrupter and
change rod from the centers of the rod ends. In this pick-up mounted on the swashplate (Fig. 5-90). This
system, no decals are necessary for the pitch change device allows the strobe light to be flashed each time
rod adjustment to obtain the correct angle of attack for the blade passes a certain point, giving the appearance
the particular blade to fly in track. of a motionless blade showing the reflectors superim-
e. Electronic strobe system posed on each other (Fig. 5-91). In Fig. 5-91A, the
The electronic strobe system, like the reflector blades are in track and no adjustment will be neces-
method, allows the track to be checked not only on the sary, but in 5-91B, one blade is approximately 1/2-inch
higher, while the other blades are in track. Fig. 5-91C
shows that one blade is a 1/2-inch higher, while an-
FORK ASSY other is 1 inch lower. The other two bades are in track.
The procedure for adjusting blade track varies
considerably from one helicopter to another. For
this reason, it would be impossible to discuss one
procedure for all helicopters, so it will be covered
only in general terms.

TIP PATH PLANE

IMAGE A: ALL BLADES IN TRACK

Ng Ss
IMAGE B: ONE BLADE APPROX, 1/2” HIGH

IMAGE C: ONE BLADE APPROX. 1/2" HIGH;

ONE BLADE APPROX. 1” LOW

CORRECTIVE ACTION

HIGH APM AND

CONDITION = GROUND IDLE RPM FWD FLIGHT
IMAGE A NONE REQUIRED NONE REQUIRED
IMAGE B SHORTEN PITCH CONTROL MOVE TAB DOWNWARD
ROD (2nd BLADE) {2nd BLADE)
IMAGE C SHORTEN PITCH CONTROL MOVE TAB DOWNWARD
ROD (2nd BLADE) (2nd BLADE)
LENGHTEN CONTROL TAB UPWARD (3rd
ROD (3rd BLADE) BLADE)
Fig. 5-88 Pitch change rod adjustment for the pre-
track method. Fig. 5-91 Typical images as seen with the strobe.
 SCREW

ROTATING
sw
ASHPLATE INTERRUPTER

LINK A «— SCISSOR
™ {! LINK
ON 9

INTERRUPTER ‘Be
STATIONARY {' J, °°
SWASHPLATE INTERRUPTER
" (36949946-29)

MAGNETIC PICKUP
STROBE LIGHT CABLE t FWD

Fig. 5-90 Typical strobe interrupter and pickup installation.

137
 ADJUSTABLE
ROD END
MAST LENGTHEN. ~
INCREASES
PITCH
SHORTEN.
DECREASES Fig. 5-94 Trim tabs are sometimes attached to the ro-
PITCH tor blades.

Fig. 5-92 Adjustment of the pitch rod changes track.

TAB

The ground track is most often adjusted by

changing the angle of attack of the individual
<=
blade through the pitch change rod (Fig. 5-92).
TAB
These rods are lengthened or shortened by moving
the rod end fittings, which determines whether the
blade will be raised or lowered. In some instances,
{—_—>
different threads are placed on each end to allow Fig. 5-95 The tab may be bent to adjust track.
coarse and fine adjustment of the track (Fig. 5-93).
BR

A aa
Fig. 5-96 Typical tab bender.

During all initial tracking procedures the tabs

1. UPPER CLEVIS (7/16-14 UNC THREADS)
2. NUT should be placed in a neutral position. This will
3. TUBE allow adjustment in either direction with a mini-
4, LOCK
mum deflection of the tabs, which creates drag.

if
5. LOCK
6. NUT
7, LOWER CLEVIS (7/16-20 UNF THREADS)

Fig. 5-93 Some pitch change rods use fine and

coarse threads.

f. Trim tabs
While some blades are equipped with stationary
trim tabs that may be used in ground tracking,
most are limited to flight tracking only (Fig. 5-94),
These tabs are fixed to the blade and are simply
bent to change the angle of attack of the blade. By
bending the tab up the blade will go up. Bending
the tab down will force the blade down (Fig. 5-96). Fig. 5-97 Typical tab protractor.

138
The number of degrees a tab may be bent is also If no system other than the stick or flag method
limited by the manufacturer. If the tab is bent an is available, a low speed track may be necessary.
excessive amount, its effectiveness will be de- The helicopter is simply run at the designated
stroyed by disruption of the airflow. For this pur- speed on the ground and the track is checked. The
pose a protractor-type device is often furnished by low blade in the track check is the high blade in
the manufacturer (Fig. 5-97). In some instances no flight. It will require rolling of the grip in order to
trim tabs are present and the trailing edge of the fly correctly in forward flight.
blade is simply bent in designated areas for the Track adjustments, like many of the other ad-
specified track speed (Fig. 5-98). justments available to the technician, should be
g. Blade crossover or climbing blade used with discretion and should not be thought of
During in-flight tracking, sometimes blade as a cure-all for low frequency vertical vibrations.
crossover, or a climbing blade, occurs. The two Once the original track has been established and
terms are synonymous and simply mean that al- no components that would affect the track have
though the blades tracked on the ground and at a been changed, the need for periodic track adjust-
hover, they do not track during forward flight. One ments are not necessary. If such vibrations do
blade flies higher. This is caused by the elasticity of occur, the components and controls should be care-
that particular blade. The occurrence of this prob- fully inspected for malfunctions before any re-
lem is more common on wood blades than metal. tracking adjustments are attempted.

BENDING BLOCK
PROTRACTOR

EACH MARKING — 2°30’

TAB BENDING
TOOL (369A9958)

MAIN ROTOR BLADE (TOP VIEW)

BLADE STATIONS: 93 99 105 117 124 136 158

PL
65"
59 3°
41 aa
22”
7

| TAB ZONES:! E! D B A
*NOT USED
HIGH RPM
GROUNDNo) TRACKING
(108% , NOT USED

“UNUSED TAB ZONES MUST BE MEDIUM SPEED

MAINTAINED STRAIGHT, NEUTRAL FLIGHT TRACKING
AND PARALLEL. (0-100 KNOTS,
101% Ng)
HIGH SPEED
FLIGHT TRACKING
(100-120 KNOTS,
101% Ng)

Fig. 5-98 Hughes 500 rotor blade where the trailing edge of the blade is used for tabbing.

139
 5. Spanwise dynamic balance of the In any case, the spanwise balance should be ac-
main rotor complished, if required, when heads and blades are
After the rotor system has been statically bal- changed in accordance with manufacturer’s recom-
anced and installed, it may be necessary to balance mendations. Like all other adjustments on the
it dynamically as well. No attempts should be helicopter, further balancing should be performed
made in dynamic balance without first checking with discretion and should not be attempted as a
the track. For the most part, if no electronic equip- cure-all for vibration problems.
ment is available for balancing, the procedure is a
6. Blade sweeping
trial and error situation, dependent upon the abil-
Blade sweeping is a procedure used after in-
ity to feel the vibration and its reduction. The stallation of new blades, head, or major compo-
skilled maintenance operator who has felt the nents of the head. This procedure is done only on
various vibrations will probably be quicker to re-
semirigid rotor systems and only after blade align-
duce the vibration level than the novice.
ment has been made. Sweeping is done to obtain
The method used most often for spanwise bal- chordwise dynamic balance and is not always ne-
ancing is taping the blades and feeling the results
cessary after obtaining static balance. The indica-
of the added weight placed on the blade by the tape. tion of the need for sweeping is very similar to that
Usually the manufacturer will specify the width of
of spanwise balance. A 1:1 lateral vibration from
the masking tape and the number of wraps that the main rotor is always an indication of an unbal-
will be equal to the additional weight required. anced condition. Is is very difficult for the average
Even on a two-bladed main rotor system, this could technician to determine if the vibration is chord-
involve a number of stops and starts before the wise or spanwise in nature.
optimum vibration level is reached. Even then,
this level depends upon the person performing the One manufacturer states that if the vibration
procedure and his ablility to sense vibration. The becomes greater in amplitude with an increase
from low to high operating RPM, the problem is
typical procedure would be to place two or three
spanwise. If the vibration amplitude remains the
wraps of masking tape on the blade near the tip
same throughout the operating range, it is chord-
(Fig. 5-99). After taping the blade, run the helicop-
ter and add additional wraps. If the vibration be- wise. This may or may not be obvious to the techni-
cian. Other indications of chordwise imbalance are
comes worse, remove the tape and tape the opposite
blade. When
nudging of the cyclic in flight and a heavy collec-
the lowest vibration level is reached,
the weight of the tape is added to that blade — tive. Either, or both, of these could indicate the
necessity of sweeping the blades.
either to the blade pocket or the blade retaining
bolt, as instructed by the manufacturer.

CTS \ 0.8748
DIA.
0.8744

TAPE

Fig. 5-99 Taping the blade for spanwise balance.

As previously mentioned, it is often difficult to de-

termine the difference of a spanwise or chordwise 5.3
0.625
balance problem. It is not unusual to have both
vibrations present at the same time. For this reason,
it may be necessary to make other corrections after 0.8748
0.8744 DIA.
reducing the spanwise vibration. It is also not un-
usual to have a new vibration appear as this vibra-
tion is eliminated. This is usually because the one
vibration remained hidden in the presence of the Fig. 5-100 Typical drag brace with decal showing aft
more pronounced vibration. adjustment.

140
 The procedure for sweeping the blades is quite The same basic procedure is used when an un-
simple. It involves moving one or both of the blades stable condition exists in the semirigid rotor sys-
aft about the lead-lag axis, which is held station- tem when, due to the blades being too far forward,
ary by the drag brace or latch pins, depending on the relationship of the center of gravity and center
the type of rotor head, to obtain chordwise balance. of presssure is incorrect. This condition is dan-
Once the initial alignment is achieved, the blades gerous and can be identified by a nudging of the
may be moved only in the aft direction without affect- cyclic in forward flight. To correct this situation,
ing the stability of the helicopter. For this reason, both blades must be moved aft the same amount.
many drag braces are marked with a decal indicat- The one semirigid rotor helicopter that does not
ing the aft directional movement (Fig. 5-100). utilize drag braces at this time is the Bell 206 Jet
Other than electronic balancing, there is no sure Ranger. This helicopter has latch pins, which were
system to determine which blade should be moved or discussed earlier. In adjusting blade sweep on this
how much movement is necessary. It may require machine, the same basic principles are used. The
more than one adjustment in order to obtain the blade may be moved only in the aft direction and the
correct setting. It may also require returning one latch pin is adjusted rather than the drag brace.
blade to the original setting and moving the opposite These adjustments are most sensitive and are re-
blade. For this reason, it is most important that the corded in one-point increments on the twelve-point
original alignment setting be marked (Fig. 5-101). nut. A total of three points is all that may be utilized
All movement in the sweeping process should be without realigning the blades (Fig. 5-102).
slight because the movement at the drag brace is
multiplied several times at the blade tip. HUB GRIP (REF)
1
MARK REFERENCE LINES
WITH SOFT PENCIL

Fig. 5-102 Latch pin used for sweep on the Bell.

Fig. 5-101 The drag brace must be marked before
adjustments are made. 7. Electronic balancing
One of the latest developments in helicopter
The basic procedure for adjusting for chordwise vibration analysis is the electronic balancer. This
balance on a semirigid head is as follows: equipment not only has removed the guess work
Step 1: Mark the drag brace with a soft lead pen- from solving vibration problems, but has also en-
cil or crayon. abled maintenance personnel to establish new
Step 2: Shorten the drag brace by loosening the lows in vibration levels that would have previously
jam nuts moving the drag brace. Remember that been reached only by accident.
shortening the drag brace moves the blade aft. This Vibration is sensed through the use of an acceler-
shortening must be kept in small increments of a ometer. This device is a piezoelectric type, meaning
flat or less of the brace. Movement of most heads is that the sensing element is a special crystal that
limited. generates an electrical signal when it is strained or
Step 3: Retighten the jam nuts and operate the squeezed. The crystals are sandwiched between a
helicopter. If the vibration is reduced to an accept- base and an internal mass. This particular mass is
able level, no further adjustment is necessary. If made of tungsten and is more dense than lead. When
the vibration becomes worse, return the blade to its the airframe vibrates, the accelerometer moves as a
original setting and repeat Step 2 with the op- unit, causing the mass to pull away from and squeeze
posite blade. If the vibration becomes better, but the crystal, generating an alternating voltage with
still is not acceptable, repeat the process, using 1/2 each vibration cycle. This signal is in turn filtered
flats, until the vibration is reduced. electronically to eliminate any other vibrations that
141
might be sensed, because the accelerometer can- the main rotor of a semirigid rotor system. The
not discriminate. For example, if vibrations of the object is to reduce the vibration level to the center
main rotor were being sought and the main rotor is of the chart. The corrective action necessary is
operated in the 325 RPM range, it would be desir- given along the side and bottom of the chart. The
able to eliminate all vibrations that were in other circular portion is used to record the intensity of
ranges. This is done by filtering out any vibrations the vibration in IPs on the clock angle. For example,
of the engine, shafts, and bearings that were also if the vibration had an intensity of .5 Ips, it would
rotating, but were of no interest to the operator be charted in the fifth ring. If the phaser placed the
seeking the vibration level of the main rotor. After clock angle at 4 o’clock, the point of vibration
the impulse is filtered, it is brought to a meter would be charted to a point at 4 o’clock on the fifth,
which shows the vibration in Inches Per Second or .5, ring of the chart. By moving directly across
(Ips) to movement. This movement indicates the and down from that point, the corrective action
intensity of the vibration of the rotor system. The indicated would be to add 4 grams to the blade
goal is to reduce this vibration to the lowest levels indicated and sweep the indicated blade one incre-
possible. It is not uncommon to bring this level to ment. These procedures would be repeated until
.11Ps or less. the vibration level is reduced to the desired level
In order to determine the location of the vibra- and may require three or more moves.
tion in relation to the rotor, the phase angle (clock A somewhat different graph is used for a multi-
angle) must be determined. This determination blade rotor, but the graphing procedure is basically
will indicate the steps necessary to reduce the the same. No correction is made for sweep since
vibration level. This is accomplished by a signal there are no adjustments with the fully articulated
from a magnetic pick-up pulse and the filtered head. All dynamic balancing will be done by addi-
accelerometer signal. The magnetic pick-up is tion or subtraction of weight (Fig. 5-105).
mounted to the stationary portion of the swash- At times, after the first move, the vibration be-
plate with interrupters mounted to the rotating comes worse instead of better. In this situation the
portion. With each revolution of the rotor, the mag- chart will need correction. Since the chart repre-
netic lines of the pick-up are disturbed and an im- sents the best average of many sample readings,
pulse occurs (Fig. 5-103). With the filtered acceler- the difference from one airframe to another may
ometer signal, this is used to light a ring of 24 make a difference in the correction, both in the
lights in the phaser section of the equipment. This amount of weight and the clock angle. The correc-
ring of lights represents a clock, in half-hour incre- tion of weight is quite simple. For example, if the
ments, with the 12 and 6 o’clock positions being at weight change brought the move line closer to the
the top and bottom repectively. With the intensity center of the graph in a straight line, but not far
of the vibration in IPS and the clock angle in the enough, more weight must be added. By the same
phaser lights, the vibration can be shown graph- reasoning, if the move line went past the center,
ically and corrective action can be determined. less weight should have been added. The clock an-
Using the equipment manufactured by Chadwick- gle, however, is not so easy to correct. To be able to
Helmuth Co., Inc., charts have been designed for spe- correct this situation, one must first understand
cific helicopters (Fig. 5-104). This chart represents what the moves should do in relation to the chart.
1. Ifa pair of moves is made exactly as called for,
UP OR RIGHT the move line should go towards the center of
the charts.
2. If only one of the two weights is changed, the
move line should be parallel to the fine lines
extending from the unchanged axis. In other
DOWN OR LEFT words, the weight on the second axis was not
changed, so no change should be indicated.
DOWN OR LEFT
NOTE: On multi-blade systems, consider only

A
the presection in which the first point lies.
It
| If the move lines do not follow this order, the clock
ee

1 ot
Itt
angle must be corrected. A clock corrector is fur-
UP OR RIGH nished for this purpose. This is a clear MYLAR®
—

sheet with a movable A-B which rotates about a rivet

Fig. 5-103 Accelerometers are directional. at point A.
142
 BALANCE CHART #3730 Date
For WHIALIGIG, Model 10
MAIN ROTOR (Huey configuration) Serlal No.
O00
SSS

ist Run 2nd Run 3rd Run 4th Run Sth Run

TRACK

Clock Angle

A READINGS
“ps”

xX XQ ae. XA
GRAMS ON TARGET
BOLT
GRAMS ON BLANK
soLt NEVER SWEEP
Cc MOVE BLADE FORWARD
SWEEP TARGET OF SCOPED OR
BLADE AFT STRUNG POSITION

SWEEP BLANK
BLADE AFT

NOTES - 1) Set tabs at trail. Adjust for good track at 100%, flat pitch, on the ground, using pitch link only.

2) Set BALANCER to 400 RPM. Push “TEST” button and check that the 12:00 and 6:00 o'clock lights are lighted. Release button.
3) Observe Clock Angle of lighted fight, then press “VERIFY TUNE” button. Adjust “RPM TUNE” dial WHILE BUTTON IS PUSHED to return light to angle
observed BEFORE BUTTON WAS PUSHED. Release button, observe angle, press and adjust again to match new “unpushed” angle. Repeat until there is NO
CHANGE WHETHER BUTTON IS PUSHED OR RELEASED.
4)Record Clock Angle and “IPS” In section A of Chart. Plot In B (label It #1). Note Indicated changes In C.

5)Make changes as Indicated. Run ship to check result (label It point #2). Repeat as required to reduce “IPS” to .2 or less.

6)If “Move Line” (point #1 to #2) is not In correct direction, use “Clock Angle Corrector” #3597, and assign new numbers to clock. SEE MANUAL FOR DETAILS.

TAKE BALANCE READINGS ONLY

WHEN SHIP IS IN TRACK. 4

Target Blade
Is forward
when double
interrupter
is over
Magnetic Pickup.

BLANK Blade

/
8
TARGET ET BladBlade ACCELEROMETER 40 ; yo TARGET on
nse c of pian K
Viewed from top cao 1O™
gut

Fig. 5-104 Typical chart used to correct vibration.

143
 BALANCE CHART #3703 Date
For WHIRLIGIG, Model 10
MAIN ROTOR (3 Blade) Serlal No.
(a
TN ——————————
ist Run 2nd Run 3rd Run 4th Run Sth Run

TRACK

Clock Angle
A READINGS

“Ips”

TARGET

Cc wove| A

NOTES - 1)Set good ground track, 100%, flat pitch.

2)Set BALANCER to 400 RPM. Run ship 100%, flat pitch, on the ground. Push “TEST” button and check for 12:00, 4:00 and 8:00 o'clock lights.
3)Release “TEST” button and OBSERVE ANGLE OF LIGHTED LIGHT. Then press “VERIFY TUNE” button and adjust “RPM TUNE” dial, WHILE BUTTON IS
PUSHED, to return light to angle observed BEFORE button was pushed. Release button, observe angle, press and adjust again to match new “unpushed”
angle. Repeat until there Is NO CHANGE whether button Is pushed or released.
4)Read Clock Angle, and “IPS” with button released, record In Section “A”, plot In “B” (label It #1), and note changes in “C”.

5)Add weights as Indicated. Run ship and repeat readings. (Label 2nd point #2). Repeat until “IPS” Is .2 or less.
6)!f Move Line (point #1 to #2) is not In the correct direction, use "Clock Angle Corrector” #3597, and assign new numbers to the clock. If two exact weight
changes are made, the Move Line should go thru the center. If only one weight is changed, the Move Line should be parallel to the fine lines extending from the
other axis of the “ple section”.

Mt, after balancing, all blades have welghts, remove equally until one or more have no welghts.

WEIGHT at Blade Tips

-GRAMS-

FORWARD 0
aE EEEEEEeeeE
TARGET Blade is forward
when double Interrrupter
Is over Magnetic Pickup.
“A” Blade

ACCELEROMETER
“B" Blade
VIEWED FROM TOP

Fig. 5-105 Typical chart used on a multibladed system.

144
 BALANCE CHART #3730
For WHIRLIGIG, Model 10
MAIN ROTOR (Huey configuration) Serlal No.

ist Run 2nd Run 3rd Run 4th Run 5th Run

TRACK

Clock Angle
A READINGS
“ps”

GRAMS ON TARGET
BOLT

GRAMS ON BLANK
BOLT NEVER SWEEP
Cc MOVE BLADE FORWARD
SWEEP TARGET OF SCOPED OR
BLADE AFT STRUNG POSITION

SWEEP BLANK
BLADE AFT

NOTES - 1) Set tabs at trall. Adjust for good track at 100%, flat pitch, on the ground, using pitch link only.

2) Set BALANCER to 400 RPM. Push “TEST” button and check that the 12:00 and 6:00 o'clock lights are lighted. Release button.
3) Observe Clock Angle of lighted light, then press “VERIFY TUNE” button. Adjust “RPM TUNE” dial WHILE BUTTON IS PUSHED to return light to angle
observed BEFORE BUTTON WAS PUSHED. Release button, observe angle, press and adjust again to match new “unpushed” angle. Repeat until there is NO
CHANGE WHETHER BUTTON IS PUSHED OR RELEASED.
4)Record Clock Angle and “IPS” In section A of Chart. Plot in B (label It #1). Note Indicated changes In C.

5)Make changes as Indicated. Run ship to check result (label It polnt #2). Repeat as required to reduce “IPS” to .2 or less.
6)If “Move Line” (point #1 to #2) is not In correct direction, use “Clock Angle Corrector” #3597, and assign new numbers to clock. SEE MANUAL FOR DETAILS.

TAKE BALANCE READINGS ONLY

WHEN SHIP IS IN TRACK.

fe
ewe? oe

: Second Reading

9 {¥

Target Blade
Is forward
when double
interrupter
is over
Magnetic Pickup.

BLANK Blade

TARGET Blade
ACCELEROMETER 40 yo TARGET on peo
pad? oe euank
Viewed from top gud" cect trom

Fig. 5-106 Chart showing first and second corrections.

145
 A NOTE: The accelerometers are directional. Attach
the cable to the accelerometer and Channel A of
ADD SUBTRACT the Strobex™
HOURS HOURS FROM .
TO CLOCK. clock Step 7: Mount the second accelerometer in the verti-
2 ‘, cal position on the right side of the console with
. . the plug facing down. Plug this into Channel B.
é / . . \ Step 8: The Strobex™ unit will operate on either 12
(Make numbers larger) 0 (Make numbers smatiter) or 24 VDC. Attach the power cables to the bat-
tery power.
Fig. 5-107 Clock corrector used to correct charts.
Step 9: Attach tip targets to the main rotor.
The directions are as follows and are printed on At this point the hook-up is complete. As in any
the card: other balancing procedure, it is most important
1. Place the eyelet “A” over the first reading of the that the helicopter is in track before balance
move line. is attempted. For this reason the track will be
oo checked first. This procedure is outlined in the
2.
Rotate the corrector body so that A-O points in following steps. Different models of this equip-
the direction that the move line should go. ment may require variations to this procedure, but
3. Holding the corrector body firmly, rotate index basically it will be the same (Fig. 5-108).
A-B so that it goes through the second reading.
4. Read the required correction on the scale and
change the clock by writing the new numbers
on the chart.
5. Replot the second reading and proceed as before.
If correction is not possible after this step or no
orderly manner of balancing can be obtained, re-
turn to the original condition. If this original con-
dition cannot be repeated, look for rotor problems
such as bearings, linkages, and mounts.
In order that the complete balancing procedure
may be understood, the typical main rotor balance
of a Bell 47 will be described:
Step 1: Attach the magnetic pick-up bracket to the -
left side of the front pitch horn of the fixed Fig. 5-108 Balancer unit produced by Chadwick-
swashplate. The fingers of the bracket straddle Helmuth Co., Inc.
the pitch horn.
Step 2: Place the magnetic pick-up in the hole pro-
vided and tighten the jam nut loosely. The gap
will be adjusted later.
Step 3: Mount the two interrupters to the rotating
swashplate. Turn the head so the red blade is for-
ward. The double interrupter is mounted at that
point. Place the single interrupter to the rear.
Step 4: Adjust the pickup so that a gap of .060 plus
or minus .010 is between the interrupters and
the pickup. Tighten the jam nuts and safety
when the gap is established.
Step 5: Connect the cable and tape it to the structure
so that no interference of the controls is present.
The cable will then be connected to the magnetic
pickup Channel A of the Strobex™ unit.
Step 6: Mount one accelerometer in the cabin at the top
of the rear cabin bulkhead. The cylindrical axis
must be horizontal with the connector to the left. Fig. 5-109 Strobex™ unit.
146
 IN-FLIGHT TRACKING CHART #3875
For BELL 206 & OH-58 (See Chart #4294 for 206L) Date:
MAIN ROTOR Serial No:

80 ist Run 120 80 2nd Run 120 80 3rd Run 120 80 4th Run 120 80 Sth Run 120 80 6th Run 120
— ——— — — —
1 1 ' ' ' ‘

TRACK 1 ‘ ' t : ‘
1 1 ‘ t ' t
\ 1 t 1 ' 1
A Clock Angle 1 t ' ' 1 '
'
' i '
' '
READINGS a : . 1 +
"IPs" ' i ' i
' i i i i :
XY 7 Ny 7 NZ NS 7 XZ
NOTE CHANGE

TO TAB OR
Ci MOVE
PITCH-LINK.

IDENTIFY BLADE.

wores - . Ship must be in good ground track, as from balancing operation (see chart #3411] for the OH-58 or #3451
or the .
2) Fly ship at 80 MPH. Sketch observed track. Set Balancer to 354 RPM (OH-58) or 394 for the (206). Place “Function”
switch to Channel "B". Press “Test” button and check that the 12:00 and 6:00 O'Clock lights are lighted. Release
utton,
3) Observe "Clock Angle" of lighted light, then press "Verify Tune" button. Adjust “RPM Tune" dial WHILE BUTTON IS
PUSHED to return light to angle observed BEFORE BUTTON WAS PUSHED, Release button, observe angle, press and adjust
again to match new UNPUSHED angle. Repeat until there is NO CHANGE WHETHER BUTTON IS PUSHED OR RELEASED.
‘ Record "Clock Angle” and "IPS" in section A of chart.
5) Increase speed to 120 MPH (or high speed) and repeat “Track” and Channel "B" readings as above. Plot 120 MPH
readings in section B of chart.
6) Make indicated changes. Run ship to
check result, (label it point #2).
Repeat as required to reduce
"IPS" to .2 or less.
Read vertical one-per-rev
vibration (“IPS" and "Clock
Angle") and observe track
at 80 and 120 MPH. Plot
Channel “B" vertical read-
190 ings at 120 MPH or fastest
airspeed attained.
Accelerometer connector
MUST point DOWN. See
Checklist #4300 for
detailed installation
instructions.

29

Target Blade
is forward \
when double
interrupter g @
is over
Magnetic Pickup.

Blank
Blade

Viewed from top.

Use Tab to move blade up

y* or down if visual track
@ A and one-per-rev vertical
aor vibration level ("IPS")
ot change greatly with air-
Copyright 1976
Chadwick-Helmuth Co., Inc. g speed.

Fig. 5-110 In flight tracking chart.

147
 The next step is to set the balancer as follows: is used placing the accelerometer in the vertical
Step 10: Set balancer. position in the front of the cabin. This procedure
a. Magnetic pick-up to “common” will require the use of the vibrex and the phaser
b. Interrupter logic to “double” _and channel selector will be placed on Channel B.
c. Function switch to “track” For in-flight tracking operation, a different chart
d. RPM range to “X1” will be used. This chart will be specifically de-
e. RPM tune to “350” signed for the model of helicopter and will appear
NOTE: When the balancer is powered, the RPM very similar to the balance chart, except that it
knob should be moved only when the “verify will indicate trim tab and pitch link adjustments.
tune” button is depressed. During flight the clock angle and “tps” are noted
Step 11: Check the Strobex™ unit with Model and corrections are made in, accordance with the
135M-11. chart for the particular helicopter, as required. A
At this time the equipment is set to check the typical chart for this purpose is shown in Fig. 5-110.
track. It is important that the helicopter is in track Additional use of this equipment may be desir-
prior to any vibration analysis. For this the same able for tail rotors and vibrations in various parts
basic procedure is used. Tabs are placed in neutral of the helicopter. All that is necessary is to know
and the helicopter is brought up to operating the RPM of the component that is to be checked.
speed, around 350 rotor RPM. The Strobex™ is trig-
gered by the interrupters so that the light image
8. Dampener maintenance
Although fully articulated heads do not have ad-
will be visible at the front of the ship. The ideal
justments of drag braces or blade alignment,
image will appear as a (+). If the image looks like
blades are hinged for fore and aft movement. These
this, (T), the horizontal target needs to be brought
blades do have dampeners which affect the position
down or the vertical target up. If the image is re-
of the advancing and retreating blade. These
versed, the opposite must be done. Adjustments are
dampeners are of three basic types: The hydraulic
made until the image is corrected. Quite often, the
cylinder, the multiple disk, and the elastomeric
images will not be superimposed. This may be due
bearing. Any of these systems can cause an im-
to the gap of the interrupter, or the single interrup-
balance of the rotor systems during operation. In
ter may need to be bent slightly. If two images are
fact, it is sometimes hard to distinguish whether
close enough to verify the blade position, no correc-
the vibration is vertical or lateral in nature. This is
tive action will be necessary.
due to the position that is sought by the advancing
Step 12: Set the hover track by adjusting the pitch and retreating blade in relation to the lift of the
link. When the track is adjusted properly at blade (Fig. 5-111). This may result in what would
hover, the ship is ready for a vibration check. best be described as a shuffle with a 1:1 beat of
Step 13: Set the function to channel A. This is the the rotor.
lateral accelerometer. The balancer should still
be at 350 RPM.
Step 14: Push the test button. Lights should appear
at the 12 o’clock and 6 o’clock positions of the
phaser while the button is being pressed. Push BAD
the “verify to tune” button and adjust the “ReM DAMPENER
tune”. Release and observe the phaser lights. If
the lights remain in the same positions, the tune
is set correctly. If not, repeat until they do. This
will be rather slow especially on a turbocharged
ship because of RPM fluctuations. After tuning is
Fig. 5-111 Incorrect blade position on the lead-lag
complete, read and record the phaser and IPs on axis.
the chart. When this is done — make only one of
the moves indicated. Always take the greater of a. Hydraulic dampener
the moves. Upon completion of the required work, The hydraulic dampener makes use of a cylinder
repeat the process. If the Ips becomes lower, con- and piston with fluid passing through a controlled
tinue'until an indication of .1 IPs or lower is read. If orifice. Dampeners of this type are adjustable so
the move increases the IPS, use the clock corrector. the rate of the dampener can vary (Fig. 5-112).
This equipment may also be used for in-flight Many of the newer dampeners are sealed units,
tracking. During this procedure, the rotor system making field adjustment impossible.
148
 l
|

N
N
N
o4
od
ot
|

I
I

nt
—! !
1 ot

tol

rae
1)
1)
_

“4,

14
'y
1;
i
1

[,
T

'

N
N
NJ
NJ
7 Ss Se

ESS)
MN

Z Oke
= CULM
UY
Ul
NY
(SSM
om

Gy =
OILITE
BUSHING

—<—. 0-RING

BUSHING

Fig. 5-113 Multiple disc dampener used on Hughes 500C.

149
 b. Multiple disk dampener
The second type of dampener makes use of a
multiple disk arrangement held in a cylinder. The

Se Se
discs are submerged in hydraulic fluid for cooling
and lubrication. Passing through the center of the
cylinder and disks is a splined shaft. Every other
disk is splined to mate with the shaft so movement
IN PHASE AND TRACK OUT OF PHASE
of the shaft will rotate the disks. Between each disk
BLADES TRAILING AND
is a plate which is splined to the housing so that no
CLIMBING
rotation takes place. Thus any movement of the
shaft which is attached to the blade will cause fric-
tion between the disk and plate. The amount of
Fig. 5-115 One blade out of phase.
friction will be controlled by spring tension on the
The best method of checking dampener action is
top of the stack of disks and plates (Fig. 5-113).
probably the use of a strobe, as used for tracking
With the use of dampeners, it is sometimes pos-
purposes. If a blade is out of phase with the other
sible to get the blades out of phase through ground blades, it will be readily recognized by a gap in the
handling. This may be corrected by simply moving images as shown in Fig. 5-115.
the blades back into position by hand, thus moving
the blade to its relative position of advancing or c. Elastomeric dampener
retreating. The elastomeric dampener is a relatively new
The dampener condition is usually checked by development which should prove quite effective
and maintenance free. Like other elastomerics, it
feel, with the maintenance personnel moving the
is of bonded rubber and metal construction. The
tip of the blade about the lead-lag axis and noting
dampener consists of an aluminum cylinder filled
the force required and any bad spots in the travel.
The dampeners may also be tested by a bench with a rubber-like material. A clevis is attached to
check (Fig. 5-114). Here a dead weight is used and each end, one of which is adjustable and attached
the time required is noted. to a rod of rubber-like material in the cylinder. The
dampener works on the principle of hysteresis.
Another type of dampener is checked by discon-
This means that when the rubber material is com-
necting the dampener from the blade and using a
pressed or a sheer load is applied, the shape is
torque wrench adapter, measuring the torque re-
changed and it slowly returns to its original shape.
quired to move the dampener through its range.
This feature will allow the blade to hunt, or move,
in its lead-lag axis, as required for advancing and
retreating blades (Fig.5-116).
Actually, no maintenance is performed on the
dampener itself It is simply a replacement item.
To obtain correct phasing, however, the adjustable
SUSPENSION CABLE clevis must be moved to obtain alignment of the
rotor. This procedure is not necessary with the hy-
ff restmainina cate
draulic dampeners, because they have no neutral
position as the elastomeric type of dampener does.
CABLE AND
ATTACHING RINGS:

This alignment may be brought about by the

string method and the sighting method. With the
string and scope methods, the rotor must be neu-
tralized by placing the cyclic in neutral and plac-
ing a protractor on the pitch housing. With the
protractor in position, the collective is moved until
neutral is established. The string is placed on the
phasing tool to the line on the blade (Fig. 5-117). A
sighting is taken down the string and the damp-
ener arm is adjusted until the alignment is estab-
lished. The same basic procedure is used with the
scope. The controls are neutralized and the scope,
rather than a string, is placed in position for sight-
Fig. 5-114 Testing of a hydraulic dampener. ing (Fig. 5-118).
150
 JAM NUT

TURNBUCKLE
BOLT
WASHER Y. —
° °

WASHER
NUT JAM NUT
COTTER PIN
JAM NUTS SAFETY WIRED
TO TURNBUCKLE AFTER
FINAL ADJUSTMENT DAMPENER CLEVIS
ATTACHMENT

BLADE ATTACHING PIN

DAMPENER

BLADE TAB

FITTING
VENT HOLES
TIP CAP
BLIND RIVET

FORWARD BALANCE
WEIGHT
SCREW +o THREADED
INSERT
FORWARD TIP CAP

Fig. 5-116 Elastomeric dampener used on the Hughes 500D.

151
 POINT
STRING POINT A EYE SIGHT
| B ALONG STRING
' P

POINT
<a “1

LEAD LAG BOLT

(NOTE 2) !
PITCH HOUSING PIVOT PIN
7
HANDLE
(NOTE 1)

WHITE LINE A
Lo STRING PHASING TOOL

i STRING

BLADE PHASING
TARGET LINE Jeo~
S293
2 “A
eo

> Sy 2

LS
STRING

NOTE:

1. APPLY TENSION TO REMOVE ANY

SLACK IN THE STRING.

2. REMOVE BALANCE WASHERS AND

SCREW.

Fig. 5-117 String method of dampener alignment.

152
 " 3.5-4.5” "|

1.65”
WHITE LINE

B
BLADE PHASING
TARGET LINE

LA ——

Ly TELESCOPE AND
TRUNNION STRAPS
a
ae COLUMN
Ke & 2 oO2 2 x 2 2 & S 2 a2 a race
& 2 2oOOy
<2
‘
Y Y

Y 5Q 2 x 2 % °, Q 22 3 OLOLox& 2 oO
S25
A? K ws

e 2 SS> S eS 2xeS a8
55
> oSao

BASE ASSEMBLY
2 rates
=

x >S *.
\?
RX

v8

A
TELESCOPE BASE ATTACHMENTS

Ay '

MAIN ROTOR SHAFT AA Re Y \

. aE (Se
> MAIN ROTOR HUB
_~ >, \@ 1 g wz A PITCH CONTROL
—_~ TD PEEL ~~ { Pivot PIN
rep

9 f Se Ti, Y Ss | =>
Qa i

@®

“
A> o>

Fig. 5-118 Scope method of dampener alignment.

153
 9. Counterweight adjustment For this reason, the autorotation speed is set in
Some rotor systems, such as the Bell 47 and the accordance with a chart (Fig. 5-121), or by loading
Hiller 12, use a counterweight on the head to aid in the helicopter both heavy and light to check the
raising the collective. Often when the head is re- _RPM. The way the adjustment is set will vary from
built or the blades are replaced, it is necessary to helicopter to helicopter. In most situations the
change the weights so that the collective is not too pitch change links are adjusted equally to increase
heavy or too light. In an ideal situation, force on or decrease rotor RPM by changing the pitch of the
the collective should neutralize at any position, Totor, or by changing the length of the collective
meaning that neither an upward nor downward pitch rod.
force is required to hold pitch in the rotor. Too much In discussing the various maintenance tech-
weight will lighten the collective, while not niques and adjustments, remember that most of
enough will make the collective heavy. The addi- these are for the purpose of making the initial ad-
tion or subtraction of weight on the Bell is simply justments to the head assembly. They are not
changing the number of washers at the top of the “cure-alls’ and no attempt should be made to cure
head, as seen in Fig. 5-119. problems by simply adjusting.
The Hiller uses the same type of method, with For the most part there is no reason, after the
weight being placed inside the pitch tubes un- initial adjustments are made, they should not re-
til the proper collective weight is established main
as they are, unless replacement maintenance
(Fig. 5-120). is performed on components that will affect the
initial settings. Before any readjustment is at-
10. Autorotation adjustments tempted, a thorough inspection is necessary. While
When adjustments are made to the main rotor bad dampeners, worn rod ends, and mounts can be
system, the autorotation ability of the helicopter related to the problem, retrack, rebalance, and
may be affected. This is the reason that any time sweep adjustments cannot. Track, balance, and
work is performed that may affect autorotation, it sweep may improve the problem a little, but will
is important to check the autorotation speed. If the not solve it, and often will do nothing but add to the
rotor is too fast in autorotation, retreating blade number of man-hours devoted to maintenance.
stall may occur. If the rotor RPM is too slow, the rotor It would be most difficult to formulate one
lift will not support the helicopter. Since autorota- _ troubleshooting guide which would be all inclusive
tion is an emergency procedure, it is most impor- _foy rotor systems, because of variations, For this
tant that the rotor RPM be set prior to the emer- _ reason there are two guides, for general informa-
gency condition as recovery without power is not tion only, on the fully articulated and semirigid
probable with low rotor RPM. rotors. These are contained in Fig. 5-122. Always
The autorotation RPM is affected by the gross remember that simple logic will be the best pro-
weight of the helicopter and the density altitude. cedure in solving problems.

154
 COUNTERWEIGHTS

Fig. 5-119 Counterweights used to assist collective movement on Bell 47.

‘ Ba BALLAST CROSS ARM

> CRBS <arne
ea

INCIDENCE PUSH ‘CG ASE

ROD ASSEMBLY of
VY [Re P
Iq BALLAST FLYWEIGHT
INCIDENCE ARM W KI xe . TUBE
ASSEMBLY Z S, THO Y @
cS ]

BALLAST WEIGHTS
[ [I
fo

Fig. 5-120 Ballast arms used on Hiller 12 for collective assist.

155
 DENSITY ALTITUDE CHART

24,000 24,000

22,000
20,000 20,000

18,000 18,000

16,000 16,000

14,000 14,000
DENSITY ALTITUDE

DENSITY ALTITUDE
12,000 12,000

10,000 10,000

8,000 8,000

6,000 6,000

4,000 4,000

2,000 F 2,000

SL SL

— 2,000 — 2,000

— 4,000 — 4,000

— 6,000 — 6,000

— 8,000 8,000
- -30 ~-20 r 10 10 20 30 40 60
TEMPERATURE -°C

t 7 r T T T T =
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 «140

TEMPERATURE - °F

369 SERIES AUTOROTATION RPM CHART

Gross Stabilized Autorotation RPM at Density Altitude

Weight
(ib) Sea Level 1000 Ft. 2000 Ft. 3000 Ft. 4000 Ft. 5000 Ft.

1900 447 - 457 454 - 464 461 - 471 468 - 478 475 - 485 482 - 492
2000 459 - 469 466 - 476 473 - 483 480 - 490 487 - 497 494 - 504
2100 471 - 481 478 - 488 485 - 495 492 - 502 499 - 509 —_—-—
2200 483 - 493 490 - 500 497 - 507 504 - 514 —_—__—— a

NOTES:
1. Chart values based upon 15° C (59° F) OAT. At sea level, 8° C (14° F) temperature
change is equal to 1000 ft. change in density altitude.
2. Perform autorotation rpm checks at gross weight/density altitude combinations for
which rpm values are given. Blank spaces indicate that application of collective pitch
may be necessary to avoid rotor overspeed.

Fig. 5-121 Autorotation chart used on Hughes 500.

156
 ‘TROUBLE SHOOTING MAIN ROTOR

INDICATION OF TROUBLE PROBABLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

1:1 Lateral vibration

(a) In hover or forward Spanwise out-of-balance Dynamically balance with tape
flight
Chordwise out-of-balance Dynamically balance by sweeping blade

“Hub rock” Adjust equalizer links

(b) Bumping in abrupt One dynamic stop cable too short. Rig Dynamic stop cables
maneuvers (2:1 if both cables short)

Sprag mount weak or one safety Readjust sprag mount system or

cable too short. (2:1 if both replace parts
sides)

1:1 Vertical vibration

(or bounce)

(a) In hover and forward Rotor out-of-track Adjust trim tabs

flight

(b) In forward flight but Climbing blade Compare high and low speed. track
but not hover Adjust

2:1 Vibrations

(a) In hover or forward Mast misaligned Adjust sprag mounts

flight
Excessive play in sprag Replace worn parts. Pre-load
mounting lateral sprag rods

Elevator buffeting Adjust elevator cable tension

(b) Bumping in maneuvers See (b) under !:1 Lateral

Collective pitch control Incorrect counterweights Adjust counterweights

creeping in normal cruise

Rotor rpm high or low Minimum pitch blade angle Adjust both pitch control rods
in autorotation incorrect

Erratic nudging of Rotor unstable on Sweep both blades aft

cyclic control'stick longitudinal axis

Fig. 5-122 Typical semirigid rotor troubleshooting chart.

157
 Abnormal Vibrations

A. Rotor System - Low-Frequency

1. Blades - low-frequency. Common low-frequency vibrations are

1:1, 2:1, vibration beat with each revolution of the main rotor

a. Lateral - 1-per-rev causes lateral motion in seat

(1) Dampers - setting and phase

(2) Blades out of balance
(3) Damaged strap pack
(4) Binding in lead-lag hinge

b. Vertical - l1-per-rev causes bounce in seat

(1) Blade track

(2) Vibration absorbers malfunctioning - 3- and 5-per-rev
(3) Tabs improperly adjusted
(4) Damper out of adjustment and/or phase
(5) Pitch control bearing worn and/or binding

B. Tail Rotor Vibration - Medium- to High-Frequency

1. Medium- to high-frequency buzzing vibration felt in pedals and

structure; vibration noticeable from low rpm on up through
operating (3020) rpm

a. Causes

(1) Assembly out of balance

(2) Tail rotor gearbox output shaft runout excessive
(3) Stabilizer attach points loose
(4) Excessive abrasion
(5) Abrasion strip loose
(6) Worn gearbox bearings
(7) Boom attach points loose
(8) Tail rotor assembly attach nut loose, allowing fork to
shift on conical split ring
(9) Tail rotor swashplate bearing worn (could show as a
wobble of swashplate)

Fig. 5-123 Typical fully articulated rotor troubleshooting chart.

158
Chapter VI
Mast and Flight Controls
Introduction
The mast is the attachment point of the main The mast is a critical item and in some instances
rotor. It is a tube that is attached to the helicopter’s has a finite life. The construction of the mast assem-
transmission. The mast absorbs torsional and ten- bly varies considerably from one manufacturer to
sion loads received from the engine torque and the another. Some masts only support the head assem-
weight of the helicopter in flight. This chapter will bly, while others also may support the stabilizer bar
define the components of the mast and flight controls assembly. The mast also drives the swashplate (star
and explain how the pilot can change the pitch of the assembly) through which the flight controls operate.
blades and the angle of the rotor plane with the First, let’s consider the mast of the Bell 47 (Fig. 6-1).
cyclic and collective. This mast, mounted in and driven by the transmis-
sion, drives the flight control units and main rotor. For
A. The Mast this purpose it is equipped with five sets of splines
The main rotor is attached to the mast assembly. used as attaching points for the following items:
This is a tube that is attached to the helicopters 1 Main rotor
transmission. It absorbs torsion and tension loads 2 Stabilizer bar
received from engine torque and the weight of the
3. Dampener bracket
helicopter in flight.
4 Swashplate
5. Transmission
Thread portions are provided for the mast nut at
the top, and the mast bearing on the lower end. The
mast bearing is a split inner race thrust bearing.
The outer race is supported and held in place by a
cap on top of the transmission. The inner race,
locked to the flange of the mast by a nut assembly,
rotates with the mast. This is the main support for
the mast and provides the primary point of rotation
and thrust. It is one of the more critical bearings in
the helicopter.
Other features of the mast include grooves for snap
rings used to hold flight components. Some masts
have a cork placed in the bottom, preventing trans-
SECO

mission oil from entering the mast. In addition, an

aluminum plug is placed in the top of the hollow
mast, preventing distortion of the mast due to torque
applied to the rotor head retaining nut. The rotor
1. SNAP RING
head is supported on a set of split cones at the rotor
2. SEAL head trunnion. The trunnion is splined to accept the
3. CAP
4, RETAINING NUT first set of splines. On top of the rotor are placed the
5. LOCK WASHER
6. MAST BEARING stops for the rotor. The nut is threaded down on the
7.
8.
MAST
CORK
mast, and secured with a locking retainer.
A completely different type of mast assembly is
found on the Hughes 500 helicopter series. This is
a hollow, stationary mast (Fig. 6-2). The obvious
advantage of this type of system is that the mast
may be built lighter because it is not stressed in the
Fig. 6-1 Mast assembly used on the Bell 47. same manner as the rotating mast. The rotating
159
 @) RETAINER

cs
LOCKNUT
HUB INNER LINER CONTACT SURFACE

MAIN ROTOR MAST TUBE

tea {LEFT-HAND THREADS)

MAIN ROTOR
MAST
MAST BASE

Fig. 6-2 Mast assembly used on the Hughes 500.

mast must not only support and turn the main ro- SEAL RETAINER
MAIN ROTOR HUB
tor, but also absorb the flight loads. The static mast
is attached to the structure of the airframe, elim- Fig. 6-4 Locknut and retainer system used to secure
inating the stresses that would normally be placed the rotor head to the mast.
on the transmission. Passing through the center of
the mast is the driveshaft used to power the rotor. Some twin engine helicopters in use today use a
This driveshaft is splined to the transmission and mast with a torque meter installed. An example, as
has a flange on top which bolts to the rotor head, used on the Bell 222, is shown in Fig. 6-5. This
transferring power to the rotor (Fig. 6-3). device measures twist in the mast itself by use of a
sensor located in the bottom of the transmission. The
sensor consists of two monopole pickups. These are
Cs MAIN ROTOR located inside the lower portion of the mast and de-
DRIVE SHAFT tect torsional displacement between the two gears.
The bottom gear is solid in the lower portion of the
mast and is the reference gear. The upper gear is
attached to the top of the mast by a tube. The shift in
the two gear’s relationship is measured by the torque
signal conditioner. Because of variations in masts,
each mast is coded for its twist rate with a letter on
the mast dataplate. To insure accurate readings,
this letter must match the letter on the conditioner
box. All masts are made of machined steel forgings,
making them susceptible to corrosion, stresses,
scratches, and other damage associated with steel
to parts. As with all critical parts, rotor masts are to
Fig. 6-3 Driveshaft used on the Hughes 500. be inspected in accordance with manufacturers
recommendations contained in their manuals.
The rotor head is connected to the static mast Masts are cadmium plated to prevent corrosion.
and supported by two opposing taper bearings. The As with most highly stressed parts, they cannot be
lower bearing rides on the mast liner, and the inner replated in the field. Electroplating sets up inter-
race of the upper bearing rides on the mast itself nal stresses that cannot be relieved without special
Between the two bearings is a steel spacer which equipment. All scratches, nicks, and gouges in the
determines rotational drag of the roller bearing mast must be carefully examined. In some instances
set. The head is secured to the mast by a locknut they may be reworked to relieve any possible stress
and retainer (Fig. 6-4). concentration.
160
 CAUTION LIGHT

TAPER LOCK —>(#4- OVER

PLUG ‘
TORQ.

INSTRUMENT PANEL

TUBE

2 over ?
TORQUE
FHI,

©)
Baron
GAIN
ADJ

MAST

TORQUE SIGNAL
CONDITIONER

TO TORQUE
SIGNAL CONDITIONER

TEMPERATURE
COMPENSATOR /
Fig. 6-5 Mast torque meter assembly.

Masts used on semirigid rotors are most suscep- damaged by improper installation or lack of care
tible to damage from mast bumping, due to the when the mast is removed. The maintenance man-
underslung head striking the mast. This area must ual must always be followed.
always be inspected carefully. Damage in the radial
direction is most critical. B. Stabilizer Bar
At overhaul, masts are checked dimensionally, Several models of Bell helicopters use a stabi-
magnafluxed, and may require a run-out check for lizer bar system. The bar is either mounted on the
concentricity. mast or on the trunnion cap of the rotor. This sys-
Most masts will contain a main mast bearing. tem, as mentioned in Chapter II provides stability
This bearing is critical and must be inspected and to the helicopter. Its principle of operation is quite
installed following specific procedures. A failure of simple.
this single bearing will result in possible shearing If the helicopter rotor is disturbed by wind forces
of the mast or stoppage of the main rotor. It may be in a hover, the stabilizer bar tends to remain in its
161
 same plane of rotation due to the gyroscopic action between the mast and the stabilizer bar, centrifu-
of rigidity, even though the mast and helicopter gal force will cause the bar to seek a new position
fuselage are tilted. Since the stabilizer bar is con- perpendicular to the mast. This will take place af-
nected by linkage to the feathering axis of the ro- ter a slight delay, which must be controlled. If the
tor, relative movement between the mast and sta- delay is not controlled, a corresponding delay
bilizer bar will cause the blades to feather. This would take place in control response, making fly-
feathering of the blades will cause the rotor to re- ing difficult. Dampener units are used to achieve
turn to its original position. the desired response.
When extreme movements of the cyclic control are The dampeners are linked to the stabilizer bar,
made, the main rotor will change its plane of rota- regulating its movement. Any movement of the mast
tion. This in turn will move the helicopter and mast. will be transferred to the stabilizer bar. Its position
The stabilizer bar will remain in its same plane of will then become perpendicular to the mast at a
rotation. As this angular relationship changes predetermined rate. The bars and dampeners vary

1, NUT - BALANCE ASSEMBLY 13. PLUG - CORE ADJUSTING

2. CAP 14. GREASE FITTING
3. SPRING 15. PLATE
4. TAPER PIN 16. BEARING
5. WEIGHT 17. SET SCREW
6. MIXING LEVER 18. TUBE
7. RETAINING NUT - TUBE ASSEMBLY 19. TIE ROD
8. FRAME 20. NUT
9. SPACERS 21. ROD- END
10. CORE 22. LOCK-NUT
11. THRUST WASHER 23. STUD
12. DYNAMIC STOPS 24, LOCK-NUT

Fig. 6-6 Stabilizer assembly used on the Bell 47.

162
 somewhat in construction and placement. Basically travel. The core slides over the mast assembly and
there are two types, one that is used on the Bell 47, is held in place by two snap rings, one at the bottom
and the other found on the Bell 205 and 212 series of of the splines and one at the top. Attached to the
aircraft. core by two bearings is the frame assembly, made of
On the Bell 47 model, the stabilizer bar is at- matched halves. The frame holds the outer tube
tached to the mast assembly on the second set of and surrounds the core. It also provides a point for
splines at 90 degrees to the rotor. The stabilizer bar dampeners to attach and for attachment of mixing
is made up of seven major items. These are the: levers. Outer tubes are held by the frames and have
weights attached to the outboard end. Inside the
Core
outer tube is the tie rod, a safety device, in case the
Ne

Center frame
outer tube breaks. No load is carried by the tie rod
Mixing levers under normal conditions. The plug core is attached
NOTARY

Core plug to the frame and provides a means of greasing the

Outer tube pivot point of the center frame and core, as well as
Weight being a centering adjustment (Fig. 6-6).
. Tie rod assembly The general makeup of the other stabilizer bars
he core is splined internally to the splines of is quite similar to that of the 47, with the exception
the mast and has two ears, used as stops for the bar of being mounted above the main rotor, attaching

1. NUT 17. PIVOT BEARING SET

2. STAT-O-SEAL 18. NUT
3. BOLT 19. SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
4, CENTERFRAME 20. BOLT
5. SCREW 21. BOLT
6. NUT 22, BOLT
7. RETAINER 23. LEVER ASSEMBLY
8. BUSHING 24, LUBE FITTING
9. WASHER 25. NUT
10. WEIGHT 26. WASHER
11. NUT 27. BEARING (AN201KP-6A)
12. CABLE ASSEMBLY 28. BEARING (BR-5-R)
13. TUBE ASSEMBLY 29. BUSHING
14. KEY TYPE LOCK 30. BUSHING
15. NUT 31. BUSHING
16. PIVOT BEARING RETAINER 32. BUSHING

Fig. 6-7 Stabilizer assembly used on later model Bells.

163
 to the hub trunnion. The other major difference is
that a cable, rather than a tie rod, is placed in the
outer tube.(Fig. 6-7).
To insure smooth operation, both stabilizer bars
require static balance. On the Model 47 bar, this is
accomplished on the helicopter by disconnecting the
dampener links, pitch change rods, and linkage from
the mixing levers. A small spirit level is placed on
the upper surface of the center frame. If the bar is not
balanced, washers are added to the light side.
On the other type of bar, balance is checked with
the bar removed. A balancing rod is run through
the support bearings and the bar is suspended on Fig. 6-9 Dampener assembly used in conjunction
two level surfaces. If the bar is not balanced, with the stabilizer bar.
weight on the heavy side is moved inboard until
The dampeners themselves consist of a cylindri-
balance is achieved (Fig.6-8).
cal housing divided into four chambers by a wing
shaft. The wing shaft has passages which allow
fluid to move from one chamber to the other when
the shaft is turned. An attached arm is connected
to the stabilizer bar through the linkage. Since the
rate of movement of the bar is important, a meter-
ing valve is used to control the flow. This valve is
adjustable and temperature compensated to con-
trol the flow rate. This is acomplished by use of a
plexiglass tube that expands and contracts with
changes in temperature.
The other dampeners work in much the same
manner. They too are attached to the mast by a frame
assembly below the rotor head. The metering valve
is somewhat different, utilizing a cam and slider
valve assembly. This gives the dampener a variable
orifice, resulting in a difference in the rate of move-
ment. Slow movement of the dampener causes low
fluid flow through the orifice, which offers little resis-
tance. Rapid movement increases the resistance.
Fig. 6-8 Static balancing system used on stabilizer bars. The maintenance of these dampeners is somewhat
limited. Both dampeners require fluid level checks
This balancing of the stabilizer bar is a routine
and occasionally need additional fluid. A sight
item at major inspection periods when the compo-
gauge and a filler plug are provided for that pur-
nents are torn down and built up. Other mainte-
pose. Problems may be encountered in filling the
nance performed would include bearing changes
fluid level if too much air is present in the damp-
and shimming of the mixing levers. Normal in-
ener. Timing of the dampener is a primary concern.
spection and overhaul requirements are followed,
The Bell 47 dampener may be checked for timing
including magnetic inspection and dye penetrant
by disconnecting the linkage and attaching a spe-
inspection at overhaul.
cial arm and weight to the arm. This is then raised
and let fall free. It should take four seconds, plus or
C. Dampeners minus !/2 second, for the dampener to return to its
The dampener units used in conjunction with neutral position (Fig. 6-10). If the timing is not
the stabilizer bars differ in design. Both types use a correct, the dampener may be adjusted by moving
double action hydraulic dampener, which restricts the plexiglass tube in and out. At times it will not
the travel rate of the stabilizer in both directions. be possible to correct the timing. In this situation,
The Bell 47 utilizes two dampeners mounted ina the dampener must be removed and replaced.
frame attached to the mast and located on a set of Often, in order to determine its condition, damp-
splines below the stabilizer bar (Fig. 6-9). ener movement can be felt for soft and hard spots.
164
 1. ONE POUND WEIGHT
2. STABILIZER BAR WEIGHT
NOTE 3. STABILIZER BAR ASSEMBLY
Exhibit for checking damper in “UP” 4, LINK
stroke only. 5. DAMPER

Fig. 6-10 Timing check for proper dampener action.

ABUTMENT HOUSING

ch
SN XS

ana
Vi

1. FILLER PLUG
4 2. RETAINER RINGS (2)
3, ADAPTER
3g
4. DAMPENER TUBE
of 5. BOLT
vf-— TORQUE 6. SAFETY WASHER
30 TO 40 IN/LBS 7. DAMPENER ASSEMBLY
8. ADAPTER BOLTS
9. RETAINER RING
10. DAMPENER LEVEL
11, DAMPENER MOUNTING BOLTS
: TORQUE 20 TO 25 IN/LBS

Fig. 6-11 Dampeners used on the Bell 205.

165
 The other dampeners are checked for timing by D. Swashplate
raising the stabilizer to the stops and returning it to The swashplate transfers the movement of the
neutral position. It should take five seconds, plus or cyclic and collective control from stationary push-
minus 1 second (Fig. 6-11). There is no possible ad- pull to rotating push-pull movements that are
justment for this dampener. It can only be replaced. transferred to the rotor system.
Dampener problems include becoming too hard Each manufacturer has a different method of
or too soft. Too soft will result in an overstable heli- performing this operation. Basically, the function
copter and delayed control response. Too hard will and movements that must take place are the same
result in an unstable helicopter with too quick a regardless of who manufactures it.
control response. When collective is applied, all the rotor blades
A supplemental type certificate is now available to collectively change pitch, which means that the
remove the stabilizer bar system from the Bell 47. swashplate must be able to move up and down as it
rotates. Fig. 6-12 shows this operation.
To The cyclic movements are somewhat more compli
ROTOR TO ROTOR
canes BLADES cated because they tilt the whole rotor system left,
prea PITCH right, fore and aft. This requires universal joint
aisacd CHANGE
movement of the swashplate. The non-rotating part
moves in the same direction as desired rotor move-
ment. Action must be applied 90 degrees to the force to
ROTATING
move the rotor, due to gyroscopic precession (Fig. 6-13).
up | NON From this general information about the swash-
AND ROTATING
DOWN plate and the two types of movement, it is evident
MOVEMENT
that one movement takes place in conjunction with
the other. Fig. 6-14 shows typical movements of a
Fig. 6-12 Basic collective swashplate movement. swashplate. Each manufacturer uses his own sys-
tem of perfoming these functions.
One swashplate type is used on the Beil 206
(Fig. 6-15). It contains the following major components:
Swashplate support
Collective sleeve
SO)
Or GUN

Control plate inner ring

ke Collective lever
Swashplate thrust bearings
Fig. 6-13 Basic swashplate movement. Swashplate drive link

<=—] Forward

COLLECTIVE PITCH VARIATIONS CYCLIC PITCH VARIATION

The upper scissors (1) attached to
the rotor shaft drive the rotating The ball joint slides along the rotor The ball Joint is not moving but the
ster. shaft. The pitch variation is equal swashplate pivots about it. In the view
The lower scissors {2) attached to on all 3 blades. In the above view above the pitch decreases in front and
the housing restrain the fixed star. pitch is increasing. increases at the rear.

Fig. 6-14 Basic swashplate movements of pitch and cyclic movements.

166
 11. COLLECTIVE LEVER
12. TRUNNION
13. COLLECTIVE LEVER IDLER LINK
14. BUSHING
15. ZERK FITTING
16. OUTER RING
17. SEAL
18, DUPLEX BEARINGS
19, INNER RING CAP
20. SHIMS
21. UPPER UNIBALL BEARING
22. BOLT
23. WASHER
24, OUTER RING CAP
25. DRIVE LINK
1. SWASHPLATE SUPPORT 6. BOLT * 26, BUSHING
2. INNER RING - CONTROL PLATE 7. LOWER UNIBALL BEARING 27. BOOT
3. SLIDER 8. COLLECTIVE SLEEVE BEARING 28. DRIVE CLAMP
4. BUSHING 9. BUSHING 20. IDLER LEVER
5.0-RING 10. COLLECTIVE SLEEVE/UNIBALL 30. BUSHING - SPACER

Fig. 6-15 Swashplate assembly of the Bell 206.

The swashplate support is a one-piece aluminum The control plate inner ring contains the lower
forging through which the mast passes. This sup- Teflon® bearing which contacts the uniball. At-
port bolts to the transmission at the base. The out- tached to this plate is an inner ring cap which
side surface is anodized to provide a wear-resistant holds the shims, one of which is the upper uniball
surface. Sliding over the support is the collective bearing. The shims are used to set the tension of
sleeve. The sleeve is a forging with the upper por- the uniball. The movement of the inner ring is a
tion forming a uniball. The uniball has a hardened tilting action with no rotation.
surface on which Teflon® bearings ride. In addition, The outside of the inner ring is the thrust bearing
there are two grooves in the base portion of the sleeve surface, retained by the inner ring cap. The thrust
to accommodate Teflon® bearings, which provide bearing’s outer races make contact with the control
the surface for the sleeve movement up and down plate outer ring. The thrust bearing connecting the
on the support assembly. This movement performs inner plate to the outer plate is a duplex set of
the collective function. angular contact ball bearings. The outer ring tilts
167
with the inner ring and also rotates with the mast Another swashplate system in use is the type used
because it is driven from a drive link attached to on the Hughes 500 D (Fig. 6-17). Like all other swash-
the mast. Two additional ears are provided on the plates, it has two types of control movements, cyclic
outer ring for the attachment of pitch change rods. and collective. Collective input raises and lowers the
A collective lever is attached to the support swashplate as a unit. This changes the movement of
assembly through a link at about midpoint on the ball and socket from which the pitch on all blades
the lever arm. One end of the lever is attached is changed. Cyclic input is actually two inputs, long-
to the sleeve and the other to the collective linkage. itudinal and lateral. The two inputs move the heli-
The drive link is attached to a set of splines at the copter fore and aft, left and right, by tilting the
mast and the outer plate. This provides rotation of swashplate on the ball and socket.
outer ring without putting undue stress on the The stationary swasplate is secured to the inner race
control rods. The assembled swashplate is seen on a double row ball bearing, while the outer race of
in Fig. 6-16. the bearing is held by the rotating swashplate.

1. BOLT
2. WASHER
3. SPACER - BUSHING
4, MAST
5. IDLER LEVER
6. COTTER PIN
7. NUT
8. WASHER
9. WASHER
10. WASHER
11. DRIVE LINK
12. SPACER
13. WASHER
14, NUT
15. COTTER PIN
16. NUT
17. WASHER
18. SWASHPLATE AND SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
19. COLLECTIVE LEVER
20. INNER RING/ICONTROL PLATE
21. OUTER RING
22. BOLT
23. BOLT
24. BOOT
25. NUT
26. DRIVE CLAMP

Fig. 6-16 Assembled swashplate and drive link assembly.

168
 COUNTERWEIGHT

COUNTERWEIGHT
BEARING
ROTATING SWASHPLATE ASSEMBLY

INTERRUPTER
(TYPICAL 5 PLACES)

STATIONARY
SWASHPLATE

INDEX PROTRUSIONS DRAIN HOLES (HIDDEN)

DRAIN HOLE
(2 PLACES)

Fig. 6-17 Swashplate and star assembly used on the Hughes 500D.

The center of the inner, or stationary, swashplate is the swashplate assembly is to keep its movable sur-
the receptacle for the uniball which fits over the faces clean. For this purpose, boots and seals are
stationary mast and rides up and down on a pol- almost always installed to keep out dust that may
ished sleeve. Both the ball and the socket are lined injure the bearing surfaces. It is necessary to keep
with Teflon® for ease of movement. the swashplate properly lubricated. Instructions
The rotating swashplate is connected to pitch for proper lubrication are contained in the mainte-
change arms of each individual blade. This rotating nance manual. There is a tendency to minimize
swashplate is driven by a scissors assembly attached the lubrication requirements by using sealed bear-
to the rotor, because the mast is stationary. Because ings or using Teflon® on the bearing surfaces.
of the eccentric action of the scissors, counterweights Teflon® surfaces must be kept clean, or they will
are place on the opposite side of the scissors to ro- score with grit between surfaces.
tating swashplate connection points. One of the standard maintenance procedures on
Although other manufacturers and models of swashplates is to check the tension on the uniball
helicopters use different components and mate- and the rotating plate. This is usually accom-
rials, the basic operation of the swashplate is much plished as follows: disconnect the control rods from
the same. Possibly, the most complex swashplate the swashplate assembly, attach a spring scale to
is the Bell 47. It does not utilize a uniball design one of the pitch change horns, and pull the scale to
but a series of gimbal rings to obtain the tilt check the required tension (Fig. 6-18). If tension is
that is needed. incorrect, it may normally be adjusted by shims
The most important maintenance procedure of which determine pressure of the Teflon® bearing
169
on the ball. If it is too loose, feedback through the EK. Flight Control Systems
cyclic will occur. If the ball is too tight, jerky cyclic An understanding of the components that make
movements will result. Other maintenance may up the system is necessary prior to discussing the
include changing bearings, many of which are whole system.
spherical and will require roller staking.
1. The collective
The overhaul procedures are similar to those The collective stick is usually located on the left
found on other components: dimensional checks, side of the pilot. It normally pivots from one end
magnetic particle inspection, and dye penetrant and is raised and lowered to raise and lower the
inspection. It is not unusual to find parts that have aircraft. This is the standard design. However, one
finite lives in the swashplate assembly. new design has changed its function to a push-pull
The swashplate utilizes both cyclic and collec- type mechanism by repositioning the collective.
tive inputs. Controls are usually made of push-pull It is common for additional items to be mounted
tubes, torque tubes, bellcranks, mixer boxes, gra- on the collective, among them a twist grip. This
dient springs, magnetic brakes, bungee springs, twist grip on reciprocating engine helicopters is
counterweights, hydraulic servos, and trim mech- the throttle. Remember when using this type of
anisms. The larger the helicopter, the more com- throttle that the closed position is towards the
plex the control system. On some small helicop- thumb as the collective is normally held. This is
ters, the pilot may be able to move all the controls just the opposite on a motorcycle, even though their
without any assistance, while larger helicopters operation is the same. The throttle was placed in
require a hydraulic boost, and often artificial feel, that position because on the early helicopters, it
to aid the pilot. Some of large machines would be was necessary to adjust engine power as the collec-
completely unmanageable without assistance. tive was raised and lowered.

1. SPRING SCALE
2. SWASHPLATE OUTER RING
3. TRANSMISSION
4. SWASHPLATE INNER RING

Fig. 6-18 Checking the swashplate tension.

170
 The twist grip is used to control the compressor
RPM on helicopters having free turbine engines and
to operate the engine when the emergency fuel
system is used.
A switch box is also often placed on the top of the
collective. The early helicopters had a starter but-
ton so it could easily be reached without removing
the hand from the control. With turbine powered
aircraft, the box usually contains the trim switches
for the engines, landing lights, and searchlights,
plus the starter button. It may include other items
that might be used while the pilot had his hand on
the collective (Fig. 6-19).

Fig. 6-21 Typical friction control for cyclic.

trim. A friction lock is provided for the cyclic so the

force required to move it may be set (Fig. 6-21).

3. Push-pull tubes
The push-pull tubes used in a cyclic or collective
system may vary in construction. Some have forked
rod ends installed on both ends. Others use combina-
tions of forked and spherical bearing ends. Some end
Fig. 6-19 Typical switches contained on the collective. fittings are adjustable, while others are not. Where
very fine adjustments are called for, one end may
All collectives are also provided with a tension, or
often be coarse threaded and the other end fine
friction, adjustment. In theory, the collective should
threaded. There seems to be a tendency to reduce the
not be so heavy that it has a tendency to move down,
number of adjustable tubes. Many of the rod ends are
nor should it be so light, that it moves upward. How-
sealed with PROSEAL or METAL SET on the ad-
ever, in order to free the hand that is used for the
justable ends, providing a good moisture seal, pre-
collective for brief periods of time, it is necessary to
venting corrosion on the inside of the tube. When the
place tension on the collective. This is also used dur-
rod ends are removed, maintenance shops will often
ing run-up maintenance checks to insure that the
make a policy of flushing tubes with a primer.
collective does not come up. See Fig. 6-20 for a typical
friction device on the collective. Rod ends may be a high usage item on some helicop-
ters, depending on the type of operation, the environ-
ment, and the vibration level under which the helicop-
ter is operated. A little play in each rod end can be
excessive when multiplied by twenty or more rod ends
FRICTION in a system. When they are inspected, ends that would
CONTROL
be acceptable on fixed-wing aircraft would not be on
Fig. 6-20 Typical friction adjustment for collective. helicopters, mainly because of the number involved
and the vibration levels. If wear can be felt in either
2.. The cyclic type of rod end, it is time to change it.
The cyclic control is located in front of the pilot. Wear factors do not progress on a straight-line
It is used to tilt the rotor in all directions as the factor. For example, .001 of an inch wear that oc-
control is moved. Like the collective, switches are curred in 500 hours of operation may quadruple in
usually provided on the cyclic grip for items that the next 500 hours of operation. As the wear factor
must be used while the pilot’s hand is on the control. increases in one area, it will add to the wear factor in
This would include the microphone for communica- units connected to it. Since every unit is connected to
tion and trim switches for the aircraft. The trim another, the whole helicopter is connected in this
switch is used to alter flight controls for the load. It progression. The replacement of one worn rod end is
will normally operate fore and aft and left-right good cheap maintenance.
171
 Replacement of these rod ends may amount to no
more than loosening a jam nut and unthreading
the old one. If materials such as PROSEAL have
been used, it may require some heat and MEK
(methyl-ethyl-ketone) to remove the old rod end. In
an effort to save time, the rod is usually measured,
or the exposed threads counted. A trammel can be
used to ensure that the rod stays the same length.
This type of system will avoid re-rigging the flight
control system. However, all major rigging points
should be checked before returning the helicopter
to service.
Some rod ends may be riveted into place. This
type requires careful drilling to remove the old
rivets prior to replacement. Elongated holes in the
tube are cause for rejection. The rivets used in
these tubes and rod ends are usually steel, which
does not ease the removal or replacement. The
maintenance manual and parts catalog must be
strictly followed regarding the type of rivet to be
Fig. 6-22 Various types of push-pull tubes.
used. Usually the riveted ends are sealed with a
recommended compound such as PROSEAL. See

co Fig. 6-22 for typical rod ends installed in tubes.

Sex J
When spherical bearings are used, they must al-
PIANO WIRE ways be properly aligned. It is very easy to get the
bearing misaligned when adjusting the rod length
in place. A handy homemade tool, such as seen in
Fig. 6-23, will be most beneficial.
4. Torque tubes
ys

S>
Other items found in flight control systems are
torque tubes. Used for several different purposes in
a system, they usually lie perpendicular to the cen-
ter line of the aircraft. Torque tubes are usually
Fig. 6-23 One method to insure alignment of spheri- attached to each end of the structure by a bearing
cal bearings. so that partial rotation of the shaft may take place.

Fig. 6-24 Typical torque tubes found in a control system.

The type of bearing used varies considerably: oilite mixer is to prevent the collective input from affect-
bronze bushings, Teflon® bearings, or sealed pre- ing the cyclic input as they move together or in
lubricated ball bearings. The tube is usually held relation to each other. If such a device were not
by a saddle (Fig. 24). The torque tube may, in some installed, movement of the collective would change
instances, be used to convert a rotary motion to a the height of the cyclic setting on the swashplate
linear motion, such as the movement of the collec- and the cyclic setting would alter the collective.
tive. It may also be used to transfer the motion to
two points, such as the rotor and the engine, to
change direction or mechanical advantages, or to
transfer a movement from one place to another.
Torque tubes are inspected periodically for se-
curity, bearing wear, and cracks, especially at the
horn attachment point and rod attachment point.
5. Bellcranks Fig. 6-26 Mixer box used to transmit cyclic and col-
Closely related to the function of the torque tube lective movements.
is the bellcrank, mainly used to change direction
with a push-pull tube. The bellcrank may not be In viewing Fig. 6-27, note that when the collec-
used to change direction, but will always change tive is pulled upward, the swashplate will move
the travel of the tube and the mechanical advan- upward and the cyclic control movement that was
tage. See Fig. 6-25 for some typical bellcranks. already present will move the same amount in the
same direction. This will move the swashplate up
6. Mixer box parallel to its original position. As the collective is
Another item closely related to the torque tube lowered, the swashplate will lower, staying parallel
and bellcrank is the mixer box (Fig. 6-26). Most to its position. In viewing the mixer unit control
helicopters use a mixer box for cyclic and collective linkages at points A, B, and C, the same distance is
inputs prior to the swashplate. The purpose of the in the same direction.

. aly
{oI
BELLCRANK
ATTACHED
TO TORQUE
—>|O TUBE

TUBE

TUBE
©
=
\
( ‘
TUBE A

TUBE

Fig. 6-25 Bellcranks may be used to change directions and mechanical advantage.

173
 In Fig. 6-28, the fore and aft cyclic is moved. As the
cyclic is moved forward, input goes only through B
which moves the servo and tilts the swashplate in
the same manner.
It can easily be seen in Fig. 6-29 that lateral
movements of the cyclic will move bellcranks A
and C in equal and opposite directions, allowing
the swashplate to tilt in the desired direction.

~.
RH ~ LH
SERVO CONTROL SERVO CONTROL

SUMMING BELLCRANKS : {i
bh

SUMMING‘
BELLCRANKS

RH LATERAL
CYCLIC BELLCRANK
FORE AND AFT LH LATERAL
CYCLIC BELLCRANK CYCLIC BELLCRANK
LATERAL ROCKER
ARM
MIXING UNIT OPERATION:
CYCLIC BELLCRANK
The summing belicranke and levers assembly,
when actuated by the collective pitch lever,
fotates about the summing belicrank center-
line. Controt linkage points A, B, and C
move the same distance In the same direction.

Fig. 6-27 Mixer box operation.

MIXING UNIT OPERATION:

The two lateral cyclic bellcranks rotate by

the same value bul in opposite directions
sbout the cyclic bellcrenk centerline.

Fig. 6-29 Lateral cyclic movements to the mixer unit.

Such mixing units may be found in most helicop-

ters, although the form may vary. Variations of
these mixer units have been used to increase tail
rotor pitch as collective was added, in addition to
coordination of the cyclic and collective.
7. Gradient unit
Since many helicopters today use a hydraulic
boost on the controls, feel of movement of the control
is removed. This feel is artificially added. This is
accomplished by what is commonly referred to as a
gradient unit (Fig. 6-30). Gradient units may be
found on all inputs to the cyclic and are sometimes
found with the tail rotor system and collective.
Basically these gradient units are spring units that
are compressed and released as movement of the con-
MIXING UNIT OPERATION:
trol is made. This spring compression takes place in
The fore and aft cyclic belicrank rotates
about the cyclle bollcrank centerline, both directions. These units are usually made for
each input and are not interchangeable. They may
Fig. 6-28 Fore and aft mixer unit movements. be adjusted for the required spring tension.
174
 STICK TRIM “OFF”

BELLCRANK FORCE SPRING ASSY MAGNETIC

COLLECTIVE
PUSH-PULL ROD

INPUT
FROM COLLECTIVE

f
MAGNETIC
BRAKE

|
FORCE SPRING ASSY.

COLLECTIVE
PUSH-PULL ROD

}
~
INPUT OUTPUT
FROM COLLECTIVE TO MIXER

Fig. 6-30 Magnetic brake and gradient movements for helicopter trim.

The units are always installed in conjunction with may still be flown working against the gradient
the control system, never as an integral part of the unit as usual. See Fig. 6-30 for a view of this unit.
system. In addition to their use as an artificial feel, A trim motor is quite similar to a gradient unit.
they are often used to help trim the helicopter, in Basically it works on the same principle, except that
conjunction with a magnetic brake unit. Helicop- the trim or movement of the cyclic is done by use of a
ters, like fixed wing aircraft, may require trimming linear actuator in conjunction with a switch on the
to hold proper flight attitude. This is commonly due cyclic. This linear actuator moves the stick against
to load distribution. Unlike fixed wing aircraft, it spring pressure to trim the helicopter (Fig. 6-31).
would be most difficult to install movable trim tabs
that could be used to adjust ‘flight characteristics. 8. Control boosts
For this reason, the pilot is forced to use the cyclic for Helicopters not using hydraulics for boosted con-
these corrections. This means that if the aircraft trols may make use of such items as bungee springs,
flew somewhat nose heavy, a constant back pressure to assist the pilot in moving the controls. Other
would be required during flight. If the aircraft flew assists include counterweights, as were used on
one side low as well, both back pressure and side the rotor heads of the Bell 47 and the Hiller 12, to
pressure would be required. This could become very assist the pilot in raising the collective.
tiring in a very short time. Another system of rather unique design is that
With the gradient system and a magnetic brake, of the Hiller 12, where the flight controls for the
the cyclic may be moved to make the required atti- cyclic moves paddles attached to the main rotor.
tude change and to engage the magnetic brake. These in turn move the rotor. This system works
From that point the gradient spring will relieve quite well, but is slow in reaction time.
the required force to hold the cyclic, so that the Today most new helicopters use a hydraulic
aircraft remains in the trimmed attitude. Aircraft boost system for the controls. These systems are
175
necessary on some helicopters, while on others they Hydraulic pumps are normally driven by the
simply aid the pilot and improve the flying ability of transmission to ensure that hydraulic power will
the machine. On aircraft requiring boosted controls, be available during autorotation. Pumps are usu-
two systems are used, the main and a emergency ally gear or piston type. The reservior contains a
backup system. Most helicopters utilize hydraulic screen in the filler cap and a sight gauge to check
systems only for control boost. Few helicopters are the level of fluid.
equipped with retractable landing gears and other The system pressure is set with a conventional type
items that require hydraulic power. In addition to relief valve. The pressures vary considerably from
the ability to aid the pilot in moving the rotor, most of one system to another. Some systems are 250 PSI,
the actuators
are built to absorb rotor feedback. This while others are 2000 psi. With the higher pres-
improves the smoothness of the controls and elimi- sures, the components may be built lighter.
nates annoying vibration in the controls. Many newer filtering systems are using popout
The hydraulic system contains all the compo warning buttons to indicate bypassing of the filter.
nents normally found in a hydraulic system. The Most of these filters are either a throw-away type or
system includes the following items: require ultrasonic cleaning. The accumulators are of
1. Hydraulic pump a conventional piston type. On many of the smaller
2. Reservoir systems, no accumulator will be found.
3. Relief valve The hydraulic actuators differ from those on other
4. Filters hydraulic systems. Some move the piston while
, others move the cylinder. The cylinders are al-
5. Accumulators so equipped with pilot and irreversible valves.
6. Actuators Some actuators are dual actuators with the cylin-
Additional items may be added depending upon ders being fed by two separate hydraulic systems.
the size of the system and its requirements. To understand the types of actuators and their

SPRING

~” TEST LOAD
CONNECTION
X66 TRIM TUBE THREAD INSERT
? ie SELF-LOCKING

LATERAL IDLER
BELLCRANK

. s /

L- o* sta7oLaTeRAL
im CONTROL ROD

Fig. 6-31 Trim motor and gradient as found on the Hughes 500.

176
function, note the typical unit as used on a Bell 47 1. Valve A is a 10 PSI pressure inlet check valve.
as seen in Fig. 6-32. 2. Valve B is a return to pressure check valve
When the cyclic is moved, linkage moves the operating on2 PSI.
servo valve. This opens valve ports and applies 3. Valve C is a return line relief valve operating
pressure to one end of the cylinder and releases on 35 PSI.
trapped fluid in the opposite end of the cylin- 4. Valve D is a return line relief valve operating
der. This causes movement of the piston, actuator on 340-370 PsI.
shaft, and attached control linkage. As the move- In normal operation, fluid passes through check
ment of the cyclic is stopped, the actuator move- valve A to the servo valve. The relief valve D and the
ment stops and the valve port closes. This causes check valve B prevent fluid from passing to the re-
the swashplate to be held in its new position by turn side of the cylinder. When the cyclic is moved,
fluid trapped in the cylinder. The irreversible por- the control head valve directs fluid to the piston in
tion of the actuator consists of four valves which the direction of the control movement. This forces the
will be called A, B, C, and D, to correspond with fluid on the opposite side of the piston to the return
Fig. 6-32. line through valve C. If hydraulic pressure should

(6) ROTOR FORCE

i) 9)

LEGEND:
HIGH PRESS. Gs
1,4 LOW PRESS- C——>

y
D
c

8
,PILOT 1
INPUT
DETAIL 1. NORMAL SYSTEM ON OPERATION SHOWING
VALVE OPEN DUE TO ROTOR FORCE OR PILOT INPUT.
(0)
ROTOR FORCE i ROTOR FORCE

2 Vs o

4
D .
D
c

° PILOT
'
8 B + neur
DETAIL 2. SYSTEM OFF OPERATION SHOWING DETAIL 3. SYSTEM OFF OPERATION SHOWING PILOT
VALVE OPEN DUE TO ROTOR LOAD. / MOVING CYLINDER TO OPPOSE ROTOR FORCE.

Fig. 6-32 Hydraulic servos as found on the Bell 47.

177
fail, fluid will remain trapped because check valve A the pilot and should act as a warning device. With
and relief valve C will prevent its escape. The input this lock and load valve system, feedback from the
line has no pressure and no pressure is being de- rotor may be well hidden until hydraulic power is
veloped for fluid to pass through relief valve C. turned off or hydraulic failure has occurred.
Therefore a closed circuit is formed. The irrever- Most actuators are built on this principle of oper-
sibility is obtained independently of the hydraulic ation and may be found on all of the controls, includ-
pressure for all fixed cyclic positions. The hydraulic ing the collective and tail rotor. There is a tendency
fluid, being incompressible, is locked in the cylin- today to use compact units that contain many of the
der by check valve B and relief valve D. On the components of a hydraulic system in one unit. This
return side, fluid is also trapped because there is may include in one unit, the reservoir, pump, and
not pressure to operate relief valve C. relief valve. One aircraft that utilizes such a system
With boost pressure on, flight loads are restricted by is the Bell Jet Ranger (Fig. 6-33). Because of its
boost pressure. After pressure has failed and the cyclic relative simplicity, it will be used as a typical ex-
is moved, the servo valve is opened and fluid is directed ample of a light helicopter system.
to the piston. Fluid on the opposite side of the piston is The hydraulic system consists of a reservoir,
forced out by the piston movement. This routes fluid pump, regulator, filter, solenoid valve, and three
around the closed circuit through the low pressure servo units. The reservoir pump and regulator are
check valve B and back to the servo valve. contained in one unit attached to the transmission.
The locking feature of the irreversible valve is safe- A filler cap is placed at the top of the reservoir with
guarded from excessive loads by the relief valve D. If a tray-type screen to strain the fluid as it enters the
D should open, this would be immediately sensed by reservoir. A scupper on the back side takes care of

1. FILTER 9. PRESSURE REGULATOR VALVE

2. QUICK-DISCONNECT SOCKET (PRESSURE) 10. TACHOMETER GENERATOR
3. QUICK-DISCONNECT SOCKER (RETURN) 11. CAP
4. HOSE (PRESSURE) 12. CAP
5. HOSE (RETURN) 13. SOLENOID VALVE
6. PUMP AND RESERVOIR 14. SERVO ACTUATOR (CYCLIC)
7. VENT LINE 15. SERVO ACTUATOR (COLLECTIVE)
8. VENT

Fig. 6-33 Bell 206 hydraulic unit.

178
overfills and a ball sight gauge is placed in the side those on the 47, contain irreversible valves. If hy-
where, because of its small capacity, cooling air is draulic pressure is lost to the servo actuator, the
directed over the reservoir. The fluid is fed by grav- plunger in the sequence valve is pushed up by the
ity to the pump, which is contained in the same lower spring and poppet valve. This action closes
unit, and is set for 600 +50 psi. A schematic of the the hydraulic return port and maintains irrever-
system is shown in Fig. 6-34. The fluid leaves the sibility, keeping the pilot in control even with the
pump unit across the cabin roof to the filter unit. system inoperative.
The filter unit itself is replaced or ultrasonically The sequence valve also acts as a thermo relief
cleaned at specified maintenance periods. A by- valve, should pressure build up while the system is
pass system is included in the filter assembly, with inactive. As the fluid is moved from the servos, it
a red pop-out indicator unit on the top. Any time returns to the reservoir.
the button has popped out, the filter must be re- Larger systems become more complex in their
placed and the button reset. operations. A dual system used on the Bell 212 is
The next item in the system is the solenoid valve. shown in Fig. 6-36. It consists of two separate sys-
This valve is used to turn off the hydraulic system tems which do not make contact with each other.
and route the fluid back to the reservoir when de- The components in each system are exactly alike,
sired. The valve is activated by a pilot controlled except for the pumps and locations. The systems
switch on the console. The solenoid is energized are referred to as System 1 and System 2, each
when “OFF”. powering the cyclic and collective controls through
From the solenoid valve, the fluid is routed to dual servo controls. System 1 additionally powers
three servo cylinders located on the roof One cylin- the tail rotor servo.
der is the collective while the other two are for fore System 1 supplies fluid power to the top portion
and aft and lateral cyclic. A schematic of a typical of the dual servo actuators, while System 2 sup-
servo cylinder is seen in Fig. 6-35. The servos, like plies the lower portion of the servos.

1 1

3
@ 3
& SEE RETURN

DE-ENERGIZED ENERGIZED == SUPPLY

SYS. ON SYS. OFF
SOLENOID VALVE . _
faa CAN
seemed
ob

dl | | Drea

Scupper Drain "0

FZPOEN=>

Vent
Reservoir 9
Servo Actuator, Cyclic
Servo Actuator, Collective
Pilot Input
Rotor Control
SEN

Solenoid Vaive
Filter
10. Quick Disconnects
11. Pressure Regulator Valve
12. Pump

Fig. 6-34 Schematic of Bell 206 system.

179
 1. RETURN PORT
2. PRESSURE PORT

12
3
~~ | 3. SEQUENCE VALVE WITH THERMAL
RELIEF PROVISIONS
1— i! —_—4 |
4. DIFFERENTIAL RELIEF VALVE
5. TEST PORT
10 ps ane 6. CHECK VALVES

Lo
7. SLIDE AND SLEEVE ASSEMBLY
8. ACTUATOR
9. INPUT CONTROL
10. POPPET VALVE
11. VALVE SEAT (FLOATING)
1 “s 12. PLUNGER

° 7
GR PREssurE
CE return

©
9;
0
Fig. 6-35 Typical servo unit used on the Bell 206.

The following components are included in each feed to the pump, the second a return, and the third is
system: the overboard drain for the scupper. At the return
Reservoir line is a cross fitting containing a temperature bulb,
temerature switch, and a screen baffle. This baffle
oaraenhr

Temperature bulb and switch

Pump speeds up the deaeration of the fluid returning to the
reservoir. The temperature bulb is connected to an
Check valve (pressure supply line)
indicator in the cockpit, and the temperature switch
Integrated valve and filter lights a caution light if the fluid overheats.
Pressure transmitter and switch The two variable delivery, axial piston-type pumps
Accumulator have different locations. System 1 pump is located
WEN

Test couplings on the right side of the transmission accessory and

. Restrictor fittings sump case. System 2 pump is located on the forward
10. Check valves side of the main transmission case. Each pump is
driven from a different part of the trasmission reduc-
11. Lines
ing the chances of failure of both systems. Even
12. Servo actuators though the pumps are driven at different speeds,
Since the fluids from the two systems do not con- they deliver the same pressure of 1000 pst at no flow
tact each other, two separate reservoirs are pro- and 900 psi at full flow.
vided. Each reservoir is in a different location. The In each system, check valves are placed in the
System 1 reservoir is on the right aft edge of the pump pressure outlet lines. Each check valve has
cabin roof, with the scupper and filler cap aft, while four ports. Three ports connect to pump pressure,
System 2 reservoir is located on the left aft edge of system pressure, and a pressure test coupling. The
the cabin roof, with the scupper and filler cap for- fourth is simply plugged off The check valve assem-
ward. A sight gauge is visible through the trans- bly allows fluid flow in the system when the pump is
mission cowling provided for each reservoir. The in operation. An additional check valve is installed
levels may then be checked without removal of the in the pressure test line to prevent the pump from
cowling. pressurizing the line during pump operation. The
A vent opening to the atmosphere is located at check valve assembly prevents motorizing the pump
the top. Three hydraulic lines and a drain plug are and overfilling the reservoir during test operation
connected to the reservoir. One line is a gravity in which external hydraulic power is used.
180
 PRESSURE OPERATED
SHUT-OFF VALVE

Fig. 6-36
PRESSURE OPERATED VALVE SOLENOID VALVE TO
CYLINDERS

TO PRESSURE
we
bo&
DE ENERGIZED PRESS. DE ENERGIZED ENERGIZED
SOLENOID VALVE
ENERGIZED HYD SYS ON HYD SYS OFF
TO RESERVOIR

SYSTEM RELIEF VALVE

PRESSURE
FILTER
PRESSURE OPERATED VALVE
SYSTEM I

: TEST COUPLINGS ACCUMULATOR

RESERVOIR

SYSTEM II PRESSURE OPERATED

: VALVE

181
rw
RESERVOIR | |
CHECK VALVE i
Q

Dual hydraulic system utilizing two independent systems.

1
r +
\ \

INTEGRATED \
VALVE AND ~ DUAL
FILTER ASSEMBLY ACTUATOR
ACCUMULATOR

DUAL COLLECTIVE
ACTUATOR INTEGRATED
L.H. CYCLIC
VALVE AND
wm ~=PRESSURE FILTER ASSEMBLY
R.H. CYCLIC iret § RETURN
Cc SUCTION
Two filters are installed in the bottom of the check system pressure compressing the spring. If system
valve assembly. One is the pressure filter, the other pump pressure should fail, accumulators will par-
the return fluid filter. Both filter elements are a tially charge the servos.
metal type and are interchangeable with others of Two test couplings are provided in each system.
the same filtering capabilities. The pressure filter The pressure coupling and return line coupling are
does not incorporate a bypass. This means that if used in checking the systems with external hy-
the filter becomes clogged, the fluid flow will be draulic power. In each test coupling line is a pres-
restricted. The return filter, however, does have by-
sure operated valve. The valves are three way, two-
pass capabilities and will do so with a pressure position valves and connect the system return to
differential across the filter element, allowing
the test return when test pressure is applied.
fluid to return to the reservoir. When the test pressure is reduced, the fluid re-
Both filter elements are provided with differen- turns to its normal flow back to the reservoir. A
tial pressure indicators which will extend a red restrictor is also placed between the system return
button when a restriction causes a pressure dif- and test pressure. This is used to relieve any ther-
ferential across the filter element. The movement mal pressure that might build up in the line. Un-
of this button also activates an electrical switch able to relieve pressure, it could open the pressure-
causing a red dot to be displayed on an indicator. operated valve.
This does not indicate which system or which filter Check valves are installed at various points
is clogged. This can be determined only by viewing throughout the system. The check valves allow
the individual filter buttons. The buttons are reset flow in one direction and prevent flow in the op-
manually when the differential no longer exists. posite direction. One check valve is located in the
Fluid passing through the pressure filter passes test lines between the return and pressure test
through the system relief valve and the solenoid lines for thermal relief Another is in the pump
valve located on the top of the assembly. The sys- bypass port preventing pressure build-up in the
tem relief valve protects the system from excessive pump case. Additional check valves are placed in
pressure should the pump malfunction, by return- each servo actuator return line at the integrated
ing the excessive pressure to the return side. valve to prevent system return pressure from pres-
The solenoid valves are three-way, two-position, suring the servo return line.
electrically operated valves. Each valve is controlled Bypass type check valves are installed at each
by a switch marked HYDSYS1 and HYDSYS2. pressure port of the dual servo actuators. These
The valves are spring loaded to the system ON provide an irreversible feature by retaining fluid in
position and electrically energized to the system the actuator when system pressure is lost. These
OFF position. When the valve is electrically de- valves allow fluid from the actuators when the sys-
energized, the fluid is directed through the system; tem is in operation.
and when electically energized, the fluid is by-
Four servo actuators are installed in the system
passed to the return. This provides a means of
to assist the pilot in movement of the controls, and
shutting off either hydraulic system in case of
for prevention of rotor feedback. Three are dual
system malfunction.
servo actuators, one for the collective and two for
In addition to passing through the solenoid
the cyclic. A single smaller actuator is used for the
valve, fluid must pass through a check valve in
tail rotor and is operated by System 1 only.
each assembly. This check valve directs fluid under
pressure to the servo actuator ports and prevents Dual servo actuators located on the cyclic and col-
flow in the opposite direction. Accumulator pressure lective system are powered by both or either systems.
is maintained in servo lines when pump pressure is The upper portion is supplied by System 1, while the
lost. After fluid under pressure passes through the lower portion is supplied by System 2. Details of dual
check valve, it must go through a pressure switch servo actuators can be seen in Fig. 6-37.
and transmitter before leaving the system. The pres- Upper and lower portions of each dual actuator is
sure switch is used to activate a caution light when equipped with its own servo and bypass valve. The
the pressure is low, and the pressure transmitter servo valves are actuated by linkage from a com-
relays the system pressure to the indicator on the mon input.
instrument panel. The upper servo valves direct fluid to the upper
Parallel with the system pressure line in each sys- or lower side of the piston of the upper chamber,
tem is an accumulator. Accumulators are piston- moving the piston in the desired direction, with the
type, utilizing spring force. They are charged by cylinder staying stationary.
 System 1 does not function, the same check valve
provisions are provided, so the tail rotor control
may function manually as the other actuators
function in a manual position.
9, Maintenance and Inspection
Regardless of systems used, one of the most im-
portant items with any hydraulic system used ina
flight control system is proper servicing. This
starts with checking fluid levels and adding the
proper fluid to the reservoir. Usually Mil 5606 fluid
is used, but in all circumstances, the maintenance
- eeiE

manual must be consulted to insure that the prop-

psa

er fluid is used. Systems seldom require addition of

Cea

large amounts of fluid. High usage of fluid is an

indication of leakage and all components and lines
should be checked before more fluid is added.
All actuators should be cleaned periodically to
Fig. 6-37 Dual type actuator utilizing two systems. remove any foreign matter from the actuator rods.
Dirt and sand will increase the wear factors and
The lower servo valve directs fluid to the top or
induce leakage. If the helicopter operates under
bottom of the piston in the lower chamber. This
adverse conditions, such as sandy environments,
moves the cylinder, rather than the piston, in the
this may become part of daily maintenance.
required direction.
At specified periods of time, filters are either cleaned
The linkage for both the upper and lower servo
or replaced, depending on the type of filters used and
and bypass valves incorporate springs. The springs
facilities available for cleaning the filter units. Often
allow movement of one servo in the event the other
this is done when fluid is changed, or during routine
becomes jammed. For example, if the upper servo
maintenance without changing the fluid. In either
became jammed, the lower servo would continue to
situation, after cleaning or replacement filters must
function and move the controls.
be checked under pressure for leaks.
In normal operation, hydraulic pressure under
Usual inspection of the systems consists of visual
100 psi acts on the top or the bottom of the pistons
inspection for leakage, cleanliness, and mounting of
to move the controls in the desired direction, as
the actuators, including alignment. These inspec-
determined by the servo valves. With the servo tions are normally accomplished with hydraulic
valves in neutral, pressure is directed to both sides power on the system. This power is most often pro-
of the piston. duced by external hydraulic power through test lines
If System 1 is not functioning, the upper piston is in the system. External power may also be used for
moved by the lower actuator. If System 2 is not func- other maintenance procedures and should always be
tioning, the lower cylinder is moved by the upper actu- in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions,
ator. If both systems are not functioning, the upper especially regarding pressure required and posi-
piston and lower cylinder are moved manually. tion of the system switches. If such precautions are
Upper and lower servo actuators function much not observed, the system may be damaged, may not
the same during manual operation. Check valves function properly, or may be overfilled.
in the actuator prevent liquid lock. Cavitation of Maintenance of components is usually limited to
the actuator is prevented by a check valve at the removal and replacement of tubing, hoses, valves,
pressure inlet port and the pressure operated shut- and pumps. Components such as pumps, valves,
off valve in the integrated valve. Seal leakage loss and actuators will require special equipment for
is replenished by the accumulator. In this system, rebuilds, limiting the repair of such items to re-
the actuator is irreversible as long as fluid is moval and replacement. When such items are re-
retained in the system between the actuator and moved, normal hydraulic safety practices must be
integrated valve. observed, including bleeding pressure from the
The tail rotor servo actuator works in much the system before opening lines and capping all open-
same manner as the dual servo actuators, except ings so the system is not contaminated. With inter-
it is powered by only one system. Therefore only nal breakdown of components, it may be necessary
one servo, piston, and cylinder are required. When to drain and flush the complete system prior to
183
replacement. Although it is quite rare for hy- quite critical. For this reason, it is often necessary
draulic components to have a finite life, most com- after removal and replacement of components, that
ponents will have recommended overhaul times. the particular control system be rigged; meaning
The other components in a flight control system that the system must be adjusted so that the cor-
will also require some service, inspection, and main- rect amount of pitch is present on the collective and
tenance. Flight controls will usually require periodic the cyclic travel is within tolerances.
lubrication in the form of oil or grease. Introduction This is done by a number of methods. Rigging
of sealed bearings and Teflon® bushings has reduced the controls on most of the early helicopters was
this servicing considerably. At least one system, quite complex. This was mainly due to the little
which does not use hydraulic boost on the controls, thought that was given to maintainability at the
has one-way locks that require a small amount of time of manufacture, and the fact that the fuse-
hydraulic fluid at routine servicing. lages were often built with such tolerances as
Since most systems make use of push-pull tubes + 125 inch. These machines had adjustments on
and bellcranks, inspection must include rod ends both ends of each push-pull tube, and bellcranks
and spherical bearings. All loose rod ends and bear- were set at a number of degrees from the center
ings must be replaced. The importance of the condi- line of the bellcrank.
tion of these items cannot be overemphasised, be- Regardless of the type of helicopter, rigging
cause wear factors will affect control movements and procedures must be in accordance with the man-
the feedback of the rotor system. The novice helicop- ufacturer’s instructions, to insure that the helicop-
ter technician may feel that a couple of thousandths ter acquires no unsafe flight characteristics from
of play will make very little difference. However, the rigging procedure. This does not mean that
when this is multiplied fifteen times by each rod end minor adjustments will not be required after the
in the system, it is a sizable amount of excessive initial flight. Even these minor adjustments must
movement. Coupled with vibration, it will increase be in accordance with the maintenance manual
the wear factors at a rapid rate. Although it is not and in small increments to avoid unstable flight
uncommon to replace rod ends, an excessive amount characteristics.
of replacement is always a good indication of exces- In order to perform rigging of the flight controls,
sive vibration in the rotor system. some equipment will be necessary. In many in-
Most rod ends are attached with close tolerance stances special tools such as jigs, rigging pins, and
bolts which are subject to as much wear as the rod holding fixtures will be required. Other items of the
end and may require replacement. The rod end helicopter, such as mast alignment, which would ad-
bolts are checked for safeties, which in most in- versly affect the rigging often require checking.
stances are cotter pins. The equipment required for rigging the cyclic
One of the items to be considered in the inspection and collective varies with the type of helicopter to
of push-pull tubes is corrosion. They have been be rigged. In addition to common hand tools, be-
known to corrode from the inside out, although such cause it may be necessary to level the helicopter,
precautions as sealing the ends is a common practice. suitable jacks of sufficient capacity for the leveling
During inspection the controls should be moved operation may be needed. This situation is seldom
to their extreme positions, checking all the control experienced with the newer helicopters. If leveling
stops. Such items as gradient systems, magnetic is required, instructions will be given in a separate
brakes, and trim motors must also be checked for section of the maintenance manual.
operation and condition. Other common equipment used in rigging pro-
cedures are a measuring scale, used to obtain
A few items in the control system may be as-
required dimensions, and a universal protractor
signed a finite life. This sometimes involves control
(propeller protractor). The protractor is used to
tubes, but is most often true of swashplate items.
obtain predetermined degrees in the bellcranks,
Other items such as trim motors, magnetic brakes,
swashplate, etc.
control tubes, etc., will have recommended over-
haul times assigned. Some helicopters manufactured today make use
of rigging jigs and pins to aid in the rigging pro-
10. Control rigging cedure. Pins are placed in predetermined locations
Maintenance is usually confined to removal and to hold bellcranks; so rods may be adjusted accord-
replacement for items other than rod ends and ing to a set length. Jigs may be used for a variety of
bolts. However, many of the items in a control sys- rigging tasks, as a holder for the swashplate, or asa
tem are adjustable, and control movements are template to determine the degrees of travel.
184
 (A) CYCLIC (B)
IN
NEUTRAL

PROTRACTOR
RIGGING
JIG

ADJUST
ROD ENDS
TO FIT THE BELL-
CRANK AND CYCLIC

(C) (D)
PROTRACTOR
USED
ADJUST FOR TRAVEL
ACTUATOR
TO FIT SWASH JIGS REMOVED
SWASHPLATE PLATE
CYCLIC STO
SET FOR
SWASHPLATE TRAVEL

Fig. 6-38 Basic rigging procedures.

Usually the rigging procedure of the cyclic would In addition to the normal hand tools the follow-
consist of placing the cyclic control in the neutral ing additional tools will be required:
position, which would be straight up or perpen- 1. One 6-inch scale with increments of .01”
dicular to the floor. A number of devices have been 2. A fish scale of 0 to 10 pounds capacity
made for specific helicopters for centering the 8. One 5/16-inch rigging bolt with the threads
cyclic in this position. Once the cyclic is centered, removed
the rods are adjusted to the next check point. This
4. One feeler gauge
may be a bellcrank that is either held in place by a
rigging pin or is to have a preset angle determined NOTE: The following procedure is for training pur-
by a protractor. When the belicrank is in the cor- poses only. DO NOT attempt to rig to these specifica-
rect position, the next reference point may be the tions. They may vary with different models and
hydraulic servo unit. Normally these are adjust- may change. ONLY use the manufacturers up-
able in length and the servo valve is set in neutral. dated maintenance manual.
The actuator may be attached to the swashplate The collective and cyclic, which are interconnect-
which must be set to a fixed number of degrees by ed on the Bell 206, are shown in Fig. 6-39 and 6-40.
a protractor or another rigging fixture. From this Assuming that all nonadjustable control tubes
point the control rods which go to the rotor are set. are in place in the collective and cyclic system, the
The rotor may be held in position or be checked 56-inch rigging bolt will be placed through the
with a protractor for its neutral position. After this ‘bottom of the fuselage through the cyclic stick
neutral position is established, the extreme po- (Fig. 6-40C). This will center the cyclic stick. When
sitions are set by stops, which may be located on the bolt is in place, the cyclic is frictioned down to
the bellcranks or on the swashplate (Fig 6-38). hold it in place.
Although oversimplified, these would be typical The collective control is raised to a position of
basic steps that would be taken in the rigging of 2.40 inches above the pilot’s seat structure as seen
a cyclic system. in Fig. 6-39E. This is also locked into position by
To understand the rigging procedure, we shall the collective friction adjustment.
use a Bell 206 to show the steps required. The steps The next step is to position the bellcrank stop
involving the engine and the tail rotor will be cov- assembly, at the hydraulic cylinder support cast-
ered in their respective chapters. ing; so that the bellcrank contacts the minimum

185
 1. COLLECTIVE LEVER ASSEMBLY
2. CONTROL TUBE
3. CYLINDER EXTENSION TUBE
4. BELLCRANK
5. BOOST CYLINDER
6. CONTROL TUBE
7. TORQUE TUBE

VALVE BOTTOMED
THIS DIRECTION >

ARM ON BELLCRANK TO BE
AGAINST STOP SURFACE ON
SUPPORT

8. FRICTION ADJUSTER
9. COLLECTIVE STICK - PILOT
10. CYLINDER SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
11. LINK ASSEMBLY
12. PLATE, DROOP COMPENSATOR
13, SEAT STRUCTURE

Fig. 6-39 Bell 206 collective rigging.

collective stop (Fig. 6-39B). The bellcrank must be be removed from the cyclic, and the collective sys-
held in this position. The vertical push-pull tube tem must be checked for proper clearances of all
must be adjusted and connected between the bell- parts before hydraulic power is applied. At this
cranks, as seen in Fig. 6-39, Item 6. When this is time the minimum angle of the blade grips will
accomplished, the servo must be bottomed out in also be checked.
the aft direction with the cylinder pushed forward Rigging of the cyclic will require the same tools
(Fig. 6-39D). The collective lever on the swashplate used with the collective, exept a 12-inch scale will
is then positioned to obtain a dimension of 1.98 be necessary for some of the measurements. The
inches between the spotface on the swashplate sup- 5/16-inch bolt is again placed through the bottom of
port base and the centerline of the collective lever the fuselage to center the cyclic, as was done when
trunnion pins and held in that position. This di- rigging the collective (Fig. 6-40C). The cyclic is
mension is shown in Fig. 6-39A. At this time, the held in place by the friction. The collective is
tube between the transmission and the swashplate placed in the full down position and locked with
collective lever may be adjusted. The bolt may then the friction adjustment.
186
 . SWASHPLATE INNER RING - CONTROL PLATE

—
. CONTROL TUBE

OnNOarwn
. CONTROL TUBE
. BELLCRANK
. BELLCRANK
. CYLINDER SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
. CONTROL TUBE
. CONTROL TUBE
. YOKE
10. TORQUE TUBE
11. CYCLIC FRICTION ADJUSTER
12, CYCLIC CONTROL STICK
13. COTTER KEY
14, NUT
15. BOLT - RIGGING WORK AID
16. RIGHT HORN
17, LEFT HORN
18. CYLINDER EXTENSION TUBE
19. SPRING
20. MIXING BELLCRANK
21. TRANSMISSION

Fig. 6-40 Bell 206 cyclic rigging.

When this is completed, place the two bellcranks (Fig. 6-40, Item 7). When this is accomplished, posi-
on the cabin roof 3.09 inches above the center line tion the swashplate 8.83 and 8.87 inches between the
of the aft bellcrank control rod attachment holes spot face on the upper case and centerline of the bolt
and hold in that position (Fig. 6-39B). Next, place holes in the bearing on both control plate horns
both pilot valves in the forward position with the (Fig. 40A). Adjust the vertical push-pull tubes to fit
cylinders placed aft (Fig. 6-39D), and hold in that between the aft bellcrank and the swashplate and
position while the tunnel tubes are adjusted to fit check the minumum blade angle.
187
 A complete interference check must be made again Although this type of system considerably sim-
of the cyclic system prior to the use of hydraulic power. plifies rigging, it is not always possible. This is
A quite different rigging procedure is shown in especially true as helicopters are made larger and
Fig. 6-41. This is the AStar 350 which makes ex- items such as trim motors, magnetic brakes, and
clusive use of rigging pins to determine positions of gradients are used. The system may become even
the various components. This establishes the dis- more complex if stabilization equipment is used in
tances and relationships between the controls and the control system.
the main rotor. In most rigging procedures the items mentioned
The rigging pins are fitted to the cyclic system in are not connected to the basic control system until
the neutral position. When the collective is in the it is rigged. They are added after the basic rigging
mid-travel position, six pins are used. One is placed is completed. It is at time that the control friction
in the fore and aft cyclic, one in the lateral cyclic to will be adjusted. In addition to these items, a num-
neutralize the cyclic control stick, one in the collec- ber of helicopters are equipped with a movable ele-
tive system to hold the collective at its mid-travel vator control surface which will be rigged to work
position, and three additional pins are placed in the with the fore and aft cyclic.
three servos of the actuators. In addition, the swash- Such a system is installed on the Bell 205. It
plate is locked into position by a rigging fixture, leav- consists of two negative lift airfoils mounted on the
ing the adjustment to be made at the actuators. After tail boom. The fore and aft movement of the cyclic
all the linkage is set to these established points, the stick changes the angle of attack of the elevator,
stops on the cyclic and collective are set. These limits increases the controllability, and lengthens the CG
are set to a predetermined length of the actuator range. Movements of this elevator are not in direct
arm, referred to as dimension “X” in Fig. 6-41. relationship to movements of the cyclic control.

SERVO CONTROL
RIGGING PINS
(INPUT LEVER CENTERED
BETWEEN STOPS)

ADJUSTABLE RODS SWASHPLATE

LOCKING
FIXTURE

L DATUM DIMENSION
COLLECTIVE
LINKAGE
RIGGING PINS _ COLLECTIVE
CONTROL STOPS

The rigging pins fit into close-tolerance holes in

the control component and the adjacent structure.
Once the pin is inserted, the control is fully locked.

LATERAL eveuc :
CONTROL STOPS | 7 , leana pin ne

FORE AND AFT CYCLIC

CONTROL STOPS

Fig. 6-41 AStar using rigging fixtures.

188
The trailing edge of the elevator moves down when At this point the aft bellcrank must be above the
either the fore or aft cyclic is moved from the neu- centerline as shown in Fig. 6-41C. Ifit is not, adjust
tral position. This non-linear movement is made the third control tube to fit. When the cyclic is
possible by an over-center bellcrank (Fig. 6-42). moved to the extreme aft position the elevator
The rigging procedure for this system, like that should pass through rivet S.
for the cyclic and collective controls, is accom- Final rigging is accomplished with the hydraul-
plished with the hydraulic boost turned OFF with ic boost ON only after the control system is thor-
only the adjustable tubes disconnected. oughly checked for travel and interference. Moving
The first step is to position the cyclic stick in neu- the cyclic full forward should place the elevator in
tral (vertical) position. Move the servo valves to the line with rivet R. If it does not, the third tube must
top of their travel by pressing down on the servo be adjusted.
actuator extension tubes without moving the control It may easily be seen that there are many different
tubes below. Once this is accomplished, adjust the methods used to rig flight controls. Regardless of the
last control tube in the system to position the idle system, the controls are being adjusted across fixed
lever (Fig. 6-41A), and adjust the last control tube in points. The manufacturer’s instructions must be fol-
the system to the minumum length necessary to lowed if the helicopter is to fly correctly. Improper
reach the bellcrank. Then place the cyclic stick full rigging can lead to a great number of flight prob-
forward against the stop and move the servo valves to lems, including partial or complete loss of control.
the total of their travel, without moving the tubes Some of these problems may not be evident until
below the actuators. Position the trailing edge of certain flight attitiudes are attempted or when the
the elevator .50 inch below the rivet R (Fig. 6-41A). helicopter is loaded in a certain manner.

NEUTRAL CYCLIC STICK RIVET P.

FULL AFT CYCLIC STICK RIVET S.

FULL FWD CYCLIC STICK RIVET R. ——__

VIEW A

RIGHT ELEVATOR “SN,

LOOKING INBOARD 2H fF
So Ie

f |_ IEW C

BOTH BOLT HEADS

oa
INBOARD | ;

wwe
_ YA fe
VIEWB ;
Ai a
I 3 3 =~ Ge)

10
1. ELEVATORS 11. BELLCRANK ~
2. ELEVATOR HORN 12. BULKHEAD FITTING
3. BOLT-WASHER-NUT-COTTER PIN 13. CONTROL TUBE
4. CONTROL TUBE 14. BELLCRANK
13 5. BELLCRANK 15, BULKHEAD SUPPORT
7 6. BULKHEAD SUPPORT 16, CONTROL TUBE
ves 7. CONTROL TUBE 17. IDLER
8 8. WALKING BEAM ASSEMBLY 18. BULKHEAD SUPPORT
3 he 9. BULKHEAD SUPPORT 19. CONTROL TUBE
10. CONTROL TUBE 20. CONTROL TUBE

Fig. 6-42 Horizonal stabilizer rigging on Bell 205.

189
Chapter VII
Main Rotor Transmissions

Introduction
The main rotor turns at speeds of 300 to 400 RPM Although shorter blades and supersonic blade
on most helicopters. At the same time, the engines tips have been tried with some success, they would
that power these rotors are turning at a much not allow the speeds of 3000 or 6000 RPM, which
higher RPM. For example: an average reciprocation would be required for direct drive from the engine.
powerplant may run in a range of 3000 to 3200 RPM, For these reasons the helicopters require trans-
while the rotor turns at 340 RPM. A typical power- missions to reduce the engine speed to a speed that
plant on turbine helicopters may operate at 6600 can be handled by the main rotor. As with all other
output shaft RPM while the main rotor rotates at components, each manufacturer has a different
325 RPM. There are two reasons for these speed way of designing, mounting, and powering the
reductions: (1) the engines produce the greatest transmission. These have also changed consider-
amount of power at high RPM and (2) the rotor can- ably as the technology of the helicopter has de-
not operate at the high RPMs because tip speed must veloped from reciprocating power to turbine power.
stay subsonic and retreating blade stall. The powerplants and their relationship to trans-
missions are quite important to the basic design
; a TRANSMISSION
requirements.
SO) 50
A. Engine-Transmission Couplings
Most of the early light helicopters had a re-
ciprocating engine hung vertically and coupled to
the transmission which drove the rotor. Some of the
older heavier helicopters located the reciprocating
engine in the nose of the helicopter and drove the
transmission by shafting. At least one military
helicopter had the engine in the rear and utilized
shafting.
Two different reciprocating powered helicopters
manufactured today have engines mounted hori-
zontally below a belt driven transmission. Fig. 7-1
shows some typical engine-transmission relation-
ships in reciprocating powered helicopters. The
turbine powered helicopters often have the engines
and transmissions in different locations. In either
case the power from the engine must be transferred
to the transmission.
This is done in a number of different ways de-
pending upon the location of the engine and the
transmission. The first systems will be the Bell 47.
To all outside appearances, the engine and trans-
mission are joined into one unit. Actually, the en-
gine is bolted to the transmission by an adapter
plate, and a gear that meshes with the transmission
is placed on the engine (Fig. 7-2). This is a very sim-
ple system and requires a minimum of maintenance.
The Hiller 12 looks quite similar because of the
Fig. 7-1 Typical relationships of engines and trans- mounting of the transmission and engine. How-
missions used in helicopters. ever, the internal portion is quite different (Fig. 7-3).

191
 In this system, a flexible rubber and steel coupling
is bolted to the engine drive flange. The purpose of
this coupling is to absorb torsional vibrations im-
posed on the clutch and drive train. Mounted on
top of this unit is the clutch system which in turn
has a small splined shaft that drives the transmis-
sion. Such a device is not uncommon on transmis-
sions because torsional loads are usually taken
into consideration by the manufacturer.
On two other light helicopters, a belt system is
used to transmit the power from the engine to the
transmission. One system utilizes eight V-belts
placed on a pulley that adapts to the flange of the
engine crankshaft. Another pulley is attached di-
rectly to the transmission (Fig. 7-4). The other sys-
tem is quite similar in design but uses one single
belt of a multiple V-type.

Fig. 7-2 Transmission to engine adapter plate and

gear on the Bell 47.

GENERATOR DRIVE
PAD
SHIELD Ewo
CONNECTING
SHAFT
CLUTCH
HOUSING
MAIN DRIVE
CLUTCH

Th FR LH il eS
se / Pry | bw NG Zrr
Fig. 7-4 Belt drive system used on the Hughes 300
Fig. 7-3 Hiller 12E transmission installation. engine to transmission.

192
B. Driveshaft The Hughes 500 series shaft provides power in
Still another system on some reciprocating pow- much the same manner as the others, but the flexi-
ered helicopters, the driveshaft, is equipped with a - ble joints are quite different. The shaft itself is con-
rubber coupling to absorb torsional shock loads structed in three pieces, each piece having a flange
and is placed between the engine and the trans- attached to the ends. The flanges are welded to-
mission. Items such as a clutch assembly are usu- gether by an electron beam welding process for a
ally placed inline with this shaft (Fig.7-5). Most flexible joint (Fig. 7-7). This system requires no
turbine helicopters make use of a short shaft sys- lubrication.
tem to deliver power to the transmission. These One of the most unique driveshaft systems is
short shafts vary in design, but all have some way that found on the AStar. An engine-to-transmis-
to correct for misalignment and for movement of sion coupling, in addition to the driveshaft, is used
the transmission. Some of these shafts operate to insure that the driveshaft only carries torsional
with no lubrication, while others require it. This loads. Like most transmissions, it is not rigidly
lubrication is usually in the form of grease and is mounted to the airframe. In fact, the transmission
often hand-packed. may move in all directions during flight. If a solid
The first of these systems to be discussed will be shaft were used, there would be stresses placed on
the Bell 206, which is typical of those used on sev- the shaft by this movement. To correct for this
eral Bell models. The driveshaft consists of a shaft movement, the engine and transmission are joined
with two flexible couplings attached at each end. as a unit by a housing.
The shafts may be placed with either end to the To insure that adequate movement of the trans-
mission may take place, a universal joint connec-
tion is provided at the transmission on the housing
&S>
ba (Fig. 7-8). Inside this housing is the driveshaft. The
inet
driveshaft itself must also be provided with flex-
ibility for the deflection caused by the transmis-.
sion movements, but will not carry any tension or
compression loads because of the housing. The
flexibility is provided by a coupling made up of
stacks of stainless steel discs bolted to the shafts to
form a flexible joint (Fig. 7-9). The shaft requires
no servicing with a lubricant. Because of the slow
deterioration rate of the stainless steel discs, in-
spection is all that is be required.

C. Maintenance
The maintenance of these systems will be varied
TO OfL INLET ) + TO Olt OUTLET because of the various systems used. In the system
used on the Bell 47, with the gear installed on the
ON CELL COVER

engine crankshaft flange, the gear is lubricated

Fig. 7-5 Sikorsky S-58 engine to transmission drive from the oil system of the engine, eliminating the
unit.
need of servicing with lubricant.Inspections are
transmission or engine. The shaft turns at a rather limited to major ones because the gear is not ac-
high rate of speed (6600 RPM). Therefore, balance is cessable except by removal of the transmission.
quite important. Two data plates are attached to The inspection of the gear will be quite similar to
the shaft 180° apart. The couplings are made up of those for other gears and include the use of mag-
interchangeable parts. Flexibility is obtained by a netic particle inspection and visual inspection of
crowned tooth gear that rides on the splines of the the teeth for wear. Since there is no repair criteria
outer coupling. The shaft and gear are centered by for the gear or its mating surfaces, they can only be
the use of springs on each end. The purpose of these removed and replaced.
flexible couplings is to correct for momentary mis- The Hiller 12, however, with its steel and rubber
alignment of the shaft caused by movement of the coupling, will require additional inspections. Lu-
transmission during flight. This type of shaft brication is not used in this area because a dry
requires lubrication by hand packing with grease clutch is located there. Holes are provided, how-
(Fig. 7-6). ever, for viewing the rubber coupling and its condi-
193
 oNA\--+2~----
2
eryae
Rage
“~

LUBRICANT
BOLT
wy

WASHER
NUT
AP

RETAINER RING
PACKING
PNP

PLATE, GREASE RETAINER

SPRING, SHAFT CENTERING

9, COUPLING, SPHERICAL SPLINE

OUTER
10. BOLT
11. GEAR
12. SEAL, DRIVESHAFT COUPLING
13, PACKING
14, RETAINER RING
E { 15. SHAFT, ENGINE TO TRANSMISSION
5 16. NUT
17. WASHER (AN960-416L)
Fig. 7-6 Engine to transmission shaft assembly used on the Bell 206.

PULLEY
DRIVESHAFT
(END VIEW)

FLEXIBLE JOINT

TRANSMISSION

COUPLING

MAIN DRIVESHAFT

IBLE JOINT
Pee OVERRUNNING
SHIM CLUTCH

Fig. 7-7 Engine to transmission driveshaft assembly used on the Hughes 500.

194
 HOUSING JOINT

MAIN GEARBOX MOTIONS

HOUSING
pee Yn pene,

Me 2 SYMMETRICAL
SHAFT ATTACHMENT
POINTS
, Fotation about AA’ axis
takes up the misalignment

Fig. 7-8 Drive system used by the Aerospatiale AStar. Similar systems are used on other Aerospatiale products.

FLEXIBLE
COUPLINGS
° oC --——~- ENGINE SHAFT AXIS
| ENGINE
\ — -—_

: 0- Z
M.G.B
SHAFT AXIS
THICKNESS
0.2 TO 0.3 mm

STAINLESS STEEL STACKED... _..AND PLACED BETWEEN FLECTOR DEFLECTION ALLOWS

DISCS OR PLATES ARE... TWO TRIANGULAR COUPLING ANY SMALL MISALIGNMENT BE-
FLANGES AT THE END OF SHAFTS. TWEEN THE SHAFTS.

Fig. 7-9 Drive coupling used on some Aerospatiale products.

tion. It must be examined for deterioration of the type of grease and the method are quite specific in
rubber, separation of the rubber steel bonding, and the maintenance manual, which must be followed
deformation of the rubber. Any of these will re- to avoid failure of the unit. This unit is subject to
quire replacement of the coupling. This deforma- visual inspections daily and particular attention
tion is checked as shown in Fig. 7-10. must be given to the grease seals. Failure of these
seals will result in the loss of the grease by cen-
Helicopters with a belt drive will require inspec-
trifugal force, causing shaft failure.
tion of the belts and pulleys. The pulleys may re-
quire greasing for lubrication at specified periods. At the required lubrication times, the unit is to
As any other component requiring lubrication, the be disassembled, cleaned, and inspected. Any of
periods may be shortened due to adverse condi- the coupling parts may be replaced as required.
tions. The belts must be inspected for cracks and Some shafts of this type also require alignment
deterioration. Belts are usually assigned a finite procedures between the engine and transmission.
life. However, as with other materials of this type, Once the initial alignment is made with the in-
deterioration is also dependent upon age as well as stallation of the engine, realignment will not be
use. Lack of use can affect the life as greatly as high necessary until the major components are again
usage. The environment will be a large determin- changed. This procedure will require shimming of
ing factor in the belt life. ‘ the engine mount to obtain correct alignment of
the shaft. Details of this procedure will be covered
Exposure to weather and cleaning solvents will in the engine section of the text. The drives used to
also contribute to deterioration. transmit power to the transmissions vary consider-
The shaft arrangement, as used on the Bell 206, ably in design. The drive must always be consid-
will require lubrication. This is done by hand pack- ered a critical item. Manufacturer’s inspection and
ing the outer coupling splines with grease. The maintenance procedures must always be followed.
195
 “PORT HOLES” ward by centrifugal force making contact with the
IN ENGINE TO TRANSMISSION HOUSING drum which drives the transmission. When the
1-746” DIA. APPROX. (TYP.)
centrifugal force becomes great enough, the drum,
through the transmission, turns the rotor. This en-
gagement should be quite smooth with the rotor
RPM lagging slightly behind the engine until the
ectaron two attain the same speed. At that time the engine
“Vv” PROJECTIONS ON and rotor speed remain constant with the shoes
0.D. OF ELASTOMER
GAGE riding with the drum. This process should take
place in a few seconds. If a longer period of time is
Fig. 7-10 Drive coupling inspection on the Hiller 12. required, the clutch is slipping.

D. Clutch
The clutch is another unit closely associated
DRUM
with the drives. This unit, not found in all helicop-

b=
RETAINING
ters, is used in reciprocating engine and turbine RING
powered helicopters that do not use a free turbine. BEARING
SPIDER

SENONPH
The clutch is necessay to unload the engine during PIN
starting operation because the inertia required to BUSHING
SNAP RING
move the rotor system would be too great. The free BRAKE SHOE
turbines do not require this because the engine BRAKE LINING

does not have a direct drive between the com-

pressor and the power turbine. Clutches are always
located between the powerplant and the gear re- Fig. 7-11 Clutch assembly used on the Bell 47.
duction of the transmission so the powerplant may
be started without immediate engagement of the Another centrifugal type clutch is used on the
rotor system. The clutches are quite varied in de- Hiller 12 (Fig. 7-12). This type of clutch is often
sign and may engage automatically or manually. referred to as a mercury clutch because mercury is
used for the weight of the centrifugal force. The
drive clutch assembly is the clutch housing or drum
E. Freewheeling Units that is attached to the transmission drive train. The
Still another unit closely related to the clutch,
clutch assembly is surrounded by segments of shoe
sometimes referred to as the overrunning clutch, is
that will make contact with the drum when the en-
the freewheeling unit. This component will be
gine is running at 500 RPM, with positive engage-
found on all helicopters regardless of the power- ment at approximately 700 to 900 RPM.
plant. On multiengine helicopters one will be lo-
cated on each engine. The purpose of this free- The segments are moved outward by mercury
wheeling unit will allow the engine to drive the held under the shoes by a rubber bladder. The
transmission and prevent the rotor from driving shoes are held in place on each segment by springs
that assist in returning the shoes to their static
the engine. Without this unit the engine would be
driven by the rotor any time an autorotation is position. Because of the slippage that does occur
attempted. In addition, any seizure of the engine prior to positive engagement, the drum is cooled by
would prevent the possibility of autorotation. For air passing through holes in the base of the trans-
this reason the helicopter, equipped with two en- mission. The same holes are used to inspect the
gines, must have a freewheeling unit on each en- drive coupling mentioned previously in this secion.
gine output. Although practically all helicopters It is important that no oil leaks into this area of the
use the same type of unit, their location and size transmission because clutch slippage will occur.
vary from one helicopter to another. The operation The Bell 47 clutch, however, runs in oil and de-
of the units will always be automatic. pends upon it for cooling.
Another clutch of this type is used on the Aero-
1. Automatic Clutches spatiale Gazelle. This helicopter is not powered by
Automatic clutch systems vary somewhat in de- a free turbine engine, so a clutch must be installed.
sign. The Bell 47 clutch is a centrifugal unit using This clutch is also a centrifugal dry type, but is
a set of shoes and a drum (Fig. 7-11). The shoes are mounted in the horizontal rather than the vertical
splined to the drive gear from the powerplant. As position. The clutch is made up of a driving assem-
the engine increases in speed, the shoes move out- bly attached to the engine and the driven assembly
196
 1. JACK SCREW HOLES (1/4-28 THREAD)
OLN |
6Xa } 9 2. 0.12-INCH DIAMETER INDEX HOLE

oy Je 1) 3. METAL PROTECTIVE SHIPPING COVER

Co (NOTE 2) NOT SHOWN

8. NUT 14. BEARING

1. NUT 9. WASHER 15. BEARING
2. WASHER 10, UPPER FLEXIBLE 16. WASHER
3. BOLT COUPLING SECTION 17, O-RING PACKING
4, CLUTCH HOUSING 41. NUT 18. CRANKSHAFT OIL FRONT
5. BOLT 12, WASHER PLUG (REF)
6. WASHER 13, LOWER FLEXIBLE 19. ENGINE CRANKSHAFT
7, MAIN DRIVE CLUTCH COUPLING SECTION MOUNTING FLANGE (REF)

Fig. 7-12 Mercury clutch used on the Hiller 12.

attached to the freewheeling unit (Fig. 7-13). engine and transmission will rotate. With this type
Mounted on the forward flange is the driving por- of system, the clutch must be engaged by the pilot,
tion made up of a support ring (19) and ten lined rather than automatically. In one system the clutch
shoes. The shoes are held in the support ring by tie is manually engaged by a lever. The other system
rods (18). These same tie rods are used to keep the utilizes a solenoid to move the belt tightener into
support assembly concentric with the driveshaft
(16). A stack of spring washers is placed under each
shoe to set the tension for the correct engagement
and return of the shoe. The driven assembly is a
drum (6) held in place by two flanges. The forward
flange (5) is attached to the freewheeling shaft (2).
The operation is quite similar to those of the
other clutches. Upon starting, the driving assem-
bly immediately starts to rotate. However, the
clutch shoes will not move outward until 29,000 to
33,300 RPM is reached. At that time the shoes en-
gage with the driven assembly and power is trans-
mitted to the rotor.
2. Belt Tighteners
Helicopters utilizing a belt drive use a belt tight-
ener as aclutch. This simply increases the tension Fig. 7-13 Clutch system used on the Aerospatiale
of the belts to the point that the pulleys on the Gazelle.

197
position. Although these systems are very simple
mechanically, they require some skill of the pilot to
engage and disengage at the proper time for a
smooth engagement and to avoid an overspeed
with disengagement. Since the load is being re-
moved by disengagement, the engine must be
brought to low power setting before it is attempted.
With the pilot operated clutch mechanism, the op-
erator’s manual! must be closely followed.

F. Sprag Clutch
The most commonly used freewheeling unit on
Fig. 7-15 Typical sprag unit.
helicopters made in the U.S. is the sprag clutch.
This clutch allows movement in only one direction Bell 47 and the Hiller have the freewheeling unit
by having an inner and outer race which are often as an integral part of the transmission, so these
at the end of the driveshaft (Fig. 7-14). The sprag systems will be discussed with the gear system.
assembly is made up of a number of sprags resem- The belt driven helicopters, however, utilize the
bling the rollers in a roller bearing. The sprags, sprag system in the upper pulley of the belt drive.
unlike the circular bearings, have a figure-eight
The Bell 206 has a sprag system installed at the
shape. The vertical height of each of these sprags is
engine output end (Fig. 7-16). This system operates
slightly greater than the gap between the ID of the
as follows: a shaft from the power turbine drives the
outer race and the OD of the inner race.
power takeoff gear shaft through the engine reduc-
tion gearbox. The freewheeling unit is mounted on
SPRAG the engine gearbox and its shaft is splined directly
UNIT
to the power takeoff of the gear shaft. The engine
power is transmitted to the outer race of the free-

—s —_s
wheeling unit, then through the sprags to the in-
ner race, which is attached to the transmission
driveshaft. The forward short shaft of the tail rotor
drive system connects through a flexible coupling
SPRAG to a splined adapter on the aft end of the freewheel-
UNIT
NO ing shaft that passes through the engine gear re-

po
MOVEMENT
duction box. During autorotation, the main rotor
drives the power input shaft. At this time, the free-
wheeling unit provides a disconnect from the en-
gine, but continues to drive the tail rotor and trans-
mission accessories, such as the hydraulic pump —
Fig. 7-14 Sprag unit operation. necessary for boosted controls. It might also be
noted that at times, such as during autorotation,
They are held in position by a double cage assem- the sprags make minimal contact between the in-
bly spring loaded in the engaged position. This en- ner and outer races. The sprag clutch must be lu-
gaged position places the sprags against both races bricated on the Bell 206 for this reason. This lubri-
at a slight angle. Rotation from the engine on the cation is furnished from the transmission system,
outer race jams the sprags between the outer and which is still in operation during autorotation.
inner races and this interference fit drives the in- The Hughes 500 sprag unit operates in a similar
ner race which is attached to the driveshaft. If the manner, but is different in installation. The sprag
driveshaft attempts to drive the engine, the sprags clutch is mounted on the front of the engine be-
will be relieved and the driveshaft will rotate with- tween the forward power takeoff and the main driv-
out the engine. The same would happen if the engine eshaft. The clutch assembly is attached to the en-
stopped. A typical sprag clutch is seen in Fig. 7-15. gine output pad by bolts. No gasket is placed
Sprags may be designed to drive in either direc- between the two surfaces, but a drain hole is pro-
tion or on the inner or outer race. The actual ap- vided in the housing to allow any seal leakage to
plication varies considerably from one installation drain overboard. The clutch may be repaired by the
to another, but the operation is the same. Both the removal of the clutch subassembly (Fig. 7-17).
198
 Te
3 Adon
A Nel 4
RU
_ om

Ua i
yey
N}a
yr tf

a
7
\i
=--
rot
L]
fr

yt
Jil
Spd
an
Bee SA
CT ft Ld
he td
-~ \ OTs
— ‘ HOOD ey pn nneF
L _J f

1, RETAINER RING 17, O-RING

2 O-RING 18, DRAIN PLUG AND CHIP DETECTOR
3. VALVE HOUSING 19. UNION AND O-RING °
4. SHAFT, FREEWHEELING UNIT INNER RACE 20. PILOT RING, FREEWHEELING HOUSING
S. RETAINER RING 21. HOUSING, FREEWHEEUNG
6. SEAL 22. GASKET, FREEWHEELING HOUSING
7. BEARING, ROLLER 23. SHIM, AFT BEARING HOUSING
&. CAR, FORWARD BEARING AND SEAL 24, RETAINER RING
25, BEARING
19. RETAINER RING 26. O-RING
11. BEARING, ROLLER 27. HOUSING, AFT BEARING
42. PLATE, OUTER RACE GUIDE 28. REDUCER AND O-RING
” 43. CLUTCH ASSEMBLY ONEAWAY 28. SEAL
14. RETAINER RING 30. ADAPTER, FREEWHEELING TAIL ROTOR DRIVE
15, BEARING, BALL 31, WASHER
18. SHAFT, FREEWHEELING
UNIT OUTER RACE 32. NUT

Fig. 7-16 A-—Sprag unit installation as used on the Bell 206; B—Cross-sectional view of the Bell 206 sprag unit.

CLUTCH

fA)
COUPLING-TO-CLUTCH
SHIMMING

MAIN TRANSMISSION
ORIVE SHAFT COUPLING:

COUPLING BOLT
OVERRUNNING
CLUTCH SHAFT
CLUTCH COUPLING
LAMINATE COUPLING
SHIM (0.010"
MINIMUM)

ENGINE SHAFT
FIREWALL SEAL

OVERRUNNING
CLUTCH

REPLACEMENT OF COMPLETE CLUTCH

CLUTCH SUBASSEMBLY 8

ENGINE POWER AND

ACCESSORY GEARBOX

RETAINING RING
(BEVELED SIDE OUTWARD)

ENGINE SHAFT
(6) FIREWALL SEAL "
REPAIR BY REPLACEMENT
OF CLUTCH SUBASSEMBLY

CLUTCH HOUSING

Fig. 7-17 Sprag unit installation on the Hughes 500.

199
 This makes it possible to repair the clutch with- held in contact with the freewheeling head by a
out removing the complete unit. The unit has spring. When rotation of the lobed shaft occurs
shafts projecting from each end of the housing. One from the engine, the rollers make contact with the
of these is the inner race of the sprag unit and the lobed side and wedge the rollers to the driver and
other is the outer race of the sprag. The outer race the driven portions, forming a solid unit. When the
is the engine side and the inner race is the trans- rotor goes to autorotation, the rollers change posi-
mission side. The inner and outer races are sepa- tion and make contact with the lobe heel. In this
rated by two ball bearings and the sprag unit. This position the lobed shaft may remain still with the
bearing arrangement is locked by a large nut and outer freewheeling head in rotation. This unit is
lock washer (Fig. 7-18). lubricated and sealed with oil in manufacture.

H. Torquemeter
Another item that may be included in the engine
to transmission drive system is a torquemeter. The
torquemeter used on turbine powered helicopters
OUTPUT
is usually located within the turbine. This system
measures the power output of the engine. Torque
may be a limiting factor for the transmission on
some helicopters because some engines are cap-
able of producing more power than the transmis-
sion can absorb. This may be due to ambient condi-
Fig. 7-18 Sprag unit with self-contained oil system tions or the engine may be capable of these power
on a Hughes 500. outputs in almost any condition. Additional infor-
mation about torque and torquemeters will be
The sprag assembly and bearings are lubricated given in the engine portion of this text.
quite differently from those of the Bell 206. The One helicopter utilizing such a system is the Aero-
housing bearing on the output side of the sprag spatiale Gazelle. The torquemeter is located between
unit is in constant rotation. This bearing is hand the engine and transmission, on the engine side of
packed with grease. The two bearings and sprag the shaft, prior to the clutch and freewheeling unit.
unit, however, operate in oil which is kept within This unit is quite unique in design because it uses
the unit. Since no supply of outside oil is available, an optical-electronic detection device rather than
the level must be checked regularly and the unit the hydromechanical unit (Fig. 7-20).
must be inspected for leakage. Sprag units cannot -
operate dry. It measures the angular deviation between two
discs (1) and (2). The two discs are attached to the
ends of (4) and (5) — the shaft that drives the trans-
G. Roller Unit mission from the engine. A torque sensor (6) sur-
Another type of freewheeling unit is shown in
rounds the two discs. This sensor emits a light
Fig. 7-19. This particular unit is used on the Aero-
beam that passes through a window (8) in the one
spatiale Gazelle. disc. This beam is alternately cut by a tooth in the
The operation of this unit is quite similar to that other disc. The beam is then picked up and trans-
of the sprag unit, but rollers are used rather than formed into an electronic signal, which in turn is
sprags. The rollers are trapped between a lobed given to the indicator, which reads in percent
shaft and the freewheeling head. These rollers are of torque. In actuality this measurement is the
amount of twist in the shaft.
As can be noted in the view, both discs are at-
‘SYNCHRONIZED RATE. DE-SYNCHRONIZED RATE.
ROLLERS ARE IN CONTACT ROLLERS ARE iN CONTACT
WITH THE LOBE SIDE. WITH THE LOBE HEEL.
tached to the shaft, but one disc is attached near
the engine output, while the other disc is attached
near the clutch. The shaft between these two discs
is built to deflect or twist as power is applied. Al-
though both discs rotate with the shaft, the view
through the three windows in relation to the three
teeth changes as power is applied and the shaft
Fig. 7-19 Roller freewheeling used on the Aero- twists (Fig. 7-21). The transmitter senses this view
spatiale Cazelle. change and sends the signa] to the indicator.
200
 The indicator is a computer indicator and givesa
readout in percent of torque from —5% to 110% on
the face of the instrument. A control knob is placed
on the instrument, the pilot presets the given
torque value in relationship to the outside air tem-
perature. This moves a red index marker for the
maximum torque. The indicator also has a press-
to-set button to check the servo mechanism and a
warning light for overtorque conditions.

I. Rotor Brake
Another component that may be located between
the engine and transmission is the rotor brake.
This component is used to stop the rotor on shut-
down after the engine has ceased to power the rotor.
Because of the inertia of the main rotor, it takes a
few minutes for the rotor to come to a complete stop.
When loading passengers or for fueling operations,
a safety hazard exists during rotor coastdown.
Wind gusts will add to the hazard because the
blades can suddenly dip to within four feet of the
ground. For this reason, rotor brakes are often in-
stalled, either as standard or optional equipment.
Their use, however, is usually limited. Most opera-
tors confine their use to necessity rather than con-
venience because of the wear factors to the unit.
The rotor has a very high inertia, requiring a great
amount of braking force. For this reason the brake
Fig. 7-20 Electronic torquemeter system used on the is never applied until the rotor has slowed down
Aerospatiale Gazelle driveshaft. considerably on its own. Usually these brakes are a
disc type, attached to the input to the transmis-
sion. They may be either hydraulically or man-
ually operated.
Fig. 7-22 has a view of the rotor brake system
used on some Bell 206 models. This system is hy-
draulically operated with a master cylinder in-
stalled on the cabin roof. The master cylinder is
equipped with a handle which the pilot pulls to
apply brake pressure. The brake unit itself is a
single disc unit with a dual brake pad system, sim-
ilar to what might be found on many general avia-
tion aircraft for wheel brakes. The disc attaches to
the short shaft between the transmission and the
engine so the freewheeling unit does not affect the
braking action. This system, with its master cylin-
der, will require servicing with fluid because it does
not utilize the hydraulic system of the aircraft.
A manually operated rotor brake is used on the
Aerospatiale AStar 350 (Fig. 7-23). This system
consists of a fixed housing secured to the transmis-
sion (2) and a movable housing (4) that slides into
the fixed housing and supports the brake linings.
Fig. 7-21 Disc used in the Aerospatiale Gazelle The movement of this housing is in the fore and aft
torquemeter. direction only. Between the fixed housing and the
 Fig. 7-22 Typical rotor brake installation.

movable housing is a spring (3) to keep the movable

housing off the disc when the brake is not applied. Ss
The brake itself is actuated by a control fork (7). ||
The fork slides over the fixed housing and through u P a sabe
a sleeve (8), and a diaphragm (5) moves the movable i
housing against the disc attachedtotheinputofthe [| = ~~ = | | —-h
mahemiaion: FRICTION ‘pmaaal BRAKE DISC

J. Maintenance
The maintenance practices applied to these com-
ponents, located between the engine and transmis-
sion, are as varied as the components themselves.
Maintenance procedures must be performed in ac-
cordance with the manufacturers recommenda-
tions. The operation of the clutch and freewheeling
unit must be checked in each preflight run-up, as
both items are critical to the safety of flight. The
clutch engagement should be smooth and positive.
To check the clutch engagement, the tachometer is
used. Most helicopters make use of a dual type in-
strument. One needle indicates rotor RPM and the
other indicates engine RPM. In normal operation
the two needles stay super-imposed, or married.
During starting, or until the clutch is engaged, the
engine RPM will be ahead of the rotor. After actual
engagement takes place the rotor RPM should in-
crease rapidly until the two needles are superim-
posed. The amount of time required for this to hap-
pen is the engagement time. Since the clutch is
actually slipping during this period, it is a critical
period. Fig. 7-23 Mechanical rotor brake system.
202
 Some helicopters are placarded to warn the pilot ing inspection criteria will be replaced. A wear factor
of the maximum engagement time. If this time is is always created between the sprags, the driver, and
longer or the two needles do not marry, the clutch is driven races of these units. Replacement of parts in
slipping. No flight should be attempted under these areas is not uncommon.
these conditions. The freewheeling unit is as crit-
ical to flight as the clutch. In the situation of en- CLUTCH

gine failure or seizure, it is the freewheeling unit CENTERLINE

CLUTCH OUTPUT SHAFT
that will allow the helicopter to autorotate. It, too, > CLUTCH
is checked with the use of the tachometer during MINIMUM OIL
LEVEL (7/8")
preflight run-up. This is done by suddenly reduc- FULL OIL
ing the RPM of the engine while the two needles are LEVEL
(2-718")
superimposed. at that time the two needles should
split, with the rotor RPM remaining at its present
position and engine RPM rapidly decreasing. If this HOLES (3)
does not happen, the freewheeling unit is inopera-
tive and the procedure should be discontinued.
Fig. 7-24 Sprag unit servicing on the Hughes 500.
This would mean that the unit is frozen and auto-
rotation is impossible.
K. Vibrations
Slippage could occur between the engine and the The transmissions of helicopters are usually
transmission, giving the same indication as a slip- mounted to the fuselage on semi-flexible mounts.
ping clutch. If the clutch units are used properly This helps dampen vibration that would be trans-
and overhaul procedures are followed, they will mitted from the main rotor system to the fuselage.
normally last from major inspection to major in- With the balancing equipment available for rotor
spection or recommended overhaul. The centrifu- systems, very low levels of dynamic vibration may
gal clutch used on the Bell 47 may require new be reached. However, the levels may be increased
shoe linings. The drum may have to be turned to and aggravated by loads placed on the rotor system
return its surface to a serviceable condition be in flight. These levels can be annoying to the pas-
cause it is subject to wear from the shoe contact and sengers. They may start harmonic or sympathetic
warpage from frictional heat. The shoe linings and vibrations in the fuselage and components. This
drums are often replaced by specialty shops. If may lead to fatigue and wear factors that would not
shoes or drums are to be replaced, the contact area take place if the vibrations were isolated, or re-
of the two is critical and must be checked to insure duced by the transmission mounting.
that the contact area of the shoe covers the area of Two main rotor dampening systems, which re-
the drum. Quite often they must be lapped in place duce the vibration levels considerably, were dis-
with sandpaper and checked with Prussian Blue. cussed in the section on main rotors. Helicopters
The Hiller 12 makes use of a mercury centrifugal equipped with these systems also have isolation
clutch. This type of clutch has replaceable linings mountings on the transmission. Although the
and a drum, both of which are susceptible to the mount has some flexibility, it must also possess
same wear factors as Bell 47’s. In addition, the mer- high strength ratios because the helicopter is actu-
cury level is quite important because it is the ally suspended from the transmission mounts.
weight of this mercury, coupled with centrifugal Also, the mounts must absorb the torsional loads
force, that engages the clutch. Mercury is very cor- of the helicopter rotor system.
rosive to metal. Loss of mercury will be noticed by
clutch slippage. L. Mounting Systems
The sprag unit, which is the most widely used 1. Bell 47
freewheeling unit, requires servicing if it contains As mentioned previously, some of the early light
its own oil supply. These units must be checked for helicopters had engines mounted directly to the
oil quantity periodically. The Hughes 500 unit is transmission, forming one unit. This system re-
checked with a ruler. This can be done only after quired only one mount, which served as the engine
the removal of the driveshaft as shown in Fig. 7-24. and transmission mount. The Bell 47 mount sys-
The units are subject to overhaul unless the man- tem consists of an adapter plate, a basket assembly,
ufacturer provides exchange units. Some units may rubber Lord mounts, and a mount system on the
be disassembled for inspection, such as the unit on bottom of the engine (Fig. 7-25). This mount is usu-
the Bell 206. Any components in this unit not meet- ally referred to as an engine mount, but it essen-
203
tially carries both the engine and transmission as In addition, a sprag mount system is placed on
a unit. The adapter plate is bolted to the engine the bottom of the engine (Fig. 7-26). This allows the
and suspended by two trunnion pins. This gives bottom of the engine to move with the trunnion
the engine and transmission some flexibility from movement and at the same time offers some rigidi-
side to side. The trunnions pass through the tubular ty. This rigidity is quite necessary because of the
steel mount, often referred to as the basket, which is arm length of the rotor assembly, which includes
attached to the center section of the helicopter the mast, transmission, and the engine length. A
through two rubber Lord mounts. The mounts allow safety cable system is installed to hold the engine
some flexibility in the fore and aft direction and a in approximate position in case of failure of the
slight amount of movement for torque. sprag system (Fig. 7-27).

Fig. 7-25 Engine-transmission mount used on the Bell 47.

1. ENGINE SUMP(REF)
2. FITTING
3. ROD (2)
. 4, RH MOUNT ASSEMBLY
5. AFT MOUNT ASSEMBLY
6. LORD MOUNT
7. LARGE WASHER
8. BOLT (4)

TORQUE BOLTS
INCH-POUNDS AND
LOCK WIRE

Fig. 7-26 Sprag mount system used on the Bell 47.

204
 gasket is placed between the engine and the
adapter plates and the studs are torqued and
safetied.
To remove the Lord mounts, simply unbolt the
clamp. The installation is much the same, with spe-
cial attention given to the gap in the clamp. This
gap determines the number of retainers to be used
in holding the Lord mount (Fig. 7-28).

ENGINE MOUNT
MOUNT CLAMP
1. ENGINE NOTE! NOTE2
2. FORWARD SAFETY CABLES
Provide to stack Tighten cables snug, then
CLAMP BOLTS
3. HEADS OF BOLTS DOWN
4. AFT SAFETY CABLES In longth of cable. loosen clevis turns.
5, TURNBUCKLES

Fig. 7-27 Safety cable system used on the Bell 47.

The inspection of the engine mount requires vi-

BONDING JUMPER
sual inspection of the tubing and all intersection (ON LH MOUNT)
welds. In addition, the item has a finite life due to
its construction and the loads imposed. At major Fig. 7-28 Isolation mount used on the Bell 47.
inspections throughout its life it will require mag-
netic particle inspections. Other than very small b. Sprag mounts
dents in specified locations, no damage is allowed The sprag mount system is subject to visual in-
in the mount. The repair of damage is not allowed, spection. The mounts, like those used in the engine
due to the stress concentrations set up by patches mount, should be checked for rubber cracks and
and intersection repairs. A certain amount of flex- loose bonding of the rubber. The rod ends are sub-
ing takes place in the mount and welds will destroy ject to wear. The components, other than Lord
the flexing ability, leading to stress buildup. mounts, are appropriately checked by magnetic
particle and dye penetrant inspections at all major
a. Adapter plate and Lord mounts
inspections.
The adapter plate is subject to visual inspection,
especially in the areas of the trunnions which are In the view of the sprag mount, the rod ends of
visible with the engine and transmission coupled. the mount are threaded, making them adjustable.
The adapter plate is aluminum alloy in which the The movement of these rods will position the mast
trunnions are inserted and pinned into place. At of the helicopter. This particular mast is positioned
major inspections this plate goes through dye pen- to the vertical position. This is done by leveling the
etrant inspection and dimensional checks to deter- helicopter and the mast using the sprag mounts. If
mine its condition. a rod end or rods are changed, the mast alignment
must be checked. Likewise, the changing of the
Lord mounts, which are placed between the en-
Lord mount could affect mast alignment. Incorrect
gine mount and the helicopter, are subject to dete-
alignment can affect the flight characteristics.
rioration of the rubber and bonding. They are visu-
Such misalignment has also been known to cause
ally inspected and replaced if deterioration has
taken place. No repairs may be made. The only real vibration problems, especially when tipped slightly
aft, where the transmission coupling makes contact
maintenance performed is component removal and
with the tail rotor shaft.
replacement., and the attachments to the engine
and transmission. Although the Bell 47’s mast is vertical, some
masts using a sprag system may be tilted to the
When the adapter plate is reinstalled, it is se-
side, as it was mentioned in the aerodynamics sec-
cured first to the engine mount. If new pinion pins
tion of this text. Always consult the maintenance
are to be used, they are reamed to fit the taper pin.
manual before attempting any adjustments of the
Oversized taper pins may be used by reaming the
mast alignment (Fig. 7-29).
adapter plate. Shims are also used between the
adapter plate and mount to obtain proper cleara- c. Safety cables
nce. The installation of the adapter plate requires The safety cables are visually inspected and are
the correct height to be placed on the engine studs condition and are subject to the same conditions as
before installation. After this height is set, a metal a control cable. These cables are adjustable and
205
 <«— MAST
LEVEL
HERE
AND
HERE TRANSMISSION

O
SPRAG O <— ENGINE
MOUNTS
ADJUST
f O SPRAGS
TO OBTAIN
LEVEL

Fig. 7-29 Mast alignment system used on vertical

installations.

should be set in accordance with the manufac-

turer’s recommendations. The cables will be loose
in all normal conditions so all normal movements
may take place. A cable set improperly will cause
abnormal vibrations during certain maneuvers
such as turns, etc. This is because the normal
movement will be restricted by the cables.
2. Bell 206
An entirely different system is used on the Bell
206. The 206, unlike the 47, has the engine located _—— TRANSMISSION

aft of the transmission with the power passing

through a short shaft to the transmission. The - ISOLATION
transmission is mounted to the fuselage by two
pylon mount links attached at two points to the
cabin roof. The apex of the “A” frame link contains
a spherical bearing attached to a spindle on the
transmission case (Fig. 7-30). Fig. 7-31 Spike and isolation mount system used on
Fore and aft movement must be restricted. To the Bell 206.
restrict this movement, an isolation mount is at-
tached, through a plate with a spherical bearing,
to the bottom of the transmission. This mount is The pylon mount links carry the load of the heli-
made up of layers of elastomer and metal. Any fore copter and should be examined for nicks and
and aft movement will place the elastomer in ten- scratches. Because of the loads imposed, the pylon
sion and compression. Because of this elasticity, mount links may be reworked only in specified
the transmission and mast will return to its origi- areas . The pylon mounts are shimmed by the man-
nal position when the load is relieved. In addition ufacturer to assure the alignment of the transmis-
to the isolation mount, a spike is attached to the sion. The shims are to remain with the helicopter.
same plate as the isolation fitting. This spike Interchanging of shims will require realignment
passes through a hole surrounded by a stop plate, at a major overhaul facility. The isolation mount is
in case of failure of the isolation mount. It also visually inspected like other elastomeric items
prevents unlimited movement of the transmission and must be replaced as required. The mounts are
and mast assembly. Fig. 7-31 shows the attachment subject to deterioration due to solvents. A cover is
of the transmission at the bottom with the isola- placed over the mount and should be in place at all
tion mount and spike. times.
206
 a. Nodal beam system
The nodal beam system is used on the Bell 206L, mounts bolted to the transmission. The four link as-
222, and 214 models. The nodal beam virtually elimi- semblies are secured to the four support assemblies
nates the two-per-revolution vibrations normally felt and the flexture assemblies. The support assemblies
in semirigid rotor systems. This is accomplished by the are attached to the cabin roof and contain elas-
flexing of the nodal beam, tuned for the two-per-revolu- tomeric bearings to isolate and balance the vibration
tion vertical vibrations (Fig. 7-32). The transmis- inputs into the flexture assemblies. The assemblies
sion, mast and rotor are isolated from the fuselage by are the primary vibration absorbing unit and are
the nodal beam and the transmission restraint. The provided with tuning weights for the fine tuning of
nodal beam uses four link attachments and two stop the nodal beam system.

Fig. 7-32 Nodal beam system used on several Bell models.

207
M. Transmissions
Transmission movement is restricted through Two stop mounts are bolted to the transmission
the use of the transmission restraint. The restraint and are installed over the drag pins. The stops
consists of an elastomeric bearing secured to the mounted to the drag pins restrict the up movement
transmission restraint support. The restraint sup- and all oscillatory movement of the transmission
port is attached to the cabin roof and two drag pins. (Fig. 7-33).

TIGHTEN NUT UNTIL

2
CONTACT IS MADE WITH
STOP, THEN TIGHTEN
NUT AN ADDITIONAL
TWO DEGREES

of ~~ TORQUE
\
12 13 IN/LBS

TORQUE
IN/LBS. REFER
TO NOTE 1.

AREAS NOTED MUST BE

FREE OF ADHESIVE.

\
TORQUE
BOND PACKING
IN/LBS. 26
USING EC2126
ADHESIVE (ITEM TORQUE IN/LBS AND
202, TABLE C-1) BACK-OFF TO NEAREST
CASTELLATION. REFER
TO NOTE 2.

Fig. 7-33 Bell 206L isolation mount.

208
 Many other helicopter transmissions mount to a means of transferring the loading during flight
the structure of the airframe and use rubber to the structure of the aircraft. See Fig. 7-34 for a
mounts between the airframe and the transmis- view of a lift link mounting system.
sion as a vibration dampener. In the Hughes 500 series, the lifting load is trans-
A few systems make use of a lift link in addition ferred through the stationary mast rather than
to the bolts and dampening devices. This lift link is being carried by the mast through the transmission.

1. TRANSMISSION SUPPORT CASE

2. BOLT ASSY.
3. BOLT (WITH LOCKING INSERT)
4. SHOULDERED WASHER
5. EYEBOLT
6. WASHER
7. BOOT
8. FIFTH MOUNT
. 9. LAMINATED PLATES
10, MAIN MOUNT ASSY.
11. FILLER PLATE
12. FRICTION DAMPER
13, FIFTH MOUNT FITTING
14. PYLON SUPPORT 2
15. DAMPER FITTING
16. MOUNT BOLT \N 3 TORQUE
17. FILLER PLATE » Sy)
90 TO 105
18, MAIN MOUNT FT/LB
19. BOOT
20. BUSHING TORQUE
21. LIFT LINK 650 TO 800
or
&
22. BOLT ASSY. INCH/LB

>
LO

Pa > Y NN
TORQUE TORQUE
100 TO 140 480 TO 600
V G
TORQUE G ww
co INCH/ILB INCH/LB

60 TO 80 @ | Caso
(2
a CY
| DETAIL OF

FTILB J Sn 40 FIFTH MOUNT

a 2 & HH

|
TORQUE
80 TO 100
TORQUE J INCHI/LB
1600TO 1900 =|
INCHILB

Fig. 7-34 Lift link and isolation mount system.

209
Fig. 7-35 A-Bell 47 900 series transmission.

210
 Regardless of the means used to attach the trans- power absorbed, and the accessories driven by the
mission, careful inspection of the mounting system transmission. The transmission is built as small and
will be required to insure the integrity of the helicop- lightweight as possible to reduce overall weight. Due
ter. Because of the stresses imposed on the mounts, to the strength-to-weight ratio, spiral bevel and heli-
nicks or scratches must be reworked in accordance cal gears are used for directional changes. Some of
with manufacturer’s recommendations. these transmissions to be covered will be the Bell 47,
Transmissions vary considerably in construction. 900 series (Fig. 7-35 A & B).
This is due to the manufacturer's preference, the

24 23 22 21 20 19

1. PLATE ASSEMBLY 14. NUT (6 REQD)

2. SEAL 15. TAIL ROTOR QUILL ASSEMBLY 27. BEARING
3. ROTOR TACH. PINION ASSY¥,. 16. O-RING 28. FAN QUILL ASSEMBLY
4, PLATE 17. RETAINER RING 29. NUT (6 REQD)
5. RETAINING RING 18. PLATE ASSEMBLY 30. O-RING
6. WASHER 19. MAST GUIDE RING 31. NUT
7. BEARING 20. BEARING 32. NUT
8. RING GEAR 21. RETAINING RING (2 REQD) 33. LOWER SUN GEAR
9. SPACER CASE ASSEMBLY 22. NUT 34. LOWER PLANETARY ASSEMBLY
10. O-RING (4 REQD) 23. WASHER 35. UPPER PLANETARY ASSEMBLY
11. FREEWHEELING ASSEMBLY 24. CLUTCH ASSEMBLY 36. UPPER SUN GEAR
12. DUPLEX BEARING 25. MAIN CASE-ASSEMBLY 37. BRONZE BEARING
13. ACCESSORY DRIVE GEAR 26. PLATE 38. TOP CASE ASSEMBLY

Fig. 7-35 B-—Cross-sectional view of the 900 series transmission.

 The transmission is a gear reduction mecha- the drum at 120° intervals to provide an oil bath for
nism attached to the adapter plate at the upper end the clutch.
of the engine. In addition to the power driving the The lower case of the transmission is cast alumi-
main rotor, power is supplied for the cooling fan, num. Steel liners are inserted for the lower case
hydraulic pump, tail rotor, and rotor tachometer. bearing, fan quill sleeve, hydraulic pump quill, tail
The transmission is contained in a cylindrical rotor quill and generator quill. In addition, the in-
case, and is composed of a series of castings and terior is provided with a threaded steel pedestal for
rings stacked upon each other. The case is held accessory drive gear mounting, four large holes in
together by through bolts. Engine oil is distributed the webbing for oil drainage and lightening, and
throughout the transmission by a distribution four holes in the exterior for the accessory drives.
block located on the right aft side of the center case. The lower sun gear passes through the lower case
The main rotor mast support is located on the top pedestal and the lower case bearing. It is splined
case along with the tachometer drive. The four to the clutch drum which is retained by a nut
drive assemblies, tail rotor, cooling fan, hydraulic threaded to the sun gear. The lower case bearing, a
pump and generator are located on the lower sec- three-piece roller bearing, carries the load of the
tion of the case. Internally, the assembly consists of sun gear. The sun gear houses a needle bearing
the following subassemblies: that aligns the lower end of the mast, that passes
1. Centrifugal clutch through the inside of the sun gear. The upper teeth
2. Freewheeling unit of the sun gear mesh with the teeth of the pinion
3. Two stage planetary reduction gears gear of the lower planetary spider.
4. Four spiral bevel gears for accessory drives Mounted on the lower case pedestal are two an-
gular contact bearings. The bearings have locked
The centrifugal clutch relieves the engine start- inner races and support the accessory drive gear.
ing load by the separation of the rotor system from
The accessory drive gear provides power for the
the engine.
four drive quills located in the lower case.
The freewheeling unit provides for autorotation
The lower spider has a top and a bottom flange
with an idling or dead engine.
with a set of splines. Both spline sets are indexed
The accessory pads of the transmission receive for mating. The bottom splines are narrow and fit
power as long as the rotor is turning with power on over the accessory drive gear holding the retaining
or off. This makes it possible for the pilot to have nut. The upper splines are wider and drive the up-
complete control during autorotation. per sun gear. The lower spider holds eight plane-
The speeds of the various drives are as follows for tary gears that are pinned to the spider. Each of
normal operation: these planetary gears contain roller bearings in
nylon cages.
Engine 3200 RPM
Mast 355.20 RPM
Surrounding the lower planetary system is the
Tail Rotor Drive 3840 Rpm
freewheeling unit which permits the uncoupling of
Fan Drive 3840 RPM
the engine during autorotation (Fig. 7-36). The in-
ner ring acts as a fixed gear for the lower pinion
Tachometer Drive 1600 RPM
Generator Drive 3840 Rpm
gears while the engine is driving the rotor and asa
Hydraulic Drive 3840 rpm free gear when the rotor is driving the unit. The
outer ring provides a rolling surface during auto-
The clutch assembly, located at the bottom of the rotation and a locking surface during engine en-
transmission, is a centrifugal type that operates in gagement. Between the two rings are forty rollers,
oil. The shoes are a matched set and are pinned to placed in inclined slots, with spring assemblies to
the spider assembly. The spider, splined to the hold the roller in the high incline portion of the
crankshaft adapter, gear drives the clutch. In the slot. They allow locking action in the clockwise di-
center of the spider is a deep groove ball bearing rection and unlocking in the counterclockwise di-
having its outer race locked to the spider and its rection. The rollers and springs are held in place by
inner race locked to the clutch drum. This bearing two guide rings and act as an oil deflector for the
rotates only when the clutch is not fully engaged. lower spider.
When full engagement occurs, the drum and spi- The upper sun gear is splined to the top of the
der will turn as a unit. The clutch drum is splined lower spider and meshes with the upper spider pi-
to the lower sun gear and seats against the lower nion gears. The gear splines have a retainer shoul-
case bearing. Three holes are provided in the top of der to prevent the sun gear from interfering with
212
 1. NUT
2. DEFLECTOR
3. PLATE
4. SPRING PIN
5. OUTER RACE ASSEMBLY
6. INNER RACE GEAR
7. SPRING
8. CUSHION
9. PLATE
10. ROLLER
11. BOLT

FREE WHEEL LOCK

SECTION BB

Fig. 7-36 Freewheeling unit that is an integral part of the transmission.

the pinions of the lower spider. A bronze thrust is the fan pulley. It is placed on cones and retained
bearing is provided for a soft surface between the by a bolt in the end of the shaft.
upper sun gear and the mast drive flange. The up-
The tail rotor quill is driven from the accessory
per spider has top and bottom flanges and supports
drive gear. It is a bevel gear with a shaft. It is sup-
the gear for the rotor tach drive on the upper
ported by three ball bearings placed in a sleeve,
flange. The top flange is bored to accept the pins for
similar to the construction of the fan quill, with a
the pinion gears and splined to drive the mast.
splined coupling placed on the end to accommodate
The pinion gears are of similar construction to the tail rotor driveshaft.
those used in the lower spider and utilize roller
bearings. However, the rollers are held in micarta, The generator drive quill is of similar con-
rather than nylon, cages. The pinion gears rotate struction, with a gear shaft supported by bearings
about a fixed ring gear driving the spider, which in in a sleeve bolted to the transmission.
turn drives the mast. The drive flange which is the The hydraulic drive quill is driven by the ac-
upper spider is bolted into place. cessory drive gear with the same type of arrange-
The fan drive quill is driven from the accessory ment of sleeve gear shaft and bearing as the other
drive gear. The gear itself is a bevel gear with a drives from the accessory drives.
hollow shaft plugged with a cork. The shaft is sup-
The tachometer drive quill is located on the top
ported on the gear end by a roller bearing, using
of the transmission and is driven by a gear at-
the gear shaft as the inner race. The outer race of
tached to the upper spider. The driven gear is
this bearing makes contact with the quill sleeve
placed in the top case of the transmission with a
assembly. This sleeve provides the bearing support
square drive to accomodate a tachometer or drive
and a flange for mounting the quill to the trans-
cable. The gear is supported by a needle bearing.
mission case. Two ball bearings are on the opposite
end of the sleeve, supporting the gear shaft for axial The center case is a magnesium casting which
loads. The bearings are locked on the outer race by provides space for the freewheeling unit and the
anut and shoulder in the sleeve. The nut also holds fixed ring gear. Oil is distributed to the transmis-
an oil seal for the gear shaft. At the end of the shaft sion from the engine in this area.
213
 The upper case is a dome-shaped aluminum case section. Conventional lip seals are used on all
casting which provides a receptacle for the main the accessory drive quills. These will often require
mast bearing, an oil inlet for the mast bearing and the removal of the quill for replacement and, in
a tachometer pad. The three sections of transmis- some instances, the disassembly of the quill pack-
sion are all held together by through bolts passing age. The quill assemblies have shims located be-
through the three sections from the upper case. tween the sleeve flange and the transmission case.
The power progression of the transmission is as These shims determine the lash and pattern of the
follows: gears. If a quill is removed for inspection or seal
replacement, the shims must be returned as orig-
Crankshaft gear
inally placed, or the lash and gear pattern will be
92) SO) (Ou RCO:

Clutch spider
(NO)

destroyed. If this should occur, the lash and gear

Clutch shoes pattern must be redetermined, and the proper
Clutch drum shims installed.
Lower sun gear To check the condition of the shoes and drum, the
Lower spider pinions clutch assembly may be removed by lifting the
Freewheeling ring transmission from the adapter plate, without com-
plete disassembly of the transmission. This is nor-
. Lower spider
mally done at 600-hour inspections or whenever
a. Accessory drive gear
the clutch operation is questionable.
1. Generator quill
2. Hydraulic quill Major inspections of the transmission require
3. Tail rotor quill complete disassembly. All steel parts are subject to
4. Fan quill magnetic particle inspection and all nonferrous
9. Upper sun gear compenents will receive flourescent penetrant in-
spection. Besides visual inspection for wear, parts
10. Upper spider pinions
are dimensionally checked and gears are mea-
11. Fixed ring gear sured for wear using gauge pins. See Fig. 7-37 for
12. Upper spider the typical use of gauge pins.
13. Mast drive flange
14. Tachometer drive GAUGE
PINS

The transmission oil is actually supplied from the Ges

engine oil system. The oil passes through oil jets on
the lower case of the engine and around the mast MEASURE GAUGE
ACROSS PINS
bearing at the top of the engine. It drips through the THE ARE SET DIAMETERS
transmission and returns to the engine. PINS FOR THE GEAR TEETH

This system has an obvious disadvantage in that

any contamination of the oil by either the engine
or the transmission will pass through both. For Fig. 7-37 Gauge pins are used to measure toothwear.
this reason, transmissions built today separate
the oil systems of the engine and transmission. During the major inspection it is not uncommon
The Bell 47 transmission can be completely disas- to replace certain parts, such as bearings, rollers,
sembled in the field for repair and major inspection. and springs, without inspection. These items are
a. Maintenance replaced at the discretion of the shop performing
During operation, the transmission oil tempera- the work. When various parts are replaced, the
ture is monitored by an indicator. One indicator lash and pattern of the accessory gears and quills
will read the oil temperature of either the engine may be disturbed. Lash and gear patterns are al-
or transmission, depending upon the position of ways checked on reassembly.
the selector. Temperature is always a good indica- 2. Bell 206
tor of the condition of the transmission. The trend today is to simplify the transmission
Like any other component that utilizes oil, it is as much as possible. This will reduce the operating
subject to oil leakage. The leakage will appear on and manufacturing costs. In some instances this is
the outside of the transmission. O-rings are used to possible, especially on the light turbine helicopters
seal the parting surfaces of the cases. The O-rings being built today. One transmission of this type is
may be changed by separating the transmission used on the Bell 206 (Figs. 7-38 and 7-39).
214
 This transmission is mounted in front of the en- no clutch is necessary. A sprag unit is mounted at
gine, receiving the engine power through a short the engine output, therefore no freewheeling unit
input shaft. The engine used is a free turbine and is necessary in the transmission.

SEE NOTE 2
FOR CHECKING BACKLASH

12

SEE 1
FOR CHECKING 13
BACKLASH

31

. TRANSMISSION CASE 19. KEY - LOCK

=
ODOarhAoOND

. RING GEAR, PLANETARY FIXED 20. BEARING, MAIN ROTOR LOWER MAST
. TOP CASE, TRANSMISSION 21. GROUND SHIM RING, MAIN INPUT SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR
. PLANETARY ASSEMBLY 22. SUPPORT ASSEMBLY, LOWER MAST BEARING
. BEARING, MAIN INPUT GEAR SHAFT ROLLER 23. NUT, GEAR SHAFT BEARING INNER
. GEAR SHAFT, MAIN INPUT 24. NUT, GEAR SHAFT BEARING OUTER
. SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR, MAIN INPUT 25. DUPLEX BEARING, INPUT GEAR SHAFT
ON

. GROUND SHIM RING, INPUT PINION 26. DOUBLE ROW BEARING, ACCESSORY DRIVE
. LAMINATED SHIM 27. BEARING HOUSING, ACCESSORY DRIVE
Oo Oo

. HOUSING, INPUT PINION BEARING AND SEAL 28. GEAR, SPIRAL BEVEL ACCESSORY DRIVE
OnNOoahon=

. ADAPTER, INPUT PINION 29. OIL PUMP

hahah

. NUT 30. RETAINER RING

. COVER, PINION NUT 31. SEAL
- LOCK SPRING, INPUT PINION NUT 32. O-RING
. PINION GEAR, INPUT 33. O-RING
. TRIPLEX BEARING, INPUT PINION 34, O-RING
. DRAG LINK ASSEMBLY 35. SPACER RING
- BEARING, INPUT PINION ROLLER

Fig. 7-38 Bell 206 transmission cross section.

215
 1, BOLT 36. O-RING
2. MAIN RING GEAR SHAFT 37. SHIMS
3. RING GEAR 38, TRIPLEX BEARINGS - INPUT PINION
4, RETAINER RING 39, INPUT PINION
5. ALIGNMENT BEARING - MAIN RING GEAR SHAFT 40, RETAINER RING
6. TRANSMISSION LOWER CASE 41, BEARING - INPUT PINION ALIGNMENT
7, DUPLEX BEARINGS - MAIN RING GEAR SHAFT 42, UNION - FREEWHEELING PRESSURE OIL
8. NUT - MAIN RING GEAR SHAFT 43, REGULATOR VALVE - OIL PRESSURE
9. NUT - MAIN RING GEAR SHAFT BEARINGS 44, O-RING
10. RETAINER RING 45, UNION - FREEWHEELING RETURN OIL
11. BEARING - MAST ALIGNMENT 46. Olt JET- NO. 1
12. SUPPORT - MAST ALIGNMENT BEARING 47. O-RING
13. LOCK KEY 48, GASKET
14, O-RING 49. OIL FILTER HOUSING
15. RETAINER RING 50. THERMO SWITCH
16. SPANNER NUT - ACCESSORY DRIVE GEAR 51. BY-PASS VALVE—FILTER
17, LOCK PLATE 52. TEMP BULB
18. HOUSING - ACCESSORY ORIVE BEARING 63. DRAIN VALVE
19. BEARING - ACCESSORY DRIVE 54, OIL MONITOR
20. RETAINER RING 55. O-RING
21. ACCESSORY DRIVE GEAR 56, FILTER ELEMENT
22, O-RING 57. O-RING
23, OIL PUMP - TRANSMISSION 58, FILTER HOUSING
24. LOCK RING 59. CHIP DETECTOR
25. COVER 60. O-RING
26, NUT - INPUT PINION 61. FILTER SCREEN
27. ADAPTER 62. O-RING
28. O-RING 63. RETAINER RING
29. COVER - INPUT PINION 64, INDICATOR PLATE - OIL LEVEL
30, O-RING 65. O-RING
31, OIL TRANSFER TUBE 66, SIGHT GLASS - OIL LEVEL
32. O-RING 67. RETAINER RING
33. OIL TRANSFER TUBE 68. DRAG LINK
M4. SEAL 69. BOLT
36. RETAINER RING 70. WASHER

Fig. 7-39 A-Exploded view of the 206 transmission.

 1. DUCT - COOLING AIR
2. RADIATOR - OIL COOLER
3. GASKET
4, O-RING
5. BOLT
6. BOLT
7.0-RING
8.0-RING
9. GASKET
10. BRACKET
11. ADAPTER
12, CLIP
13. FILLER - BREATHER CAP
14. O-RING
15, SPINDLE
16. TOP CASE
17. JET + NO. 2
18. O-RING
19. OIL TRANSFER TUBE
20. SPACER RING
21. FIXED RING GEAR
22. O-RING
23. PLANETARY CARRIER ASSY.
24, SHAFT
25. WASHER
26. INNER RACE
27, ROLLER
28. RETAINER - CAGE
29. GEAR - PLANETARY
30. NUT
31. BEARING - SUN GEAR
32, SUN GEAR
33, TRANSFER TUB
34, UNION - OIL “IN”

Fig. 7-39 B-Planetary system of the Bell 206 transmission.

The transmission case is made up of a main and The input quill transmits engine power to the
a top case. The main case provides a housing for the transmission. The quill consists of a steel pinion
input quill, accessory drive quill, transmission oil gear supported by a set of tri-plex thrust bearings
pump and supports the spiral bevel gear and shaft. and one radial alignment bearing (Fig. 7-40).
The lower mast bearing and support mount are These bearings are positioned on steel liners in the
placed in the bottom of the lower case and serves as main case and the outer races are pinched by
a reservoir for transmission oil. The lower case also means of a cap and shim.
provides mounting bosses for: A spiral bevel gear and shaft mesh with the in-
1. Sight gauge put gear, reducing the RPM 3.26 to 1, and changes
Drain plug and chip detector the direction of the power train 90°. The assembly
On

Oil filter head is made up of a main gear shaft and a main gear.
Pressure line “IN” The gear is secured to the shaft by bolts. The gear
shaft is supported by one roller bearing at the top of
oP

Pressure and return line for the freewheeling

the shaft and two angular thrust bearings at the
unit
base.
Pressure regulating valve
The sun gear is splined to the inside of the main
Oo Ono

Drag link
gear shaft and drives the pinion gears of the plane-
Oil strainer tary system. At the top of the sun gear is an angu-
Oil jet #1 lar thrust bearing which supports the planetary
10. Internal passages for pressure oil system.
 mast and swashplate. This transmission, like all of
the helicopters in production today, has its own
separate oil system to supply lubrication to the
various components of the transmission and free-
wheeling unit. Fig. 7-41 shows a schematic of the
oil system. The oil pump is mounted internally in
the transmission lower case and is driven from the
Fig. 7-40 Pinion gear system used in the Bell 206.
accessory drive quill. The pump is a vane type
The sun gear engages all four planet gears at which produces a constant volume. It picks up oil
their centerpoint. As the sun gear rotates, the mo- from the strainer outlet in the bottom of the case
tion is transmitted to the planets. The planets in and moves the oil through internal passages to the
turn rotate, or walk, around the fixed ring gear. oil filter head, which is mounted on the outside of
This will rotate the carrier and the sun gear. the lower case.
Only one accessory drive quill is used in the Bell The filter head provides an attachment point for
206 transmission. This quill is mounted in the the filter and incorporates a thermoswitch, tem-
lower case and is positioned under the spiral bevel perature bulb and an oil bypass valve. As the oil
gear. The accessory gear is driven from this bevel enters the head, temperature is sensed by the tem-
gear and turns the following: perature switch amd GQ temperature bulb, which
1. Transmission oil pump operates an instrument in the cockpit. In normal
operation the oil then enters the filter. If however,
2. Hydraulic pump
the filter should become clogged to the point that a
3. Rotor tachometer generator differential of pressure exists, the oil will be by-
These items are placed in piggyback with each passed rather than entering the filter unit. The oil
other in that order. then flows to the oil cooler. This unit is used to
The top case houses the fixed ring gear and the regulate the temperature of the oil entering the
upper end of the sun gear. The center bore houses transmission. The cooler is located outside the
the mast bearing assembly and has studs for the transmission and is cooled by a fan driven from the

THERMO BY-PASS VALVE

- C_] PRESSURE
] [EGE Free WHEELING scAVANGE OIL
-— SUPPLY

| COOLER
FILLER CAP
AND VENT
TRANSMISSION
ASSEMBLY
—

OIL LEVEL ia
SIGHT aus b

BY-PASS
VALVE
HEAD
ASSEMBLY

HIGH TEMP
WARNING SW \

THERMOBULB ~_*
OIL MONITOR-
DRAIN VALVE DRAIN PLUG &
MAGNETIC CHIP
FILTER / DETECTOR
OIL PUMP
—
45-5 GPM

DRAIN PLUG &

MAGNETIC CHIP TO PILOTS PANEL GAGE / Lxcermcrons
DETECTOR & LOW PRESS. WARNING SW IN FITTING

Fig. 7-41 Bell 206 transmission oil system.

218
tail rotor driveshaft. The cooler itself is a radiator the rings are removed and lost from the case, new
equipped with a bypass system. During starting ones must be ground by the manufacturer for that
and cold weather, the oil bypasses the cooler. As the particular case. These rings are not interchangeable.
oil warms up, however, the bypass valve starts to
open and oil flows through the core of the cooler
3. Hughes 500
before it is directed through the lubrication points Another transmission is that of the Hughes 500.
and pressure regulator. It is located below the stationary mast and access
may be gained from inside the cabin. Power is
The pressure regulating valve limits the system
transmitted from the engine through a shaft to the
pressure. This is a common relief type valve which
transmission input. Like the Bell 206, no clutch is
bleeds off pressure when oil pressure overcomes
required. The free turbine engine does not use a
the spring setting. This valve is located in back of
clutch. A sprag unit is located near the engine,
the filter and is field adjustable. Bypass oil is re-
eliminating the need of a freewheeling assembly in
turned to the sump.
the transmission.
Two oil jets are located on the upper and lower The power input is made through a pinion gear
case. Oil flows from the oil cooler to the case shaft supported by two ball bearings and two roller
through an external fitting, where it is distributed bearings, with the load carried by the rollers and
to both jets and the freewheeling unit. The oil pass- the thrust carried by the ball bearings. This input
ing through the jets flows through the transmis- is placed on the same angle as the engine and the
sion and returns to the lower case. The oil going to pinion gear engages the tail rotor output pinion
the freewheeling unit, however, goes out of the case
gear.
through an external fitting and a restrictor fitting.
The tail rotor output gear and shaft are sup-
The restrictor fitting also contains a low pressure
ported by two thrust bearings and a roller bearing.
warning switch and an oil pressure tap for a con-
The input gear and the tail rotor gear reduce the
tinuous reading indicator. Oil leaving the free-
tail rotor output to 2160 RPM from 6180 RPM. At-
wheeling unit is returned to the sump.
tached with the tail rotor drive gear is the output
a. Maintenance pinion gear. This meshes with the output bevel
From a maintenance standpoint, this transmis- gear and further reduces the output RPM to 485, at
sion is much simpler than that of the Bell 47, even which speed the rotor is driven by the driveshaft
though it has its self-contained oil system. The passing through the output bevel gear (Fig. 7-43).
probability of oil leaks is greatly reduced with only All of these gears are spiral bevel gears because of
one parting surface and two quills. The upper case is their strength and tooth contact area.
sealed with an O-ring and lip seals are used on the Two accessory drive pads are mounted on the
quills. The jets which are mounted externally are rear of the transmission at the right and left hand
sealed with O-rings. The transmission is equipped side of the tail rotor output shaft. These are driven
with a sight gauge in the lower case for checking the by a spur gear pinned to the tail rotor output shaft,
oil level. The oil and filter are changed at recom- driving pinions for the right and left side. The right
mended intervals. At this time the chip detector is hand pad drives the oil pump and filter unit, while
checked and the filter is cut open for examination. the left pad drives the rotor tachometer.
Any excessive metal will require the replacement
Like the Bell 206 transmission, the Hughes 500
of the transmission and cooler.
also has a transmission lubrication system. This
The 206 transmission, like that of the 47, may be system, however, is considerably different in de-
disassembled in the field for major inspection and sign, but not in function. The lubrication utilizes
parts replacement. Because of fewer parts, this in- an external oil cooler, a scavenge system, an exter-
spection is somewhat simplified, but the same nally mounted pressure pump, an internal oil filter,
basic checks are made on the ferrous and nonfer- an oil filter bypass valve, an oil temperature switch
rous parts. The lash and pattern requirements and miscellaneous lines and fittings (Fig. 7-43).
have been somewhat simplified with a lash only Oil is pumped by the externally mounted gerotor
check being made. type pressure pump. From this pump, the oil goes
The reason for the lash only check is that shim directly to the oil cooler, which is externally
rings are placed in the case by the manufacturer to mounted on the engine side of the firewall. A ther-
determine the lash and pattern requirements of mostatic bypass valve is located at the cooler. Oil
the gears. The lash check is really only an indica- will bypass the cooler when the oil temperature is
tion of the gears and the assembly procedures. If too low. As the temperature of the oil increases, the

219
Fig. 7-42 Hughes 500 transmission cross section.

oil passes through the cooler where it is exposed to a. Maintenance

cooling air from a blower driven by the main drive- The standard maintenance practices of the trans-
shaft. If the cooler should become clogged, a dif- missions involve servicing, replacement of seals,
ferential of pressure bypass is incorporated, which changing the oil and filters.
will eliminate the cooler from the system. As the
Inspections of the transmission are quite varied,
oil leaves the cooler, it passes through a tempera-
from major inspections of the transmission where
ture switch, which is the temperature sensor for
complete teardown and rebuilding is done, to sim-
the warning light on the instrument panel. The oil ple remove-and-return transmissions (exchange
then returns past the pressure pump to the filter.
units). The exchange units may be dictated by the
This filter element is a 12-micron throwaway type manufacturer or by the shop itself.
filter. If the filter should become clogged, oil is by-
passed around the filter by a differential of pres- On many transmissions, a great number of spe-
sure valve. After flowing through the filter, the oil cial tools and equipment are needed to perform
is directed to the relief valve, where the pressure is overhauls. The costs are only justifiable if a large
controlled. As the oil enters the internal passages, amount of this work is to be performed or if the
it makes contact with a minimum pressure switch, helicopters are involved in seasonal work where
which will activate a pressure warning light if the the maintenance personnel would have a slack
pressure drops below minimum. The oil is directed period. For these reasons many small operators
to the various passages to supply the bearings and may choose to have the work of this type done
gears with oil. The oil collects in the input sump elsewhere.
and is picked up by a scavenge pump. The pump isa Some of the smaller inspections, such as check-
gerotor pump mounted on the end of the input gear ing clutches, examining drive quills and inspec-
shaft. The pressure from the scavenge pump is used tions not involving complete teardown, are often
to lubricate the upper cylindrical roller bearing of done with minimum special equiment and are con-
the input shaft. ducted in the small shops.
Although the transmissions used in various heli-
copters today vary considerably in construction, All manufacturers have recommended overhaul
most of them will use the same basic principles as or exchange times on transmissions. These must
the transmissions covered. These include an input be followed to ensure the integrity of the helicopter.
pinion rotating bevel gears, planetary gear reduc- The removal and installation procedures will
tions of various kinds and accessory gears. The big vary considerably fron helicopter to helicopter.
variation in the different transmissions is the Such procedures are always covered in the mainte-
number of accessories driven. nance manual.
220
 BY-PASS VALVE

FILTER VALVE

LOW SPEED GEAR MESH OUTPUT PINION BEARINGS

PRESSURE PUMP
OUTPUT GEAR SHAFT BEARINGS

PUMP INLET LINE

OIL RETURN¢
TUBE

HIGH SPEED
FILLER-BREATHE! GEAR MESH

124.0
PUMP INLET LINE FIREWALL

THERMOSTATIC
BYPASS VALVE

>= Jet
<= NOZZLE DRAIN VALVE
== SURE OIL
PRESSU OIL COOLER
Gam) SCAVENGE OIL
=2== PUMP INTAKE

Fig. 7-43 Hughes 500 transmission lubrication system.

221
Chapter VIII helicopter application. This lack of flywheel action
also led to a wider use of carburetor heat on car-
buretor-equipped engines. Ice leads to sudden loss
Powerplants of power without the usual warnings associated
with ice in fixed wing induction systems.
Other systems, such as superchargers and fuel
injection, were also adapted to the helicopter
Introduction powerplants. The operating procedures remain
The powerplants used in helicopters are the re- basically the same.
sult of 45 years of technology and development. Another change in operation was the establish-
The helicopter, however, is much younger than that ment of transient ranges of RPM due to harmful
because powerplants used on the early helicopters vibration ranges in the airframe components. This
were all adaptations of existing fixed wing power- means continuous operation at certain power set-
plants. In order to adapt these engines several tings may cause failure of components due to vibra-
changes had to be made. tion. This sometimes occurs between the engine
and the propeller on fixed wing aircraft, but not so
A. Fixed Wing Powerplant extensively as in helicopter operations.
Modifications Often the life of these engines has been short-
Most of the powerplants had to be mounted ver- ened as a result of modifications and the high
tically rather than horizontally (the normal man- power setting at which the helicopter is required to
ner). This brought about changes in the lubrica- operate. As these weaknesses have shown up they
tion system, especially in the scavenge system, have been corrected, helping to extend the life.
because the sump system had to be relocated. Helicopter engines usually have 1200 hour TBO
Another change was the speed at which the engine (time before overhaul).
must operate due to the horsepower requirements of
the helicopter. One method used to increase power B. Installation
was to increase rotational speed. Some engines were Early models of the Bell 47 and Hiller 12 used
increased approximately 800 RPM. horizontally opposed engines requiring an engine
The next change was the cooling system. En- installation modification. Both helicopters used
gines in fixed wing aircraft are cooled with airflow Franklin engines, followed by Lycoming engines.
from the propeller, routed through the cowling and The Franklin engines were of the 6V4 series.
aseries of baffles. Since the propeller was no longer Lycoming engines were the 0-435 and 0-540 series.
present, a fan was installed to develop the required Modifications had to be made for helicopter ap-
airflow. This sometimes involved more gearboxes plications because both engines were developed for
for the cooling fans and more drive quills from the fixed wing aircraft. First, the engines were placed
transmission. vertically and backward from their original posi-
The method of controlling power had to be changed tions. This movement resulted in the relocation of
because the rotor remained at a constant RPM. Unlike the oil sump to the bottom of the engine (Fig. 8-1).
the fixed wing aircraft, power cannot be controlled This also required moving the carburetor and mod-
by the propeller because the rotor pitch is used to ification of the oil scavenge system.
control the height at which the helicopter flies. This Rather than relocating the sump on many of the
means the RPM of the engine must be controlled Lycoming engines, the engine was converted to a dry
rather than the rotor. sump oil system with a separate oil tank (Fig. 8-2).
Operation of the engines, other than the higher
1, Separate air cooler
RPM, changed very little, with the same instrumenta-
A separate oil cooler was installed that did not
tion, warm-up and shutdown procedures used. How-
depend on ram airflow for cooling. For this reason,
ever, the idle RPM was increased considerably. 1700
the coolers were usually larger and utilized air
RPM was not an unusual idle speed. This was mainly
from the cooling fan which passed around the core
due to the lack of a flywheel on most applications.
of the radiator.
On the fixed wing aircraft the propeller acts as a
flywheel to keep the engine rotating. No clutch is 2. Maintenance problems
present between the propeller and the engine. The directions in relation to accessory installa-
However, because of the freewheeling unit being tion became confusing. For example: the right
present, no such flywheel action is available on a magneto was on the left side of the fuselage. The

223
 SYMBOL CODE
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
UPPER TRANSMISSION =e Oil PRESSURE LINES
HOUSING OIL ORIFICE ee OfL PUMP INLET LINES
== SCAVENGER PUMP PRESSURE LINES
INTERPLANETARY mxxs GRAVITY RETUAN LINES TO ENGINE
Jer (xm OIL DRAIN LINES
VENT LINES
ONE-WAY CLUTCH
TACHOMETER AND FAN
OIL ORIFICE
DRIVE ADAPTER OIL
ORIFICE TAIL ROTOR
GENERATOR ORIVE
DRIVE OX. ORIFICE F
Lo |
Low TEMP SWITCH

OIL FILTER ASSEMBLY 4

OIL PRESSURE

F- SCAVENGER PUMP

|
OIL TANK

OIL TANK

S>
DRAIN VALVE

Fig. 8-2 Oil system used on some models of the

Hiller 12.
Fig. 8-1 Typical reciprocating engine used on the
Bell 47 and Hiller 12. were the Pratt and Whitney R1340 series and the
Curtis Wright 1820 series. These engines were
directions were changed on the newer helicopters used in the S55 and S58 respectively. Both power-
because of the confusion. However, for some of the plants were located in the nose of the aircraft with
older models, the directions in the older mainte- the output shafts facing inward at an upward angle
nance manuals must be used. (Fig. 8-3). This placed the accessory sections next
Because of the vertical location and the presence to the access doors. These powerplants also went
of a clutch and transmission, the engine’s crank- through extensive modifications to adapt to the
shaft could not be rotated easily by hand, as was new positions in the helicopter, especially the lu-
done with the fixed wing aircraft by rotating the brication system.
propeller. This complicates some maintenance Other radial engines were also used in helicop-
procedures, such as timing or compression tests. To ters. They were constructed with the engine in sev-
eliminate this problem, some engines were pro- eral different positions. Most of these helicopters
vided with a crank engagement. This engagement were never used as civilian aircraft or production
point was on the side of the engine and could also was quite limited.
be used for starting. Franklin engines, however, Two of the newer reciprocating powered helicop-
have a cover that is removable for turning the en- ters placed the engines in the middle of the fuse-
gine with the aid of a special tool. Many of the lage in a horizontal position below the transmis-
maintenance personnel working on the engines sion. Both use belt drives to the transmission with
have built turning tools to aid in maintenance. the engines facing forward. Both are Lycoming
This is often a quill placed in an unused accessory powered using the 0-360 series engines.
pad on the engine. As with other items used on helicopters, each
manufacturer approaches a problem in different
C. Radial and Opposed Engines ways. However, in all cases a fan must be powered
Some of the older large helicopters used radial by the engine and ducted around the cylinders to
engines. The two most widely used powerplants dissipate the heat.

224
Fig. 8-3 Radial engine installation on the S-55.

shroud is placed around the fan to direct the air-

D. Cooling Systems flow around the engine cylinders and has provi-
1. Bell 47 sions for the oil cooler and the generator.
The cooling fan is mounted on the front side
of the engine, powered by two matched V-belts,
driven from the fan quill assembly of the transmis-
sion (Fig. 8-4).
The fan turns at a higher speed than the engine
to distribute cooling air to the engine. The major
components of the cooling assembly are as follows:
1. Fan quill
2. Fan
3. Index plate
4. Shroud
5. Cylinder baffles
The fan quill, located on the forward side of the
transmission, turns at a 1.2:1 ratio to the engine.
Attached to the end of the quill is a double pulley
accommodating two matched V-belts. This trans-
mits the power from the transmission to the fan.
The multi-bladed cooling fan is located on the
front of the engine. A smaller double pulley located
on the front of the fan further increases its speed. A Fig. 8-4 Engine transmission installation of the Bell 47.

225
 The cooling fan and fan pulley are installed on
the index plate shaft ball bearing. A grease zerk is
located in the center of the shaft for lubrication of
the bearings. An eccentric cam on the index plate
passes through the shroud support. A locking pin
on the left side of the shroud support engages the
index plate to provide a means of adjusting the belt
tension. See Fig. 8-5 for view of the fan assembly.

COOLING
FAN GEAR BOX
DRIVE COUPLING

SHAFT
. RETAINING NUT
WASHER
PULLEY Fig. 8-6 Shaft-driven cooling fan system used on the
. RINGS (3)
FAN
Hiller 12.
.
.
SHROUD SUPPORT
SPACER The cooling fans are subject to cracks which
. HUB
. INDEX PLATE often occur at the blade roots. Such cracks may be
. FAN SUPPORT
. RETAINER caused by operating the engine in the wrong RPM
LOCKING PIN HANDLE
LOCKING PIN AND SPRING
BEARING
range for extended periods of time. See Fig. 8-7 for
SPACER
BUSHING
a view of the crack area.
. BEARING
Like other rotating items, cooling fans are sub-
ject to balance problems. The fans are usually stat-
Fig. 8-5 Belt-driven cooling fan used on the Bell 47.
ically balanced before installation. This is done by
placing the fan on a mandrel and knife edges and
2. Hiller 12
The Hiller 12 uses a cooling fan on the front of
the engine and a shroud to direct the airflow. This
system has a shaft from the transmission to a right
angle gearbox to power the fan. The shroud is made
of sheet metal or fiberglass, depending on the
model (Fig. 8-6).
3. Maintenance
The cooling systems are subject to routine main-
tenance and inspection. The system used on the
Bell 47 requires manual lubrication, while sys- CRACKS
tems using gearboxes are supplied with oil from
either the transmission or engine. Fig. 8-7 Typical cracks in the cooling fans.

226
adding weight to the light side of the fan in the
form of washers. Where a single unit fan is used,
it is normally statically balanced at the time of
manufacture.
Dynamic imbalance can often be felt in the heli-
copter as a buzz. In the Bell 47 this is normally felt
in the back of the pilot during operation. On other
helicopters it is not so easily distinguished because LINKAGE

of the relatively high speed of the fan. Often, when

a vibration is suspected, it may be checked with
electronic balancing equipment or by disconnect-
ing other items of the same frequency during oper-
ation. This may include generators and hydraulic
pumps, although both items may often be elim-
inated as a vibration source by unloading the
systems.
The cooling fans will have recommended overhaul
periods and may have a finite life on some items.
ie
Fig. 8-8 Typical throttle linkage used on the Bell 47.
E. Correlation Systems
Power application in a helicopter with a recip- attached to another jackshaft which transfers the
rocating engine is quite different from that of a movement to the right side of the helicopter where
fixed wing aircraft. Rather than a throttle lever, as another push-pull rod is attached from the jack-
is found in the fixed wing, a twist grip is used on shaft to a cam box. The cam box transforms the
the collective. This throttle grip is similar to the push-pull movement back to a rotary motion and is
grip found on motorcycles, except the action is in attached to the throttle of the carburetor by link-
the opposite direction. An easy way to remember age. (Fig. 8-9).
the throttle action is that the decrease position is The cam box is used to correlate the movements
toward the thumb as the collective is gripped. On of the collective and twist grip into throttle move-
the earliest helicopters, it was necessary for the ment. This is necessary because throttle-to-power
pilot to add throttle while raising or lowering the output is not a straight-line movement. In other
collective. Few helicopters that were built with this words, the engine power is not increased with the
system are still in existence. same throttle movement throughout its operation.
In order to eliminate this problem, the correla- The same power increments are not required for
tion box came into use. This system provides a each degree of pitch change of the main rotor. For
means of increasing or decreasing the throttle this reason, a cam is used to establish the correct
opening as the collective is raised and lowered. The movement of the throttle in relationship to the
final adjustment of the power is by the twist grip, pitch of the blades.
because no correction factor is built in for atmos- This cam is not the usual type of cam. It is an
pheric conditions. irregular slot cut in a flat piece of metal. The slot
As an example of a typical throttle correlation sys- with its irregular shape represents the various
tem, the system on the Bell 47 will be used. This power outputs of the engine at different blade pitch
system makes use of a twist grip which rotates a settings. The cam is rotated by the input of the
shaft in the collective. This shaft has a gear attached twist grip and collective. This, in turn, moves a cam
at the bottom end of the collective shaft. The gear follower connected to the cam box output, which is
meshes with a gear attached to a shaft within the connected through linkage to the throttle valve of
collective jackshaft. Attached to this shaft is a clevis the carburetor.
which moves the throttle linkage. Either the move- Almost all of this linkage is adjustable. The re-
ment of the twist grip, or the changing of the collec- placement of any of the linkage will require rerig-
tive, repositions the clevis and in turn the throttle. ging of the throttle control. The replacement of an
See Fig. 8-8 for their positions and movements. engine may also lead to at least a partial rerigging.
This rotary movement of the twist grip and the The collective rigging will also affect the throttle
collective is changed to a linear movement at the rigging. Throttle rigging should never be attempted
clevis by a push-pull tube. The push-pull tube is until the collective is properly rigged.

227
 NOMINAL

1
COLLECTIVE PITCH
CONTROL JACKSHAFT

1.
THROTTLE CONTAOL LEVER
2.THROTTLE CONTROL TUBE
3.THROTTLE CONTROL JACKSHAFT
4.THROTTLE CONTROL TUBE
5.THROTTLE CONTROL CAMBOX
6.CAMBOX LEVER
7.CAMBOX CLEVIS
8.SPACERS
9.CAMBOX TO CARBURETOR SHAFT
10. CAMBOX TO CARBURETOR SHAFT
ADAPTER
11. CAM
12. SLIP JOINT SLIDER
13. INSPECTION HOLE

THROTTLE CAM G3B-1/G3B-1/G4-A/G-5

minimum “A”—=| |

THROTTLE CONTROL INSTALLATION G3B/G3B-1/G3B-2/G-5

CAM FOLLOWER BEARING

IN NOMINAL POSITION
(POINT “0” FOR 3200 RPM FLAT PITCH)
FULL DOWN
AND CLOSE

aie
i
MINIMUM “B”

Fig. 8-9 Throttle cam and linkage.

Like most rigging procedures, all of the linkages

are set to their nominal lengths which will be indi- F. Turboshaft Engines
cated in the maintenance manual. After the nomi- Although there are still many reciprocating en-
nal lengths have been reached, the clearances are gine helicopters in service and some still being
checked with the throttle linkage disconnected. Af manufactured, most new helicopters are turbine
ter the full-up and full-down positions are checked, powered. The turbine engines used in helicopters
the linkage is reconnected and the throttle stops come in various sizes from a range of 300 to 3000 or
are set. Next, the engine is operated at 3200 RPM more horsepower. They are referred to as shaft tur-
with the collective full-down and the cam position bines or turboshafts. This is because the power ex-
is then checked. If the cam is not in position, the tracted from the engine is used to turn a shaft. The
adjustable disc between the throttle and the cam shaft turns the transmission for the main rotor and
box must be readjusted until the zero position is tail rotor of the helicopter.
reached on the cam. After the ground adjustments The basic operation is similar to the turbojet en-
are completed, the helicopter is flown before fine gine. The turbojet produces its power in the form of
adjustments can be made, thrust. This is by practical application of Newton’s

228
third law which states, “For every action there is the size of the engine may be reduced in length
an equal and opposite reaction.” without an appreciable change in the diameter. If
The shaft turbine may produce some thrust but the engine were built with a centrifugal com-
it is primarily designed to produce shaft horse- pressor, only the diameter of the engine would in-
power. This is accomplished by using the same crease. Another advantage is that the likelihood of
basic components found in a turbojet engine with foreign object damage is greatly reduced by elim-
the addition of a turbine wheel (wheels) to absorb inating the smaller stages of axial compression.
the power of the escaping gases of combustion. This Probably the most significant reason, however, is
turboshaft engine may also contain a gear reduc- that the speed of the airflow through the engine is
tion to reduce the speed of the turbine, which ex- increased by using this combination of axial and
ceeds 30,000 RPM on some engines. centrifugal compressors. Fig. 8-11 shows this com-
The turboshaft engines may be further classified bination compressor.
by the type of turbine used — direct shaft turbine
and free shaft turbine. Both types have been suc-
cessfully used in helicopter applications. However,
the free turbine is the most popular in use today. (HOUSING)
The two turbines operate slightly different, yet AXIAL COMPRESSOR

both use the same basic components.

1, Components
The basic components of these turboshaft en-
gines are a compressor, diffuser, combustor, tur-
bine wheel or wheels, and exhaust. The free tur-
bine derives its power from a separate turbine not
connected to the compressor. See Fig. 8-10 for a
simplified view of the the two engine types. STATOR VANES

HS out
fen: om
Fig. 8-11 Mixed compressor assembly.

The theory of operation of the compressors is

DIRECT TURBO - SHAFT
quite simple. The axial compressor is made up of

RSE
stages, each stage consisting of one rotor and one
stator. The rotor is a multibladed disc with each
blade being an airfoil. The rotating airfoils speed
up the airflow and force the air through the stator.
FREE TURBINE TURBO - SHAFT This converts the airflow velocity into pressure.
This process is repeated at each stage of the axial
Fig. 8-10 Turboshaft engine design. compressor. (Fig. 8-12).
The direct drive turboshaft engine must run at a
constant speed, with the compressor and the power
DIFFUSET OUTLET
output attached to the same shaft. The free tur-
bine, however, can vary the speed of the compressor
as required to maintain power turbine output.
WHEEL [
The airflow through the turboshaft engine be-
gins at the inlet. At that point the air enters the
compressor section. The compressors vary in de-
sign, but the most popular shaft turbine today is a
combination of axial and centrifugal compressors.

Lt
Usually the first stages of compression will be ax-
ial while the last stage will be centrifugal. There INLET
are several reasons for this combination. By reduc-
ing the number of stages of the axial compressor, Fig. 8-12 Centrifugal compressor.

229
 The centrifugal compressor is a large curved disc
with blades. The blades are larger at the inlet than
at the outlet. The air is simply picked up by the
SOOO O09 inlet and forced into a smaller outlet area as the

7
compressor rotates. (Fig. 8-13).
The air is then directed to the diffuser section
ROTOR STATOR
where it is straightened before entering the com-
INLET OUTLET bustion area. Some is used to support combustion
PRESSURE and the rest used for cooling purposes.
Although different types of combustors may be
VELOCITY used, the most popular for the turboshaft is the
La
annular combustor using reverse flow (Fig. 8-14).
At this point, fuel is added to the air and ignited.
This heats the air which rapidly expands and
Fig. 8-13 Axial compressor. passes through a nozzle assembly and is directed to
the turbine wheel. This wheel is rotated by the
FUEL gases passing over it and turns the compressor,
which generates more air to repeat the process
REVERSE FLOW (Fig. 8-15).
= ANNULAR
COMBUSTOR It is at this point the two turboshafts vary in
operation. In the free turbine another turbine
wheel is placed behind the compressor turbine. It is
called the power turbine. This turbine drives a
shaft to power the helicopter. The direct drive tur-
bine may also have another turbine wheel but this
FUEL
is fixed to the compressor and also drives a power
shaft used to power the helicopter. The way the
Fig. 8-14 Fuel enters the combustor. shaft and turbine are used for power varies from

OUTER HOUSING

FER
RESSED— >” AiR ———>
coMP

(BOREAS
COMBUSTION
“s = FUEL INJECTION POINT
=

g
Q D> mS I

Fig. 8-15 Turbine wheels are turned by the expanded gases.

230
engine to engine. Some engines drive from the conditions — meaning 59° with a barometric pres-
compressor end (cold end) while others drive from sure of 29.92 inches of mercury. No accessories
the combustor end (hot end). Both have advantages other than those necessary to sustain the engine
and disadvantages. The main advantage of driving operation are driven. For example, no generator
from the hot end is that less shafting is required. would be necessary because the engine will run
However, the gear reduction is exposed to more without it.
heat in this area. Two typical hot end and cold end a. Flat rated
systems are seen in Fig. 8-16. It is quite easy to see the standard day is not a
usual day for helicopter operations. It is known
that both the engine performance and the helicop-
ter performance will deteriorate with changes in
atmospheric conditions such as density altitude.
For this reason, many turbines are referred to as
flat rated. This means that a given horspower may
be reached at a given temperature, such as 80 de-
grees. Some engines are even flat rated to higher
temperatures, such as 100 degrees.
b. Torque limited
Another term used in discussion of power in re-
gards to helicopters is torque limited. The term is
not used in regards to the engine but power the
engine may deliver to the transmission. It is the
transmission that is torque limited or capable of
withstanding only so much of the engine’s poten-
tial power output. This can, however, be of some
Fig. 8-16 Turboshafts may be driven from the cold
benefit during operations when engine power dete-
end or hot end. riorates. If all the power is not used, additional
power may be available because of the torque lim-
2. Weight and power itations. This often occurs with the single engine
As in reciprocating powered helicopters, a num- operation of a twin engine helicopter.
ber of items must be considered in the design and
development of engines built specifically for the 3. Power output
helicopters. The helicopter engine produces only the power
The one consideration is the power-to-weight demanded of it by the operator. This is equally true
ratio. With the reciprocating engine, a weight ratio of the turbine and reciprocating powerplant. The
of one pound per horsepower was considered ideal. helicopter rotor operates at a constant RPM, but the
Today it is not unusual to produce a turbine with pitch of the blades determines the power required
ratio excess of four horsepower per pound. This to maintain that RPM. As the pitch increases, more
increases the payload of the helicopter, provides power is required to maintain the same RPM. On the
extra power for emergency conditions and under reciprocating engine, this power is measured by
certain atmospheric conditions that require in- manifold pressure. While operating on the ground
creased power. at 3200 RPM the manifold pressure may not be more
than 10 inches of mercury. During a hover, however,
The power an engine produces is measured in
the manifold pressure may reach close to atmos-
horsepower, which takes many forms. This horse-
pheric pressure to maintain the same 3200 RPM.
power produced by the turboshaft is usually ex-
pressed as shaft horsepower (SHP), the power the a. Torquemeter
engine was specifically built to produce. Another Power output on the turbine engine is measured
term sometimes used to indicate the power of a by a torquemeter. This device measures the force
turboshaft engine is equivalent shaft horsepower produced by the engine and may be expressed in
(ESHP). This takes into consideration the thrust the form of foot-pounds of torque, pounds of oil pres-
that is produced by the engine and is calculated as sure, or any other convenient measurement. The
additional power. Thrust, however, is of very little most convenient measurement is foot-pounds of
benefit for helicopter operations. The horsepower torque. Regardless of the measurement, this will
produced is usually calculated under standard day increase with the pitch of the rotor to maintain the

231
same RPM. The actual power produced by the en- through the turbine area. If these gases are too hot,
gine is the output RPM times the torque in foot- the metal of the hot section of the engine may be
pounds divided by a constant of 5252. Therefore, damaged. This is especially true in the areas of the
both the RPM and the torque are the determining nozzles and turbine wheels. Such overheating may
factors in the power output of an engine. An engine lead to a burning of metal or turbine wheel stretch
that is capable of producing a very high RPM is not because of the combination of the heat and cen-
necessarily a powerful engine, nor is a low RPM en- trifugal force. This instrument must be carefully
gine with high torque necessarily powerful, but monitored during starting and may be a determin-
the combination of the two factors will determine ing factor during takeoff in some helicopters with
the power output of the engine. heavy loads and high ambient temperatures, even
b. Tachometer though the torque is within limits.
To measure RPM on a shaft turbine, a tachometer 4. Oil system
is used. If the engine is a free turbine, two tach- Like the reciprocating engine, the shaft turbine
ometers are used. One tachometer is used for the will contain an oil system. This will require an oil
compressor (N, or N,) and the other for the power pressure gauge and an oil temperature gauge. Both
turbine (N, or N,). Tachometer designations are operate in the same manner as that of the reciprocat-
dependent of the engine, because no standard has ing engine. The oil warm-up period will not be as
yet been established. The fixed shaft turbine will critical as the piston engine. This is due to the use of
require only one tachometer because the engine roller and ball bearings receiving their lubrication
has only one rotating unit. by spray rather than by pressure as required with
Tachometers often read in percent of maximum plain babbit bearings. The oil pressure is critical,
RPM due to the speed at which the turbine operates. because of increased oil flow through the engine for
For example: if a particular turbine reaches a max- cooling purposes as well as lubrication.
imum speed of 24,500 rpM, this would be consid- 5. Particle separators
ered a percentage of 100. In some instances of a free The turboshaft has eliminated a few of the re-
turbine N, will be given in percent and N, in out- quirements necessary to the reciprocating engine,
put shaft RPM. Since the N, system is attached to while adding a few necessary for the turbine en-
the main rotor, the N, tachometer is a dual ta- gine. With the piston engine, cooling air was a re-
chometer indicating the engine and main rotor quirement for engine operation. The turbine en-
output similar to tachometers used on reciprocat- gine has no such requirement, but it will require a
ing engine powered helicopters. This dual ta- greater airflow for operation. One of the most crit-
chometer is also used with the fixed shaft turbines. ical requirements of this air is that it be clear of
Free turbines can operate with different tach- foreign objects. This can be difficult in helicopter
ometer readings on both the N, and Nz system. For operations where landings are often conducted in
example: a helicopter may operate on the ground at unimproved areas, with dust and sand being blown
100% N, with 60% N, because very little power is into the air by the downwash of the main rotors.
required to turn the rotor at an almost flat pitch. This often requires the use of a particle separator
However, as collective is added, the N, must in- on the inlet of the engine. While most separators
crease its speed to produce more gases for the N, are available as optional equipment, some helicop-
system as more power is required. This same heli- ters have them as standard equipment.
copter may require 85% of N, to maintain 100% N, There are several particle separator systems in
in forward flight or 88% for hover and 98% for use today, and they operate one of two principles.
climb. If the N, RPM cannot be maintained or lags For this reason only three systems will be dis-
behind as collective is increased, it is referred to as cussed. The first will be the Bell 206 system. On
droop. This may be the result of an overloaded heli- this aircraft a total of 283 individual elements are
copter, a worn engine, or incorrect adjustment. used for the inlet filter. Each of these filter ele-
c. Exhaust gas temperature indicator ments is a swirl chamber (Fig. 8-17). As the air
Another instrument important to the operation passes through each element, it is swirled and dirt
of the turboshaft engine is the exhaust gas tem- particles are thrown to the outside of the tube by
perature indicator. This may be referred to by sev- centrifugal force, causing the particles to drop to
eral names, dependent on the sensing unit loca- the bottom of the unit. Compressor bleed air runs
tion. It may be Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) or into the bottom of the unit to scavenge the particles
Inter Turbine Temperature (ITT). In either case it overboard through three holes on each side of the
is related to the temperature of the gases passing filter unit. Since the openings are rather small,

232
 fle, particle separator valve, transition duct, power
PARTICLE SEPARATOR
section exhaust duct and ejector.
Each particle separator valve is controlled by a
28-volt actuator. The particle separator valve is
open under normal conditions of operation to pro-
vide inertia separation. The door, however, will
close under two conditions. One of these conditions
FILTER ASSEMBLY
occurs anytime the N, drops below 52% RPM. The
OVERBOARD DRAIN other occurs when the fire extinguisher handle is
pulled.
Fig. 8-17 Particle separator used on the Bell 206.
A switch is provided which places the system in
automatic in the normal position, with the valve is
open in the override position. Whenever the valve
is closed, the particle separator caution light will
illuminate.
In Fig. 8-19, the airflow pattern is as follows: air
AIR SOURCE enters the forward duct through the air inlet sec-
tion and has two paths of airflow; into the engine
Fig. 8-18 Large single unit particle separator.
inlet and into the ejector. A portion of the air and
some problems are experienced with wet snow. For the heavy particles move aft through the particle
this reason, deflectors have been placed on the in- separator valve into the ejector, giving inertia par-
ticle separation. Inlet air enters the compressor
let cowling.
through a wire mesh screen and is consumed by
Another system quite similar to the 206 is
the engine.
shown in Fig. 8-18. This system makes use of the
same swirling action but has a different frontal 6. Guide vanes
arrangement, with individual filter units placed A set of guide vanes are located forward of the
around an octagon shaped unit. These filter units compressor. They are usually fixed airfoils placed
have also been found quite efficient. This large around the circumference of the inlet. They are
tube inlet has been used on some military aircraft. used to straighten the airflow and prepare the air
Still another system is used on the Bell 212 for the compressor. If a transonic airfoil is used in
(Fig. 8-19). It consists of a separate duct system for the compressor, the inlet guide vanes may be mov-
each of the two engines. This duct system provides able. The purpose of the variable inlet guide vanes
for inlet air particle separation and cools and car- is to provide a surge margin for the engine by di-
ries off exhaust gases. Each system is composed of recting the air at various angles at the various
an air inlet, a forward duct, engine induction baf- compressor speeds.

aN
Vn

Fig. 8-19 Particle separator used on the Bell 212.

233
 7. Compressor damage Such damage can be greatly reduced by a parti-
The compressor in turboshaft engines is often cle separator. Even with such a precaution, care of
axial flow during the first stages of compression the inlet section is required by the maintenance
and then pass through a centrifugal compressor for personnel. This includes the removal of safety wire
the final compression stage. Both the axial and clippings and other objects that may be ingested by
centrifugal compressors have been used in turbine the engine. Safety wire and soft materials, such as
engines for many years. The small engine com- rags, are most damaging.
pressors are subject to several detrimental factors.
d. Dirt
a. FOD damage Another concern is dirt. Dirt, like erosion, will
Foreign object damage (FOD) may be caused by change the shape of the airfoils and reduce the
anything other than air passing through the com- efficiency of the compressor. This will increase the
pressor. This is one reason a particle separator is operating temperatures. This buildup of dirt is
placed on the inlet of many of the helicopter en- rather gradual and the temperature increase will
gines. Foreign objects may be quite varied and the also be gradual. Dirt buildup may be hastened by
damage they may cause will also be quite varied. the area of operation and any oil that may be on the
compressor blades. The removal of dirt is usually
b. Erosion accomplished by injecting a liquid cleaning solution
If the damage is caused by sand, which in certain in the inlet of the engine. It is not unusual for this to
operations would be quite common, the engine will drop the operation temperature as much as 40°C on
ingest sand particles with the rapid airflow. Material some engines. In any cleaning, the maintenance
will be removed from the compressor blades and manual must be carefully studied and followed.
stators as if the compressor was sandblasted.
This removal of metal will eventually change the e. Blockage
shape of the airfoil sections since the blades are Blockage or partial blockage of the airflow is
actually airfoils. This erosion of the airfoil might critical as it limits the airflow through the engine.
be compared to the formation of ice on a wing, be- If enough of the airflow is restricted, stall and
cause both will change the shape and efficiency of flameout of the engine may result. This blockage
the airfoil. Once this efficiency is changed, the may be the result of several factors including ice,
compressor cannot supply the required airflow. weeds, and grass or leaves collecting in the inlet
The first result of this is higher operating tempera- area of the engine. Most helicopters have some pro-
tures, because so much of the airflow is used for tection from ice and snow by the location of the
cooling in a turbine engine. As the erosion con- inlet air and sometimes by deflectors in that area.
tinues, the next result will be compressor surge or Additional protection is usually given to the en-
stall. This is the result of the combustor pressure gine by using compressor discharge air to prevent
becoming greater than the compressor pressure ice buildup at the inlet guide vanes. This heats the
and having reverse flow. This may be a loud report hollow vanes with bleed air, which may be 400°
or a rumbling sound and will most often occur from compression.
when the engine is developing high power. The blockage that occurs from vegetation usu-
c. Nicks, scratches, and blade deformation ally collects during landings and hovering opera-
Larger items passing through the compressor tions. It requires cleaning of the inlet area. Such a
can result in severe damage such as scratches, buildup may occur at the particle separator or on
nicks, and deformation of the blades. And, under the inlet screen. With careful consideration of
the right circumstances, may result in blades landing areas, this problem might be minimized.
breaking off. These pass through the rest of the
compressor doing still more damage. The nicks and 8. Acceleration time
scratches may not in themselves be harmful to the One of the earliest problems encountered with tur-
airflow but will result in stresses to the blade. The boshaft engines in helicopters is the acceleration
blades of the compressor rotor are highly stressed time of the engine. The acceleration, or response,
as the result of centrifugal force from rotational time is instantaneous with reciprocating engines,
speeds. This, coupled with the stress area caused by while the response time of the turbine is not. Today
FOD, can result in failure with the blade passing acceleration times have been increased appreciably
through the compressor and doing more damage. from that of the earliest turboshaft engines, but even
The loss of a blade will also cause a balance problem today an acceleration time of 21/2 seconds from flight
resulting in total failure of the engine. idle to maximum power is not unusual.

234
 As an aid to assist the acceleration, such devices As previously mentioned, the most widely used
as bleed valves, bleed ports and variable stators are combustor for the turboshaft engine is the annular
used in conjunction with the compressor section of combustor utilizing the reverse flow system. The
the turboshaft engine. These devices simply un- air brought into the combustion section is used for
load the compressor during acceleration so that two different purposes. The smaller portion is used
the compressor may turn faster more quickly. for combustion, while the larger portion is used for
With the bleed systems, compressor air is simply cooling and protecting the combustor components
dumped overboard from the latter stages of com- from the heat developed by combustion.
pression. On engines equipped with variable sta- It is in this part of the engine that fuel and igni-
tors the stator angle changes allowing the air to tion are introduced and combustion takes place.
pass through without being fully compressed. The fuel is furnished by the fuel control unit to
Without these aids, the turboshaft would be very discharge nozzles at strategic locations around the
slow in acceleration and would almost certainly combustor.
reach a state of compressor stall when rapid re- Ignition is initated by a spark plug type ignitor,
sponse is required. These systems are all designed but is sustained by the continuous flow of air and
to fail in the open position, resulting in a power loss fuel. In many engines the ignition system may be
at the highest power outputs. They are usually op- deactivated once the engine is operating.
erated by the fuel control and the air pressure ratio
of the compressor. 10. Fuel controls
A typical fuel metering system is shown in
9. Combustion Fig. 8-20. The fuel enters the fuel control unit
The air passes through the compressor and dif- through the inlet screen, which is equipped with
fuser which prepares it for the combustor section. a bypass in the event the screen should become

Ps

Po =

Pc FROM COMPUTER]
AREA SCREEN

CHANGE-OVER SWITCH
= gi -——— -> _Ps- TO SERVOS

GAS PRODUCER
Pg = CONTROL INLET PRESSURE SPEEO DRIVE FUEL
Pg = SERVO PRESSURE —~—s Pg INLET
Pc = COMPUTER AREA PRESSURE

Fig. 8-20 Typical hydromechanical fuel control.

235
blocked. The fuel is then directed to the pump. This mally referred to as the emergency system, is only
particular pump is a dual element gear-type pump used when the automatic system malfunctions.
driven through the compressor accessory gearbox. The change-over valve is manually activated by
The fuel is then routed through a servo filter. Most the pilot through a switch and solenoid. In the
of the fuel will pass around the filter unit, while schematic the change-over valve is in the auto
some will enter the filter and be used to operate a matic mode. In this position the fuel travels to the
hydraulic system within the control unit. This fuel pressure regulator valve (differential pressure
will be used to operate the computer portion of the valve). This valve may bypass fuel to the inlet side
fuel control. The fuel that passes around the filter of the pump if excessive pressure has built up in
unit takes one of two paths. One path leads to the that portion of the system. The fuel flows through
high pressure relief valve, where excessive pres- the metering valve. The position of this valve is
sure is returned to the inlet side of the pump. The determined by the mechanical computer portion of
remaining fuel proceeds to the change-over valve. the fuel control. This is the automatic portion of
The change-over valve directs fuel to either an au- the fuel control. After passing through the meter-
tomatic or manual mode. The manual mode, nor- ing valve, the fuel comes in contact with the foot

TEMPERATURE
SENSING
|.) BULB
Pc

jh
SosE

SF Pc
COMPRESSOR
INLET
PRESSURE

INCREASING FUEL FLOW —»

S—S—S SS

AiK
FROM COMPRESSOR
BLEED ACTUATOR
RELAY VALVE
Smal

INTERNAL
ADJUSTMENT

SSSEx

#
GAS PRODUCER
SPEED DRIVE

POWER TURBINE
SPEED SELECTOR
9

TO AIRCRAFT FUEL
3” TANK VENT OR FUEL FILTER VENT

RESTRICTION

Pc

POWER TURBINE
SPEED DRIVE

Fig. 8-21 Hydromechanical fuel control computer section.

236
 valve, actually a minimum pressure valve, which Inside the fuel control is a chamber containing an
prevents fuel from leaving the fuel control without aneroid. Like the aneroid in a barometer, it will
minimum pressure, as would occur on starting. The expand and contract with changes in pressure. The
next valve fuel makes contact with is the shutoff changes will be weaker than would be required to
valve, This is simply used to turn the fuel on and off move the mechanical linkage. For this reason the
In the manual or emergency position, the fuel is aneroid simply operates a servo valve using fuel
directed past a restrictor as a means of limiting pressure to activate a piston that will move the
pressure because the regulator valve is not in this linkage to position the metering valve.
system. The fuel is metered by a manual metering The N, governor is used to contro] the speed of
valve and then returns to the normal fuel path to the N, system or compressor section. It is a me-
the engine. chanical governor operating from the N, accessory
Other fuel controls may operate differently. The gearbox, rotating a set of flyweights which sense
pump may be a separate unit and the valves may the speed of the system. The flyweights raise and
have different locations, but the basic principles lower a servo valve utilizing fuel pressure to acti-
are almost always the same. vate the piston that moves the linkage to position
the metering valve.
a. Computer portion
The computer portion of fuel controls varies con- The N, governor operates in much the same man-
siderably, depending on the manufacturer. As on ner except the governor is driven from the N, or
the carburetor of a reciprocating engine, the pur- power turbine system. The flyweights move the servo
pose of a fuel control is to direct the correct propor- valve, which in turn moves the piston and positions
tions of fuel to the engine. This amount of fuel is the metering valve. The power control works in much
governed by several factors that ensure that the the same manner, movements being transferred to
correct fuel flow is obtained. The items shown in the linkage to position the metering valve.
Fig. 8-21 will govern the fuel flow and position the It is quite easy to see all of these movements
metering valve. These items are: must in some way be correlated to obtain the cor-
A temperature compensator rect amount of fuel for the engine in all modes of
A barometric pressure compensator operation. A mathematician, with the help of an
engineer, could figure out each conceivable fuel
ON

An N, governor*
flow required for the speeds, power, temperature,
An Nz governor barometric pressure, acceleration and decelera-
Soar

A power control actuator tion. These in turn may be plotted on a curve. In

A 3-D cam fact, this is what is done. The plotted curves are
ground into the three faces of the cam. No move-
*This particular fuel control is used on a free turbine en- ments of the various components of the computer
gine. For this reason both the N, and N, have governors. section will take place without affecting or being
In systems with direct drive turbines, only one governor
would be present. affected by the cam position. The movement of the
metering valve must be in harmony with all as-
pects of the computer.
The temperature of the air will affect the opera-
tion of the engine and the amount of fuel the en- b. Operational procedures
gine should receive. For this reason, temperature Now that the basic operation of the fuel control
compensation is corrected by the fuel control. This has been discussed, its relation to the helicopter
is accomplished by placing a temperature bulb at and the engine may be discussed.
the inlet of the engine. The bulb is filled with a The engine's N, system is rotated by a starter. As
liquid that expands and contracts with changes in the rotational speed increases, the pump in the fuel
temperature. As it expands and contracts, it moves control builds up pressure. This pressure is tapped
through a tube attached to a bellows in the fuel off for starting fuel next to the foot valve and flows
control. The bellows acts through linkage and posi- to the starting fuel nozzles. When the pressure is
tions the metering valve in the correct position for sufficient and the compressor has reached proper
the temperature. operating speed, ignition takes place. This means
In a like manner, the ambient air pressure must the airflow and ignition system must be in opera-
be considered for the proper flow. Because the tion prior to fuel flow through the starting system
proper flow is obtained by mixing fuel with air by and the fuel control must be in the proper position.
density rather than volume, compressor inlet pres- Positioning the fuel control is accomplished with
sure is sensed through a line to the fuel control. the twist grip which positions the N, governor,

237
power control actuator of the fuel control, and the which drives the output shaft. The air then passes
stopcock. through the exhaust system and overboard. The
Once combustion has occurred, the hot gases use of more than one turbine wheel is not unusual
passing through the turbine with the assist of the in either type of engine.
starter accelerate the engine to the point that it is
self-sustaining without the aid of the starter. The
foot valve then opens to deliver fuel to the main
G. Powerplants
There are many helicopters using basically the
nozzles. At this time the engine accelerates until
same turboshaft engines. At the present time ap-
the twist grip position is reached. Once the twist
proximately six different turboshaft engines are
grip is placed in the proper position, the engine
widely used in civilian helicopters, although possi-
may develop the proper rotor RPM.
bly another six are in other applications not as
The rotor RPM may be varied by changing the fuel widely used. We will only discuss the more widely
requirements through the N, governor, which has used engines.
a linear actuator connected to a speeder spring ar-
rangement on the governor. The linear actuator is 1. Lycoming T53 series
moved by a switch on the collective, increasing or One of the oldest turboshaft engines is the
decreasing the tension of the speeder spring. Ten- Lycoming T53 series. This engine has been man-
sion of the speeder spring controls the flyweights of ufactured in several different models and used by
the governor, placing them in an overspeed or un- military and civilian helicopters. It was probably
derspeed condition. The position of the flyweights the first engine built specifically for a helicopter.
determines the need for more or less fuel.
The two models most widely used are the T53-11
The linear actuator movement is necessary to set and the T53-13. Earlier models of this engine were
the rotor RPM at a constant speed for that particular used by the military and had few civilian applica-
condition. Once this fuel flow is established and the tions. Because the T'53-13 is a later engine and will
RPM set, it will remain in that state. On the ground be in service, it will be used in the discussion,
this may be 66% N, speed and 325 rotor RPM.
The collective is connected to the N, governor by a. T5313 engine
linkage through the linear actuator. As the collec- The T53-13 is a turboshaft engine with a two-
tive is raised, the pitch of the rotor increases and stage free-power turbine and a two-stage gas-pro-
the governor receives an underspeed signal from ducer turbine. It has a combination axial-centrifu-
the tension of the speeder spring. The demands for gal compressor and an annular atomizing type
more fuel repositions the metering valve to main- combustor. It is torque limited in horsepower to
tain the fuel required for constant rotor RPM. If the 1250 sup for 5 minutes and 1100 sup for maximum
collective is lowered the reverse action takes place. continuous operation.
For all practical purposes, the engine maintains All directions and rotations are referenced as if
a constant RPM through the Ny governor once that seated in the pilot’s seat — front, rear, forward, aft,
RPM is established. right, left, up, and down. Rotations are clockwise
11. Ignition systems and counterclockwise. The first stage turbine turns
The ignition system of a turbine engine is only counterclockwise. The second stage turbine and
used during starting. Once combustion occurs, the the output shaft turn clockwise. (Fig. 8-22).
system is shut off. Most of the ignition systems are There are five major sections of the engine. They
high capacitance discharge systems which are are the:
commonly used on all jet engines. They consist of Air inlet section
One

an exciter, igniter, and appropriate wiring. Many Compressor rotor section

of these ignition systems have automatic relight
Diffuser section
systems in the event of a flameout.
Combustion section
After combustion has occurred, the air in the
SP

combustor is heated very rapidly. This expands the Exhaust section

air and it moves to the nozzle assembly where it is A view of the disassembled engine is shown in
directed on the turbine wheel. At this point the Fig. 8-23.
turbine wheel rotates the compressor. In the direct- The flow of air through the engine and basic
drive shaft turbine, it also turns the power shaft. operation is shown in Fig. 8-24. The air passes
On the free turbine, air passing through the com- through the struts that support the inner and
pressor turbine is redirected to a power turbine outer portions and rearward across variable inlet
 ENGINE ORIENTATION DIAGRAM; 15313 HOT AIR ROTATION OF
SOLENOID VALVE GAS PRODUCER
ROTATION OF TURBINE ROTORS
ROTATION OF COMPRESSOR ROT!
OUTPUT GEARSHAFT
ENGINE DATA
TOP
RIGHT co
SIDE
. REAR
EXHAUST

FRONT

ROTATION OF
BOTTOM
POWER TURBINE
ACCESSORY DRIVE ROTORS
GEARBOX

Fig. 8-22 153 turboshaft engine.

Fig. 8-23 Exploded view of T53 engine.

239
 MAIN FUEL
NOZZEL
IGNITOR
START FUEL PLUG

COTTTITTTmM

atin

Z
TURBINE ENGINE

) STARTERIGENERATOR
N-1 =) OIL PUMP
GEAR
BOX
-— FUEL CONTROL UNIT
W N-1 = GAS PRODUCER = 1ST STAGE

Ny
S
[= TACH. GENERATOR
KN N-2 = POWER PRODUCER = 2ND STAGE

g
Fig. 8-24 Basic T53 operation.

guide vanes to the compressor. The air is com- 1) Major operating systems
pressed by a five-stage axial compressor and a sin- The major operating systems of the engine are:
gle-stage contrifugal compressor. The air then 1. Variable inlet guide vanes
passes through the diffuser where the high ve- 2. Interstage bleed system
locity air is converted to high pressure and the air
3. Anti-icing system
flow is returned to a radial flow. Provisions are
made on the diffuser for bleeding air from the com- 4. Ignition system
pressor. This air may be used for a number of pur- 5. Fuel system
poses including a cabin heater, an oil cooler blower, 6. Oil system
and engine anti-icers.
As the air leaves the diffuser, it enters the com- (a) Variable inlet guide vanes
bustion area where the pressure is reduced, the The variable inlet guide vanes provide a surge
velocity is decreased, and the direction is changed. margin. The angle of incidence of the inlet air to
The air is used for two purposes — to cool the com- the first compressor rotor must be within the stall-
bustion area and to support combustion. The fuel is free operating range of the transonic airfoil. The
introduced into the chamber by 22 atomizers at the first two stages of the compressor have sonic-type
aft end of the combustor. As combustion takes blades. Because of the sonic blades it is necessary
place, the temperatures will reach 3500°F. Flowing to vary the angle of attack with the speed of the
out of the combustor, the gases again reverse direc- compressor. The angle of attack is changed by the
tion and flow across the two-stage gas producer guide vanes.
turbine and two-stage power turbine. The power The inlet guide vanes consist of a series of hollow
turbines drive a shaft passing through the com- blades positioned by a synchronizing ring through
pressor turning the gear reduction, the engine out- the inlet guide vane actuator (Fig. 8-25).
put shaft, and the N, gearbox. The actuator is positioned by a pilot valve in the
The gas producer turbines turn the compressor fuel control. The pilot valve position is the function
which extracts approximately 2/s of the energy to of N, speed and compressor inlet temperature.
produce more air for combustion. In addition to From 0 to 80% RPM, the vanes are at a minimum
driving the compressor it also turns the N, ac- open position. The vanes start to open at 80% N,
cessory gearbox on the bottom of the engine. and are fully open by 95% N, speed. For a steady

240
 OY,
fe
SYNCHRONIZING RING

AAS
“
@S
7 / VARIABLE INLET

(
=
GUIDE VANE
ASSEMBLY

/ Gg

VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANE

\, ACTUATOR CONTROL ROD

ry
AY, ,"\
ACG(QObss }
\
[ SEAL \
FT

VARIABLE INLET GUIDE

VANE ACTUATOR DRAIN
VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANE SYSTEM

Fig. 8-25 Variable guide vane operation.

state operation between 80% and 95% N, the vanes

will assume a steady position.
(b) Interstage air bleed
The interstage air bleed (Fig. 8-26) improves the
compressor acceleration by the automatic release
of air during acceleration. This is accomplished by
bleed holes around the fifth stage of compression.
Compressor discharge pressure is taken from
the diffuser housing and connected to the actuator
control-air dump valve, through an orifice to the
control valve in the fuel control. The control valve
in the fuel control is operated as a function of N,
1. BLEED BAND ASSEMBLY speed. When the valve is open, the compressor air
2. FUEL CONTROL TO INTERSTAGE BLEED ACTUATOR
AIR PRESSURE HOSE
is dumped overboard. The bleed band will remain
3. INTERSTAGE BLEED ACTUATOR open because of the spring in the actuator, up to
4. AIR DIFFUSER TO INTERSTAGE BLEED ACTUATOR
AIR PRESSURE HOSE
speeds of 80% N, and during acceleration. The band
will be closed at steady-state condition above 80%.
This will close the control valve in the fuel control,
Fig. 8-26 Bleed band position. causing the dump valve to close. When the dump

241
 COMPRESSOR BLEED PORTS
HOUSING

CONTROL VALVE
PART OF FUEL CONTROL

ACTUATOR
DIAPHRAGM

Pq:-ATMOSPHERE
Pyy-MODULATED SPRING

P3-COMPRESSOR FILTER
DISCHARGE
FROM COMPRESSOR
A ACTUATOR P3 DISCHARGE
VALVE

Fig. 8-27 Schematic of the bleed band system of the T53.

valve closes, pressure in the cylinder will force the guide vanes. The bleed air exits the individual vanes
piston to move and close the band. (Fig. 8-27). and passes back into the compressor. Other bleed air
(c) Anti-icing system is circulated through the inlet struts and dumped
The anti-icing system supplies hot air under overboard (Fig. 8-28).
pressure to prevent icing of the inlet housing and (d) Ignition system
the inlet guide vanes during operations. The purpose of the ignition system is to provide
Air is collected from an air chamber on the top of high energy, medium voltage to four igniter plugs
the diffuser section. This air has been heated by located in the combustor for starting. The system
the compression. The heated air is directed to the is a capacitor discharge type unit which converts
anti-icing valve on the top of the engine. This in low voltage to high voltage through a transformer
line valve is operated by a solenoid and is spring and vibrator. It consists of a starter trigger switch,
loaded to the open position for a fail-safe system. ignition unit, ignition lead and coil assembly, and
The air is directed from the valve to the inlet housing four igniter plugs.
of the engine. From this point, it passes through an When the starter switch is activated, 24 volt DC
annular passage and through the individual inlet power is applied to the ignition unit. A vibrator unit

242
 | ANTI-ICING AIR AND VENT PORTS

Fig. 8-28 Anti-icing system.

converts the steady-state DC input to pulsating DC

suitable for transformer action. The transformer in-
creases the voltage to 2500 volts used to charge the
capacitor. When stored voltage becomes sufficient, it
will jump a gap and travel to the dividers, where the
voltage is sent to the four igniters.
Ignition is accomplished at approximately 12%
of N,; speed and is shut off at approximately 40% of
N, when the starter switch is released. At that
time combustion is self-sustaining (Fig. 8-29).
(e) Fuel system
The fuel control unit consists primarily of two
sections: the fuel regulator and the overspeed gov-
ernor. The purpose of the fuel control is to provide Fig. 8-29 Ignition system on the T53.
starter fuel for the starting fuel nozzles and sched-
uled fuel to the combustion chamber for continued The overspeed governor, mounted on top of the
operation. fuel regulator, is driven by the N, gearbox. It posi-
The fuel regulator is driven by the N, gearbox. It tions the main metering valve, providing the fuel
contains a dual element pump, a transfer valve, flow through the fuel regulator required for the
automatic metering valve, gas producer governor, power turbine (Fig. 8-30).
an acceleration-deceleration control, an air bleed The starting fuel system receives fuel from the
control valve, inlet guide vane control, main power fuel regulator and directs the flow through an ex-
control computer, emergency metering valve, and ternal line to the starting fuel solenoid. The start-
fuel shutoff valve. The gas producer governor, ing fuel solenoid is located on the top of the com-
emergency metering valve, and the shutoff valve pressor in the 10 o’clock position. The valve is a two
are mechanically controlled units. position electrically opened and spring-loaded
The main power control computer controls the closed valve. Wher. energized open, it allows fuel
main metering valve, providing required fuel to flow to the starting fuel manifold.
engine. The governor that requires the least fuel This starting fuel manifold is a two-piece assem-
flow overrides the others and regulates the meter- bly with four starting fuel nozzles at 2, 4,8, and 10
ing valve. The deceleration control schedules the o’clock positions. The nozzles introduce atomized
absolute minimum fuel flow for deceleration. fuel into the combustion chamber for starting. The

243
 rere CHECK-FILTER
PICKUP SPEED VALVE
a
SWITCH STARTING ise
proctte T STARTING FUEL EVER
NIFOLO
| | FUEL PIPING FOR SOLENOID VALVE
= pee <_
iL TANK STARTING FUEL
SpE Yi— v fo —
i AIRFRAME ;
FUEL REGULATOR
rue ccutaton : <
Ju
rtt5 [Lee pL
| ) Boost | F ' STARTING FUEL
L _y PUMP ! ' NOZZLES
Ir I ' (4)
1 EMERGENCY FUEL FLOW
SHUTOFF 1 \ FLOW DIVIDER MAIN FUEL
I 40 MICRON | =>
|; SERVO 2 | \ SECONDARY MANIFOLD
| eee FILTER MAIN EMERGENCY FUEL + (2) (2)
It 100 (AUTOMATIC) METERING SHUTOFF 1
I MESH METERING VALVE VALVE VALVE |! *
1} | 200 MESH SCREEN : <
| L | “SCREEN
1L_ a- <
' ' ~<-
AIRFRAME | SOLENOID ACTUATED 1 4
FUEL FILTER | pe neceame EMERGENCY ! soLenoip PRIMARY OO ERS
1 FUEL PUMP TRANSFER VALVE {| VALVE (2) (22)
! not 1
{ ensere
eS ' pe EM AKAs 1'3 1
' FUEL
=
r a ' ieRinok =
1 Ps
|
\
!
DUISLGRIE
|
f
POWER
LEVER em
col
INTERNAL FUEL SHUTOFF LINKAGE 2)
‘
SS
DRAIN
eee ees 4
I aif I' ii STAKE OFF ee ACCELERATION ‘
to4
7 i '' AN Sica:
tLe CONTROL aes
DECELERATION '
Io : I OFE OUND IDLE COMPUTER CONTROL ‘
oy | ; -- = INLET GUIDE VANE i
14 \ ! ~ ~—---~~.__ _ __ CONTROL ACTUATOR '
14 1 | WALLA Sap em Sey I
i ' \ ; AIR BLEED 1 i ;
ay \ \ L=4 -—4 CONTROL VALVE eee ret \
toy ! eea ee If fin men mien ar te ee i a eine 4
By 4 ' uy UT
'o4 +
| POWER TURBINE POWER TURBINE
! SPFEO SELECTOR SPEED SELECTOR SIGNAL TO INTERSTAGE SIGNAL TO INLET
L--~--4 LEVER AIR BLEED ACTUATOR GUIDE VANE
COCKPIT OVEASPEED ACTUATOR
CONTROLS GOVERNOR

Fig. 8-30 153 fuel system.

solenoid, activited by the starting switch, is re- ducing a voltage signal as each tooth passes the
leased with starter disengagement. pickup. The pulses will increase in frequency as
The main fuel system consists of the overspeed the speed of Ny» increases. The pulses govern a
trip system solenoid, the flow divider, main fuel speed control switch, designed to provide 28-volts
manifold, and main fuel atomizers. DC to the solenoid valve when 110% Ny, RPM is
reached, At 110%, the valve closes and limits the
/1/ Overspeed trip system
fuel flow to the engine. Main fuel flows through the
The components of the system include a rotor
pickup housing, magnetic pickup, speed control
switch, and fuel solenoid valve (Fig. 8-31).
The overspeed trip system was designed as a
means of preventing engine failure due to exces-
sive N, speed. The excessive speeds could be the
result of loss of output shaft load or a sudden in-
crease in fuel flow due to a fuel control malfunc-
tion. In these situations, the overspeed trip system
will restrict fuel flow if the N, RPM reaches 110%. LEGEND

The pickup housing for this system is located 1, MAGNETIC PICKUP

2. ROTOR PICKUP HOUSING
between the N, gearbox and the N, tachometer 3. SPEED CONTROL SWITCH
4. FUEL SOLENOID VALVE
generator. Inside the box is a 60-tooth gear which 5 ELECTRICAL HARNESS
6.N2 TACHOMETER

is driven from the gearbox. A magnetic pickup is

placed in close proximity to the gear teeth, pro- Fig. 8-31 Speed control system.

244
solenoid valve from the fuel control to the flow di-
vider and dump valve assembly mounted on the FROM
bottom of the engine (Fig. 8-32). a? MAIN FUEL
MANIFOLD

fl
SECONDARY

1 TO COMBUSTION
. PRIMARY ooo 2 CHAMBER DRAIN
VALVE
DUMP POSITION

nT, PRIMARY FUEL TO

— 22 ATOMIZERS

NSN =r

\S} s Tre)
“A,
sean
COMBUSTION Js Ka
rue.
INLET
= CHAMBER DRAIN .
FUEL age VALVE . SECONDARY
PRIMARY FLOW
m “4 FUEL
YX .
PRIMARY FUEL 8 TO 12% N-f
INLET FA ‘ma
Nae S uw
Fig. 8-32 Fuel flow divider and combustor drain Nt - =
“TDA
SECONDARY
Fuet to
valve. 22 ATOMIZERS
/2/ Flow divider
The flow divider and dump valve assembly are de-
signed to provide correct fuel atomization through-
out the engine’s operation. This is accomplished by PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FLOW APPROX. 32% N-1
(NORMAL OPERATION)
a dual flow capability consisting of primary and
secondary.
Fig. 8-33 Fuel divider primary and secondary flow.
At approximately 8 to 13% of N, and above, fuel
is delivered from the fuel control to the flow divider The oil is supplied from an airframe mounted
and dump valve. At a predetermined fuel pressure, tank to the oil pump mounted on the N, gearbox. It
fuel flows through the top aft lines for primary flow is a dual element vane-type pump using one ele-
to 22 atomizers. With increased pressure, the flow ment to deliver lubricating oil under pressure and
dividers provide additional flow thorough the for- the other element for scavenge oil. Two alternate
ward lines for secondary flow (Fig. 8-33). gear-type pumps may be used. The pump has inlet
/3/ Main fuel manifold and outlet hose connections, a pressure relief valve
The main fuel manifold is a two-piece unit with and an oil temperature bulb.
11 dual atomizers in each section. Each section has The oil filter is a reusable wafer-disc type ele-
primary and secondary flow to each atomizer. The ment enclosed in a housing and bolted to the gear-
22 atomizers are directly attached to the manifold box. The filter contains a bypass valve operating on
and discharge the atomized fuel into the combus- a differential of pressure. In the event that the fil-
tion chamber. ter becomes clogged, oil will continue to flow to the
After shutdown, the flow divider and dump valve engine.
drain the fuel from the manifold through a line to the Separate strainers are located at the number 3
combustion chamber drain valve. The combustor and 4 bearings and the number 2 bearing. Both of
drain valve is spring loaded open when the engine is these strainers are cleaned at the same frequency
static and closed from pressure in the combustor. as the oil filter.
(f) Oil system A magnetic chip detector is installed in the lower
The engine oil system consists of a main oil right-hand side of the accessory gearbox to provide
pump, oil filter, torquemeter rotary boost pump, an indication of metal particles in the engine lubri-
and the lines (Fig. 8-34). cation system.
 1. NO. 3 AND 4 BEARING PRESSURE LINE 9. MAIN OIL FILTER
2. PRESSURE LINE TO MANIFOLD 10. OiL PUMP
3. NO. 2 BEARING SCAVENGE LINE 11. OIL PRESSURE ADJUSTMENT
4. NO. 2 BEARING PRESSURE LINE AND INLET STRAINER 12, OIL TEMPERATURE BULB
5. PRESSURE MANIFOLD 13. OIL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER AND PRESSURE SWITCH PRESSURE TAP
6. NO. 3 AND 4 BEARING SCAVENGE LINE 14. IMPENDING BY-PASS POP-OUT BUTTON
7. NO. 3 AND 4 BEARING INLET STRAINER 15. TORQUE PRESSURE TAP
8. TORQUEMETER BOOST PUMP 16. CHIP DETECTOR

Fig. 8-34 Exterior lubrication system of T53.

A torquemeter boost pump is mounted on the ber 2 main bearing is pumped back to the gearbox
front of the N, gearbox. The pressure element re- by an ejector pump through an external line. Bear-
ceives engine oil at 80-100 Psi and delivers it to the ing 3 and 4 return the scavenge oil by external
torquemeter at 120-125 psi through the oil filter to lines and two paddle pumps to the accessory gear-
the engine by two paths. box. The scavenge oil is picked up by the scavenge
One path is internal to the front section lubricat- element and returned to the oil tank via an oil
ing the gearing, torquemeter, the accessory drive cooler (Fig. 8-35).
gear, and the number 1 main bearing. The second
path is through external lines lubricating bearings 2. Allison 250 series
number 2, 3, and 4. The most widely used helicopter engine is proba-
When the various points of the engine are lubri- bly the Allison 250 series. Various models of this
cated, the oil from the inlet housing drains back engine have been, and are presently being, installed
into the accessory gearbox. Scavenge oil from num- in new helicopters. This engine is used on the Bell

246
 1. FILLER CAP
2. OIL TANK
3. PUMP INLET HOSE
4. SCAVENGE PUMP OUTLET HOSE
5. OIL FILTER
6. OIL COOLER
7. COOLER DRAIN VALVE
8. DUCT
9. TURBO BLOWER

10. BLOWER AIR INLET HOSE

11. ENGINE BLEED AIR VALVE
12. ENGINE OIL FILTER
13. PRESSURE TAP HOSE
14. OIL PRESSURE SWITCH AND TRANSMITTER
15. OIL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER TUBE
16. TORQUE TRANSMITTER PRESSURE HOSE
17. TORQUE TRANSMITTER VENT HOSE
18. ENGINE BREATHER HOSE
19. TANK RETURN OIL LINE
20. TANK VENT LINE
21. TANK DRAIN VALVE
22. HOURMETER SWITCH

Fig. 8-35 Lubrication system including airframe components.

Jet Ranger, Long Ranger, Hughes 500 C and D, plus of a combination axial-centrifugal compressor (ex-
several conversions of reciprocating engine helicop- cept the C28 and C30 which have a centrifual com-
ters. The Allison 250 has also been used in twin pressor only) a single can type combustor, a tur-
engine applications such as the BO-105 and the S76. bine assembly which incorporates a two-stage gas
Although these engines are basically the same, they producer turbine, a two-stage power turbine, an ex-
must operate as one unit in a helicopter since they haust collector and an accessory gearbox.
are both supplying equal power to the same compo- a. Definitions
nents. There are several different dash numbers of The following definitions apply to this engine:
these engines. All have the same basic construction
N,: Gas producer RPM.
except for the C28 and C30 engines. This major
difference will be discussed later. N,: Power turbine RPM.
The Allison 250 series are turboshaft engines front: The compressor end of the engine.
featuring a free power turbine. The engine consists rear: The combustion end of the engine.

247
 ACCESSORY
GEARBOX
SECTION TURBINE SECTION COMBUSTION SECTION
COMPRESSOR SECTION

EXHAUST
REAR COLLECTOR
DIFFUSER olLINLer GAS PRODUCER COMBUSTION
SUPPORT TURBINE ROTOR OUTER CASE COMBUSTION
POWER TURBINE
DIFFUSER LINER
ROTOR

COMPRESSOR
SCROLL “~~.
/ 7a
cm Oil INLET

FRONT SUPPORT FUEL NOZZLE

VENT LLL
/ Loom
STAGES FRONT
x Lt
PT.BEARING REAR i t y
FRONT : (NO.5) pt. BEARING | | | ,”
PINION GEAR wo. fil f i:
.Bhs BEARING _
{NO. 3)
COMPRESSOR
ROTOR
f
O

TURBINE TO COMPRESSOR COUPLING

REAR
COMPRESSOR
aA)
G.P.T. BEARING
(NO. 8)
BEARING
0000000

(NO. 2),

248
> FRONT “I:
PINION GEAR G.PT BEARING©
BEARING (NO. 7)
COMPRESSOR FRONT (NO. 4)
CASE DIFFUSER TORQUEMETER
FRONT
COMPRESSOR SPARK IGNITER
BEARING
(NO. 1)
OL OUTLET PRODUCER
DRAIN SUPPORT RAR

POWER OUTPUT GEAR

t
EXTERNAL
POWER TURBINE OiL SUMP
SUPPORT FIREWALL
SHIELD

t— accessory
. ACCESSORY
GEARBOX
GEARBOX ——" COVER
HOUSING

Fig. 8-36 Cross-sectional view of the Allison 250 engine.

top: The exhaust gas outlet side of the engine. 4. Accessory Gearbox
bottom: Determined by the scavenge oil outlet 5. Accessories
and burner drain plug. (1) Compressor
right and left: Determined by facing the accessory The compresor has six axial stages of compres-
mounting pad. sion feeding air into one centrifugal compressor.
direction of rotation: Rear looking forward. (Except for the C28 and C30 which have only a
accessories rotation: Determined by facing the centrifugal compressor.)
accessory mounting pad. Air enters the engine through the compressor
inlet and is compressed by six axial compressor
compressor stage: One rotor and one stator.
stages and one centrifugal stage. As the air leaves
turbine stage: Consists of one stator and one
the seventh stage of compression, it is directed into
rotor.
the scroll assembly. Air is tapped off the scroll as-
compressor and turbine stage numbering: sembly for various systems requiring bleed air.
The compressor is numbered 1 through 6 in the The bleed air has attained a temperature of 500+ —
direction of airflow. The turbines are numbered degrees during compression. The compressed air
1 through 4 with the first stage at the rear and leaves the compressor section through two exter-
the fourth at the front. nal ducts transferring the air to the rear of the
main bearing numbering: 1 through 8 in a front- engine for combustion.
to-rear direction. The compressor in the C28 and C30 engines is a
b. Major assemblies centrifugal compressor with a single stage of com-
The major engine assemblies are (Fig. 8-36): pression. When the air is compressed, it is directed
1. Compressor to the diffuser section. At this point air is tapped off
to operate various accessories. See Fig. 8-37 for a
2. Combustion Section
view of the compressor section.
3. Turbine

COMPRESSOR SECTION SPLINED ADAPTER

250-C30
DIFFUSER

SHROUD
SCROLL ™ HOUSING

FRONT
SPRING CUP
go ©) 0 #2
BEARING

© 3°
SUPPORT
OIL SEAL

#1 BEARING

VIBRATION DAMPER
COMPRESSOR
BEARING HOUSING REAR MOUNT
SUPPORT

Fig. 8-37 Compressor section of the Allison 250-C30.

249
 (2) Combustion section turbine. These first two stages are used to power the
The combustion section consists of an outer com- N, system and part of the accessory gearbox.
bustion case and a combustor liner. A spark igniter The power turbine is a two-stage free turbine
and a fuel nozzle mounted on the aft end of the having no physical connection to the gas producer
outer combustion case is seen in Fig. 8-38. turbine.
Air enters the single combustion liner at the aft As the expanding gases leave the gas producer
end through holes in the liner. The air is mixed turbine, they pass over the thermocouple and enter
with fuel sprayed from the nozzle and combustion the third stage nozzle. The third and fourth stages
takes place. This expands the gases which move of the turbine operate in the same manner as
forward and out of the combustor to the turbine stages one and two, and are shrouded to prevent
assembly, converting heat energy into mechanical the loss of gases over the blade tips. When the gas
energy. leaves the fourth stage, it is directed overboard
(3) Turbine assembly through two exhaust ducts. The power turbines
The turbine assembly is mounted between the drive the gearbox assembly and a portion of the
combustion assembly and the accessory gearbox. It accessory drives.
consists of the two-stage gas producer turbine, a
two-stage shrouded power turbine, the exhaust col- (4) Gearbox assembly
lector support and the necessary supporting struc- The gearbox assembly consists of the gearbox
ture (Fig. 8-39). housing, gas producer gear train, power gear train,
oil pump assembly, and the necessary oil tubes to
The expanding gases move out of the combustion
provide pressure and scavenge oil to the lubrica-
assembly passing through the first stage nozzle
tion system (Fig. 8-40).
where they are accelerated to a high velocity. This
high velocity air passes through the first stage tur- The gas producer gear train is driven by the N,
bine. As the air leaves the first stage turbine, it en- turbine. The accessories driven by the system are:
ters the second stage nozzle where the velocity is a. Gas producer tachometer
increased again before passing over the second stage b. Fuel pump assembly

COMBUSTION ASSEMBLY

SEAL ASSEMBLY
COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE AIR y AG
FUEL NOZZLE

SEAL ASSEMBLY

oF
SEAL ASSEMBLY

INTERNAL RETAINING RING

| QO - SY
TURBINE FIREWALL iQ feat ASSEMBLY COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE AIR TUBE

PACKING

WAVE WASHER FIREWALL SEAL SUPPORT RING

Fig. 8-38 Combustor section of the Allison 250.

250
 GAS PRODUCER TURBINE ASSEMBLY

2ND STAGE NOZZLE

1ST STAGE WHEEL

2ND STAGE WHEEL WY GAS PRODUCER TURBINE SUPPORT
SPLINED ADAPTER

GAS PRODUCER
TURBINE ROTOR ASSEMBLY

TURBINE TO COMPRESSOR
COUPLING
__— RETAINING RING
Uy _
_—

SPANNER NUT NO. 7 INNER RACE v NO. 8 BEARING GB

\ ® Y 1ST STAGE TURBINE

\ OIL SUMP NOZZLE SHIELD
RETAINING NUT
SPANNER NUT PLATE
LABYRINTH SEAL

Fig. 8-39 A-—Gas producer turbine section of the Allison 250 engine.

POWER TURBINE ASSEMBLY

LABYRINTH SEAL KK POWER TURBINE COUPLING

_ ‘SD BEARING INNER RACE

POWER TURBINE
POWER TURBINE a S—4W) ROTOR ASSEMBLY
SHAFT i SHIN
INNER COUPLING NUT SHAFT SHIELD

BELLOWS OIL SEAL

\ ouren COUPLING NUT
NO. § BEARING

INTERNAL | ,
RETAINING RING?" \O_/ THRUST PLATE

SPANNER NUT

9 POWER TURBINE SHAFT TO

PINION GEAR COUPLING

Fig. 8-39 B-—Power turbine section of the Allison 250 engine.

251
 GAS PRODUCER TURBINE INPUT
51,120 RPM = 100%
SPUR ADAPTER GEAR SHAFT
17 TEETH

ac POWER TURBINE INPUT

IDLER GEAR 1 35,000 RPM = 100%
PINION GEAR
24 TEETH

a
W, NY),
Mt 7! 35 TEETH \ TORQUEMETER GEAR A
83 TEETH
I} 10,000 RPM
NY /] /

1} P.T, GOVERNOR
& TACH-GEN,
DRIVE GEAR

POWER OUTPUT GEA\

FUEL CONTROL DRIVE GEAR \. 50 TEETH
(OIL PUMP) $3 TEETH
(TACH-GEN) 4189 RPM
86 TEETH
4210 RPM

IDLER GEAR IDLER GEAR spare DRIVE GEAR

47 TEETH 'IDLER GEAR 29 TEETH 29 TEETH
(AIR-OIL 29 TEETH S719 RPM 3719 RPM
ST-GEN SEPARATOR) 3719 RPM IDLER GEAR FUEL PUMP
DRIVEGEAR 7707 RPM 29 TEETH DRIVE GEAR
30 TEETH 3719 RPM 29 TEETH
12,070 RPM 3719 RPM

VIEWED FROM THE FRONT SIDE

Fig. 8-40 Accessory drive section of the Allison 250 engine.

252
c. Starter-generator element and four scavenge elements. The pump is
d. Gas producer fuel control operated by the N, gear train (Fig. 8-42). It will
turn at a speed proportional to that of the N, sys-
The power turbine gear train is driven by the No
tem and increases the volume as the speed in-
turbine. This is provided with a gear reduction to
creases. The oil travels under pressure from the
gear the turbine speed down to the output shaft
pressure element to the oil inlet port of the oil fil-
speed. Accessories driven from the power turbine
ter. The oil filter assembly contains the oil pres-
as as follows:
sure regulating valve, the filter, and a differential
a. Power turbine tachometer generator pressure filter bypass. The filtered oil is delivered
b. Power turbine governor through a one-way check valve to the gearbox
c. Torquemeter housing passage and the oil pressure sensing port.
In the strictest sense, the torqemeter is not an At this point oil is delivered to the following:
accessory but an integral part of the power turbine 1. The pressure oil port on the right front side of
gear train. Through the use of axial thrust, de- the gearbox housing.
veloped by a set of helical splined gears acting on
2. The pressure oil port on the right side of the
an oil chamber piston, engine oil under pressure is
gearbox housing.
used to reflect the amount of torque developed by
the power turbine (See Fig. 8-41). The screen and then an oil delivery tube with-
in the gearbox.
c. Lubrication system
4. The pinion bearing oil nozzle.
The lubrication system receives oil from an air-
frame mounted tank. It is delivered to the oil 5. The oil pressure tube within the gearbox.
pump; a gear type pump consisting of one pressure 6. The torquemeter assembly.

TORQUEMETER SCHEMATIC

INTERNAL
RING
PISTON
SUPPORT & BEARING
SHAFT
OIL IN
aN
TORQUEMETER
GEARSHAFT
Ww = aI t=
1a | SHAFT
\ of: é SUPPORT
-©)—_-€© — SPANNER
NUT
—_

=
4

TO TORQUEMETER
ed
GAUGE

POWER
OUTPUT
GEARSHAFT

ACCESSORY GEARBOX
HOUSING

Fig. 8-41 Hydromechanical torquemeter Allison 250 engine.

253
 OIL TANK VENT

OIL TEMPERATURE GAGE

OIL TANK
—
OIL TEMPERATURE
BULB
OIL
PRESSURE
REGULATING
VALVE OIL FILTER OIL PRESSURE GAGE
AIR
3) ol FILTER OUTLET
ASSEMBLY
CHECK
VALVE
FILTER ol “t- BY-PASS VALVE
BY-PASS
VALVE ENGINE OIL COOLER
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

PRESSURE REDUCER SCREEN (

AIR INLET

¢ PRESSURE
© PUMP

SCREEN

we OU
CHIP DETECTOR LIGHT

254
\jf i Sim \e TO 2BV SUPPLY

J /.

\ TORQUEMETER EXTERNAL SUMP

\ TORQUEMETER = SCAVENGE PUMPS k
\ TRANSDUCER
. FIRST LEVEL
~> OVERBOARD OIL BREATHER 7 MAGNETIC CHIP
AIR-OIL SEPARATOR Vv DETECTOR PLUG
@

\ V~e MAGNETIC CHIP mn

DETECTOR PLUG ex

SCAVENGE PUMP \ o ACCESSORY

SECOND LEVEL ~ —_—_—_—— GEARBOX HOUSING

Allison 250 lubrication system.

 The pressure oil port on the right front side of the to the torquemeter not only fills the cavity, but also
gearbox housing delivers oil through a tube and lubricates the two support bearings.
pressure reducer to the compressor front support, The oil from the various points of the engine
which directs oil to No. 1 bearing. The pressure oil drains to the sump areas where it is picked up by
port on the right rear side of the gearbox cover the scavenge elements and returned to the oil
delivers oil through tubes and a one-way check cooler and tank.
valve to the power turbine and gas producer sup-
ports. The power turbine support contains a nozzle d. Bleed air system
which directs oil to bearings 6 and 7. The gas pro- The compressor bleed air and anti-ice system is
ducer turbine support delivers oil to a nozzle which shown in Fig. 8-43. Like the T53, the compressor
directs oil on No. 8 bearing. The oil delivery tube must be unloaded during acceleration. Rather
within the gearbox has four nozzles which direct than a bleed band and port system, the Allison 250
oil to the following: uses an airbleed control valve. This valve is open
1. No. 2 bearing during starting and ground idle operation and re-
2. First stage gear reduction mains open until a predetermined ratio is reached.
3. No.3 bearing The air bleed valve consists of an evacuated bel-
lows, two diaphragm assemblies, a poppet type
4, The spur adapter gear shaft holes for spline
servo valve, bleed valve, bleed orifice, bleed valve
lubrication.
orifice, bleed valve body, and a bleed valve cover.
The pinion bearing oil nozzle assembly has three The following pressures are associated with the op-
nozzles which direct oil to the: eration of the air bleed control valve:
1. No. 4 bearing
2. No.5 bearing P, — Compressor discharge pressure
Pon Pr

3. No.5 bearing oil seal P.,— Servo pressure

The oil pressure tube within the gearbox directs P; — 5th stage pressure
oil into the 2nd stage gear reduction. Oil delivered P, — Ambient pressure

AIR BLEED
CONTROL
VALVE ANTEICING VALVE

ANTIICING
AIR TUBES TO GAS PRODUCER
BLEED NOZZLE
FUEL CONTROL
(VENTURI)
STRUT

COMPRESSOR
FRONT SUPPORT
FUEL CONTROL COMPRESSOR
DISCHARGE AIR TUBE

BLEED VALVE CLOSED

Py SERVO PRESSURE P, COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE P, AMBIENT PRESSURE P; STH STAGE PRESSURE

Fig. 8-43 Anti-icing and compressor bleed system — Allison 250.

255
 An annular shaped diaphragm retainer, located Hot air is extracted from the diffuser scroll and
between the two diaphragms, retains the dia- passes through the anti-icing, poppet type, valve.
phragms between the bleed valve body and the The position is determined by a lever on the side of
bleed valve cover. The two diaphragms, with a the valve. This delivers air to two anti-icing tubes
spacer between them, are retained to the bottom of at the compressor inlet.
the evacuated bellows by a nut. The servo valve is The compressor front support consists of a dou-
attached to the bottom of this assembly. Thus the ble wall. During the anti-icing operation, the hot
position of the servo valve is determined by the air enters the supports flowing into the annular
forces acting on the two diaphragms and the evacu- passage. The hot air flows through the struts and
ated bellows. The cavity between the two dia- the nose and is exhausted through slots in the
phragms is ported to P,. P, is ported to the top side struts. The remaining hot air is exhausted through
of the upper diaphragm and P, is ported to the bot- the nose.
tom side of the lower diaphragm. When the engine
f Fuel system
is not in operation, all the pressures are equal and
The fuel system components are (Fig. 8-44):
the valve will remain open.
1. Fuel pump assembly
When P, increases to the point where P,-P,
forces overcomes the P,-P, plus the bellows force, 2. Gas producer fuel control
the servo valve will begin to close. As it does, there 3. Power turbine governor
is increased restriction to the flow from P, into P,; 4. Accumulator and check valve
and P, becomes greater than P; but remains less 5. Fuel nozzle
than P,. The bleed valve will be placed in some Fuel is supplied by the helicopter fuel system to
intermediate position between full open and full the inlet of the engine driven pump. Two different
closed. It is only when P, becomes equal to P, that types of pumps are used - either a single or a dual
the bleed valve will be fully closed. element pump.
e. Anti-icing system The dual element pump consists of two spur gear
The anti-icing system provides hot air for the com- pumps, filter, filter bypass valve, regulator valve
pressor front support areas. This system must be op- and two check valves. As the fuel enters the pump,
erated by the pilot when anti-icing is required. it normally flows through the filter. If the filter

ACCUMULATOR
DOUBLE CHECK VALVE
COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE
GAS PRODUCER PRESSURE Po
FUEL CONTROL

OVERNOR
LEVER

FILTER COVER

SINGLE ELEMENT FUEL PUMP

DUAL FUEL PUMP AND FILTER

Fig. 8-44 Fuel system Allison 250.

256
should become clogged, the fuel will be bypassed. meters the fuel required by the engine. All excess
The two pumps are parallel with each other with fuel is returned to the inlet of the pump (Fig. 8-45).
shear points on each element. Either element is The gas producer fuel control is driven by the N;
capable of supplying enough fuel to meet all the gear train and senses compressor discharge pres-
requirements of the engine. A check valve is placed sure. The fuel-control lever is positioned by the
on the outlet port of each element in case of failure twist grip and is mechanically linked to the cut-off
of one element. The pump discharge pressure is valve. The twist grip has three basic positions; cut-
delivered to the gas producer fuel control, which off, ground-idle, and full open. When the twist grip

CHECK VALVES

BY,
OUTLET FUEL
TO FUEL CONTROL

PUMP

PUMP

a SHEAR POINT

NX

v= J
SHEAR POINT

& — Lo bo 1 —a
iy <>
1S

{ llc
QQ SSSI UZ
Z
\ = EEE——
aleLS Foie
AFTER XS ae ae E DRIVE SHAFT SEAL

dicts
PRESSURE Tap

be SHA
SN
My \ NAY
““® SEAL DRAIN

FILTER BY-PASS zs BY-PASS FUEL FROM

f
<@ Gas propucer
NS oor A ZT
FUEL CONTROL
“To IS

t
INLET FROM FUEL TANK =>
OL

REGULATOR VALVE

FUEL FROM SUPPLY

FILTERED FUEL

BY-PASS FUEL

PUMP DISCHARGE FUEL

Fig. 8-45 Fuel pump Allison 250.

257
is moved from cut-off to ground-idle, as during an and the power turbine governor are interconnected
engine start, the gas producer fuel control auto- by three lines — regulated air pressure, governor
matically meters fuel as a function of compressor set pressure, and the governor servo pressure. The
discharge pressure and N, RPM. The fuel flow dur- power turbine governor is driven by the N, gear
ing this phase of operation is controlled by the gas train and also senses compressor discharge pres-
producer fuel control (Fig. 8-46). sure (Fig. 8-47).
The power turbine governor is not required for The governor lever is positioned by the droop
starting or ground-idle operation, but is required for compensator and beeper button. The power tur-
speed governing the power turbine. The gas producer bine governor is required for controlling the speed

LINEAR RELATIONSHIP--GAS
PRODUCER SPEED VS LEVER ANGLE

APPROX. 62% RPM

START DERICHMENT
ADJUSTMENT

G.P.F.C. LEVER
(ROTATED BY TWIST

IDLE SPEED
ADJUSTING SCREW

Fig. 8-46 Fuel control units — Allison 250.

LINEAR RELATIONSHIP.-POWER
TURBINE SPEED VS LEVER ANGLE

APPROX. 75% RPM APPROX. 103% RPM

INCREASE
SPEED ey / Pe FITING

GOVERNOR LEVER
(ROTATED BY COLLECTIVE
& BEEPER SWITCH ACTION)

Fig. 8-47 Power turbine governor — Allison 250.

258
of the power turbine. The Nz RPM is under the con- the governor resets the fuel control again, thus
trol of the beeper system and set by the pilot. This maintaining a constant rotor RPM.
is usually 100% Np. ° The fuel nozzle located in the rear of the engine
The droop compensator moves the governor any receives regulated fuel from the fuel control. The
time the collective is raised or lowered to keep the nozzle is a single-entry dual-orifice type nozzle.
power turbine at 100% No. The two orifices deliver primary and secondary
When the twist grip is moved from ground-idle to fuel. The primary orifice delivers fuel at all times
full open, the power output of the engine is suffi- of operation, but the secondary is open only when
cient to drive the rotor system to 100%. When the the fuel nozzle pressure exceeds 150 psi (Fig. 8-48).
N, tries to exceed 100%, the power turbine gover- g. Ignition system
nor resets the gas producer fuel control and limits The ignition system is composed of three compo-
the fuel flow. When the collective pitch is in- nents; a capacitor discharge exciter, spark igniter
creased, the power requirements are increased and lead, and igniter (Fig. 8-49). The operation of this

ee
W) / (ALL LZ
rs ZZ ri
7 SSO LS
Gg

INNER
Y SPRAY TIP

207) Sy ie pemeee
a

1
Ree oe tb
¥.

Vee poe et

Kiar

eee SSS
iy ESSN AY
aah LOTT
IZ IZ
ire
~w

H PY TILL
Lg lig ll) bY
TBS ERSSSSSSSS
Kijiji 9

Fig. 8-48 Fuel nozzle used in the Allison 250.

259
 = THERMOCOUPLE HARNESS ASSEMBLY
(1) Collective control system
The collective control system controls the verti-
ALUMEL ew “e ,
CHROMEL LEAD
cal movement of the helicopter. The collective adds
TERMINAL BLOCK
pitch to, or subtracts it from, the main rotor blades
simultaneously. Raising the pitch causes an in-
creasing blade angle which creates more lift and
the helicopter will rise vertically. This control is
used to control the aircraft takeoff, climb, hover
and descent; plus the air speed while in level flight.
IGNITION EXCITER
(2) Cyclic control
Fig. 8-49 Ignition and thermocouple system — The cyclic controls the directional movement of
Allison250. the helicopter. The helicopter has a tendency to fly
discharge unit is similar to that of the systems in the direction of main rotor disc tilt. The purpose
used on other shaft turbines. of the cyclic is to tilt the main rotor disc and control
horizontal flight, forward, backward, or sideways.
h. Turbine temperature system
Cyclic movement causes the opposite main rotor
The Turbine Outlet Temperature (TOT) is taken
blades to change angle equally and oppositely,
by a thermocouple system which generates its own
creating a lift differential and causing the main
electrical impulse through a series of chromel and
rotor disc to tilt. Application of this control is called
alumel probes placed in the power turbine support
cycle or cyclic change.
assembly. The probes are wired in parallel and will
read the average temperature of that area of the (3) Tail rotor system
engine. The tail rotor control system controls the direc-
tional heading of the helicopter. The antitorque
i. Flight and engine control pedals in the cockpit control the blade angle of the
The flight control system consists of the aircraft tail rotor. The tail rotor functions as an antitorque
collective control, cyclic control, tail rotor control, device. As the collective pitch is raised, more power
twist grip control, and the N, governor control is supplied from the engine. This tends to turn the
switch (Fig. 8-50). helicopter to the right. To correct this turning

A
EP |
AE
uo

I JG? TAIL ROTOR ASSEMBLY

Me MAIN ROTOR ASSEMBLY
q \e

\y/ CYCLIC CONTROL STICK

TAIL ROTOR
CONTROL PEDALS

COLLECTIVE STICK
N2 GOVERNOR RPM SWITCH TWIST GRIP

© TWIST GRIP CONTROL © COLLECTIVE PITCH CONTROL () N2 GOVERNOR CONTROL O CYCLIC CONTROL © TAIL ROTOR CONTROL

Fig. 8-50 Airframe and fuel control relationship Allison 250.

260
tendency, left pedal must be added. When power is greater than the percentage of N,. When the nee-
reduced, a simultaneous movement of the right dles are split, the engine delivers no power to the
pedal is required, or the helicopter will yaw to the helicopter rotor, and the helicopter rotor delivers
left. This system is also called the antitorque con- no power to the engine.
trol system. j. Clutch system
(4) Twist grip control When starting an engine, it is always desirable
The twist grip control changes the setting of the to have a minimum starter load; thus, it is neces-
lever arm on the gas producer fuel control which sary that an engine be able to be cranked without
affects the fuel flow, TOT, and consequently, N, the rotor imposing any load on the starter. Heli-
RPM, and torque. The twist grip mounts on the end copters powered by reciprocating engines incorpo-
of the collective. Rotation of the twist grip changes rate a clutch system which enables the starter to
the fuel-control setting. The three basic positions crank the engine without cranking the rotor. This
used for the twist grip settings are cut-off, idle, and clutch system provides a gradual stress-free pick-
maximum. The twist grip is fitted with a spring- up of rotor momentum while the system is being
loaded idle stop to prevent the throttle from in- engaged. Helicopters powered by the 250 series en-
advertently being placed in the cut-off position gine do not incorporate a clutch system because
during flight. An adjustable friction control is used the free turbine design permits the starter to crank
with the twist grip to maintain the selected posi- the gas producer system without any helicotper
tion. Raising and lowering the collective pitch has rotor load on the starter. When a 250 series engine
no effect on the twist grip position. To change the is started, N.Np speed will not begin to increase
twist grip setting, it must be rotated. It is seldom when the starter cranks the engine. N.Np speed
necessary to coordinate twist grip. and collective gradually increases as N, speed increases to idle
pitch operation, since the twist grip is in the full RPM; thus, a free turbine allows for stress-free
open position during all flight operation. pickup of rotor momentum and permits the crank-
5) N, governor control switch ing of an engine with the rotor imposing no load on
The Nz governor control switch is used to change the starter.
the setting of the lever arm on the power turbine Let’s assume the engine has been started, is run-
governor which affects the fuel flow, N, rpm, TOT, ning at stabilized ground-idle, and that takeoff
and torque. Movement of the switch to the increase power is required. The operator must move the
or decrease position energizes a reversible motor twist grip from ground-idle to full open. When this
that through aircraft linkage, rotates the lever is done, the gas producer fuel control governor
arm. The total travel of the lever arm is limited by spring is reset from the N, ground-idle RPM setting
minimum and maximum set screws provided in to the N, overspeed governor setting. This results
the aircraft linkage. The switch is located on the in an increase in N, RPM, an increase in Nz RPM to
end of the collective pitch stick and is commonly 100% and approximately 70 sHP with the collective
referred to as the beeper. pitch stick in minimum. On free turbine installa-
The rotor speed on a helicopter must be kept tions, it is not necessary for the operator to coordi-
within certain limits. If rotor RPM is too high, the nate the twist grip with the collective pitch stick.
resultant centrifugal forces can overstress the ro- As the collective pitch stick is pulled up, the rotor
tating parts. If the rotor RPM is too low, excessive pitch changes such that the rotor power require-
rotor blade coning (upward bending) will result. ments increase, so the rotor RPM will tend to droop.
The engine control system for helicopter installa- As N, droops, the power turbine governor senses
tions must control the power output of the engine the droop and initiates the necessary action caus-
so that the RPM remains within established limits. ing the gas producer fuel control to increase fuel
The device, which allows the engine to drive the flow. As the fuel flow increases, N, RPM increases
rotor but prevents the rotor from driving the en- and expansion through the power turbine increases.
gine, is generally called a freewheeling unit or The power turbine develops more power which is
overrunning clutch. When the engine delivers delivered to the rotor system to prevent excessive
power to the rotor system, the percentage of rotor N, RPM droop.
RPM (No will be the same; N, RPMs are indicated on k. Power turbine governor
the same instrument. When N, and Ng (rotor RPM) The characteristics of the power turbine gover-
percentages are the same, the tachometer indica- nor are such that as the helicopter rotor system
tor N, and Nx needles are “locked. “ Split needles power requirements increase, N.Np RPM tends to
describes a condition where the percentage of Np is decrease, and if the rotor system power require-

261
ments are decreased, then N,N tends to increase. manufacturer provides an electrical beeper sys-
On helicopters, it is highly desirable to vary rotor tem. By means of manually positioning the beeper,
system power requirements without having a change the system resets the power turbine governor so
in N,N RPM as described in the previous paragraph. the N.Np RPM will be governed at a different speed.
Therefore, in order to prevent N,Np RPM variation
when a power change is made, the helicopter man- 3. PT6 engine
ufacturer provides a droop compensator. The com- The PT6 is a Twin-Pac® configuration. This en-
pensator acts on the power turbine governor such gine is used in the Bell 212 and the Sikorsky S58
that the N,N will be held constant as power to the conversions. The PT6 Twin-Pac® installation is
rotor system is varied. The droop compensator re- manufactured by Pratt and Whitney Aircraft of Can-
sets the power turbine governor spring during ada and designated as the PT6-3 turboshaft engine.
power changes so that the resulting stablized N,Np The engine consists of three major sections; two iden-
following a power change is the same as it was be- tical free power turbine turboshaft power sections
fore the power change. Thus, when the operator and a single common power output reduction gear-
increases collective, the power delivered to the ro- box with a single output shaft (Fig. 8-51).
tor system will increase and the stabilized N.Np a. Power section
will remain the same. In the event it is desired Inlet air from the air management system en-
to operate at a different N,Np, it is necessary to ters each power section through a circular plenum
reset the power turbine governor by some means chamber formed by the compressor inlet case and
other than the droop compensator. The helicopter is directed to the compressor. The compressor con-

POWER TURBINE
GUIDE VANES

EXHAUST DUCT
ASSEMBLY

POWER TURBINE

ACCESSORY
GEARBOX

POWER TURBINE
SHAFT HOUSING -

NO. 3 & 4 BEARING

SUPPORT ASSEMBLY

REDUCTION GEARBOX ae
. a

GAS GENERATOR
ASSEMBLY

COMPRESSOR TURBINE
— GUIDE VANES

ASSEMBLY

Fig. 8-51 PT6 Twin Pac®.

262
sists of a three-stage axial compressor and a single- ter-generator. Each gearbox contains an oil reservoir
stage centrifugal compressor. Air passes through the and pumps for the lubrication system of the ac-
compressor, through diffuser pipes and straighten- cessory gearbox, the power section, and the power
ing vanes to the combustion chamber. input section of the reduction gearbox (Fig. 8-53).
The combustion chamber is an annular reverse-
flow type unit with various sized perforations for
entry of the air into the combustion chamber. The
expanding gases of combustion move forward and
change direction 180° to pass through the com-
pressor turbine nozzle to the compressor turbine. \/
From the compressor turbine the gases pass
rearward through the power turbine nozzle and the i)
Dy
power turbine. The exhaust gases are directed out
through the exhaust plenum into the atmosphere
(Fig. 8-52).
An accessory gearbox section mounts to the front
POWER TURBINE & GAS GENERATOR SECTION ACCESSORY
EXHAUST SECTION GEARBOX
SUB-ASSEMBLIES

of each power section, and houses the input shaft REDUCTION GEARBOX POWER SECTION
MAJOR ASSEMBLIES

from the power section, the reduction gearing for the

tachometer generator, fuel control unit, and the star- Fig. 8-52 PT6 airflow.

CENTRIFUGAL
BREATHER

FUEL PUMP AND CENTRIFUGAL BREATHER

FCU GEARS AND STARTER
GENERATOR GEARS

TACHOMETER
GENERATOR

IDLER GEAR

IDLER GEAR
IDLER GEARS
IDLER GEARS

COMPRESSOR
COMPRESSOR INPUT SHAFT
INPUT SHAFT

LUBRICATING
OIL PUMPS

LUBRICATING
OIL PUMPS

Fig. 8-53 PT6 accessory gearbox section.

263
 The two power sections are identical free-power power turbine speed to output shaft speed by
turbine engines. Each power section uses two sepa- means of a three-stage gear train for each power
rate turbines, a gas producer turbine to drive the section. Each power section reduction contains a
compressor and accessory gearbox, and a free- sprag clutch that drives in one direction only. This
power turbine which drives the turbine shaft cou- prevents driving one power section with the other
pled to the power output shaft to the reduction in an engine-out situation. (Fig. 8-54).
gearbox. Each power section is made up of the ac-
cessory gearbox, gas generator section, and the b. Fuel system
power turbine-exhaust section. The powerplant fuel system consists of separate
The two power sections drive a single gearbox but identical power sections, hydropneumatic fuel
output shaft to the transmission through separate control systems and fuel pumps, with a common
halves of a common reduction gearbox. This is torque control unit. Each power section fuel sys-
often referred to as a combining gearbox, combin- tem is made up of a fuel pump, a manual fuel con-
ing the output of both power sections into one. The trol unit, power turbine governor, flow divider,
reduction gearbox provides a 5:1 reduction of the manifolds, and nozzles.

(FRONT VIEW)

oO ©

One 4 ©
Cr)
©) my
@ @

(REAR VIEW)

1. STARTER GENERATOR 4, BLOWER

2. FUEL PUMP & FCU 5. Nt GOVERNOR
3. Ng TACHOMETER GENERATOR 6. Nf TACHOMETER GENERATOR

Fig. 8-54 Front and rear view of PT6-3 engine.

 Pg FROM OPPOSITE CONTROL
¥ TORQUEMETER PRESSURE
FUEL LINE PRESSURE
TORQUE CONTROL UNIT
SURGE DAMPENER
S
! TO PRIMARY FUEL MANIFOLD
a
Ji ts -
rescoouy
re W FUEL MANIFOLD
EQUALIZER BELLOWS = ADAPTER ASSEMBLY * TES ger ° ADAPTER ASSEMBLY

=
io r
yopeST) FUEL DUMP
=) =) aol, | € PORT

i PRIMARY PISTON SECONDARY PISTON

FLOW DIVIDER

a fr SOLENOID VALVE (N. C,)

TORQUEMETER PRESSURE
FROM OPPOSITE CONTROL a: Py
= Wi) MANUAL FUEL CONTROL UNIT

RELIEF VALVE

TRANSFER VALVE

265
THROTTLE LEVER

GAS GENERATOR
SPEED SCHEDULING |) ! > J kGis

Lah

Ps »> Sv POWER SECTION

[: POWER TURBINE FUEL PUMP
GOVERNING ADJUST.
POWER TURBINE GOVERNOR

STRAINER ELEMENT
(10 MICRON)

Fig. 8-55 Fuel control unit PT6-3.

 1) Fuel pump pressor 3rd-stage vane. A bleed valve mounted on
The fuel pump is a positive displacement gear- the gas generator case at the 5 o’clock position con-
type unit, with a 10-micron pleated paper filter trols the dumping of the air.
mounted on the pump body. The pump output in Each power section has its own separate ignition
excess of power section requirement is returned to system consisting of an ignition exciter, shielded
the inlet. igniter plug cables, and two igniters.
2) Manual fuel control unit The power lever control system consists of two
The manual fuel control unit is mounted with the parallel mechanical linkages connecting the dual
fuel pump and the automatic fuel control unit on the control twist grip of the collective stick to the man-
accessory gearbox. The function of the manual fuel ual fuel control units on the accessory drive sec-
control unit is to pass fuel from the pump to the tions. The upper twist grip is No. 1 engine control
automatic fuel control, and from the automatic fuel and the lower twist grip is No. 2 control. A flight
control to the flow divider. It has a transfer valve; idle stop is provided on each twist grip to prevent
combination metering valve and shut-off valve, an inadvertent shutdown of the power section
which are controlled by the power control lever; a when retarding the twist grip.
pressurizing valve; and a bypass valve. The auto- The linkage for the power turbine governors of
matic fuel control establishes the proper fuel sched- each power section consists of mechanical input
ule (in response to the power requirements) by con-
from the collective pitch control through a droop
trolling the speed of the gas producer turbine.
compensator, an electrical linear actuator control
3) Power turbine governor for speed selection, and a jackshaft to the power
The power turbine governor for each power sec- turbine governors for control of the power turbine
tion is mounted on the rear of the reduction gear- speed of both power sections. The droop compensa-
box, and is driven at a speed proportional to the tor maintains and stabilizes the preselected N;(N,
power turbine speed. It causes a change in gover- or rotor) RPM by changing governor control as col-
nor reset air to the automatic fuel control. This lective pitch is increased or decreased. The linear
changes the compressor speed when it senses a actuator provides control of the Nr RPM selection by
power turbine speed change. changing the position of the lever on the power
A single torque control unit mounted on the re- turbine governor.
duction gearbox receives torquemeter pressure e. Twin-Pac® coupling
from each power section. By controlling the gover- The PT6 Twin-Pac® is somewhat unique in its
nor reset air, it limits the total torque output and design, with one output shaft for the two engines.
maintains equal torque output of the two power This is not the design of all twin engine applica-
sections. tions. Other helicopters may have two input shafts
4) Flow divider to one transmission, but each engine must be able
A flow divider is mounted on the gas generator to function by itself. This means each engine must
case; and provides. metered fuel to the primary and have its own freewheeling unit and the transmis-
secondary manifolds, and the 14 simplex fuel sion must be able to turn with the one engine in-
nozzles. operative (Fig. 8-56). The twin engine applications
c. Oil system require the power output of the two engines be
The powerplant has three separate oil systems. matched during operation. On the Twin-Pac®, the
Identical systems provide lubrication for the two power outputs are matched by the torque control
power sections, accessory gearbox sections, and unit. This unit senses the torque from both engines
their respective input sections of the reduction and matches the two through the fuel control, and
gearbox. A third oil system provides lubrication for acts as a torque limiting device.
the output sections of the reduction gearbox. Inte- On other twin engine applications the torque of
gral oil tanks, oil pumps, oil filters, visual oil level the two engines must be matched by using the beep
indicators, filters, and drain facilities are provided system.
for each system with two blowers driven by the £ Torque output limits
reduction gear train of each power section.
It is possible to exceed the torque limits in some
d. Power section instances. Torque is the measurement of power
Each power section contains an interstage air output of the engine. In some instances the engine
bleed system to provide anti-stall characteristics, is capable of producing more power than can be
dumping part of the compressed air from the com- handled by the airframe. This would be especially

266
 OIL COOLER
BLOWER DRIVE

AC GENERATOR

NO. 2 ENGINE
INPUT

SUPPORT
BEARING
ASSEMBLY
UNIT

HYDRAULIC
PUMP DRIVE
NO.1 ENGINE HYDRAULIC
INPUT PUMP
DRIVE

Fig. 8-56 Geartrain using two engines — S76.

true under certain weather conditions. For this This type of situation also exists on the the direct
reason, the torquemeter is assigned a maximum shaft turbine. On these engines a set RPM is main-
limit. The engine will produce only the power de- tained by the governor of the fuel control. No linkage,
manded of it by the rotor system. If the demand is such as a droop cam, is used. When the collective is
too great, the power output may also be too great. raised or lowered, the power is simply increased or
An engine capable of-producing 1000 horsepower decreased to maintain the steady RPM. This system is
will produce it only on demand. used in many helicopters manufactured by Aero-
g. Ignition system spatiale, which often use a direct shaft turbine.
On some turbine engine helicopters the twist grip
arrangement has been eliminated in favor of a lever 4, Autorotation landing
for the free turbine. The N, usually has three posi- In the event of an engine failure during flight, a
tions: ground-idle, flight-idle, and full N,. The N, helicopter can usually make a safe autorotational
system will speed up and slow down as a function of landing without injury to personnel or damage to
N, so a steady rotor RPM may be maintained during the helicopter. An autorotation is a condition of
all flight conditions. However, under a manual oper- flight in which the helicopter rotor (Np) speed and
ation, N, would have to be controlled. Fig. 8-57 shows the resultant lift are derived entirely from the air-
such a lever being used on Nj. flow up through the rotor system.
If an engine fails, or power loss is such that pow-
ered flight is no longer possible, the pilot must im-

Len
R.P.M. INCREASE, AFTER STARTING
mediately initiate autorotation. This is done by
STOP POSITION
moving the collective pitch lever down to select
x FUEL FLOW CONTROL
LEVER “STARTING minimum rotor pitch. As the helicopter descends,

PK) -— -——
- —> -R.P.M. INCREASE
- AFTER STARTING
STOP
the airflow up through the rotor will maintain Np
speed. The overrunning clutch will prevent the rotor
FLIGHT POSITION system from delivering power to the engine, and the
N.Np tachometer indicator needles should split.
FOR SUCH A POSITION OF THE FUEL FLOW CONTROL During descent, the pilot maintains the desired
LEVER, THE ENGINE IS CONTROLLED BY ITS
GOVERNING SYSTEM. airspeed and controls the directional movement of
the helicopter with the cyclic control stick. As the
Fig. 8-57 Power lever as used in some turbine en- helicopter approaches the desired touchdown point,
gine installations. the pilot flares the helicopter to slow it down. This

267
normally results in a slight increase in Np speed. As instructions are contained in the engine manual
the forward speed decreases, the upward flow of air rather than the airframe manual, unless related to
through the rotor descreases and Np speed again the airframe.
decreases. The helicopter will settle at a slightly These general servicing techniques are some-
increased rate, but with reduced forward speed. times changed by adding additional requirements
When the helicopter is at the prescribed height by operators. This is especially true where the op-
above the touchdown point, the pilot increases col- eration involves different environments, such as
lective pitch by pulling the collective pitch lever salt water. With a salt water environment, the
upward. At this time, the inertia of the rotor is the cleaning requirements are more stringent, due to
driving force for the rotor system. With the in- corrosion problems, and may include frequent in-
creased collective pitch, there will be a downward ternal as well as external cleaning.
flow of air through the rotor to decrease the sink
The life of turbine engines is not only based
rate, and the helicopter can make a soft touchdown.
on time of operation, but on cycles of the en-
The Ng speed decays rapidly when the collective gine. It is not unusual to see items such as turbine
pitch is increased. If increased collective pitch is wheel life limited to cycles. Other items on the en-
initiated too soon on an autorotational landing, a gines are generally given overhaul or replacement
hard touchdown will result. times.
Practice autorotational landings can be made by
a. Modular concept
simulating an engine failure. This is accomplished
Many turbine engines are maintained on a mod-
by moving the twist grip to ground-idle, which re-
ular concept regarding overhaul. This means the
sults in the engine output to the helicopter rotor
hot section will have one life, the compressor
being reduced to zero. Thus, the overrunning clutch
another, and the gear reduction still another life.
can function, and the N,Np tachometer indicator
Any of the modules can be removed and overhauled
needles can split.
separately. In some instances the module may be
The natural pilot response to loss of altitude is to exchanged. However, in most instances the whole
increase the collective pitch. If the loss of altitude engine is rebuilt. This is due to finite life compo-
is due to an engine failure, and the pilot increases nents. Large operators have spare engines for ex-
collective pitch, N,Nz RPM will rapidly decrease change and may do their own major repair work.
and a soft autorotational landing may be impossi- The small operator will usually have the major
ble. When an engine fails on a helicopter powered work done by an authorized repair station, the
by a reciprocating engine, there is a significant manufacturer, or his representative.
change in sound level.
b. Engine change
On gas turbine powered helicopters, an engine
The removal and replacement of the engine is
failure in flight is not easily detected. There is very
compared to some of the reciprocating engine heli-
little sound level variation at the time of power copters, because in most installations nothing has
loss. Therefore, it is desirable that helicopters pow-
to be removed except the engine. On some of the
ered by a turbine engine be equipped with an en-
larger turbine helicopters a work crane that can be
gine failure warning system. The warning system
attached to the helicopter is provided as special
consists of a red engine-out light (located on the
ground support equipment. This is an advantage
instrument panel), and an audio horn that comes
when engines must be changed in the field were
on simultaneously with the red light, when the hoists are not available.
N, RPM drops below the idle setting.
In most situations the engines are preserved be-
5. Maintenance fore removal. This may include spraying the inlet
The turbine engine has complimented the heli- area with oil, while motoring the engine and pre-
copter in many ways, but it has also brought about serving the fuel system. Only the type of perserva-
some maintenance practices that are different tion and procedures recommended by the manufac-
than those used on reciprocating engines. turers should be used. The hoses and electrical
Most of the work performed on the turbines is connections may utilize quick disconnects and
limited to routine servicing, inspection, and re- electrical plugs for easy removal and installation.
moval and replacement maintenance. Servicing All large operators will have engines built-up for
includes cleaning, changing oil, adding oil, and the specific installation, including plumbing, elec-
changing filters in accordance with the manufac- trical system, and accessories. The changing of
turer’s recommendations. Usually the servicing smaller items can be time consuming, often requir-

268
ing several more hours of labor than the actual
removal and replacement.
c. Engine alignment
After a new or replacement engine is installed, it DETAIL A
“=X toy” \
may be necessary to check the alignment of the ; » 2
engine to the transmission so that the main input
shaft does not have any undue stresses placed on NOTE ALIGNMENT ~
the couplings. Misalignment will result in shaft 4 WIRE MUST
NOT TOUCH
failure in a very short time. The alignment is nor- EDGE OF HOLE.

mally accomplished by shimming the legs of the =>

mount between the fuselage and the mount. This
procedure is not required at each engine change,
unless the mount is also changed, the helicopter
has been structurally damaged or driveshaft wear
is excessive. Some operators check the alignment
with each installation of an engine.
The particular installation that will be dis- 1. SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
cussed is the Bell 212 (Fig. 8-58). 2. BLOWER DRIVE PAD (2 PLACES)
3. BEAM ASSEMBLY
For this procedure special tools are used. A sup- 4, OIL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER PAD
5. BOLT
port assembly is positioned on the engine’s blower 6. WIRE (MS20995C41 STD)
assembly. This is used to hold the beam assembly 7,
8.
PLATE
TRANSMISSION INPUT
in which a knurled nut and safety wire are in- DRIVE QUILL
9. BRACKET
stalled. The wire passes through a target on the
beam and is attached to the transmission input Fig. 8-58 Engine to transmission alignment — Bell 212.
shaft by means of a plate. When the wire is taut, it
should pass through the hole of the target without
touching the side of the hole. If it does touch, the
mounts must be shimmed until the correct align-
ment is obtained. (Fig. 8-59).
d. Control rigging
Probably the most difficult procedure in the in-
stallation of an engine is rigging of the controls. The
first step is preliminary rigging. In most instances,
the fine adjustments cannot be made until the en-
gine is in operation and flight tests can be conducted.
If the engine is a free turbine type, both the N, and
N, system will be rigged. In a twin engine installa-
tion, both engines will be rigged and matched. The
Bell 205 installation will be used in the following
discussion.
On this installation there will be both N; and Np
controls. The N, controls the fuel regulator portion
and the N, controls the overspeed governor por-
tion. The mechanical linkage is actuated by the
twist grip on the collective. This twist grip control
will provide manual, mechanical control of the
power lever on the fuel control regulator unit. This
1. FITTING (ON ACCESSORY GEARBOX)
will set the fuel for the N, system. The functions of 2. BEARING (ON REDUCTION GEARBOX)
3. BIPOD
this twist grip are: 4. TRIPOD
5. DECK FITTINGS
1. Mechanical control of the internal shutoff 6. TUBE
valve of the fuel control. 7.
8,
FITTING
STOP
2. Govern or control RPM between the Off, Idle, 9. DECK FITTING
10. TUBE
and Full Power ranges, with the governor in
the automatic position. Fig. 8-59 Engine mount system — Bell 212.

269
3. Maintain steady state power conditions through 4. Adjust the serrated attachment of the upper
all power ranges when the governor is in the control rod on the bellcrank so that the control
emergency position. arm will bottom out on the stops of the fuel
Included in this system is a flight-idle stop. The control when the twist grip is approximately 5°
stop prevents the twist grip from being moved to short of its extreme position. This will give the
the shut-off position, causing the engine to shut necessary cushion.
down during flight. As the twist grip is moved to 5. Check the flight-idle solenoid for operation. If
reduce power, a cam attached the linkage makes necessary, shim the four mounting screws to
contact with a solenoid. This solenoid prevents the obtain proper plunger alignment.
twist grip from being moved past this point unless 6. Position the power lever stop arm to approximate-
the release button on the collective is pushed down. ly 44° and mark the position on the twist grip. This
When the button is engaged, the solenoid is re- will approximate the flight-idle position.
tracted and the twist grip may be moved to the Attach the flight-idle stop on the extended

_
shut-off position (Fig. 8-60). spacer of the bellcrank, with the stop projec-
tion aft of the centerline of solenoid. ,
8. Position the solenoid on the serrated base plate
to obtain the correct clearance between the sur-
face of the projection and the tip of the solenoid.
9. Check the flight-idle in ground run. Ifnecessary
readjust the stop to obtain the correct N, speed.
a R SEARCH CONT
oO INCR P ExT 1) Droop compensator
The linkage for the power turbine overspeed gov-
ernor section consists of two areas of control. There
is a mechancial input for droop compensation and
an electrical control for selecting the speed setting.
The droop compensator is installed, in the link-
age of the N, governor, to maintain and stabilize
the preselected N, RPM; as power is increased by
collective movement. Droop compensation is achieved
by a linkage attached to a bellcrank of the collective
pitch control. The purpose of this linkage is to change
Fig. 8-60 Collective controls placed at the top of the the governor position mechanically to anticipate the
collective — Bell 205. required action as the collective is moved. If the move-
ment was not anticipated as collective is raised, the
The purpose of rigging the N, power lever gas N, system would slow down, thus the term droop.
producer linkage is to insure that the twist grip The electrically operated portion consists of a
controls will have the proper amount of travel; at linear actuator and a RPM increase/decrease switch
the fuel control and an equal overtravel beyond the (beep button) on the collective. By moving the
stops. This overtravel gives a feedback cushion on switch, the linear actuator is lengthened or short-
the twist grip and insures that the fuel control can ened. Since this is attached to the lever of the gover-
be moved from the full closed to full open position. nor, the N, speed is changed (Figs. 8-63 and 8-64).
Using Figs. 8-61 and 8-62, the procedure for rig- The purpose of rigging the N, system is:
ging the N; is: 1. To insure the correct spread is available on
1. Make sure the idle stop is disengaged; then, the tachometer by means of the beep button
disconnect the control rod from the power tur- and it is positioned in the right area of speed.
bine overspeed governor. 2. To insure that the droop cam will maintain
2. Check the control arm on the power lever shaft 100% N, from flat pitch to full power.
of the fuel control to see if it is parallel to the The procedure is as follows:
stops. 1. Complete the droop cam/linear actuator in-
3. Adjust the control rod for equal travel past the stallation except for the following: Leave the
extremes of the power control arm as limited governor control lever disconnected from the
by the stops. linear actuator (no. 17 in Fig. 8-64) and the

270
 ALIGN CONTROL ARM
WITH STOP ARM

19. TUBE ASSEMBLY

20. BELLCRANK
21. CAM
22. BRACKET ASSEMBLY
23. BUSHING
24. SOLENOID
25. BASE
26. TUBE ASSEMBLY
27. BELLCRANK
28. ENGINE SUPPORT _— SOLENOID 33
29. HOUSING DE-ENERGIZED —
30. CLAMP
31. BOOT ASSEMBLY
32. CLAMP
33. RETAINER
34. RETAINER RING
35. SPLIT BUSHING
36. ADJUSTABLE ROD 11.17” NOMINAL
37. FUEL CONTROL LEVEL
38. POWER SHAFT STOP ARM ENGINE SERVICE DECK
39. STOP SCREWS LEFT SIDE
40. RETAINING SCREW

0.040 + 0.010

SOLENOID IN
ACTUATED POSITION

24a”

SHIM (FOUR PLACES) SO

PLUNGER OPERATES FREELY

Fig. 8-61 Bell 205 flight idle stop system.

271
 1. GOV/RPM SWITCH
2. STOP REL SWITCH
3. COLLECTIVE LEVER
4. JACKSHAFT
5. CAM BLEED AIR
6. SWITCH BLEED AIR
7. ADJUSTABLE ROD 21.41" NOMINAL
8. TORQUE TUBE
9. BEARING CUP
10. SHIM
11. TUBE ASSEMBLY
12, TUBE ASSEMBLY
13. BELLCRANK ADJUSTABLE
14, BELLCRANK
15. TUBE ASSEMBLY
16. BELLCRANK
17. TUBE ASSEMBLY
18. BELLCRANK

SHIM FOR 13
RIGGING POSITION AT
0.001 TO 0.003
SHEAR JOINT FULL UP COLLECTIVE
CLEARANCE

1. COLLECTIVE PITCH BELLCRANK

2. CONTROL TUBE
3. BRACKET ASSEMBLY
4. TORQUE TUBE
5. SHEAR FITTING
6. BELLCRANK
7. SHEAR PIN
8. SHIMS
9, RETAINING WASHER
10. FIREWALL SEAL
11. SUPPORT
12, CONTROL TUBE - 20.47 NOMINAL
13. CAMBOX BRACKET
14, CAMBOX ASSEMBLY
15. LINEAR ACTUATOR
16. CONTROL LEVER
1 17. GOVERNOR CONTROL SHAFT

Fig. 8-63 Bell 205 compensating cam and linear actuator system.

272
 12. CONTROL TUBE - 20.47 NOMINAL
13. CAMBOX BRACKET
14. CAMBOX ASSEMBLY
15. LINEAR ACTUATOR
16. CONTROL LEVER
17. GOVERNOR CONTROL SHAFT 0.010
18. SHAFT STOP-ARM AT EACH
19. HIGH RPM STOP STOP
20. LOW RPM STOP

LEVER 90° TO
STOP ARM

DETAIL AT GOVERNOR
VIEWED FROM TOP

GOVERNOR SHAFT
CONTROL LEVER \
CENTERED ACTUATOR
+ 0.06”
\Eo
“a7

BELLCRANK c7 TNE
~4-
Alp
i PEROT TNOaT h< ADJUSTING
SCREW 1.20
STROKE
- MAX. STROKE
KEEP ROD <_—> ADJUSTED STROKE
NEAR NOMINAL
LENGTH

ie
20.47"

~~“
INCREASE
ADJUSTMENT BOLT *N
MAX COMPENSATION DECREASE
ADJUST IF NECESSARY
ONE FULL TURN CAUSES
0.032 INCH TRAVEL IN
CAM BOTH STOPS
ADJUSTMENT

T5313 ENGINE

Fig. 8-64 Bell 205 cam and actuator adjustment.

273
 control rod disconnected from the cam box this air is taken from the diffuser of the engine, it is
bellcrank. necessary to have this additional air for full power.
2. Set the cam adjustment to the middle of the When the collective is rigged, or the engine is in-
compensating slot. stalled, it is necessary to rig this switch (Fig. 8-65).
8. Adjust the stroke of the linear actuator to the
- CAM RETAINER
prescribed stroke length by using the adjust-
ing screws. Some of the actuators have one f LOCKING SCREW

adjusting screw, while others have two. Fol-

low the maintenance instructions for correct
adjustment.
4. After the proper stroke is set, position the actu-
ator to the retracted position. (Increase RPM.)
5. Adjust the upper stop screw to the proper clear-
ance from the inner side of the mounting boss.
6. Adjust the lower stop screw until the screw COLLECTIVE JACKSHAFT TUBE

protrudes the proper amount.

Lock the collective in the full-down position.
s

8. Set the cam slot so the correct distance is visi-

ble below the cam box housing. Hold this set- Fig. 8-65 Bell 205 bleed air switch.
ting and adjust the control tube until the rod
end hole is in line with the cam box bellcrank, 2) Engine trimming
then connect the rod. The engine may also need trimming. These ad-
9. Lock the collective full up. Install the gover- justments should be made only in accordance with
nor control lever on the governor control the manufacturer’s recommendations. Generally
shaft, so the lever is close to perpendicular to they include idle and maximum speed only on the
the shaft arm. engine. The adjustments, like so many others on
helicopters, should not be used as a cure-all. They
10. Rotate the governor control lever until the
have a specific purpose. This would include the re-
correct clearance is met between the governor
placement of a fuel control, a new engine, or critical
shaft arm and the upper stop screw.
components in the engine that might affect the
11. Hold in this position, adjust the actuator rod power output. The engine should not require sud-
end to line up with the hole in the governor den adjustments.
control lever, and connect the actuator rod end.
The rigging of different engines will vary from
12. Lock the collective in full down and elec- the procedure described. On twin engine helicop-
trically extend the actuator. Adjust the lower ters, a similar procedure would be required of both
stop screw to its correct position. engines, with the two engines matching.
13. Make the initial ground run and check the On direct-drive turbines, no compensating cam
full range using the INC/DECR switch. Ifthe or linear actuator controls would be found. On
spread cannot be reached, the rod end must be other free turbines, similar procedures would be
repositioned. followed.
14. Check the RPM droop. If RPM droop occurs, ro-
tate the cam counterclockwise towards max- 3) Engine problems
imum compensation. If maximum cam com- The turbine engine, like the reciprocating en-
pensation does not correct droop, shorten the gine, will have problems from time to time requir-
control rod to decrease the amount of cam vis- ing the knowledge and abilities of the technician to
ible below the cam box. solve. These can be typical problems, but most dif
ficult for the young and inexperienced technician
15. Any adjustment to the cam, linear actuator,
because he has not encountered the same problem
or rod end makes it necessary to adjust the
previously. Malfunctions that occur are generally
governor stops.
quite simple and have happened before. Most man-
This particular helicopter also includes a bleed ufacturers will have a troubleshooting guide in the
air switch on the collective. This shuts off bleed air engine and airframe manual. Both will be benefi-
when maximum power is pulled on the collective. cial because the airframe systems often affect the
This bleed air is used to heat the aircraft. Since engine operation.
 In an effort to better understand the engines, To solve the problem, it must be determined
some basic areas of the turboshaft engine will be which system has failed, resulting in this starting
discussed. problem. The systems are similar; yet different
(a) Turboshaft starting procedures from those of a reciprocating engine. The same
Most turboshaft engines use a starter-generator basic elements are still necessary — air, fuel, and
with battery power used for starting. ignition.
Most systems use ni-cad batteries for power. Air flow is developed by the compressor. It can be
Starting is one of the most critical operations with affected by the starting system, which develops the
any turboshaft engine, since the temperatures of compressor speed necessary for starting airflow.
the engine can easily be exceeded. Fuel is supplied in the correct manner by the start-
ing fuel system. This means the fuel must be atom-
During normal starting, the engine is brought
ized as it enters the combustor. Ignition must be
up to speed by the starter-generator. This insures
active prior to any fuel entering the combustor,
the proper airflow through the engine before igni-
preventing accumulation of fuel prior to ignition.
tion and fuel are added. After this predetermined
N, speed is reached, the ignition system begins to The following areas could result in a hot start:
operate just prior to fuel entering the combustion 1. Faulty ignition — Ignition operation can nor-
chamber. The mixture is ignited and combustion mally be heard. If the system is to be checked
occurs. This combustion causes the expanding while on the aircraft, the engine should be
gases to pass through the turbine wheels, which turning.
turn the compressor, continuing the process until
2. Faulty starting system — Under battery
enough speed is obtained to disengage the starting
power the engine should be able to obtain at
system. Any problems that might occur in this
least starting RPM. The engine should be mo-
starting process can result in excessive tempera-
tored over without fuel and ignition.
tures, which will destroy the integrity of the hot
section of the engine. Any start in which the EGT 3. Faulty fuel — The nozzles should spray in a
or TOT is exceeded is referred to as a hot start. Hot definite pattern. On shutdown fuel should be
starts are specified by temperature and time limits dumped overboard. Ignition should not occur in
in the manual. These limits will determine the either circumstance while testing the system.
maintenance action to be taken. After careful examination, each system can be
Other poor starts that occur may be described as eliminated one by one until the problem area is
a hung start and a torch start. Either of these self-evident. It is only through such a process that
may not be a hot start but can result in one. engine problems may be solved, because each sys-
The hung start occurs when the engine is tem is related to the engine as a whole. This same
not capable of accelerating after combustion has type of process may be used for all malfunctions.
occurred. The difference between technicians is often their
The torch start occurs when flames are visible ability to troubleshoot. Whether it is an engine or
from the tail pipe during starting. an airframe problem, the basics must be under-
Any of the three starts, hot, hung, or torch, re- stood, and a system used to solve problems. It is
quire immediate attention from the maintenance only in this manner, problems can be solved in a
personnel. If an over-temperature condition oc- most economical and swift manner.
curs, damage will occur to the engine. The damage Engines used in helicopters are the finest tech-
that does occur may either be apparant imme- nology can provide, but they must be operated and
diately, or become evident only after many more maintained in the manner recommended by the
hours of operation. manufacturer to insure safe reliable operation.

275
Chapter IX pability to supply directional control under pow-
ered conditions and autorotation. Directional con-
trol is accomplished by foot pedals similar to those
Tail rotors used in fixed wing aircraft to control the rudder. In
fact, they are often referred to as rudder pedals,
even though they aren’t.

B. Tail Rotor System

Introduction The drive for the tail rotor is supplied from the
The tail rotor (sometimes referred to as an anti- transmission of the helicopter, or at least by a con-
torque rotor) is used for directional control of the nection with the transmission. It is necessary for
single main rotor helicopters. This system, like the tail rotor to rotate at all times during flight,
other systems on the helicopter, has as many varia- even if the engine is not operational. The tail rotor
tions as there are helicopters. may be driven by either the engine, or by the trans-
For many years the tail rotor was one of the areas mission during autorotation.
that plagued the would-be inventers of the helicop-
ter. The absence of the tail rotor idea brought about
1, Tail rotor driveshaft
The tail rotor is driven through shafting from
coaxial main rotors, tandem rotors, rotors located
the transmission down the length of the tail boom.
side by side, and intermeshing main rotors. Even
Tail booms generally have some limited flexibility,
after Sikorsky first used the tail rotor, these other
which means the shafting must also have some
designs continued. The majority of helicopters are
ability to move in a fore-and-aft direction. This is
equipped with tail rotors. Those not utilizing a tail
normally accomplished by the use of hanger bear-
rotor are used primarily by the military. One
ings, which not only support the shaft, but also
model of the tandem rotor helicopter is presently
provide shaft alignment. Alignment is very impor-
used in the civilian fleet and more will go into
tant from a vibration standpoint.
production in the future.
At times it may be necessary to divert the shaft if
Even though the tail rotor has disadvantages,
the tail rotor is mounted at the top of a tail boom
the main rotor/tail rotor system seems to be the
pylon (Fig. 9-1). In this type of situation an inter-
best compromise at this time; the tandem main
mediate gearbox is used; or, in some instances, a
rotor being second best because of the complexity
universal joint. The majority of manufacturers uti-
of design.
lize the intermediate gearbox, which is used to
change direction and does not increase or decrease
A. Operation the speed.
The tail rotor, like the main rotor, must be able to
perform in much the same manner, with the blades 2. Tail rotor gearbox
being able to change pitch and flap either indepen- The tail rotor gearbox changes direction and in-
dently or as a unit. However, no system of lead-lag creases or decreases the speed. Some manufac-
has been built into the tail rotor. The tail rotor turers prefer to increase the speed while others
blades must have a negative and positive pitch ca- decrease the output shaft. In either situation the

1. MAIN ROTOR MAST

2. TRANSMISSION
3, MAIN DRIVESHAFT
4. TAIL ROTOR DRIVESHAFT
5. INTERMEDIATE GEARBOX (42°)
6. TAIL ROTOR GEARBOX (90°)

Fig. 9-1 Typical tail rotor shafting using an intermediate gearbox and tail rotor gearbox.

277
tail rotor turns faster than the main rotor. On some In addition to the three driveshafts and one uni-
helicopters the speed is in excess of 3000 RPM. With versal joint, an extension drive is placed at the end
others, operating over 2000 RPM is not unusual. of the shaft assembly. The extension drive assem-
bly consists of an extension shaft, a housing, and a
3. Tail rotor blades gearbox. The extension drive is attached through a
Tail rotors are made of a number of different mate- yoke to the upper end of the tail boom. The gearbox
rials and with different designs. Many of the newer provides for a 90 degree directional change, and a
blades are composites with some metal! blades still in gear reduction to the tail rotor.
use. Some helicopters will use a two-bladed system
The major components of the tail rotor drive
while others use a multiblade system.
shaft system are:
4. Pitch-change mechanism Forward shaft section

OMAN AMRAR WN Ee
For the pitch-change mechanism, a number of Middle (mid) shaft section
different systems are used. Most newer helicopters Aft shaft section
utilize push-pull tubes to the tail rotor, while a few
Eight bearing assemblies
use cable. The pitch-change system may also have
a hydraulic boost on the control system, which is One universal joint
operated from the same system used for the cyclic Extension shaft
and collective. Forward bearing and housing
Center bearing and housing
C. Bell 47 Tail Rotor System

-
The tail rotor driveshaft assembly provides the Extension housing
mechanical connection between the main trans- 1. Forward shaft
mission, tail rotor output quill, and the tail rotor The forward shaft incorporates fixed splines at
gearbox. The driveshaft assembly consists of three each end of a hollow sealed shaft. A splined coup-
tubular sections, connected by splined couplings, ling is placed on the output quill of the transmis-
and one universal joint (Fig. 9-2). sion into which the forward shaft couples. The cou-
oes &S

TS
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ry

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TREESBasBy)
peatesean

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a Se
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Ese
TEER

FORWARD SHAFT
SECTION

wlan Zoe) vate

Naiecn
Sees
TPS)

1. TRANSMISSION DRIVE ASSEMBLY 10, TAPERED NUT

2. FORWARD SHAFT SECTION 11. COUPLING PIN
3. CENTER SHAFT SECTION 12, LOCK-NUT
4. BEARING ASSEMBLY (EIGHT) 13. SLEEVE
5, AFT SHAFT SECTION i. HeAning
6. UNIVERSAL JOINT 46 CAP
7. SNAP-RINGS 47, HANGERS
8. SPLINED COUPLING 18, EXTENSION DRIVE ASSEMBLY
9. DUST COVER

Fig. 9-2. Tail rotor shafting used on the Bell 47.

278
 1, UNIVERSAL JOINT
2. EXTENSION HOUSING YOKE
3. FORWARD BEARING HOUSING
4. EXTENSION HOUSING TUBE
5. EXTENSION SHAFT
6. CENTER BEARING HOUSING
7. O-RING SEAL - SHAFT COUPLING
8. ROTOR SHAFT
9. FILLER PLUG
10. GEARBOX
11. GUARD ATTACHMENT CLAMP
12, PITCH CHANGE DRUM AND CONTROL SCREW
13. GREASE FITTING
14. YOKE CLAMP BOLTS
FORWARD BEARING HOUSING
15. LOCK-PLUG
16. BEARING
17. O-RING SEAL - HOUSING TO BEARING
18. O-RING SEAL - HOUSING TO TUBE
19. SNAP-RING

Fig. 9-3 Extension tube used on the Bell 47.

plings allow for misalignment that may take place 3. Aft shaft
between the transmission and the midshaft. The The aft shaft, like the forward and the mid shaft,
forward shaft is held in place by snap rings in each is a hollow sealed shaft. It has a fixed set of splines
coupling. attached to one end. The other end is straight in
order to accept the universal joint which is held in
2. Middle or mid shaft place by a pin and tapered sleeve locknut.
The middle shaft, or mid shaft, is hollow and 4. Universal joint
sealed. It is supported by seven bearing packages
A universal joint provides a coupling between
placed along the top of the tail boom and one on the
the aft shaft and the extension tube shaft. It also
center section of the helicopter, making a total of provides a directional change of approximately 15
eight. At each end of the mid shaft is a coupling,
degrees between the aft shaft and the extension
one to connect the forward shaft and one to connect
tube shaft. The extension end of the universal joint
the aft shaft. The couplings are secured to the shaft is held by a tapered sleeve and pin as was used to
by tapered sleeve locknuts and pins. The support
hold the opposite end to the aft shaft.
bearings use deep groove ball bearings capable of
taking loads in both directions. The bearings are 5. Extension tube
secured to the shaft by tapered sleeves and nuts. The extension shaft (Fig. 9-3) has the universal
Each of the bearing packages has provisions for joint attached at one end. The opposite end of the
greasing, as do the couplings. shaft is splined for connection to the tail rotor gear-

279
box. The extension tube attaches to and supports ricated by a grease zerk, which protrudes through
the gearbox. An O-ring is installed at the splined the extension tube.
end to dampen any vibration that might occur be-
_ 6. Tail rotor gearbox
tween the splined shaft and the tail rotor gearbox
Attached to the extension tube, by the flange on
input.
the aft end, is the tail rotor gearbox. This gearbox
The extension tube housing is a one piece alumi- is driven by the extension tube shaft and acts as a
num alloy tube. A flange on one end is bolted to the gear reduction and a directional change for the tail
tail rotor gearbox. The forward end has a yoke as- rotor.
sembly attached. This clamps to the housing and is
Major components of the tail rotor gearbox
pinned, preventing rotation. This tube provides (Fig. 9-4 A and B):
housing for three-deep groove ball bearings which
1. Gearbox housing
are contained in their own housings. The housings
are held in the tube by their snug fit against the 2. Input sleeve
inner wall of the tube. Between the housing and 3. Output shaft and front cap
the wall are O-rings. 4. Pitch-change mechanism
The forward bearing housing incorporates two The tail rotor gearbox housing attaches to the
bearings. These are retained by snap rings and lub- extension tube flange by bolts. The housing is

1, SHIM 12. SEAL 23. GASKET 34. PINION GEAR

2. CAP 13. CAP 24, SLEEVE 35. SNAP-RING
3. NUT ASSEMBLY 14. SHIM 25. GASKET 36. BEARINGS
4. SHIM 15. RETAINER RING 26. SHIM 37. SPACER
5. CONTROL SCREW 16, LOCK-WASHER 27. LOCK-NUT 38. WASHER
6, RETAINER NUT 17, LOCK-NUT 28. SEAL 39. BEARINGS
7. SPINDLE 18. GEAR 29. GASKET 40, OUTER RACE
8. DRUM 19. BEARINGS 30. WASHER 41. PLUG
9. SEAL 20. SHAFT 31. PINION NUT 42, FILLER CAP
10. BEARINGS 21. SNAP-RING 32. WASHER 43, SNAP-RING
11. SEALS 22. SEAL 33, PINION SHAFT 44, BEARING
45. GEAR CASE

Fig. 9-4 A-Exploded view of the Bell 47 gearbox.

made of cast aluminum and is equipped with a b. Input shaft
filler plug, a drain plug, a sight gauge, and a The input shaft is splined internally to accept
mounting point for the brush guard. the extension driveshaft. On the opposite end it is
threaded and drilled for the pinion gear retaining
a. Input sleeve nut and cotter pin. The shaft is slotted for a Wood-
The input sleeve, made of an aluminum casting, ruff key, which is used to retain the pinion gear
fits into the gearbox housing. The sleeve houses which is pressed into position.
the input shaft, thrust bearings, and alignment The roller alignment bearing is secured by the
bearing. gear and nut and the outer race is held in the sleeve
The angular contact bearings-are installed face- by a snap ring.
to-face and are held in the sleeve by a retaining nut
with a steel washer against the outer races. The c. Output shaft
retaining nut has a garlock seal in the center, The output shaft, an aluminum casting, bolts to
where the input shaft passes through, and is sealed the gearbox housing. Its surfaces are grooved on
on the outer threads by an O-ring. The bearing the outside to accept an O-ring. In the center of the
inner races are secured against a flange on the cap are provisions for a garlock seal that encircles
input shaft, a thrust washer and spacer. the output shaft passing through it. On the back

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Fig. 9-4 B-Cross-sectional view of the Bell 47 tail rotor gearbox.

281
 \
1. SPLIT CONE
2. SHIM
3. STATIC STOP
4, NUT
5. NUTS
6. WASHERS
7. BOOT
8. SLIDER
9. WASHER
10. BEARING
11. CROSSHEAD
12. WASHERS
13. BOLTS
14. SHIM
15. WASHER
16. COTTER PINS
17. NUT
18. CAP
19. WASHERS
20. BOLTS
21. PITCH CHANGE LINKS
22. WASHERS
23. NUTS
24, COTTER PINS
25. WASHERS TAPERED
26. BOLTS
27. COTTER PINS
28. NUTS
29. WASHERS
30. PITCH HORN
31. YOKE AND BLADE ASSEMBLY
32. WEIGHT
33. WASHERS

Fig. 9-5 A-Tail rotor used on the Bell 47.

side of the cap, a steel sleeve is inserted, providing a d. Rear cap spindle
place for the angular thrust bearings used to sup- The rear cap spindle locks the outer races of the
port the output shaft. The bearings are also in- alignment bearing and houses two garlock seals.
stalled face-to-face and are locked on the outer One seal is used to hold oil in the gearbox, and the
races by a retaining ring bolted to the cap. other to hold grease in the drum area of the pitch-
change shaft. This shaft passes through the output
The output shaft is master splined to index the shaft and is threaded on the outside to accommo-
tail rotor controls on the pitch-change mechanism. date a special nut. This nut is used for locking the
The shaft itself is hollow, providing an area for the inner races of the drum bearing. The outer races of
pitch-change rod. The thrust bearings are retained the bearings are retained by a shoulder, in the
on the shaft by a flange and gear. The gear is re- pitch-change drum assembly, and a lip on the nut
tained on the shaft by a Woodruff key, a retaining assembly. The nut is brass and is acme-threaded to
nut, and a safety clip. The radial loads of the shaft the pitch-change rod.
are absorbed by a roller alignment bearing in the
gearbox housing. This bearing uses the shaft itself e. Pitch-change rod
as the inner race and is secured by a snap ring and The pitch-change rod is a steel tube with solid
the rear cap spindle. ends. The outboard end holds the pitch-change

282
 14

SEAL

BEARINGS
>|
INSTALL AS SHOWN BELOW
SURFACE WITH MARKINGS
OUT

1. NUT
2. WASHER
3, WASHER
4. BOLT
5. WASHER
6. BLADE ASSEMBLY
7. BOLT
8. WASHER
9, PITCH HORN
10, BOLT
11. NUT
12, WASHER
13. SCREW
14. WASHER
15. WASHER
16, LUB FITTING
17. HOUSING ASSEMBLY
18. PLUG
19. SHIM
20. RACE
21. TRUNNION
22. YOKE
23. PLATES

Fig. 9-5 B-—Hub and trunnion used on the Bell 47.

bearing inner race which supports the shaft. The Model 47, this is the newest. The major compo-
inboard end is splined to the spindle and acme nents of this tail rotor assembly are:
threaded to the nut assembly. This arrangement 1. Blades
changes the rotary drum motion to a linear move- 2. Yoke
ment to change the pitch of the rotor blades.
3. Trunnion
The pitch-change drum is an aluminum casting
4. Bearing housing
with grooves and slots for the pitch change cable.
The cable wraps around the outside of the drum. 5. Thrust plug
The cap and nut assembly are bolted to the drum 6. Pitch-change horn
to provide a dust cover. In the center of the cap is an he tail rotor blades are of bonded metal con-
inspection hole and plug. struction and are balanced against a master blade
in the factory. Weights are added to these blades at
the tip and at the inboard trailing edge. Neither of
7. Tail rotor these weights is to be disturbed after manufacture.
Attached to the output shaft of the gearbox is a
two-bladed rotor system (Fig. 9-5 A and B). Al- a. Construction
though other tail rotors have been in use on the The airfoil of the blade is formed from an alumi-

283
num sheet with a bonded trailing edge and a honey- over the trunnion. They are secured to the yoke by
comb core. The outboard tip has a fiber tip-block. The two screws for each housing. Plates may also be
butt of the blade has an aluminum block bonded into attached to these screws for chordwise balance.
the blade. Passing through the butt block are two Teflon® plugs and shims are placed between the
spherical bearings which are used to attach the outer ends of the yoke spindles and bearings to
blade to the yoke and for pitch change. provide a means of centering the trunnion.
The yoke is an aluminum forging with steel in- The pitch-change horns are circular rings at-
serts for blade attachment. Provisions are made for tached to the root of the blade with two bolts and
the installation of two steel bearing housings have a boss for the attachment of the pitch-change
which attach the yoke to the trunnion through nee- rods. Two other holes are also provided for counter-
dle bearings. The position is such that it provides a weight washers used to set pedal creep.
-delta hinge for the tail rotor.
The trunnion is master splined to receive the tail b. Control system
rotor driveshaft. A taper at the face of the splines The tail rotor is controlled through pedal cables,
holds the trunnion against the split cones on the a pitch-change mechanism, and the tail rotor
shaft. The bearing housings fit into the yoke and blades (Fig. 9-6).

1. PEDAL ASSEMBLY
2. ADJUSTING LEVER
3. PAWL
4, RATCHET SHAFT
5. CONTROL TUBES
6. JACKSHAFT
7. STOP ASSEMBLIES
8. PULLEY
9. CABLE LOCK BOLT

Cl

KK As
T

\\
| yy
it

NEUTRAL POSITION
1, END CAP LOOKING FORWARD
2. NUT ASSEMBLY
3. BOTTOM CABLE
4. TOP CABLE
5. CONTROL SCREWS
7. STOP ASSEMBLIES
8, CABLE LOCK BOLT
Fy CABLE TENSION
POUNDS

(B)

Fig. 9-6 A-Bell 47 pedal assembly. B-Bell 47 pitch change mechanism.

284
 oN
COUPLING SHIMS
(0.010” MINIMUM)
TAIL ROTOR DRIVE- MAIN TRANSMISSION
SHAFT DAMPER OUTPUT GEARSHAFT
COUPLING
SHAFT DAMPER SLEEVE

Fig. 9-7 Tail rotor driveshaft used on the Hughes 500.

The pedals located on the floor are adjustable to The dampener consists of a graphite centered
the pilot’s leg length. The pedals act through push- TEFLON® block held in place by bolts, springs,
pull tubes to move a jackshaft on the box beam. The and washers. This block requires a set friction
jackshaft is connected to a cable drum. From the . which is set by spring tension.
drum the cables go to the pulley on the tail rotor
gearbox. The movement of the drum moves the 4, Tail rotor gearbox
pitch-change mechanism of the blades. The tail rotor gearbox, mounted on the tail
boom, is used to increase the tail rotor speed and
change the direction 90 degrees (Fig. 9-9). It con-
D. Hughes 500 Tail Rotor System tains a mesh ring gear and a pinion spiral bevel
The Hughes 500 has a very simple system, but is gear. The input shaft has two ball bearings on the
quite different from the Bell 47. aft end and one on the front end. The output shaft
has a roller bearing on the inboard end and a du-
1. Driveshaft plex bearing set on the outboard end. The bearings
The tail rotor driveshaft is a one-piece unit in- of the input and output shafts are lubricated by the
stalled between the transmission and the tail rotor oil supply contained in the gearbox. The gearbox is
gearbox. The driveshaft is a dynamically balanced equipped with a sight gauge and a chip detector.
tube of bonded and riveted construction with flange
coupling on each end. About halfway down the tube a 5. Tail rotor installation
steel sleeve is bonded to the tube to act as a bearing The tail rotor installation consists of a pitch con-
surface for the driveshaft dampener (Fig. 9-7). trol assembly, a drive fork assembly and two pitch
control links. The two blade assemblies are con-
2. Splined couplings nected to a tension-torsion strap and mount over
Splined couplings are provided at the output of the the hub.
transmission and input to the tail rotor gearbox. The
couplings are steel and are of the Bendix flexible The pitch is controlled collectively by the pitch
type as used on the main driveshaft. These couplings control assembly. This assembly consists of link
allow for any misalignment that may occur. The bal- assemblies connecting the pitch control arms to a
ancing of the shaft is accomplished by brass weights swashplate that slides axial on the tail rotor output
bonded to the shaft in three locations. shaft. The movement of the swashplate is control-
led through a series of bellcranks and rod assem-
3. Dampener blies connected to the pedals.
The driveshaft dampener (Fig. 9-8), mounted in a. Tail rotor blades
the aft fuselage boom, surrounds the steel sleeve The tail rotor blades are aluminum skin wrap-
which is bonded to the shaft. arounds with a honeycomb spar and doublers at

285
 STATION

1.75 |<—+})
|--2.88-»| 2-90 NOTES:

1. ALL DIMENSIONS IN INCHES.

2. MATERIAL: 1/8-INCH
FRICTION CHECKING TOOL CORROSION-RESISTANT
(NOTES 1 AND 2) SPRING WIRE. SPRING SCALE
(0-10 POUNDS)

Fig. 9-8 Driveshaft dampener used on the Hughes 500.

the root of the blade. The root fittings are alumi- together in the center and secured to each blade by
num forgings bonded and riveted to the blade. The a single bolt.
fittings are bored to accommodate the feathering
bearings, that ride on the yoke spindle, and incor- The hub is a stainless steel forging bored through
porate a pitch-change horn. the center to accommodate the strap pack. The hub
is attached to the drive fork using a single bolt and
b. Tail rotor hub cone shaped bearings. Shims are used to center the
The tail rotor hub consists of a drive fork, conical drive fork in the hub (Fig. 9-10).
teetering bearings, strap pack, hub, flap, restrainer,
and attachment hardware. The flap restrainer assembly consists of an alu-
minum cup with an extension for insertion into the
The strap pack ties the blades together. The tail rotor gearbox output shaft. The cup accepts a
strap pack is made of stainless steel straps held two-inch rubber stop.

286
 OUTPUT SHAFT TAIL BOOM

®
BREATHER FILLER 4

LIQUID LEVEL PLUG \ TRANSMISSION COUPLING

COUPLING SHIM
INPUT SHAFT

STATION 284 SELF-CLOSING VALVE

BELLCRANK

LOCKWASHER

INPUT SHAFT

INPUT SEAL
RETAINER

\
HOUSING
;
OUTPUT SHAFT

© =
DRAIN VALVE
ofe oo

CHIP DETECTOR
SIGHT GAGE

Fig. 9-9 Hughes 500 tail rotor gearbox. A-Exploded view; B—Cross-sectional view.

287
Fig. 9-10 Hughes 500 tail rotor.

c. Pitch control assembly the other smooth. The splined liner mates with the
The pitch control assembly consists of a rotating splined portion of the output shaft and provides the
swashplate and pitch control housing. The pitch driving force for the swashplate. The smooth liner
control housing is a machined casting fitted with is roller staked and serves as a second bearing sur-
two sealed ball bearings. The bearings outer race face for the swashplate on the output shaft. The
is secured in the housing by a swage ring. A spheri- pitch links are forged aluminum, and have replace-
cal bearing, pressed into a bore of the housing, is able swaged spherical bearings (Fig. 9-11).
the attachment point of the pitch-control bellcrank
that provides control input to the swashplate. The E. AStar 350
swashplate slides into the two ball bearings in the The AStar 350 uses a two-section shaft assembly
pitch control housing and is secured to the inner from the engine to the tail rotor gearbox. At first
race of the bearings by a locknut. Two bronze liners appearance, one would think that the tail rotor
are situated in the swashplate, one is splined, and would be inoperative if the engine were to fail. It

288
 NUT SWAGE RING
re

BEARING

LOCKWASHER
HOUSING

SWASHPLATE

SELF-ALIGNING BEARING

LINK

LINER SPLINED LINER

O '

Fig. 9-11 Hughes 500 pitch change mechanism.

289
 - THE FORWARD COUPLING SHAFT (3)
~ THE TAIL ROTOR DRIVESHAFT (2)
- THE TAIL ROTOR GEARBOX (1)

LTS 101

GS Mos
2043 RPM i pp

Fig. 9-12 AStar tail rotor drive system.

1 9

ENGINE TAIL ROTOR

o GEARBOX

1- LARGE DIAMETER BUSHED FLEXIBLE COUPLING

2- STEEL FLANGE BONDED AND RIVETED TO SHAFT
2A ALUMINIUM ALLOY FLANGE BONDED AND RIVETED TO SHAFT
+ STEEL TUBE
S@Oneansa

- SPLINED ALUMINIUM ALLOY FLANGE

- SPLINED STEEL END FITTING, BONDED AND RIVETED TO TUBE (7)
- BALL BEARING ASSEMBLY
- ALUMINIUM ALLOY TUBE
- ALUMINIUM ALLOY FLANGE BONDED AND RIVETED TO TUBE (7)
- SMALL DIAMETER BUSHED FLEXIBLE COUPLING.

Fig. 9-13 Driveshaft and coupling system used on the Aerospatiale AStar.

must be realized that the same shaft that drives the engine and transmission. The rear shaft is
the transmission with the free wheeling unit, will made of aluminum because of its length and not
transmit power from the transmission to the tail being exposed to the engine heat. It is supported by
rotor, in the event of an engine failure (Fig. 9-12). 5 or 6 bearings, depending upon the engine in-
stallation. The bearing packages operate on rub-
1. Driveshafts ber sleeves to absorb vibrations (Fig. 9-13).
The driveshafts are connected to each other, to
the engine, and the tail rotor gearbox by flexible 2. Tail rotor gearbox
couplings which allow for any misalignment that The tail rotor gearbox mounted on the tail boom
may take place. reduces speed and provides directional change.
The short shaft next to the engine is made of The basic construction is quite conventional with
steel because of the heat it is exposed to in that the exceptions of tapered roller bearings and laby-
area. The flexible discs on the forward shaft are of rinth seals rather than the conventional garlock
larger diameter because more flexing occurs near seals. Gearbox details are seen in Fig. 9-14.

290
 + TAIL ROTOR MOUNTING BOLT
+ TAIL ROTOR HEAD

DPOnraneona
+ LAMINATED TAPERED THRUST BEARING
+ SELF-LUBRICATING SPHERICAL BEARING
+ PITCH CHANGE LINK
» ALUMINIUM ALLOY ROTATING PLATE
+ HINGE WITH ANTI-VIBRATIONS MOUNT
+ 4 POINT-CONTACT BALL BEARING
+ ALUMINIUM ALLOY STATIONARY PLATE
+ STEEL ROTOR SHAFT (OUTPUT)
11- TIMKEN TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS
12- TRGB HOUSING
13 - CASE-HARDENED STEEL BEVEL GEAR
14+ ALUMINIUM ALLOY TRGB COVER
15 - CASE-HARDENED STEEL BEVEL GEAR
16 - CONTROL BELLCRANK

We
pga
OPAL
fl
[al
Feee

PRINCIPLE OF THREAD TYPE

OYNAMIC SEAL (LABYRINTH)

THE THREAD TYPE OIL SEAL ROTATES WITH THE SHAFT.

WHEN THE SHAFT ROTATES AT HIGH SPEED, OIL IS
DEFLECTED INTO THE GEAR BOX BY THE WORM
SCREW SHAPED DEFLECTOR.
AT REST, THERE iS NO LEAKAGE SINCE THE OIL LEVEL
1S BELOW THE SEAL.

Fig. 9-14 Tail rotor gearbox and seal system used on the Aerospatiale AStar.

3. Pitch change mechanism which the two rotor blades are molded. The center
The pitch change mechanism, like that of the of the spar fits between two half-shells, one of
Hughes 500, is contained on the output shaft of the which is drilled to permit the seesaw blade in-
tail rotor gearbox. It consists,of a rotating plate stallation on the rotor shaft yoke. The blade is cov-
driven by two pitch change links, which are free to ered by a fiberglass skin.
slide on the rotor shaft. The rotating plate has a
bearing on its outer circumference which supports The main rigid section is filled with a foam be-
a stationary plate attached to the bellcrank. The tween the skin and the spar. At the blade root the
stationary plate transmits input to the tail rotor skin is secured by an aluminum flange. This flange
(Fig. 9-15). includes the blade horn to which the pitch change
link is connected. It also has two large eccentric
bosses (sometimes referred to as Chinese weight)
4. Tail rotor and two metal half-shells which support the spar at
The tail rotor is manufactured of composites with the center. Between these half-shells are elasto-
only a few mounting components made of metal. The meric bearings capable of carrying tension and
blades are a flexible seesaw type rotor without con- shear loads. In the blade torsion area is a cavity
ventional flapping and feathering bearings. The with foam filler which allows the blade spar to dis-
basic rotor component is a fiberglass roving spar to tort freely (Fig. 9-16).

291
 =,
ae

- PITCH CHANGE CONTROL BELLCRANK

+ STATIONARY PLATE
+ BALL BEARING
--

+ ROTATING PLATE
+ PITCH CHANGE LINK
- ROTOR HEAD
+ ROTOR SHAFT

Fig. 9-15 Aerospatiale AStar pitch change system.

/i

9 4 7
AREA FLEXIBLE IN TORSION “pee '
(10° INITIAL TWIST ANGLE) | |

PITCHIFLAP
COUPLING

Fig. 9-16 Blade system utilized on the Aerospatiale AStar.

292
 5. Tail rotor controls no hangers in between (Fig. 9-17).
This particular helicopter uses conventional Each shaft is made of aluminum alloy and has a
push-pull rods and a hydraulic servo for boosted curvic coupling, riveted to each end, that mates
control on the tail rotor, as is done on many of the with the hangers and gearboxes. Each of these is
larger helicopters. statically balanced with weights bonded to the
shaft near the center. Each end is attached to the
F. Bell 212 couplings by V-band type clamps to secure the cur-
The Bell 212 has a drive system from the trans- vic couplings. The clamps must be replaced as a set
mission rather than the engine. In this system a because the two halves are manufactured together.
total of six shafts are used, five of which are the The clamps are bolted with the heads in the direc-
same length and one that is shorter. In addition to tion of rotation. The clamps are installed 90 de-
the use of the six shafts, four hanger assemblies grees to the bolts on the preceding clamp for bal-
and two gearboxes are used to deliver power to the ance purposes. This is one of the few areas in which
tail rotor. friction torque is used. This means the assigned
torque value must have the torque of the locknut
1. Driveshafts added to it for the correct value.
The forward shaft extends through a tunnel be-
neath the powerplant to a hanger assembly on the
engine deck. This shaft is connected to the tail ro- 2. Driveshaft hangers
tor output quill of the transmission. The second, Each of the hanger assemblies is used to support
third and fourth driveshafts connect between hanger the shafts and allow flexing of the tail boom. The
assemblies, with the second shaft being the short hanger assembly consists of a short splined shaft
one. The fifth driveshaft connects between the with a single row of ball bearings installed in a ring
hanger assembly and the 42 degree gearbox, with shaped hanger with mounting lugs. Couplings are

TORQUE
30 TO 35 IN/LB
(ABOVE NUT FRICTION)

TORQUE
50 TO 70 IN/LB

1, TRANSMISSION TAIL ROTOR DRIVE QUILL

2. SHAFT (TYPICAL)
3. SHAFT (SHORT)
4, HANGER (TYPICAL)
5. INTERMEDIATE (42°) GEARBOX
6. TAIL ROTOR (90°) GEARBOX
7. CLAMP SET
8. HANGER FITTING

Fig. 9-17 Drive and coupling system used on the Bell 212.

293
 1. RETAINING RING 7. OUTER COUPLING
2. COVER PLATE 8. SEAL
3. SPRING 9. REAR COUPLING
4. RETAINING BOLT 10. SHAFT
5. RETAINING PLATES 11. RETAINING RING
6. INNER(SPHERICAL) COUPLING 12. BEARING
13, HANGER

CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW

KS
EXNSS
NSS
WY

Fig. 9-18 Drive coupling utilized on the Bell 212.

splined to each end of the shaft. The front coupling is shafting as it goes up the tail fin. The gearbox con-
a flex coupling and the rear coupling is rigid. sists of a case with a quill attached at each end.
There is no change of speed with this gearbox. The
3. Flexible coupling and mounting lugs case serves as a reservoir for the oil used to lubri-
The flexible coupling consists of an inner and an
cate the gears. It is equipped with a sight gauge,
outer coupling. The outer coupling is retained to
filler cap, chip detector, and drain plug. The case,
the inner coupling by a seal. Both couplings are
flange mounted to the tail boom, is master shim-
lubricated by hand-packed grease. The ball bear-
med to the boom, as are the hangers.
ings assembly is permanently lubricated.
The two quills are removable and may be changed
The mounting lugs are bolted to the airframe.
without disturbing the lash and pattern, because the
The bases of the lugs are master shimmed at the
case is permanently shimmed. Both quills are equip-
factory, with the shims bonded to the airframe. The
ped with flexible couplings similar to those used on
shims should not be removed because they deter-
the hangers (Fig. 9-19). A single shaft connects the
mine alignment (Fig. 9-18).
42 degree gearbox to the 90 degree gearbox.
4. 42 degree gearbox
Located at the base of the tail fin is the 42 degree 5. 90 degree gearbox
gearbox. This is used to change the direction of the The 90 degree box, mounted at the top of the tail

294
 1. INPUT QUILL
2. PACKING
3. CHIP DETECTOR
4, PACKING
5. RETAINING RING
6. PACKING
7. GLASS
8. INDICATOR
9. CHAIN AND PIN
10. CAP
11. PACKING
12. OUTPUT QUILL
13. CASE

CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW

VZDIL ILLITE
nt

if TE UZ
“ ASS yh
Y SSS

Fig. 9-20 Cross-sectional view of the Bell 212 gearbox.

295
 HUB
NUT

PN OMPeNo
. BALANCE WASHER
WASHER
BLADE
. PITCH HORN
BOLT
. BALANCE WASHER
BOLT
2

10. BOLT
11. WASHER
12. NUT

Fig. 9-21 Bell 212 rotor blade system.

fin, provides a gear reduction and a 90 degree a. Yoke

change in direction. The gearbox case houses the The yoke is a steel flex beam with a total of six
meshing input and output quill assemblies. This Teflon® lined, self-aligning uniball type bearings.
case, like that of the 42 degree box, acts as a reser- The two bearings near the yoke center adapt the
voir for the lubrication and is equipped with a cap, trunnion yoke to the center and provide the flapping
sight gauge, and drain plug. This case uses ground axis. The two outboard bearings on each side provide
shim rings for the placement of the quills. The the attachment points for each rotor blade and the
components may be replaced without disturbing pitch-change axis of the blade (Fig. 9-21).
the lash and pattern (Fig. 9-20). b. Blades
6. Tail rotor The blades are of a conventional bonded hon-
Attached to the output of the 90 degree gearbox eycomb construction. Each blade is balanced with
is a two-bladed tail rotor. The hub is preconed and a master blade at manufacture, however additional
underslung, as is the main rotor. balancing as a unit will be required when blades

1. PITCH HORN BOLT HOLES

2. BLADE GRIP BOLT HOLES
3. BALANCE WEIGHTS
4. DOUBLER
5. TRAILING EDGE STRIP
6. HONEYCOMB

7. BALANCE SCREWS
8. SPAR
9. GRIP PLATE
10. BUTT BLOCK
11. GRIP PLATE (INNER)
12. DRAIN HOLE DOUBLER

Fig. 9-22 Bell 212 blade construction.

296
 PIN
BONDED JOINT

Fig. 9-24 Typical pin used on check bonded joint.

Particular attention should be given to the ends

of the shafts during inspection. Some type of coup-
ling attachment is accomplished at the shaft-ends.
Fig. 9-23 Bearing hanger system used on the Bell 206. This may be done with pins, rivets, bonding, or a
combination of these. In any situation this area is
are changed (Fig. 9-22). heavily stressed. One method used to attach the
c. Pitch change coupling to the shaft utilizes a pin passing through
The pitch change is conventional with push-pull a bonded joint. During inspection, the pin is checked
tubes and hydraulic assist on the controls for assis- for rotation, indicating whether the bonded joint is
still holding (Fig. 9-24).
tance in pedal movement.
Removal and replacement of the drive shafting
Like the other systems, the tail rotor drive system
requires servicing, inspection, and maintenance.

G. Servicing
INDEXING FLATS ON INDIVIDUAL DISC
The servicing has been reduced considerably on ARE ALTERNATED AS ILLUSTRATED
the newer helicopters because of the use of hanger ON A PROPERLY STACKED ASSEMBLY,
bearings that are permanently lubricated. How-
ever, many of the older helicopters require grease
in these bearings. The lubrication periods and the
type of grease are specified by the manufacturer.
1. Temperature
Impending failure of any bearing will be indi-
cated by a rise in the temperature of the bearing
package and may result in high frequency vibra-
tion as the failure progresses. For this reason, on
shafting that is not enclosed, the bearing packages
are touched by hand during the post flight inspec- SLIP ADAPTER CLEARANCE AT
tion to determine the temperature. On some of the TAIL ROTOR GEARBOX
enclosed shafting, a heat sensitive sticker is placed
on the bearing package to indicate increased tem- TO
peratures. At least one helicopter is using a hanger
which allows the bearing to rotate in the housing
in case the bearing should freeze, rather than allow
the possibility of shaft failure (Fig. 9-23).
2. Driveshaft inspection
The shafts require very little maintenance and
inspection but are very sensitive to corrosion,
scratches, and bends. The driveshafts are hollow
and usually made of aluminum alloy. All corrosion,
scratches and bends must be removed in accor-
dance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Fig. 9-25 Non-lubricated
coupling used on the Bell 206.

297
requires special attention and some special main- copters are aligned at manufacture and have shims
tenance practices. When removing shafting, care permanently bonded to eliminate alignment on
must be taken that the shafts are not nicked, shafts of this type. A runout check may be all that
scratched, or bent. Damage to the shafts can result is required, unless structural damage has occurred
in its rejection. If there are several shafts and they to the airframe. This runout check is normally
are of different lengths, it may be advisable to done with a dial indicator, with the shaft installed.
mark their locations. a. Alignment check
3. Couplings Older helicopters may require an alignment
The couplings are of several varieties and may be check in addition to a runout check of the shafts. If
all interchangeable on one aircraft, while another alignment problems are encountered, the hanger
aircraft may have different types at different loca- bearings are shimmed to obtain correct alignment.
tions. Some of the couplings will require lubrication. (1) Bell 47 alignment check
This is accomplished with grease and may re- One helicopter that requires an alignment check
quire either hand packing or the use of a grease is the Bell 47 (Fig. 9-26). This alignment is checked
gun. On certain helicopters, a coupling such as by inserting a special plug in the transmission
seen in Fig. 9-25 may be used. This coupling con- drive quill with a target and a rod through the
sists of a stack of indexed stainless steel discs and it extension tube fittings with a string attached at
is important that the stack be properly indexed. the centerpoint of the rod. A dummy bearing is
Once the stack is used, it should never be re- placed in the various hangers and the string is
stacked. It will require removal as a stack and must brought through the dummy bearing and held taut
be replaced as a stack. against the target plug. The position of the string
passing through the bearing is then checked for
4, Alignment position. If the alignment is incorrect, corrective
The alignment of the tail rotor driveshaft is very action must be taken.
important. When the alignment is incorrect the
vibration level increases, resulting in an increase 5. Intermediate gearboxes
in the wear factors throughout the whole system, If intermediate gearboxes are used in the sys-
especially in bearing areas. Most of the newer heli- tem, they will require servicing with lubricating

EQUAL DISTANCE
(HORIZONTAL CENTERING)

—
i AI ALIGNMENT CHECK
aoe
‘ ON TYPICAL HANGER
(HIGH CONDITION)

TAPE IN
POSITION

Fig. 9-26 Driveshaft alignment of the Bell 47.

298
oil. The type of oil used will vary from helicopter to Most maintenance practices of the tail rotor sys-
helicopter. tem, such as the replacement of parts or the tail
rotor, may be performed in the field.
6. Types of lubricants
The trend with the newer helicopters is to ser-
vice as many of the components with the same lu-
9. Tail rotor vibrations
The tail rotor, like the main rotor, is subject to
bricant as possible. As a result, many are serviced
with the same oil as used in the turbine engine. vibration. Tail rotor vibrations are always of a
high-frequency type and can be felt in the pedals.
The boxes are equipped with sight gauges for
checking the fluid level. The lubricant is changed Pilots often complain of their feet going to sleep
periodically, as specified by the manufacturer. The due to these excessive vibrations. If the tail rotor
gearbox cases must be inspected for cracks and pitch can be changed and the vibration aggra-
leakage. The attachment fittings are areas where vated, the problem can be isolated to the pitch
cracks would likely occur. The seal areas are sub- change mechanism or the tail rotor. If it cannot be
ject to leakage. The gearboxes have recommended aggravated, it is usually in the drive train.
periods of overhaul designated by the manufac-
turer. Some gearboxes may be overhauled in the
field, while others will require exchange or over- H. Balancing
haul at designated repair stations. During manufacture, the shafts are normally
statically balanced only; the clamps used were
7. 90 degree gearbox positioned to reduce the possibility of vibration
The 90 degree gearboxes are quite similar to the and the tail rotor blades are balanced against a
intermediate gearboxes in regard to lubrication. master blade. These precautions, however, will not
The oil will need to be checked and changed period- eliminate the need for balance in the field. The tail
ically. Inspections include the mounting system. rotors will still require a static balance, both span-
Overhauls will be much the same, with set time wise and chordwise, and will require dynamic bal-
schedules. Some gearboxes cannot be overhauled ance as well.
in the field, while others may be completely dis- Static balance can be accomplished in several
assembled and rebuilt in the field. Rebuildable different ways. As on the main rotor, balancing
boxes requiring the change of components may re- equipment for the specific tail rotor is often avail-
quire a lash and pattern check to determine the able from the manufacturer. Universal balancing
gear mesh. Most of the newer boxes require only a equipment is also available for a number of tail
lash check to determine the condition of the gears. rotors. Addition of weight in areas other than those
The gears are replaced in matched pairs. A few of authorized would be dangerous. Basically the bal-
the old gears may have match marks on the teeth ance procedure for the tail rotors are similar, ex-
for placement, but such practices have become cept the actual balancing point may vary.
quite rare. Many older blades had the spanwise. weight
placed on the blade tips and chordwise weights
added to the blade. Most newer blades have the
8. Tail rotors weight added to the hub of the blade.
Older tail rotors have provisions for greasing.
Newer tail rotors have eliminated the need for 1, Balancing procedures
grease by the use of permanently lubricated bear-
Blades are balanced in either a vertical or hori-
ings and elastomeric bearings.
zontal position. Fig. 9-27 shows a tail rotor placed
Inspection requirements always include critical in a universal balancer. This balancer operates in
dimensions for damages such as cracks, nicks, and the same manner as the universal balancer used
gouges. The fitting and bearing areas are checked on the main rotors. The bushings, etc., are made for
for looseness. The blade’s movement must be checked the specific rotor while the balancing arbor, with
for smoothness of motion. the correct bushing and holders, may fit several
Many parts used in the tail rotor are assigned a different tail rotors. Like the arbor used on the
finite life due to the stresses placed on them. Typ- main rotor, the arbor utilizes a disc attached to the
ical time change items may include yokes and cable and dampened in oil. Weight is added to the
blades. Bearing replacements are quite common blade at the predetermined locations until a per-
when conventional type bearings are used. fect circle is visible between the disc and the collar
299
 1. PILOT BUSHING, PART NO. 2529
2. BALANCE INDICATING ARBOR, PART NO. 3165
3, PILOT BUSHING, PART NO. 3285
4. SET SCREWS (2)
5. SET SCREWS (2) VIEW A
6. BASE, PART NO. 3152 BALANCE INDICATION
7. POST (4), PART OF BASE (8)

O00
10
8. SET SCREWS (2)
9. CABLE LOOP
10. INDICATOR DISK
11. INDICATOR COLLAR
12. WASHERS, CHORDWISE BALANCE
13. BOLT " WITHIN EXCEEDS
14. WASHERS, SPANWISE BALANCE BALANCED \imits LIMITS
15. BOLTS, BLADE ATTACHING 10
1
SEE VIEW A

Fig. 9-27 Universal balancer being utilized on the Bell 212 tail rotor.

of the balancer is shown in view A of Fig. 9-27. This 3. Knife edge balance
type of balancer is very sensitive and will be dis- Some older model helicopters balanced the tail
turbed by any air currents. All static balancing rotors on knife edges or a roller stand, similar to
must be accomplished in a closed room to insure those used for fixed pitch propellers. A knife edge
accuracy of the procedure. stand is shown in Fig. 9-29.
With a knife edge stand, to insure accuracy, the
2. Bell 206 balancer knife edges must leveled and the blades must be
The Bell 206 balance is shown in Fig. 9-28. The locked in the same pitch. Wedges are used to hold
basic balancer is used for both the main and tail the blade in a zero pitch condition during balanc-
rotor. The balancer makes use of a large ball bear- ing. By placing the blades vertical, the chordwise
ing in the mandrel on which the stand rests. This balance may be checked. With the blades in a hori-
gives the tail rotor, which is placed on the mandrel, zontal position the spanwise balance is checked.
movement in all four directions so that the tail Normally in this type of procedure, tape is used for
rotor may be checked both spanwise and chordwise the weights until the balance is achieved in both
at the same time. A bubble bull’s eye level is placed directions. The tape is then weighed to determine
in the center of the mandrel. Weight may be added the exact weight to be added. Washers will be
to place the bubble in the center. added for spanwise balance and the chordwise
300
 1. BULLS EYE LEVEL
2. SCREW
3. WASHER
4. PLUG
5. TAIL ROTOR HUB AND BLADE ASSEMBLY
6, LOCK
7. BASE
8. WASHER
9. SCREW
10. SPACER
11. MANDREL
12. STAND ASSEMBLY
13. SCREW
14, EXTENSION
15. PLATE
16. WASHERS

INDEX TOOLS 1,4,7,10,11 AND 12

WITH PENCIL OR INK TO KEEP TOOLS
ALIGNED DURING BALANCE PROCEDURES
AS SHOWN.

Fig. 9-28 Bell 206 tail rotor balancer.

weight will be secured to the blade. 1. Stick method

4, Dynamic balance The stick method is usually used when no elec-
Normally, one more check,will be made before tronic equipment is available. The procedures for
the chordwise weight is secured to the blade. Even this method are quite simple. A small diameter
after the tail rotor blade is statically balanced, it stick with a sponge rubber tip has Prussian blue
may not be dynamically balanced. For this reason, applied. With the helicopter at operating speed,
it is necessary to dynamically balance the tail ro- the maintenance personnel places the stick on the
tor as well. The better the static balance, the less structure of the airframe from the opposite side on
dynamic balance problems will arise when the tail which the tail rotor is located. From this point the
rotor is placed on the helicopter. stick is gradually moved until contact with the tail
rotor blades is made. This contact point should be
I. Tail Rotor Track as close to the tips as possible. The helicopter is
The balance problem, like that on the main.ro- then shutdown and the blade marks are exami-
tor, may be solved only after the tail rotor is in nend (Fig. 9-30). If only one blade is marked, the
track. This track may be established either by pitch change link is adjusted to move the blade in
hand or electronically and on a few helicopters no or out and the procedure is repeated until the im-
provisions will be made for track adjustment. print is the same on both blades. The pitch change

301
 LEVELING
ADJUSTMENT
BOLT

WASHERS
ANY MOVEMENT INDICATES OUT AS REQUIRED }
OF BALANCE CONDITION (8 WASHERS MAX.) — "4°

TAPE TOLERANCE CHECK CHORDWISE BALANCE

WASHERS HERE WEIGHT

LIGHT
0.25” MIN. THREAD
BLADE
TAPE TOLER- SSN y ENGAGEMENT
ANCE CHECK s
~f.
.
TIP
WASHERS ? RIB
HERE

LIGHT
BLADE ~~“‘ WASHERS MAX.
f
UNDER EACH
GROUND 90° SCREWHEAD
LINE 7 f
SPANWISE BALANCE WEIGHT
CHORDWISE SPANWISE

*INSERT WEDGES ON BOTH SIDES OF EACH END OF HUB

USING EQUAL PRESSURE TO MAINTAIN OR ESTABLISH
APPROXIMATE CHORDWISE CENTER OF YOKES.

Fig. 9-29 Balancing stand using the Hiller 12 tail rotor.

302
 it is a three-bladed rotor, the strips of tape may be
placed at 45 degree angles to allow one image for
each blade.
a. Tracking procedure
With the engine running at the required speed
and the Strobex™ connected, the maintenance per-
sonnel with the Strobex™ takes a position at the
side facing the rotor. At this point the Strobex™ is
switched to oscillator and the tail rotor is viewed
with the Strobex™. The oscillator knob is turned
until four tail rotor blades are viewed for a two- or
four-bladed rotor and three for a three-bladed rotor.
When the correct images are viewed, move toward
the cabin section where the tips of the blades may
be observed. All the tip images should appear
superimposed. On a two-bladed rotor, they should
appear in the form + or —1. If the images are not
superimposed, the pitch links can be adjusted, as
Fig. 9-30 Tracking the tail rotor. was done by the stick method, until the correct
image appears. See Fig. 9-32 for the correct view-
ing positions.

b. Dynamic balance
The tail rotor may also be dynamically balanced
t TAPE with the Chadwick equipment. This is done with
both the Strobex™ and Vibrex™ units. However,
the Phazor™ portion of the Vibrex™ unit is not
used because the interrupter cannot be installed as
it was on the main rotor. One blade is marked with

Fig. 9-31 Reflector tape being placed on the tail rotor

blades.
link length is set to a nominal length when in-
stalled, so it makes little difference if the inboard
blade is moved out or the outboard blade is moved
STAND HERE AND
“ x
in on the first adjustment. Attempts are ususally
OBSERVE TRACK STAND HERE AND
made to keep the movements as close as possible. If OF TAIL ROTOR. STOP 4 IMAGES.
a large correction must be made, both blades will
be moved. Fig. 9-32 Correct position for track check.
2. Electronic method
The most popular method of electronic tracking ACCELEROMETER CABLE DOWN BACK
OF PYLON, OVER ELEVATOR, UNDER
uses the same equipment for the tail rotor as was TAIL BOOM, TO OBSERVATION POINT
used on the main rotor. This unit, manufactured by FOR BALANCE \

Chadwick-Helmuth, will permit both tracking and

balancing of the rotor.
The track is checked with the Strobex™ unit of the
equipment. Reflective tape is placed on one of the TIE SECURELY.
blade tips in the vertical position. The other blade “ OBSERVATION POINT
FOR BALANCE.
will have a piece of tape placed in the horizontal
position in the same relative position (Fig. 9-31). If D.C. POWER CABLE ~~ x
it is a three-bladed rotor, the strips of tape may be
placed at 45 degree angles to allow one image for Fig. 9-33 Cable installation for dynamic balance
each blade. check.

303
 a piece of reflector tape. This target will designate not check the Phazor™. It is not functional. While
that blade as the target blade. viewing the tail rotor with the Strobex™, push the
(1) Accelerometer verify-to-tune button. If the image moves to a new
One accelerometer is placed on the gearbox in the clock angle, adjust the RPM scale until the verify-to-
prescribed location. The cable from this accelerome- tune button has no effect on the position of the
ter must be placed in such a manner that it will not target image. At this point the target image is the
become entangled in the rotor or driveshaft. The ac- o'clock position for the chart and IPS scale will
celerometer is then plugged into Channel B of the indicate the vibration level. The chart will be fol-
Vibrex™. A DC power cord is run from the helicopter lowed in the same manner as the chart used on the
to the observation point (Fig. 9-33). main rotor, with weight being added as indicated
The balancer is set to the operating RPM on the on the chart. If errors in the move line occur, the
tune dial and the range to the X10 position. Then clock corrector may also be used, as was done with
switch to the “ACCB” and the Strobex™ oscillator the main rotor. Fig. 9-34 shows a typical chart to be
to the OFF position. See Chapter 5 for a view of the used on a two-bladed tail rotor.
balancer and Strobex™ for button locations.
(2) Viewing target 3. Feel-and-guess method
The tail rotor is viewed with the Strobex™. The If no balancing equipment is available, the tail
target will show the clock angle when viewing. Do rotor balance on the helicopter will be most diffi-

BALANCE CHART #4532

FOR HILLER Serial No:
TAIL ROTOR
(st Run 2nd Run ud Run 4th Run Sth Run

Clock Angle

1 “IPs”

CHANGE
3 BEFORE
NEXT FLIGHT

NOTES: 1) Track tall rotor. ViewIng rotor disc from side, adjust Strobex oxcilistor so the single grip targe! appears as a
STOPPED Image of four. Thon, view rolor disc edge-on, from near cabin door, and observe track of Tip Targets. Adjust
track as required.
2) Sot Balancer to 2210 RPM ("RPM Tune" to 221 and “APM Range” to “X1"), switch to Channel “B", and
‘Strobox oscillator “OFF”, View “Clock Angle” of grip target from side of tall rotor disc.
} Now, press “Verily Tune” Bution and adjust “APM Tune” Dial, WHILE BUTTON IS PUSHED, to return target
fo angle observed before bulton was pushed. Release, observe angle, press and adjust again to match new “unpushed”
angle. Repeal until there ls NO CHANGE WHETHER BUTTON !S PUSHED OR RELEASED. TUNE ONLY WITH BUTTON
PUSHED.
4) Read "Clock Angle” with button released, and “IPS" without Strobex lashing,
“TARGET”
and record In section 1 of chart. Plot In section 2 (label It point #), end note required changes
in 3.
| Make one change only for the first move, eliher tip or pitch link weight —
whichever Is farthest from the zero axis line,
8) Run ship and repeat resdings, plot In section 2 {Inbel It point #2). Check that
the "Move Line” (point #1 to #2) Is In the correct direction. If It Is, proceed to balance to 0.2
“IPS" of less. If not, use “Clock Angle Corrector’ #3597 to correct clock. Then, proceed to
balance using the corrected clock for all subsequent moves.

Add to “TARGET” WEIGHT TO Add fo“B"

“or or
Subtract from “B" ‘Subtract from “TARGET”
1 5 0 5 1

HEAD INTO WIND

CENTER PEDALS
generate s “Move Line” in this —»
A change to “A” or “C” should

direction.
——

Fig. 9-34 Chart used for tail rotor balancing check.

304
cult to achieve. The feel-and-guess method can be control pedals, pedal adjuster assembly, a servo actu-
used to obtain the smoothest feel. Of course, nei- ator, force gradient assembly, a magnetic brake,
ther track nor balance should be attemped except pitch change mechanism, and connecting linkage.
when calm weather conditions are present. The operation of the pedal provides hydraulic
boosted pitch change to the tail rotor blades. The
J. Tail Rotor System Rigging pedal position may be changed by depressing and
Equally important to the operation of the tail turning a knob on the cabin floor. The force trim
rotor system as the balance and track, is the rig- system is linked to the directional controls, and is
ging of the tail rotor system. Although the system controlled by a switch on the cyclic. To rig the direc-
varies from model to model, most of the helicopters tional control system, follow the view in Fig. 9-35.
will use a push-pull tube system for pitch control. All of the fixed length tubes in the system should
In addition to the push-pull system, hydraulic be installed at the beginning of the procedure. The
servos may be used, and gradients for fuel may also following links must be disconnected:
be added to the system as required. Many of the a. The pitch links from the blade pitch horns.
older light helicopters also use a cable system for
b. The link lever on the left side of the 90 degree
moving the tail rotor.
gearbox.
The Bell 212 antitorque system consists of a set of c. The control tube from the bellcrank above the

MAXIMUM EXPOSED
THREAD LENGTH

© Jr 3
1.00

DETAIL A

STA
15150
4.50" 7
WITH PEDALS SN |
IN NEUTRAL

VIEW LOOKING
DOWN

DETAIL B

Fig. 9-35 A-Typical tail rotor pitch change linkage.

305
 DETAIL C
VIEW LOOKING
DOWN AND AFT

1, TAIL ROTOR
2. CROSSHEAD
3. LINK
4, BELLCRANK
5. CONTROL TUBE

Fig. 9-35 B-Bell 212 pitch change mechanism at the tail rotor.

servo actuator. and adjust the tube assembly to fit. Then

d. The force gradient from the pedal adjuster. shorten the tube 1/2 turn and connect it.
7. With the pedals placed in neutral, position the
bulkhead boot the specified distance and clamp
1. Bell 212 rigging procedure
the boot to the tube.
1. Check the length of the clevis on the servo 8. With the hydraulic boost off, check the control
actuator and set to the specified length if movement for smoothness and clearance.
necessary. 9. With the pedals in neutral, position the arm on
If dual controls are installed, place both the the directional brake in the center of travel
pilot’s and copilot’s left pedals against the and adjust the force gradient to fit between
stops and adjust the interconnect rod to fit. the control system and the magnetic brake
Adjust both pitch change links to the required arm.
length, which is given from the center line of
each rod end, and connect them. The system will require a track check when the
complete system has been rigged in this manner.
Position the crosshead to obtain the speci-
fied dimension between the inboard face of
the crosshead and the outboard face of the a. Overview of tail rotor rigging
trunnion. Some antitorque systems are more difficult to
Holding the position of the crosshead, adjust rig than others. Like other flight control systems ?
the link assembly to obtain the correct clear- some systems use rigging pins, protractors, and
ance between the bellcrank and link assembly. jigs to position the controls while rigging. All of
Connect the link. these devices are used to help simplify the system.
Position the left pedal full forward and push It may have been noticed that the pitch of the tail
the servo actuator to bottom the servo and rotor was set for left pedal only in this procedure.
bypass valves. Check the crosshead and link The right pedal is assumed to be set in this system
assembly to see that they are still positioned by the extreme left pedal position.

306
 1. GEARBOX OUTPUT SHAFT
2. PIN
3. CONTROL TUBE
4. SPACER
5. TAIL ROTOR
6. PITCH HORN
7. SHIM
SHIM 8. BUMPER
9. STATIC STOP
10. WASHER, LOCK
11, NUT

LESS De Lhd 2 aN

LCL ERE PRN

Fig. 9-36 Flap restraint system used on the Bell 206.

Many of the newer helicopters are using this split cones. If it is a two-bladed rotor, flap stops are
method of setting for the extreme position, while incorporated in the attachment and may be adjust-
the older helicopters are rigged for a neutral posi- able by shims to limit the flap travel. In such situa-
tion and‘ then checked for the extreme position. tions, the blade flap angle must be set as shown in
The use of protractors is becoming rare, with man- Fig. 9-36. The rotor itself will be held to the shaft
ufacturers more interested in fixed lengths rather by anut. Ifthe same tail rotor is to be removed and
than degrees. This is probably due to the desire to replaced, no other maintenance procedures will be
eliminate a maintenance error with the protractor. required. However, if it is not the same tail rotor,
From time to time, it may be necessary to install track, balance and pedal creep may have to be set,
a tail rotor. The tail rotor may be installed in in addition to the installation procedures.
various ways. Usually the tail rotor is splined to On some tail rotor systems pedal creep may be
the output shaft of the gearbox and rests on a set of adjusted. This is done through counterweights at-

307
 tached to the tail rotor. Pedal creep may be ad-
justed by adding or subtracting washers from the
arms or rings. To check pedal creep, the pedals are
set to neutral when the helicopter is at the desig-
nated power setting. When the feet are taken off
the pedals, the pedals should remain in neutral. If
the left pedal moves forward, the weights are too
heavy and weight must be removed. If the right
pedal creeps forward, more weight must be added.
The weight of these washers must be equal at all times
or balance will be affected. Pedal creep should always
be checked in a no-wind condition. See Fig. 9-37 for
a typical counterweight installation.
Many other maintenance procedures may be in-
cluded on specific tail rotors. For this reason all
maintenance should be done in strict accordance
with the maintenance manual.

Fig. 9-37 Washer system used to control pedal creep

on the Bell 206.

308
Chapter X
Airframes and Related Systems

Introduction C. Bonded Construction

The airframe of the helicopter covers a wide The third type of construction is the use of fi-
range of materials, mainly due to the advances in berglass, honeycomb, and bonded structures. All of
technology that have taken place in the 40 years these materials and methods are of high strength-
since the first helicopters were manufactured. For to-weight ratios. Honeycomb and bonded struc-
the most part, the materials used in helicopter con- tures have reduced construction costs by eliminat-
struction are the same as those used on fixed-wing ing some of the riveting and welding. Today most
aircraft. airframes are a combination of various materials
and methods of construction obtaining the great-
A. Tubular Construction est advantages of each (Fig. 10-1).
Some of the early helicopters used the typical
tubular-truss fuselage construction. Although this
construction type had a high strength-to-weight JF) 2
ratio, manufacturing such an airframe was quite Ls

costly. Each tube was cut, fitted, and welded into

place. In addition to these disadvantages, it was
difficult to hold dimensions to a close tolerance.
The big advantage of this type of construction was
the way in which it could be repaired in the field;
unless there was severe airframe damage, which
would require jigging in order to hold alignment. “|
wy
The criteria for these repairs are all contained in
the maintenance manual and the FAA’s AC43.13.
B. Sheet Metal Construction
At the same time, several of the manufacturers
went to aluminum structures. These were of mono-
coque and semimonocoque design. This construction
type had a high strength-to-weight ratio. In fact, LEGEND
the ratio was higher than the tubular construction KEVLAR SHEET
of the same size. FAQS] KEVLAR HONEYCOMB
; (5) sHeer ALuminium
Sheet metal construction had some advantages in “WH Fisrnaiass
the manufacturing process. Parts could be stamped (__] ALUMINUM HONEYCOMB

out and compound curves made rapidly. Helicopters

could be constructed in jigs with closer tolerances Fig. 10-1 S-76 fuselage utilizing multiple materials.
than those of the tubular fuselage construction. D. Stress and Loads
In the field, few additional tools were required The basic structure of the helicopter varies
for repairs. In general, the structure was slightly somewhat from that of a fixed-wing aircraft, al-
more delicate. If large repairs were required, the though they both use the same construction tech-
fuselage required jigs to obtain proper alignment niques. This is due to the loads and stresses that
for the various sections. are placed on the airframes in different locations.
A few helicopters are built using a combination of It is these differences that should be understood by
the sheet metal construction and the tubular con- helicopter maintenance personnel in order to in-
struction. Tubular design is used in areas where spect and repair the helicopter airframe properly.
high strength is required. Sheet metal is used when The typical single-engine fixed-wing airframe
the strength requirements are not as critical. has two areas that must be built for the primary

309
stress loads of lift and thrust (Fig. 10-2). These are
~ Att aioe
the engine attachment points which carry the thrust OI 2 SSS
j
loads and the wing attachment points which carry
the lift forces. Although other points of the fuselage
will be designed to carry other loads, these two
points will be the primary load carriers during a= ft LANDING LOAD
flight.

Fig. 10-4 Landing loads are transmitted upward.

2. Vibration levels
The vibration levels of these airframes are also
THRUST
quite different. The helicopter has the highest
level of vibration due to the use of so many rotating
components. Great strides have been taken in re-
cent years to reduce the vibration levels with the
bifilar system and the nodal beam. However, these
vibration levels are transferred throughout the air-
Fig. 10-2 Fixed-wing fuselage takes thrust and lift
loads at separate points. frame and must be considered by the maintenance
personnel who are inspecting the airframe.
The helicopter fuselage carries both the lift and
thrust forces at the same point (Fig. 10-3). This 3. Tail section
means that the center area of the helicopter must The tail sections of the helicopter must also be
be built to carry and propel the helicopter, because considered as different from those of the fixed-
the main rotor is both the wing and propeller. wing. Attached at the end of the tail boom is the
tail rotor. As we know, this is not only the direc-
tional control for the helicopter but the antitorque
LIFT control for the main rotor. Although some of these
loads are relieved in forward flight by the use of a
vertical fin, the side load is still present on the tail
THRUST J boom during all modes of flight. In addition to the
side load, many of the helicopters today also have a
ag 5A horizontal stabilizer, which is pushing downward
ww
in cruise flight conditions. These loads are usually
carried by a cantilevered tail boom that attaches to
the main cabin section of the fuselage. These at-
tachment areas are subject to inspection because of
Fig. 10-3 Helicopters carry both thrust and lift at the the loads induced on them.
same point.

1. Landing E. Wheel and Skid Gear

Both the skid gear and wheel gear have advan-
Another load factor in the fuselage is landings.
tages and disadvantages. The skid gear is less com-
While the fixed-wing must depend on forward
plex and requires less maintenance than the wheel
speed for flight and to land smoothly, the helicopter
gear. However, it is much easier for ground hand-
does not. For this reason, many helicopters are
ling with wheel gear than it is with skids. The
equipped with skid gear rather than wheels. While
helicopter with wheels can move under its own
the fixed-wing will carry a landing load in two di-
power on the ground without actually having to fly.
rections, the helicopter will usually carry the load
in only one direction (Fig. 10-4), F. Visibility
There are times that the helicopter may carry Because of these differences in flight character-
both loads, such as in an autorotation landing and istics, other construction criteria must also be con-
a tail rotor failure landing. Some construction for sidered in the way of visibility. Many helicopters
these stresses must be made. Even the helicopters have better frontal visibility than the fixed-wing
equipped with wheel landing gears will not be re- does. This is due to the approach angles that are
quired to carry the same load levels as their fixed- made and the type of work done by the helicopter.
wing counterpart. See Fig. 10-5 for this difference in approach.

310
 The view shows how the airframe is manufac-
tured in different sections before the helicopter is
assembled.

LANDING VISION 1. Body structure

AREA The body structure (Fig. 10-7) is the main struc-
tural member of the fuselage. It not only carries
the lift and thrust loads, but also the landing loads.
The body structure supports all other members of
the fuselage either directly or indirectly. All the
Fig. 10-5 Vision requirements differ in helicopters. forces applied to these other members will be
G. Structural Components and transmitted to the body structure. In actuality, this
section is a reinforced box with “X” members
Materials placed in each side. The transmission assembly,
Since there are so many different aircraft, it
which is connected to the main rotor and absorbs
would be impossible to look at the airframe of each
the compression loads of landing, is attached to the
and every fuselage; so we will discuss the airframe
bottom of the box. In the middle of this structure is
of the AStar 350. The AStar, like so many of the
placed the fuel tanks, which should be in the most
newer helicopters, uses a combination of material
- protected area of the helicopter.
and a semimonocoque type of construction.
The basic structural components and their ma- 2. Bottom structure
terials are shown in Fig. 10-6. Notice in this view Attached to the body structure on the front of the
that the materials used are aluminum or synthetic box is the bottom structure and cabin floor (Fig. 10-8).
materials of the thermosetting type of resins. Steel This section is made of two cantilevered beams ex-
is used only where it is absolutely necessary. tending from the box that are connected to the cross

1+ CANOPY 5+ TAIL UNIT

2- BODY STRUCTURE 6- LANDING GEAR

3 - REAR STRUCTURE 7 - BOTTOM STRUCTURE AND

CABIN FLOOR
4- TAIL BOOM

MATERIALS USED

Ea] ALUMINIUM ALLOY

oO THERMOPLASTICS (POLY-
CARBONATE POLYAMIDE)

TRANSPARENT POLYCARBONATES
ALTUGLASS
MAKROLON
] LAMINATED HONEYCOMB
a LAMINATES (REINFORCED
PLASTICS)
STEEL

Fig. 10-6 AStar 350 fuselage.

 upper windows, windshields, and lower window;
which are all made of polycarbonate. The trans-
parent polycarbonate is known for its superior
strength properties.

+ CABIN FLOOR FORWARD PANEL

Oneon—
- FLOOR CENTER PANEL
+ CROSS MEMBERS
+ LOWER FAIRINGS
+ BEAM, LH.
+ BEAM, R.H.

Fig. 10-8 Cabin floor assembly of the AStar.

- TRANSMISSION PLATFORM
—

- REAR BULKHEAD. ATTACHMENT OF REAR STRUCTURE

on

- LATERAL BEAMS (L.H. SIDE AND R.H. SIDE). ATTACH:

MENT OF BOTTOM STRUCTURE BEAMS
- CROSS MEMBERS. FUEL TANK SUPPORTS
- FRONT BULKHEAD, TILTED 15° REARWARD
NOs.

- UPPER BULKHEAD, TILTED 7° FORWARD

- LONGITUDINAL BULKHEADS. THICK PLATES

Fig. 10-7 AStar body structure.

members of the box. These two beams will actually
carry the weight of the cabin and transmit it to the
box. Cross members are added to these two beams to
support the floor and the lower skin panels. The
cabin section attaches directly to the floor.
3. Cabin section
The canopy, or cabin section, is made almost ex- 1- CABIN ROOF MADE OF POLYCARBONATE AND CON-

clusively from synthetic materials (Fig. 10-9). This SISTING OF HALF SHELLS, INSIDE WHICH AIR FOR
CABIN VENTILATION IS DUCTED.
2+ WINDSHIELD POST, MADE OF POLYCARBONATE
portion is made of subassemblies which are the 3- NOSE, MADE OF POLYCARBONATE
4- WINDSHIELD PANEL. TRANSPARENT POLYCARBONATE
cabin roof, nose, and vertical members. All of the 5 - UPPER WINDOWS, TINTED TRANSPARENT POLYCAR-
BONATE
components are made of polycarbonate reinforced 6- DOOR HINGES
7- LOWER WINDOWS (R.H. AND L.H.) TRANSPARENT
with glass fibers. They are heat molded and as- POLYCARBONATE
8 - INSPECTION PANEL
sembled by banding and ultrasonic spot welding. 9- LANDING LIGHT WINDOW. TRANSPARENT POLYCAR-
BONATE
The canopy frame is then bolted to the cabin floor
and the body bulkhead. Added to this frame are the Fig. 10-9 ASitar cabin enclosure.

312
 4, Rear section 5. Tail Boom
The rear section of the fuselage connects to the The tail boom (Fig. 10-11) is conventional design
body section (Fig. 10-10). The rear section is made with circular frames, stringers, and outer skin.
up of three frames connected by beams to the body The stringers or stiffeners give the boom assembly
section. This frame, covered with a stainless steel the required rigidity. The following items are at-
firewall, acts as an attachment point for the engine. tached to the tail boom: The tail rotor gearbox, the
The inside of this section acts as a baggage area. driveshafting, the vertical fins, and the horizontal
The tail boom section is bolted to the rear frame. stabilizer. In all of these areas addditional stiff
eners are attached to the structure.

: TAIL BOOM 6. Vertical fin

SSP ~ JUNCTION FRAME
The lower vertical fin is a symmetrical airfoil.
This fin is protected from damage in a nose-up
FWD FRAME (L.T.S.
\ REAR FRAME
(ARRIEL ENGINE
landing by the tailrotor guard which is attached to
ENGINE ATTACHMENT) ATTACHMENT) the bottom of the fin. The fin is bolted to the tail
boom at the leading edge and at the spar section of
the fin.
The top fin is similar construction. It is a dissym-
metrical airfoil used in cruise flight to unload the
tail rotor by exerting force against the tail to cor-
rect for main rotor torque. This fin attaches in
much the same manner to the top of the tail boom
(Fig. 10-12).

7. Horizontal stabilizer
The horizontal stabilizer is also a dissymmetrical
airfoil located two degrees from the horizontal datum.
THE JUNCTION FRAME
This produces a downward force on. the stabilizer,
SUPPPORT THE REAR
JACKING ADAPTER
8 7 which tends to keep the helicopter level in forward
flight. The stabilizer passes through a slot in the tail
1- ENGINE DECK. STAINLESS STEEL PLATE boom and is bolted on each side (Fig. 10-13).
2- BEAM UNDER ENGINE DECK
3- JUNCTION FRAME
4-SKIN
5 - REAR FRAME
8. Skid gear
6 - ACCESS TO BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT The skid gear is attached to the body section
7 - RECESS (FOOT STEP FOR ACCESS TO TRANSMISSION
PLATFORM) : of the helicopter. This supports the aircraft and
8 - BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT FLOOR
9 - FORWARD FRAME dampens vibrations on the ground when the rotor
is turning. The landing gear is made up of the fol-
Fig. 10-10 Rear section of the AStar. lowing components: A forward cross tube, a rear

T.R.G.B. ATTACHMENT
FORMERS UNDER THE
DRIVE SHAFT BEARINGS
STIFFENERS
FIN ATTACHMENT

ATTACHMENT
BY BOLT HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
TO JUNCTION ATTACHMENT
FRAME

Fig. 10-11 Semimonocoque tail boom section of the AStar.

313
 - TRAILING EDGE RIB (UPPER)

=
- SKIN PANELS

OnNkWODND
- LOWER RIB
- FIN FITINGS
- TRAILING EDGE RIB (UPPER)
- SKIN PANELS
- TAIL ROTOR GUARD
SON

- TRAILING EDGE RIB (LOWER)

- LOWER FIN ATTACHMENT
10 - LEADING EDGE RIB
11-SPAR
12 - UPPER FIN ATTACHMENT
13 - LEADING EDGE RIB
14- SPAR
15 - REINFORCING SPLICE PLATE

Fig. 10-12 AStar vertical stabilizer assembly.

1- TRAILING EDGE SKIN

2- TRAILING EDGE RIB
3 - CENTER SKIN
4-END RIB
5- SPAR
6 - REINFORCEMENT AND ATTACHMENT
FITTINGS (CROSSED BY BOTH ATTACH-
MENT BOLTS)
7 - LEADING EDGE RIB
8 - LEADING EDGE SKIN

Fig. 10-13 Horizontal stabilizer used on the AStar.

314
cross tube, two skids, and two hydraulic damp- 9, Antivibration device
eners. The rear cross tubes are clamped to the body This is one of the few airframes that makes use of
structure with rubber bushings between the clamps a fuselage antivibration device. This device is lo-
for vibration dampening. The front cross tube is cated under the pilot’s seat and creates a node in
attached in much the same manner as the rear vertical vibrations in the cabin section of the hel-
cross tube. Hydraulic dampeners are attached from icopter. This is accomplished by adding a steel
the cross tubes to the front bulkhead of the body blade which has a weight attached. This resonates
assembly to control the rate of leg distortion. with the vibrations of the airframe (Fig. 10-15).
The skids are equipped with skid shoes at the This type of airframe is somewhat different from
front and rear. In addition to the skid shoes, a long many in the use of materials. The basic structural
steel strip attached to the skids is bent downward. concepts place a strong center section in that fuse-
This is a vibration dampener and is used to elimi- lage, cantilevering the cabin and the tail boom
nate the possibility of ground resonance of the heli- from this portion.
copter (Fig. 10-14).
H. Bell 206 Fuselage
In the Bell 206 airframe various materials are
also used, but most of the airframe is aluminum
and honeycomb construction. There are three main
sections joined together. The sections are the for-
ward section, the intermediate section, and the tail
boom (Fig. 10-16).

HOLES FOR INSTALLATION OF

HANDLING WHEELS ACCORDING
TO AIRCRAFT C.G. LOCATION

Fig. 10-16 Sections of the Bell 206 fuselage.

1- FLEXIBLE STEEL STRIP

2- WEAR PADS. STEEL 1. Forward section

The forward section begins at the nose of the fuse-
3- ANTI-SKID PAD (CABIN FOOT STEP)
lage and extends aft to the rear cross tubes. This
section consists of a tinted plastic enclosure and is
Fig. 10-14 Skid gear used on the AStar.
constructed on one-inch thick honeycomb bonded to
aluminum sheet, formed to contour. This construc-
tion provides rigidity, strength, and soundproofing.
This part of the fuselage is actually made of a top
and bottom section of honeycomb joined by posts
that connect the two units. The bottom unit is often
referred to as the tub assembly. The curvature of
this tub assembly gives great strength, like that of
a beam, down each side of the floor. It provides at-
.
tachment points for the seats and roof structure.
NODE DETERMINED The roof structure is quite similar to the floor ex-
yy RESONATOR
cept that it is inverted. The forward section pro-
<I
A vides the primary strength for the lift and landing
forces. Attached to the forward section is the inter-
mediate section.
This area is made of conventional semimonoco-
que construction. This structure supports the en-
gine mounts and forms the baggage area. It also
Fig. 10-15 Antivibration device used on the AStar. serves as the attachment point for the tail boom.

315
 2. Intermediate section 3. Tail boom
The forward and intermediate sections make up The tail boom is monocoque construction and
the cabin section which directly or indirectly sup- provides the supporting structure for the tail rotor
ports all the systems and components of the heli- shafting, 90° gearbox, horizontal stabilizer, and
copter, as well as providing the seating area for the vertical fin. The tail boom is attached to the cabin
pilot and passengers (Fig. 10-17). section by four bolts (Fig. 10-18).

Fig. 10-17 Cabin and intermediate sections of the Bell 206.

1. HORIZONTAL STABILIZER
2. TAIL BOOM
3. POSITION LIGHT

Fig. 10-18 Bell 206 tail section.

316
 a. Vertical fin made of aluminum panels, stiffeners, doublers,
The vertical fin is used to unload the tail rotor and forged landing gear fittings. Attached to this
during forward flight. This is done by a slight off main beam assembly are a number of items used
set. It’s construction is of aluminum and alumi- by the airframe and four major bulkheads. These
num honeycomb. It is attached to the right side of bulkheads serve several purposes. At the most for-
the tail boom by four bolts and has a tail skid ward end of the center beam is the bulkhead that
mounted to the bottom. supports the pilot’s floor. The pilot’s seat structure
bulkhead is at the forward end of the pilot’s seat
b. Horizontal stabilizer structure. The next bulkhead is attached to the
The horizontal stabilizer is an inverted fixed air- forward canted frame which is the forward member
foil which helps keep the fuselage level in forward of the basic airframe truss. The last bulkhead sup-
flight. Constructed with aluminum skin ribs anda ports the rear canted frame, which is the aft mem-
tubular spar that passes through the tail boom. ber of the basic airframe truss.
The forward canted frame establishes the cross-
4, Landing gear sectional contour of the fuselage and also acts as a
The landing gear consists of two tubular alumi- primary support member. In a like manner, the
num alloy cross tubes, two skids, and removable rear canted truss forms the aft contour of the fuse-
skid shoes. These are attached to the cabin section lage. At the top of this frame is the mast support,
by four strap assemblies. which ties the canted frames together to form the
box that. is the major strength component of the
I, Hughes 500 Fuselage fuselage (Fig. 10-19).
Another interesting type of construction is that Most of the other structure is quite conventional,
of the Hughes 500. It uses conventional type mate- except for the construction of the fuselage con-
rials in a somewhat un-conventional manner. The cerning crashworthiness. It is designed with some
strength of this structure is the result of a beam thought regarding survivability of the occupants.
and truss construction. These features include such items as seat belts at-
The main structural member is a center beam tached to the primary structure, a deep fuselage
which extends longitudinally along the center line structure, energy absorbing sheet metal seats and
of the lower fuselage section. This center beam is the truss construction in the cabin section.

BASIC STRUCTURE FORMS TRUSS

PROTECTING CREW, |WHO SIT‘ON
MAST SUPPORT
FRONT OF TRUSS, FROM INJURY
STRUCTURE
IN ROLLOVER |
CANTED FRAME

CANTED FRAME
ENGINE MOUNTED LOW
AND TO REAR

SHOULDER AND SEAT BELTS

SOLIDLY ATTACHED TO
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
INTEGRAL SEATS
CANNOT As
COME LOOSE SECTIONAA4 PASSENGER!
CARGO
Le| | A } LU FUEL CELLS PROTECTED BY COMPARTMENT
CENTER BEAM CENTER BEAM AND DOUBLE FLOOR
DEEP BASE BEAM AND INTEGRAL, ~-4 WALL CONSTRUCTION

SZ
SEAT ARE ENERGY ABSORBING
SHEET METAL STRUCTURE THAT
CUSHIONS BY YIELDING DOUBLE WALL ~
CENTER BEAM

Fig. 10-19 Hughes 500 cabin section.

317
J. Fuselage Maintenance some rotor heads certain parts may be required to
From time to time helicopter fuselages require be replaced without inspection. On others, it may
maintenance. This may include simple sheet metal require replacement of the entire rotor head.
repairs or major rebuilding. The manufacturers Inspection could include teardown and inspec-
will usually furnish structural repair information tion of the mast bearings, transmission, transmis-
either in the maintenance manual or structural sion mounting, structural bolts, and tail rotor
repair manual. If information is not furnished on drive assembly. The extent of this inspection is
that particular airframe, AC 43.13-1A may be fol- often governed by the extent of the damage found
lowed for minor repairs. in one or more areas such as bent drag braces,
When major repairs are required, jigs will often damaged mast bearings, etc.
be necessary because alignment is quite critical to Sudden stoppage of the tail rotor can also lead to
insure a minimum of vibration. Vibrations caused secondary damage; which may include twisting of
by misalignment will not only shorten the life of the tail boom structure, structural damage to the
the components but will also be detrimental to the hanger bearing mounts and tail boom attachment
airframe. points. This type of damage would be in addition to
the damage to the rotor and drive train.
1. Hard landings Other special inspections that could affect the
Hard landings often call for a special inspection airframe would be if an overspeed or overtorque
of the airframe and will require attention to areas occured. In such circumstances, the maintenance
of attachment such as the tail boom, transmission, manual will provide the inspection criteria for spe-
engine, and landing gear. cial inspections and designate the areas of the air-
Some of the rotating components may also be frame to be inspected.
included in the special hard landing inspection,
such as tranmission cases, gearbox cases and mast. K. Airframe Systems
Hard landings may also result in other types of Other systems, in addition to the basic airframe
damage. These include nicking the tail boom with and rotating components, must be incorporated
the main rotor blades, or in severe cases, actually into the airframe. These may be necessary for the
severing the tail boom with the main rotor. This operation of the helicopter, or may be special re-
may result in other damages to the the blades, ro- quirements for the type of work that is being done
tor head, mast, and drive train. This is because with the helicopter.
impact forces can be transmitted from the point of Necessary systems to be considered would be the
impact through other portions of the helicopter fuel system, electrical system, a ventilating sys-
and airframe. tem, and possibly heating and air conditioning.
Other special inspections that could be neces- For the most part, these would be the same systems
sary because of a hard landing or other happenings found in fixed-wing aircraft.
include sudden stoppage of either the main rotor or
tail rotor. Both of these situations can lead to both 1. Fuel system
airframe and rotating component damage. These The fuel system is usually made up of one or more
inspections are usually classified as to with or tanks. Fuel systems are normally force feed because
without power. there would be few places that the fuel could be lo-
cated for a gravity feed system. The Bell 47, however,
2. Sudden stoppage is the exception to the rule because it does use a
Sudden stoppage of the main rotor occurs when gravity system to deliver fuel to the engine. The
there is a sudden deceleration after contact with an Bell 206 would be more typical of a fuel system
object such as the ground, trees, etc. This force will found in a light turbine helicopter (Fig. 10-20).
be transmitted throughout the system, not only This fuel system incorporates a single bladder
the point of impact. Damage to the blades is nor- type fuel cell, located below and aft of the rear pas-
mally quite obvious at the point of impact, but they senger seat. Installed in the fuel cell are two boost
may also have secondary damage in the root area of pumps, an upper and lower indicating unit, and a
the blade. The bonds may be loosened and spars solenoid operated sump drain.
may have cracks, etc. In addition, this may be The two boost pumps are interconnected to sup-
transmitted to the rotor head. The inspection could ply fuel through a common line. These pumps are
require complete disassembly of the rotor head and typical submersible centrifugal pumps. Both of
the normal overhaul inspection performed. On these pumps are identical and are provided with

318
 ™. 50
LACE TO
STRUCTURE O-*
23 \ DETAIL B

LACE TO
TYPICAL STRUCTURE
BOTH PU MPS

17. WASHER 35. CROSS

18. SCREW 36. VALVE
1 . ADAPTER 19. SUMP DRAIN 37. CONNECTOR
2 . FUEL SUPPLY HOSE 20. UPPER FUEL QTY, TRANSMITTER 38. MOUNT BRACKET
3 . AFT BOOST PUMP 21. SCREW 39. FUEL PRESSURE LINE
4 . FORWARD BOOST PUMP 22. WASHER 40. VENT/PURGE LINE
5, BOLT 23, FUEL CELL 41. UNION
6. WASHER 24. SHUTOFF VALVE ASSEMBLY 42. UNION
7. - HOSE 25. SCREW 43. PURGE LINE
8. . PRESSURE SWITCH (DISCHARGE PORT) 26. WASHER 44. VENT LINE
9. PACKING 27. FITTING 45. SCREW
10. PLUG (PUMP DRAIN PORT) 28. PACKING 46. PACKING
11. PACKING 29. PACKING 47. ADAPTER
12. PACKING 30. UNION FLANGE
13. PACKING 31. TUBE 48. UNION
14, CHECK VALVE 32. NUT 49. PACKING
15. LOWER FUEL QTY, TRANSMITTER 33. WASHER 50. FITTING
16. . SCREW 34. BOLT 51. PACKING

Fig. 10-20 Fuel system of the Bell 206.

319
 screens over the inlets. The outlet ports join to form Additional provisions are made in the system for
a single line to the engine. Before these lines join, a a fuel pressure gauge, vent system, and fuel quan-
check valve is located in each line, so one pump tity indicator. This is all quite similar to what
does not cycle fuel through the other, in case of might be found in any fixed-wing aircraft. A fuel
pump failure. Either pump can supply sufficient selector is not necessary because only one tank is
fuel. A pump failure would immediately be indi- involved. Where more than one tank is employed,
cated because a pressure switch is located in the this selector system would also be found.
outlet port of each pump.
A shutoff valve is incorporated into the single 2. Electrical system
line. This is an electrically operated valve. The electrical systems are also quite similar to
The fuel then passes through a fuel filter unit. what might be found in a fixed-wing aircraft or
This is equipped with a bypass caution light which light turbine powered aircraft. However, the tur-
operates on the differential of pressure. The fuel bine powered helicopters will utilize starter-gener-
then proceeds to the engine filter unit before enter- ators and quite often two batteries rather than one
ing the engine (Fig. 10-21). for assuring good starts. Nickel-cadmium bat-

ENGINE ™,

ENGINE DRIVEN AIF FILTER

/ FUEL PUMP CAUTION
LIGHT
TRANSDUCER
A

FUEL BOOST
CAUTION LIGHT|
ANAAANAAS

FUEL FILTER
CAUTION LIGHT

Ox
RESTRICTOR —>|
PRESSURE
DIFFERENTIAL Ni PRESSURE
SWITCH PURGE NJ GAGE

LINE “t— SHUT-OFF VALVE

VENT FILLER
CAP l

UPPER
FUEL
PROBE

CHECK VALVE CHECK

VALVE

BOOST
PuMP
(ELECTRIC) BOOST PUMP
(ELECTRIC)
LOWER
FUEL
SUMP > PROBE
SUMP PRESSURE
PRESSURE DRAIN SWITCH
SWITCH (ELECTRIC

ZY ve FUEL PURGE LINE

Fig. 10-21 Schematic of the Bell 206 fuel system.

320
teries are used almost exclusively. This is because Type Certificate (STC). The units are usually in kit
electrical assist from ground power units are al- form for a particular type of helicopter. Such units
most never available for starts. may include high skid gear, pop-out floats, rescue
hoists, ambulance configurations, cargo hooks and
3. Environmental systems spotlights.
In recent years, a few helicopters have started to
use “environmental control units’ (ECU). These 1. High skid gear
are air cycle machines which furnish either hot or One item which is quite commonly used is the
cool air. high skid gear. This may be available from the
Fig. 10-22 shows a typical combustion heater manufacturer as optional equipment. This gear is
and ventilating system. advantageous when the helicopter is to be landed
in unimproved landing areas. By keeping the fuse-
L. Special Purpose Equipment lage higher, less tail rotor strikes occur. In arctic
Since the helicopter is used for a variety of pur- regions the helicopter may also be fitted with extra
poses, special equipment is often needed to perform plates on the bottom of the skid, in addition to the
these tasks. Some of these items will be available high skid gear. This prevents the skids from sink-
from the manufacturer as optional equipment. Oth- ing into the tundra. These plates give more area for
er items will be built by individuals or companies the helicopter to rest on. See Fig. 10-23 for a view of
that will have the item certified by a Supplemental one type of high skid gear.

OPTIONAL
COMBUSTION
HEATER

HEAT DISTRIBUTION WINDOWS

OUTLETS

Fig. 10-22 Combustion heat system for the Bell 206.

Fig. 10-23 High and low skid gear used on the Hughes 500.

321
 2. Floats devices. They will be mounted on the bottom side of
Another option is pop-out floats. They may be the circumference of the fuselage. Regardless of the
installed with the high skid gear. These are used location, these are emergency type devices. Ifnormal
when overwater flights are made. This type of water landings are made routinely, permanent floats
flotation device will require repacking and inspec- are installed. These may be patched and repaired,
tion periodically to insure their safe operation Often, the use of this type of float limits the flight
when required. On the system shown in Fig. 10-24, envelope of the helicopter.
the air bottles are carried in the baggage area and
A few helicopters have been built with provisions
may be activated by the pilot when necessary.
for amphibious landings. However, this is not a very
Still other helicopters may make use of pop-out
common configuration for civilian helicopters.

Fig. 10-24 Pop-out floats as found on the Bell 206.

322
 3. Rescue hoists usually very specialized, with special FARs to
The rescue hoists (Fig. 10-25) are most often cover this work. The hook normally has an electri-
used by civil agencies, such as police departments cal and a manual release. This is a safety device to
and fire departments. These allow the helicopter to insure that the load may be jettisoned at any time,
act as a hoist platform for rescue work. It is capable should difficulties arise. Weight limitaions are re-
of lifting comparatively light loads. quired with external loads. These may at times
exceed the normal gross weight of the helicopter
4, Cargo hooks when operating in a restricted category. The nor-
A cargo hook is used for heavy loads, such as mal location of the hook is as close to the center of
sling loads (Fig. 10-26). This type of lift work is gravity as possible.

Fig. 10-25 Rescue hoist used on some helicopters.

- ELECTRICAL CABLE
. ACTUATING CABLE
ONOnPons

. CARGO RELEASE RELAY

. PULLEY AND SPRING BRACKET
SPACER
. CONNECTOR
. UPPER CONTROL CABLE
. SUPPORT CLAMP
. SUSPENSION BRACKET
oOo ©
OnNnNOarthraNnH=

. BRUSH ASSEMBLIES
. LOCK AND SCREW-UPPER HOUSING
kkk

. CLAMP-GUIDE UPPER
. STOP
. LEVER
. HOOK
eh ek ek

. PEDAL STOP
. PEDAL-CARGO RELEASE
. RELEASE ARM

Fig. 10-26 Cargo hook used for external loads.

323
Fig. 10-27 Litter configurations used on the Bell 206 and Hughes 500.

5. Litter installations 7. Spray equipment

Another modification sometimes used is a litter Equipment used for spraying is not built by the
configuration. This may involve rather extensive aircraft manufacturer. Spray equipment is con-
modification, or may be quite simple. Some of the structed by specialized companies holding an STC.
more extensive modifications, such as the Bell 206, Some of this equipment is mounted on the aircraft,
involve the cutting of the door post, so litters may be while other units are self-contained and connect to
placed in the helicopter. This member is structural the cargo hook (Fig. 10-29).
and must include a latch mechanism to insure the
integrity of the airframe. It will also include a latch- 8. Stabilization devices
ing mechanism for the litters. (Fig. 10-27). With the advent of the IFR helicopter, a number
of different stabilization devices have appeared. At
Another configuration may be special wider
the present time, no helicopters are certified for
doors. Wider doors facilitate movement of the
stretchers in and out of the aircraft. Use of this IFR operations in this country without stabliliza-
type of helicopter is generally limited to civil gov- tion equipment. Some of these systems are man-
ernment and charter operations. ufactured in conjunction with the helicopter. Some
helicopters that are not certified for IFR have the
6. Light installations equipment installed to ease the pilot’s work load.
A few helicopters may be equipped as a light Stablization equipment has been used by the mili-
platform. There are many uses for Xenon lights, tary for a long time.
especially in police work. Some of these lights are As more and more tasks are performed and
controlled from the cyclic control, with tilt and ro- newer helicopters are developed, more specialized
tation axis, as well as flood and spot capabilities. equipment will be developed.
Some of these lights are capable of producing 65 Today the helicopter industry is the fastest grow-
million candlepower (Fig. 10-28). ing facet of aviation. The size of the civil fleet has
already exceeded the scheduled airline fleet by three
times and is expected to grow for the next decade.

Fig. 10-28 Xenon light installation on a Bell 47. Fig. 10-29 Typical spray boom installation.
 Glossary
This glossary of terms is provided to serve as a ready BIM — Blade Inspection Method: A system of
reference for the words with which you may not be using indicator and inert gas to detect blade
familiar. These definitions may differ from those cracks, used by Sikorsky.
of standard dictionaries, but are in keeping with
BIS — Blade Inspection System: A method used
general shop usage.
by Bell to determine if blades have cracked.
advancing blade: Any blade located in a semi-
blade alignment: A procedure, used on semirigid
circular part of the rotor disc where the blade
rotor systems, to place the blades in proper
direction is the same as the direction of flight.
positions on the lead-lag axis of the rotor
airfoil: Any surface designed to obtain a useful system.
reaction of lift or negative lift as it moves through
blade coning: Acute angle between the blade’s
the air. Rotor blades and stabilizers are the most
spanwise axis and the plane of rotation, result
common airfoils on helicopters.
of lift vs gravity.
alignment pin: A pin placed in the rotor blade at
blade crossover: See climbing blade.
construction, as an index of the blade alignment
procedure, used on semirigid rotor systems. blade dampener: A device installed on the verti
cal blade hinge to diminish or dampen blade
alpha hinge: See lead-lag hinge.
movement on the lead-lag axis.
angle of attack: The acute angle between the
bladedroop: The angle of the spanwise axis of the
direction of the relative wind and the chordline
rotor at rest, with only the forces of gravity.
of an airfoil.
blade flap: The ability of the rotor blade to move
angle of incidence: The accute angle between a
in a vertical direction. Blades may flap indepen
fixed reference surface and the chordline of an
dently or in unison.
airfoil.
blade forks: See blade grips.
angular velocity: Velocity of a particle, moving
around a center, at a given distance from the blade grips: The part of the hub assembly to
center, expressed in radians. which the rotor blades are attached. These are
sometimes referred to as blade forks.
antitorque pedal: The pedal used to control the
pitch of the tail rotor. Sometimes called the rud- blade loading: The ratio of the helicopter weight
der pedal. to the total area of the lifting area.
antitorque rotor: See tail rotor. blade pins: Pins or bolts used to hold the rotor
blades to the hub.
articulated rotor: A rotor in which each blade is
jointed at the root to flap, lead-lag individually blade pockets: A term used by Sikorsky to de
or collectively. Sometimes called a fully articu- scribe sections of the rotor blade attached to the
lated rotor. blade spar.
ATA system: Airline Transport Association’s stan- blade root: The part of the blade which attaches
dardized format for maintenance manuals. to the blade grip.
autorotation: The property of a rotor system to main- bladespan: The length of the blade from the tip to
tain its angular velocity without engine power, the root.
the relative force provided by the forward compo-
blade spar: The main structural member of the
nent of the lift forces, acting on the rotor blades.
rotor blade running the length of the blade.
beep button: A switch on the collective used to
blade stall: The condition of the rotor blade when
trim a turbine engine by increasing or decreas-
it is operating at an angle of attack greater than
ing the steady state RPM.
the maximum angle of lift. This occurs at high
bifilar: A system used for dampening rotor vibra- forward speed to the retreating blade and all
tion, developed by Sikorsky. blades during “settling with power”.
325
blade sweeping: A maintenance procedure for ad- climbing blade: A condition when one or more
justing dynamic chordwise balance in which one blades are not operating in the same plane of
or both blades are moved aft of the alignment. rotation during flight, which may not exist on
ground operation.
bladetabs: Fixed trim tabs on the trailing edge of
a rotor blade for track adjustment. coaxial rotor: A rotor system utilizing two rotors
turning in opposite directions on the same cen-
blade tip: The further most part of the blade from
ter line. This has been used to eliminate the
the hub of the rotor.
need of a tail rotor.
blade track: The relationship of the blade tips in
cold section: The compressor section of a turbine
the plane of rotation. Blades in track will move
engine.
through the same plane of rotation.
collective: The control that changes the angle of
blade tracking: The mechanical procedure used
incidence of all the blades simultaneously in
to bring the blades of the rotor into a satisfactory
order to control the thrust of the rotor.
relationship with each other under dynamic
conditions so that all blades rotate on a common compensating cam: A cam used in conjunction
plane. with the collective to add the correct amount
of power to the turbine for the pitch of the
blade twist: Variation in the angle of incidence of
rotor.
a blade between the root and the tip. This may be
built into the blade or may be caused by aero- composite blades: Rotor blades constructed from
dynamic forces. more than one type of material, such as ti-
tanium and fiberglass.
blank blade: Identification of one blade during
electronic balancing. It is the blade with the coning angle: See blade coning.
single interrupter.
control shim: A ground shim to set the lash and
bleed air: Air from the compressor section used pattern of a gear set by the manufacturer.
for various purposes, including cabin heat and
coriolis force: The force produced when a particle
anti-icing. Sometimes called customer air.
moves along a path in a plane while the plane
boosted control: A control such as a cyclic, or col- itself is rotating.
lective, utilizing hydraulic power to assist the
correlation box: A cam used to correlate engine
pilot in moving the control.
controls to add power to a reciprocating engine
brush guard: A device used to protect the tail ro- as the collective is raised.
tor blades.
counterweights: Weights attached to some rotors
cam box: See correlation box. that assist in raising the collective.
center of pressure: The imaginary point where customer air: See bleed air.
the resultant of all aerodynamic forces of an
cyclic control: The contro] which changes the an-
airfoil is concentrated.
gle of incidence of the rotor blades individually
centrifugal clutch: A clutch using centrifugal during a revolution of the rotor tilting disc.
force to engage.
delta hinge: The hinge located at the root end of
centrifugal force: An outward force developed by the rotor blade with its axis parallel to the plane
rotation of a mass — such as a rotor. of rotation of the rotor which allows the blade to
flap, equalizing lift between the upwind and the
Chadwick: A term used to describe electronic
downwind sides of the rotor disc.
balancing or tracking. It is actually the name of
the manufacturer of the balancing and tracking delta hinge bolt: A bolt used on some tail rotor
equipment. systems to provide the flapping hinge.
chord: An imaginary line passing from the lead- direct shaft turbine: A shaft turbine engine in
ing edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil. which the compressor and power section are
mounted on a common driveshaft.
chordwise axis: A term used in reference to semi-
rigid rotors describing the flapping or teetering disc area: The area of the projected outline of the
axis of the rotor. rotor travel.
326
disc loading: A ratio of the gross weight of the elastomeric bearing: A metal and rubber com-
helicopter to the rotor disc area. posite bearing that carries oscillating loads.
dissymmetry of lift: The unequal lift across a elastomers: Rubber or synthetic rubber mate-
rotor disc that occurs in forward flight due to the rials used in the construction of elastomeric
difference in airflow over the advancing and re- bearings.
treating blades.
ESHP: Equivalent Shaft Horsepower.
downwash: Air that has been accelerated down-
face-to-face bearing: The placement of two bear-
ward by action of the rotor.
ings so thrust loads are carried by one bearing
drag: The force tending to resist an airfoil’s pas- in one direction and the other bearing in the
sage through the air. Drag is always parallel to opposite direction. The same type of loading
the relative wind and perpendicular to lift. may be accomplished by back-to-back installa-
tion. The installation is governed by the mount-
drag brace: An adjustable brace used to position
ing system.
the main rotor in a fixed position, preventing
movement of the blade at the attached point on feathering: The changing of the angle of the rotor
semirigid rotors. blades during a revolution equalizing lift on the
advancing and retreating blades. This term is
drag hinge: See lead-lag hinge.
sometimes used in relation to pitch change
drive fork: A device used on some helicopters to through the collective.
drive the tail rotor and provide the flapping
feathering axis: The axis of the mechanical move-
hinge for the tail rotor.
ment of the rotor on the spanwise gimbal bear-
droop: The inability of engine power to increase ings to affect blade feathering.
as the rotor pitch is increased causing the rotor
fiberglass blades: Rotor blades primarily con-
RPM to slow down.
structed of fiberglass and glass rovings.
droopcam: See compensating cam.
finite life: A part having a definite time use limit.
droop restraint: A device used to limit the droop
flapping hinge: The hinge used on fully articula-
of the main rotor blades at low RPM.
ted rotors which allows individual blade vertical
droop stops: See droop restraint. movement.

dual actuator: An actuator used for hydraulic flare: A maneuver accomplished prior to landing
boost which is actually two units in one, uti- to slow the helicopter down.
lizing two separate and independent hydraulic
flatrated: An engine having a HP rating at higher
systems.
than standard day temperatures.
duplex bearing: A matched pair of bearings to
flex coupling: A device used with shafts to allow
make contact with a surface ground on each
movement because of misalignment.
bearing to make contact with the other matched
surface. When three bearings are used, it is a flexture assembly: The flexible unit used in the
triplex, four, a quadplex, etc. They are usually Nodal System.
ball bearings.
foot pedal: See antitorque pedal.
dynamic balance: The balance of an object in
free shaft turbine: A shaft turbine engine in
motion.
which there is no physical connection between
dynamic stability: The stability of the rotor sys- the compressor and the power section.
tem in flight to return to a position after a force
free turbine: A turboshaft engine with no physi-
is applied.
cal connection between the compressor and
dynamic stop: A device used to limit the vertical power output shaft.
movement of the rotor while in operation.
freewheeling unit: A device which transmits torque
ECU: Environmental Control Unit. Air cycle and in one direction only and disconnects in the other
cooling unit. direction,
EGT: Exhaust gas temperature. fully articulated rotor: See articulated rotor.
327
gauge pins: Measuring devices used with a mi- irreversible valve: A device used on hydraulic
crometer to determine gear tooth wear. boosted controls to control fluid flow to the actu-
ators when no movement is taking place.
gear lash: The amount of movement of the teeth of
one gear when the other gear is held stationary. isolation mount: A rubber and metal composite
mount used to prevent vibration transfer from
gear pattern: The imprint of the tooth of one gear
one component to another.
on another mating tooth. The print may be a
load or no-load condition. ITT: Inter Turbine Temperature.
gimbal: A device used to permit a body to incline lash check: A method of checking the amount of
freely in any direction. lash between gear teeth.
gradient system: A device used to give artificial latch mechanism: A device used on the Bell 206 to
feel to hydraulic boosted controls. hold and adjust the main rotor blades. A re-
placement of the drag brace.
grip angle: The angle set on the rotor head grip to
place the rotor blades at the correct pitch angle. lateral vibration: A vibration in which the move-
ment is in a lateral direction, such as imbalance
ground cushion: See ground effect. of the main rotor.
ground effect: Additional lift obtained when the lead-lag hinge: A hinge at the root of the blade
helicopter is hovering within one rotor diameter with its axis perpendicular to the plane of rota-
of the ground due to increased air pressure be- tion. This hinge is also known as the alpha
low the rotor disc. hinge, drag hinge, and the hunting hinge.
ground resonance: Self-excited vibration occur- lift: That component of the total air force which is
ring whenever the frequency of oscillation of the perpendicular to the relative wind and in the
blades about the lead-lag axis of an articulated plane of symmetry.
rotor becomes the same as the natural fre-
quency of the fuselage. linear actuator: A device utilizing an electric mo-
tor to turn a jack screw, making the actuator
gyroscopic precession: A characteristic of gyro- longer or shorter.
scopes that causes their axis to be displaced at
90 degrees to the direction of application of any load lock valve: See irreversible valve.
force tending to tilt its axis. low frequency vibration: A vibration in which a
high frequency vibration: A vibration with no beat may be felt and distinguished.
distinguishing beat. It is felt as a buzz only. low speed track: Track of the rotor taken at
high speed track: The track of the rotor at normal speeds below normal operating RPM. This is done
operating speed. to determine the high blade with a “climbing
blade” problem.
hot section: The combustor section of a turbine
engine. magnetic brake: A device used to hold the cyclic
controls in trim, so that a minimum pressure
hover: The ability of a helicopter to sustain flight will be required to fly the aircraft.
with no movement in relation to the ground.
married needles: A term used, when two hands of
hunting: Oscillatory motion of the blades of an an instrument are superimposed over each other,
articulated rotor about the alpha hinge caused as on the engine/rotor tachometer.
by coriolic forces.
Marvel: The manufacturer of a commonly used
hunting hinge: See lead-lag hinge. universal balancer, used throughout the avia-
tion industry.
inertia: The property of matter by which it will
remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion in mast: The component that supports the main ro-
the same direction unless acted upon by some tor. This unit normally drives the rotor head.
external force.
mast bump: Action of the rotor head striking the
interference fit: See pinch fit. mast, occurring on underslung rotors only.
1s — Inches Per Second: A vibration measure- matched gears: Two gears used in a set and re-
ment used in electronic balancing. placed only in a set.
328
mercury clutch: A centrifugal clutch in which pitch-change link: A rod with a spherical bearing
mercury is used to engage the clutch. attached at each end to move the pitch mecha-
nism of the rotor.
metal blades: Rotor blades constructed primarily
from metal, usually aluminum alloy, and are precone: A built-in angle in a yoke assembly for
bonded. the coning angle of the rotor in flight.
MGB: Main gearbox. The transmission of the pretrack: A method used by Sikorsky to preset
helicopter. the track of a rotor blade prior to installation.
midspan weight; A weight placed in the midspan relative wind: Velocity of the air with reference to
of a rotor blade to add inertia to the blade. a body in it. Relative wind is always opposite to
the flight path.
mixed compressor: A compressor used in a tur-
bine engine utilizing both an axial and centrifu- retirement schedule: A list of parts and times of a
gal compressor. limited life contained on helicopters. This list
will contain the part, serial number, time in-
mixer: A system of bellcranks preventing cyclic stalled, and the removal time.
inputs from changing to collective inputs.
retreating blade: Any blade, located in a semi-
mixer box: See mixer. circular part of the rotor disc, where the blade
N, The compressor and turbine of a free turbine. direction is opposite to the direction of flight.
N,: The power turbine of a free turbine engine. reverse flow combustor: An annular combustor
in which the hot gases move through the com-
N, governor: A device used to maintain a con- bustor making a 180-degree turn.
stant speed of the N, system by limiting the fuel
flow. rigid rotor: A rotor capable only of changing pitch.
Ne See No. rotating star: The portion of a swashplate that
rotates on multi-bladed rotor systems. This re-
N,: See Nj. ceived its name from its shape.
ninety degree gearbox: See tail rotor gearbox. rotor: A complete system of rotating airfoils cre-
Nodal system: A vibration dampening system ating lift for a helicopter.
used by Bell to reduce main rotor vibration. rotor brake: A device used to stop the rotor blades
offset hinge: A hinge used in fully articulated ro- rotating during shutdown. It may be either hy-
tors in order to increase stability. draulic or mechanical.
one-to-one vibration: A low frequency vibration SAS: Stabilization Augmentation System.
having one beat per revolution of the rotor. This seesaw rotor: A term used for a semirigid rotor.
could be either vertical or horizontal.
semirigid rotor: A rotor which may change pitch
overhaul schedule: A record of the various compo-
and flap as a unit.
nents of a helicopter regarding time and recom-
mended overhaul periods. service bulletin: Recommended maintenance in-
formation from the manufacturer regarding
overspeed governor: See N, governor. flight safety which may be mandatory.
partical separator: Device used to remove foreign service letter: Any informational letter from the
material from the air entering the engine. manufacturer.
pedal creep: The tendency of the antitorque ped- settling with power: A state of rotorcraft flight dur-
als to move from the neutral position. ing high rates of descent in powered flight during
pinch fit: The lack of clearance between two com- which the rotor is in a partial or complete state of
ponents — normally used to prevent bearing cavitation because the rotor is operating in its own
races from moving past the bearing cap. downwash.
pitch angle: The acute angle between the chordline sHP: Shaft Horsepower.
of the blades and a reference surface of the main
shaft turbine: A turbine engine used to drive an
rotor head. output shaft commonly used in helicopters.
short shaft: The main driveshaft between the en- tandem bearings: Placement of two ball bearings,
gine and transmission. so that the thrust load is shared by both bear-
ings, in one direction only.
skid shoes: Plates attached to the bottom of skid
landing gear protecting the skid. tandem rotor: A rotor system utilizing two main
sprag: A figure eight shaped item, used in the rotors — one fore and one aft.
sprag clutch. target blade: The identification on one blade dur-
sprag clutch: A term used to identify a freewheel- ing electronic balancing. It is the blade with the
ing unit. double interrupter.

sprag mount: An adjustable bracing system used TCU — Torque Control Unit: Used to automat-
on the Bell 47. ically match the torques for twin engine in-
stallations. May also serve as a torque limiter.
sprag unit: See sprag clutch.
teetering axis: See chordwise axis.
splitneedles: A term used to describe the position
of the two hands on the engine rotor tachometer, tension-torsion bar: A strap made of layers of
meaning that the two hands are not super- sheet steel used to absorb tension of centrifugal
imposed or “married”. loads between the blade and the hub; also the
torque of blade pitch change.
stabilizer bar: A dynamic component used on
some Bell helicopters to insure rotor stability. tension-torsion strap: A strap made of wire that
serves the same purpose as the tension-torsion bar.
standard day: Fifty-nine degrees Fahrenheit with
a barometric pressure of 29.9 inches of mercury. thrust: The force applied to a body tending to
motivate the body through the air, thus over-
static balance: The balance of an object at rest. coming drag.
static stop: A device used to limit the blade flap, or tip cap: A removable cap on the rotor blade tip. This
rotor flap, at low RPM, or when the rotor is stopped. cap is often used to hold spanwise balance weights.
strap pack: A tension-torsion system using sheet tip path plane: See disc area.
steel lamination to carry the loads of the rotor
blades to the head, used by Hughes. tip pocket: A place at the tip of the rotor blade to
place weight for spanwise balance.
stringing: See blade alignment.
tip targets: See tracking reflectors.
strobe light: A pulsed light used to make a rotat-
ing component appear as if it is motionless. tip weight: A weight placed in the tip of a rotor
blade for spanwise balance.
Strobex: A brand name used by Chadwick-Helmuth
Corporation for an electronic tracking device. torque limited: A limitation placed on the drive
train in regards to power output of the engine.
swashplate: Transfers motion to the rotating
component. torquemeter: A device used to measure power
output of an engine.
symmetrical airfoil: An airfoil having the same
shape on the top and bottom. tracking flag: A device used to check rotor track
on the ground.
synchro-rotor: A rotor system utilizing two main
rotors, side by side, so that the rotor blades mesh tracking reflectors: Reflectors placed on blade
with each other. tips to determine track with a spotlight or
strobe light.
tail rotor: A rotor turning in a plane perpendicu-
lar to that of the main rotor and parallel to the tracking stick: A stick with a rubber wick on one
longitudinal axis of the fuselage. Used to control end used to touch the rotor blades in operation
the torque of the main rotor and to provide and mark the blades, determining track.
movement on the yaw axis of the helicopter.
tracking targets: See tracking reflectors.
tailrotor gearbox: Changes the tail rotor drive 90
degrees to either increase or decrease the speed translational lift: The additional lift obtained
of the tail rotor. when entering forward flight, due to the in-
creased efficiency of the rotor system.
330
trim switch: A switch button on the cyclic for variable stators: A device used to vary the
the trimming of the helicopter laterally and angle of attack of the compressor stators during
longitudinally. acceleration.
trunnion: The part that splines to a mast or shaft vertical vibration: A vibration in which the move-
to retain the rotor and provide the flapping ment is up and down, or vertical, as in an out-of
hinge for semirigid rotors. track condition.

turboshaft engine: A turbine engine transmit- wet head: A term used to describe a rotor head
ting power through a shaft as would be found in that uses oil as a lubricant.
a turbine helicopter.
wooden blade: Rotor blade made primarily of
twist grip: The throttle control on the collective. wood laminates, although they are covered and
It may also serve as the power lever control on may include some metal in the construction.
turbine powered helicopters.
yoke: The main supporting member of a semi-
underslung: A rotor hub that goes around and below rigid rotor.
the top of the mast, as on semirigid rotor systems.

331
 Index

A Allison 250 255-256

anti-ice 255-256
Arbor, balance 299
Arm, pitch-change 169
Acceleration control 243 bleed air 255-256
Articulated rotor 325
Acceleration, turboshaft 234-235 clutch 261
Assembly,
Accelerometer 141-142, 146, 148, 304 collective 260, 262
mast 76
Accessory gearbox 237, 240, 243, combustion 250
compressor 232, 249
scroll 249
245-246, 250, 263
cyclic 260 AStar350 35-36
Accumulator 176, 180, 182, 183 cabin 312
definitions 247-249
Actuator, diffuser 249 fuselage 311-315
guide vane 240-241 flight control 260 tail rotor 288-293
hydraulic 176-183 fuel control 253 ATA system 65, 68, 325
linear 175, 238, 270, 274 fuel pump © 250 Atmospheric pressure 231
particle separator 233 fuel system 256-259
PT6 linear 266 Atomizer 240, 245
gearbox 253
servo 305-306 generator 253 Attack, angle of 40, 50, 138, 240
turboshaft power 238 ignition 259-260 Attitude 175, 189
Adapter plate 205, 212 lubrication 253-255 Autogyro vii, viii
Adapter, frequency 106 oil filter 253 Automatic clutch 196-197
series 246-262
Adjustment, Autorotation vii, 50-51; 110, 176, 196,
autorotation 154, 156-158 starter 253 198, 200, 203, 212, 277, 310, 325
counterweight 154-155 tail rotor 260-261
adjustment 154, 156-158
thermocouple system 260
Advancing blade vii, 40, 46, 50, 91, 148, inspection 154-158
torquemeter 253, 255 landing 267-268
150, 325
turbine assembly 250
Aerospatiale 31-37, 105-107, 188, 193, Axialcompressor 229, 240
Alouette 31-32
195-197, 200-201, 267, 288-293, Axis,
Alpha hinge 325
311-315 feathering 44, 47, 48, 91, 92, 98, 107
Altitude, density 231 flapping 296
Aft driveshaft 279
Air bleed 274 Ambient pressure 237, 255-256 pitch-change 296
PT6 266 Amplitude 131, 140 vertical vii
control valve 255 Aneroid 237
Aircraft Registration 58 Angle of attack 40, 50, 138, 240, 325 B
Aircraft Specification Sheet 57, 63 Angle of incidence 325 Babbitt bearing 83, 232
Airflow, Angle, Backlash flag 88
ram 223 blade 122
Baffle,
turboshaft 229 clock 142, 148
cylinder 225
Airfoil 39, 229, 233-234, 283, 313, 317, coning 103
dearation 180
325 downwash 49
engine induction 233
transonic 233, 240 grip 122
phase 142 Balance 91, 109, 122, 125-148
Airframe arbor 299
inspection 318 pitch 40
precone 92, 122 chordwise 119, 122, 125-132
systems 318-321 cooling fan 226
truss 317 Angular
dynamic spanwise 140
Airline Transport Association 63 bearing 281 electronic 141
velocity 325 indicator 127
Airworthiness certificate 58
Annular spanwise 125-132
Alignment
combustor 230, 235, 238, 263 static 121-122, 125-132
bearing . 281
diaphragm 255 turboshaft compressor 234
pin 325
point 121-122 Anti-ice, universal 129
Allison 250 255-256 Balance,
Alignment,
T53-13 242-243 chordwise 284, 299-301
blade 119-122
driveshaft 277, 294, 298 Antitorque viii, 305-306, 310 dynamic 299-301
engine 269 pedal 53, 260, 325 knife edge 300
fuselage 309, 318 rotor 325 spanwise 299-301
mast 205 Antivibration 315 static 293, 299-301
Arbor 129-130 tail rotor 299-301
universal 299-300
press 83, 85

333
Ball bearing 78, 79, 81, 83, 126, 167, 168, Bell method 52 Bleed, interstage air 241
173, 200, 212-221, 232, 279, 280, 285, Bell 206 cabin 206 Blockage, turboshaft compressor 234
288, 293, 294, 300 fuselage 315-317 Body bulkhead 312, 315, 317
Band, bleed 241-242 Bell 212 rigging 306-308 Boeing 27
Bar, stabilizer 52, 116-117, 161-164 tail rotor 293-297, 305-308
Bonded construction 309
Base plate 126, 270 Bellcrank 170, 173-174, 184-188, 270,
Boom, tail 277-279, 290, 293, 310, 313,
Battery, ni-cad 275, 320 274, 285, 288, 291, 305
315, 316, 318
Beam and truss construction 317 Bellows 256
Boost
Beam, fuel control 237
pressure 178
box 112 Belt pump 318
cantilevered 311, 315 drive 224
Boost, control 175-183, 325
electron welding 193 tightener 197-198
V- 225 Boss,
flex 107
eccentric 291
nodal 207, 310 Bevel gear 89, 211-221, 285
mounting 274
Bearing Bifilar system 104, 107, 310, 325
Box beam 112
cap 85 Blade
Box,
defects 84 alignment 119-122, 325
cam 227
inspection 84, 88 angle 122
installation 84-85 correlation 227-228
coning 261, 325
mixer 173-174
lubrication 81-83, 86, 87 crack 112-113
pinch 119 crossover 139, 325 Brake,
removal 83-84 dampener 325 magnetic 175, 184, 305-306
droop 42, 325 rotor 201-203
Bearings 78-88
alignment 281 flap 307, 325 Brantly Hynes 24
angular 281 flexing 75 Breguet, Louis vii
babbitt 83, 232 forks 325 Brinnelled bearing 84
ball 78, 79, 81, 83, 126, 167, 168, 173, grip 186, 325 Brinnelling 84, 86, 87
200, 212-221, 232, 279, 280, 285, 288, Inspection Method (BIM) 112, 325
Bronze, oil-impregnated 83
293, 294, 300 Inspection System (BIS) 325
brinnelled 84 loading 325 Brush guard 326
conical 87, 286 pins 325 Bulkhead, body 312, 315, 317
contact 212-221 pitch 227, 231, 283 Bull’s eye level 127
cylindrical 86 pockets 325 Bumping, mast 161
drum 282, 285 rack 118
Bungee spring 170,175
duplex 84 removal 116, 118,-119
Bushing,
elastomeric 86-88, 104, 106, 107, 207, root 111, 112, 126, 291, 325
span 325 indicator 129
208, 291, 299
oilite 173
feathering 286, 291 spar 325
hanger 277, 293, 297, 298, 318 stall 51,154,325 Bypass valve 182-183, 218-219, 266, 306
mast 161 sweeping 122, 140-141, 326
needle 212-221, 284
pitch 101
tabs 326
tip 326
C
radial 87 tipstall 49-50 Cabin,
roller 79, 81, 83, 98, 160, 198, 212, track 326 AStar 350 312
221, 232, 281, 282, 285, 290 tracking 326 Bell206 206
spherical 79-81, 86, 171-172, 184, 198, twist 45, 326 Hughes 500 317
206, 284, 288 Blade, advancing vii, 40, 46, 50, 91, 148, Caley, Sir George vii
taper 160 150 Cambox 227,326
Teflon 167, 169, 173, 184 blank 326 Cam,
thrust 98, 105, 106, 159, 166, 167, climbing 139 compensating 53, 270, 274
213-221, 281, 282 composite 109, 114-115 droop 267
uniball 296 metal 110-113 eccentric 226
Beep button 325 retreating vii, 40, 46, 50, 91, 148, 150 Camber 39
Beeper, governor control 258, 261, 262, rotor 318
Cancombustor 247
266 synchro-rotor viii
tail rotor 278, 285-286, 291, 296, 299, Canopy frame 312
Bell viii, 1-11, 92-96, 107-108, 112, 114, Cantilevered beam 311, 315
301-305
124, 125, 141, 146, 155, 159-161, 162,
wooden 109-110 Capacitor 242
164-166, 167, 169, 177, 178, 179, 180,
181, 186, 192-196, 198-199, 201, Blanchard, Jean Pierre vii Carburetor 227
203-211, 214-219, 223-227, 232-233, Bleed Cargohook 323,324
247, 262, 268, 270-274, 278-285, air 274, 326 Cavitation 183
293-298, 300-301, 305-308, 315-317, band 241-242
Cell, fuel 318
318-320, 322, 324 port 235
valve 235 Center of gravity 109, 120

334
Center of pressure 41, 109, 121, 326 Compensator, droop 262, 266, 270-274 Correlation, throttle 227-228
Centrifugal Components, turboshaft 229-231 Corrosion 78
clutch 212-221, 326 Composite blade 109, 114-115, 326 Counterweight 169, 170, 326
compressor 229-230, 240, 247, 249 adjustment 154-155
Compression 224
force 326 load 311 assembly 92
CGrange 189 Compression, turboshaft 235 Coupling,
Chadwick-Helmuth 142-143, 146, Compressor curvic 293, 298
303-304, 326 bleed air 232 engine-transmission 191-192
Chamber, discharge pressure 241, 255-257 flexible 294, 298
plenum 262 inlet pressure 237 Twin-Pac 266-267
swirl 232 rotor 229 Cowling, inlet 233
Change-over valve 236 scavenge 232 Crack,
Check valve 177-178, 180, 182, 183, 320 stator 229, 234 blade 112-113
Cheek plate 109 Compressor, cooling fan 226
Allison 250 249 Crankengagement 224
Chord 39, 326
axial 229, 240 Crankshaft 192, 193, 224
Chordwise centrifugal 229-230, 240, 247, 249
axis 326 Creep, pedal 307-308
combination 238, 247
balance 119, 122, 125-132, 284, PT6 262-263 Crossover, blade 139
299-301 turboshaft 229, 232-234, 237, 275 Crowfoot 78
Clevis 227, 306 Computer, turboshaft fuel control 237, Crowned tooth gear 193
Climbing blade 139, 326 243 Curtis Wright 224
Clock angle 142, 148 Condition, standardday 231 Curvic coupling 293, 298
Clutch 193, 196-200, 202-203, 211-221, Conical bearing 87, 286 Customer air 326
224 Coning 43, 48 Cyclic 44, 48, 54-55, 162-188, 278, 305,
Clutch, angle 103, 326 324
Allison 250 261 Coning, blade 261 control 326
automatic 196-197 Construction, friction 171, 185
centrifugal 212-221 beam andtruss 317 Allison 250 260
mercury 196, 203 bonded 309 Cylinder baffle 225
overrunning 261, 267-268 sheet metal 309, 317, 318
sprag 198-200, 203, 215, 264 Cylinder, servo 179-180
tubular 309
Coaxial Cylindrical bearing 86
Contact bearing 212-221
engine vii
helicopter 44
Control
boost 175-183
D
rotor 326
linkage 79,177 Da Vinci, Leonardo vii
Cold section 326 plate 187 Damage,
Collective 44, 50,53, 73, 166-188, rigging 184-188, 269-270 notch 115
170-171, 227, 232, 238, 267-268, 270, shim 326 turboshaft compressor 234
274, 278, 326 Control,
friction 171 Dampener 46, 51, 91, 98, 103-105, 107,
acceleration 243 108, 116-117, 129, 132, 162, 163,
lever 166 deceleration 243
linkage 168 164-166, 203, 209
elevator 188-189 maintenance 148-153
rigging 227-228 Environmental Unit (ECU) 321
sleeve 166, 167
test strobe 150
flight 53-55, 106, 117, 162, 166
Dampener,
Collective, flight systems 170-189
Allison 250 260, 262 driveshaft 285
hydraulic boost control 176-184
PT6 266 elastomeric 150-153
pitch 285, 288, 291, 305
hydraulic 148-149, 315
Colorcoding 73, 119, 121 power 223
multiple disk 149-150
Combination compressor 238, 247 Cooling vibration 315
Combining gearbox 264 fan 223, 225-226
Dauphin 34
balance 226
Combustion, de Cierva, Juan vii, 46
cracks 226
Allison 250 250
vibration 227 Dearation baffle 180
PT6 263
turboshaft 235, 237-238, 240, Cooling, powerplant 223, 225-227 Deceleration control 243
243-245, 250, 275 Core, stabilizer bar 163 Definitions, Allison 250 247-249
Combustor drain valve 245 Coriolis effect 46 Delamination 114
Combustor,
force 326 Deltahinge 284, 326
annular 230, 235, 238, 263 Cornu, Paul vii hinge bolt 326
can 247 Correlation Three system 53
turboshaft 230, 234, 235, 238 box 227-228, 326 Density altitude 231
Compensating cam 53, 270, 274, 326 linkage 53

335
Detector, magnetic chip 245 Duplex bearing 84, 285, 327 Excitation frequency 107
Diaphragm, annular 255 Dynamic Exhaust
Differential pressure 182, 245, 253, 320 balance 299-301, 327 cover 75
Diffuser 240 spanwise balance 140 Gas Temperature (EGT) 232, 275,
Allison 250 249 stability 52,327 327
turboshaft 230 stop 327 gas turbine indicator 232
Extension
Direct drive turbine 229-230, 232, 238
shaft turbine 326 E drive 278, 298
driveshaft 281
Disc Eccentric tube driveshaft 279-280
area 326 boss 291
loading 327 Extinguisher, fire 233
cam 226
tilt 260
Disc, indicator 129
Edison, Thomas vii
Ejector, particle separator 233
F
Displacement 131 Face-to-face bearing 327
Elastomeric 291, 299
Dissymmetry of lift 46, 47, 49, 327 bearing 86-88, 104, 105, 107, 207, Failure, engine 267-268, 290
Distortion, leg 315 208, 327 Fan, cooling 223, 225-226
Downwash 327 dampener 150-153
Feathering 327
angle 49 Elastomers 327 axis 44, 47, 48, 91, 92, 98, 107, 162,
Drag 41, 327 Electrical system 320-321 327
brace 92, 109, 119, 122, 141, 148, 327 Electronic bearing 286, 291
hinge 46, 48, 327 balancing 141 Federal Air Regulations 57
Drive track 303-304 Feedback,
fork 327 Electroplating 160 lateral cyclic 49
gear 212-221 rotor 176
Elevator control 188-189
link 166, 168
Emergency fuel system 171, 236 Fiberglass blades 327
quill 212-221
Engagement time 202-203 Filter system, hydraulic 176, 182, 183
Drive,
belt 224 Engagement, crank 224 Filter,
extension 278, 298 Engine fuel 256, 320
alignment 269 hydraulic 178, 180-182
Driveshaft 98, 116-117, 160, 193, 198-221
failure 267-268, 290 inlet 232
Driveshaft oil 245-246
alignment 277, 294, 298 mount 195, 269
oil 83 pressure 182
dampeners 285 turboshaft fuel 236
inspection 297-298 output shaft 240
power formula 232 Fin, vertical 45, 54, 310, 313, 316-317
Driveshaft,
preservation 268 Finite life 327
aft 279
removal 268-269 Fire extinguisher 233
extension 281
thrust 231
extension tube 279-280 Fish scale 185
trimming 274
forward 278-279, 290, 293 Flagtracking 133-134
mid 279 Engine,
Franklin 223, 224 Flameout 238
tail 313
induction baffle 233 Flap restraint 92
tailrotor 277, 278, 285, 290, 293
radial 224 Flap, blade 307
Droop 327
shaft turbine 228 Flapping
cam 267,327
turbojet 228-229 action 91, 98, 104, 106, 107
compensator 262, 266, 270-274
turboshaft 228-238 axis 296
restraint 327
stop 98, 102, 327 Engine-transmission hinge viii,46, 48, 327
coupling 191-192 Flare 50-51, 268, 327
Droop,
mounting 203-208
blade 42 Flat rated 231, 327
power 232, 258, 261 Enstrom 25
Flettner, Anto viii
Drum bearing 282 Environmental Control Unit (ECU) 321,
Flexbeam 107
327
Drum, pitch-change 283 Flexible
Equalizerhorn 92
Dry Equipment List 58
coupling 294, 298, 327
film lubricant 8&3 joint 193
head 92, 126 Equipment, Flexture assembly 207, 327
sump 223 special purpose 321-324
Flight control 53-55, 106, 117, 162, 166
Dualactuator 327 spray 324
Allison 250 260
stabilization 324
Ducted fan tail rotor 54 systems 170-189
Equivalent shaft horsepower
Dump valve 245 Flight-idle
(EsHP) 231, 327
solenoid 270
Erosion, turboshaft 234 stop 270-271

336
Float, pop-out 322 Fuselage, Governor,
Flow divider, fuel 245 AStar 350 311-315 (N,) turboshaft 237-238
PT6 266 Bell206 315-317 (N,) turboshaft 237-238, 258-262,
Hughes 500 317 266, 270
Flyweight 237-238
tubular-truss 309 overspeed 243, 269
Flywheel 223
Gradient
Focke-Achgelis FW-61
Foot
viii
G system 328
unit 174-175
pedal 284-285, 297, 299, 305-308, Galling 118 Gravity, center of 109, 120
327 Garlock seal 281, 282, 290 Grip
valve 237-238
Gas producer turbine 240 angle 122, 328
Foreign object damage (FOD) 229, 234 Gauge pin 214, 328 assembly 92, 109, 118
Formula, engine power 232 Gauge, Grip,
Forty-two degree gearbox 294 oil pressure 232 blade 186
Forward driveshaft 278-279, 290, 293 oil temperature 232 throttle 227
twist 170-171, 227, 237-238, 257-261,
Frame, Gazelle 33
266, 268-270
canopy 312 Gear
Ground
stabilizer bar 163 heel 89 cushion 328
Franklin engine 223, 224 lash 328 effect 48,328
Free pattern 89, 328 handling 73-76
shaft turbine 327 reduction 229, 231, 253 resonance 51, 315, 328
turbine 229-230, 232, 238, 247, 327 shaft 198 support 268
toe 89
Freewheeling unit 196-200, 202-203, Guard, tail rotor 313
212-221, 261, 290, 327 Gear
Guide vane 233, 240-242
reduction 278, 280, 296
Frequency 131 actuator 240-241
wheel 310
adapter 106 Gyroscopic precession vii, 44, 54, 166,
Gearbox 198, 226
Frequency, excitation 107 328
(N,) accessory 237, 240, 243
Friction torque 293
Friction,
(N,) turboshaft 240, 243-244
accessory 245-246, 250, 263 H
collective 171 Allison 250 250-253 Hanger
cyclic 171, 185 combining 264 assembly 293
Fuel reduction 266 bearing 277, 293, 297, 298, 318
cell 318 Gearbox, Hardlanding 318
filter 256, 320 42 degree 294
filter servo 236 Head
90 degree 294-296, 299, 305, 316
flow divider 245 overhaul rotor 318
intermediate 277,295, 298
injection 223 tail rotor 277-285, 288, 290-293, Head,
manifold 243, 245, 266 298-299, 307, 313 dry 92, 126
metering, turboshaft 235 wet 92, 115, 126
Gears 88-90
restrictor 237 bevel 89, 211-221, 285 Helical splined gear 253
shutoff valve 243 crowned tooth 193 Helix vii
solenoid 236, 243, 318 drive 212-221 High
system 318-320 helical splined 253 frequency vibration 328
Fuel high skid 321 skid gear 321
control bellows 237 landing 313, 317, 318 speed track 328
valve 241 meshring 285 Hiller viii, 12-14, 123, 155, 175, 191-193,
Fuel control, pinion 212-221, 281 196-198, 203, 223-224, 226, 302
Allison 250 253 planetary 212-221 Hinge,
manual PT6 266 reduction 263 delta 284
turboshaft 235-238 skid 73, 310, 313, 315, 317 drag 46,48
Fuel system, sun 212-221 flapping viii, 46, 48
Allison 250 256-259 Generator 225, 227, 231 lead-lag vill, 46, 48, 51
emergency 171 (N,) tachometer 244 offset 53
PT6 264-266 Allison 250 253 Hoist, rescue 323
T53-13 243-245 tachometer 263 Hoisting 76, 117
Fully articulated rotor 48, 51, 53, Gerotor 219 Hook, cargo 323, 324
96-108, 142, 148, 158, 327 Gimbal 47, 91, 92, 169, 328 Horizontal stabilizer 55, 310, 313,
Fuselage Glider vii 316-317
alignment 309, 318 Governor control beeper 258, 261, 262, Horn,
maintenance 318 equalizer 92
266
vibration 310 pitch-change 53, 92, 98, 117, 126, 146,
vibration 318 169, 283, 284, 286, 305

337
Horsepower, Inspection, Lash
equivalent shaft (EsHP) 231 adapter plate 205 and pattern 88, 90, 214, 219, 294, 296,
shaft (SHP) 231 airframe 318 299
Hot autorotation 154-158 check 328
section 328 bearings 84, 88 Latch mechanism 328
start 275 dampeners 164-166
Lateral cyclic feedback 49
Hover 328 driveshaft 193, 195, 297-298
vibration 328
engine mount 205
Hub Law, Newton's 3rd 229
hydraulic system 183-184
assembly 98, 104-106 Lead-lag hinge viii, 46, 48, 51, 91, 98,
mast 318
rock 47
mast assembly 160-161 101, 103-107, 119, 122, 132, 141, 150,
Hub, tail rotor 286 mounting system 211 277, 328
Hughes 15-17, 98, 101-104, 151, 159-160, powerplant cooling 226-227 Leg distortion 315
168-169, 176, 192, 193, 198-200, 203, push-pull tubes 171-172 Level, bull’s eye 127
209, 219-221, 247, 285-288, 317, 321, pylon mount 206
Leveling 76
324 rotor 110, 112, 115-120
safety cable 205-206 Lever, collective 166
Hughes 500
cabin 317 sprag mount 205 Lift vii, 41, 45, 49, 310, 328
fuselage 317 Stabilizer bar 164 forces vii, 91, 109
tail rotor 285-288 swashplate 169-170 link 209
tail rotor 318 load 309-310, 311
Hung start 275
torque tube 173 Lift,
Huntinghinge 328
transmission 318 dissymmetryof 46, 47, 49
Hydraulic
Installation, translational 49
actuator 176-183
boost control 176-184 bearing 84-85 Light reflector tracking 134-135
dampener 148-149, 315 powerplant 223-224 Lighting, special 324
filter 178, 180-182 tail rotor 285-288, 307-308
Limit, torque 231, 238
filtersystem 176, 182, 183 Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) 324
Linear actuator 175, 238, 270, 274, 328
pressure 180-183 Integral Inspection System (BIS) 112
Link,
pump 227 Inter Turbine Temperature (ITT) 232, lift 209
regulator 178 328 pitch 148, 154
servo 170, 177, 293, 305
Interference fit 85, 328 pitch-change 303, 306
Hysteresis 150
Intermediate gearbox 277, 295, 298 Linkage,

I interrupter 146, 148

Interstage air bleed 241
collective
control
168
79, 177
correlation 53
Idle RPM 223 Irreversible valve 328
throttle 227-22
Igniter Isolation mount 206, 209, 328
Litter 324
plug 242
Ignition,
Allison 250 259-260
J Load lock valve
Load,
328

PT6 267 Jackpoint 74,76 compression 311

T53-13 242-243 landing 310, 311
Jackshaft 227, 266, 285
turboshaft 235, 237-238 lift 309-310, 311
Jig 309, 318
sling 323
Illustrated parts breakdown Joint, stress 309-310
(IPB) 65-68 flexible 193 thrust 309-310, 311
Inches per second (ips) 328 universal 166, 193, 277-279 torsional 192-193
Index plate 226
K
Locking tangs 78
Indicator disc 129 Logbooks 63
Indicator, Lord mount 203-205
Key, Woodruff 281, 282
balance 127
Knife edge balance 300 Low
exhaust gas turbine 232
freqency vibration 328
Inertia 328
Inlet L speed track 328
Lubricant, dry film 83
cover 75 Labyrinth seal 290 Lubrication,
cowling 233
Lama_ 31-32 Allison 250 253-255
filter 232
Landing bearing 81-83, 86, 87
Input shaft 281, 285 driveshaft 193, 195
gear 313, 317, 318
input, sleeve 281 load 310, 311 powerplant 224
Inspection 57, 58, 63 Landing, PT6 263, 266
Method (BIM) 112 autorotation 267-268 roller unit +200
hard 318

338
Lubrication, (cont.)
rotorhead 92, 115, 126-127
Modular maintenance 268 P
Monocoque construction 309, 316
sprag clutch 198, 200 Pack, strap 98, 101, 117, 286
Mooring 74-75
swashplate 169 Particle separator 232-234, 329
Motor, trim 175
T53-13 245-247 Pattern,
tail rotor 279, 285, 294-299 Mount,
gear 89
- transmission 212-221 engine 195, 269
lash and 88, 90, 214, 219, 294, 296,
turboshaft 232 isolation 206, 209 299
Lycoming 223 lord 203-205
Pedalcreep 307-308, 329
T53-13 238-246 pylon 206
sprag 204-205 Pedal,

M Mounting boss 274 antitorque 53, 260

foot 284-285, 297, 299, 305-308
Mounting, engine- rudder 53
Magnaflux 161 transmission 203-208
Pedestal 212-221
Magnetic Movable stabilizer 55
brake 175, 184, 305-306, 328 Phase angle 142
Multiple disk dampener 149-150
chip detector 245 Phazor 303-304
Multiplier wrench 117
Magneto 73 Piasecki viii
Main rotor
gearbox (MGB) 329
N Piezoelectric 141
Pillow block 92, 127
rotor torque 313 Needle, Pilot valve 187, 240
rotor transmission 191-221 bearing 212-221, 284 Pin,
Maintenance manual 64-65, 78, 85 roller 79
gauge 214
Maintenance, split 261
tow 109
cooling system 226-227 Newton’s 3rdlaw 229 Pinch fit 85, 329
dampener 148-153 Ni-cad battery 275, 320 Pinch, bearing 119
fuselage 318 Ninety degree gearbox 294-296, 299, Pinion gear 212-221, 281
modular 268 305, 316, 331
turbine engine 268-275 Pitch 91, 92, 98, 102, 104-107, 117, 154
Nodalbeam 207,310,329 angle 40, 329
Mandrel 126, 226, 300
Notch damage 115 bearing 101
Manifold pressure 231
change arm 169
Manifold, fuel 243, 245, 266
Margin, surge 233, 240
O change
169
horn 53, 92, 98, 117, 126, 146,

Married needles 328 O-ring 214, 219, 280, 281 change rod 164
Marvel 328 Offset hinge 53, 329 control 285, 288, 291, 305
Oil link 148, 154
Mast 328
alignment 205 filter 245-246 Pitch,
assembly 76, 159-161
filter, Allison 250 253 blade 227, 231, 283
bearing 161 pressure gauge 232 zero 300
bumping 161, 328 scavenge 246 Pitch-change 278, 282, 285, 291-292,
inspection 318 sump 223 296, 297, 299, 305
support 317 temperature gauge 232 axis 296
Matched gear 328 Oil, drum 283
engine 83 horn 283, 284, 286, 305
Mercury clutch 196, 203, 329
turboshaft system 232 link 303, 306, 329
Mesh ring gear 285 rod 282-283, 284
Oilite bushing 173
Messerschmitt-Boelkow 29-30, 107; Pitottube cover 75
Operators manual 63
247
Out of Track 43 Planetary gear 212-221
Metal blade 110-113, 328
Output shaft 224, 281-282, 285, 288, Plate,
Metering valve 164, 236-238, 243, 266 adapter 205, 212
307
Methyl-ethyl-ketone (MEK) 172 base 126,270
Overhaul record 63, 329
Micrometer 85 cheek 109
Overhaul, rotorhead 318
Mid driveshaft 279 control 187
Overrunning clutch 261, 267-268 index 226
Midspan weight 111, 329
Overspeed stop 206
Mixed compressor 329 governor 243, 269, 329 striker 102, 103
Mixer box 173-174, 329 trip 244 Platform (dolly) 74
Mobility, high internal 86 Overtorque 318 Plenum chamber 262
Modification, fixed-wing Plug, igniter 242
powerplant 223
Plunger 102
Pop-out float 322

339
Poppet valve 179 Puma 35 Rigging,
Port, bleed 235 Pump, Bell 212 306-308
Power Allison 250 fuel 250 collective 227-228
control 223 boost 318 control 184-188, 269-270
droop 232, 258, 261 hydraulic 227 tail rotor 305-308
output shaft 264 spurgear 256 throttle 227-228
train 217 turboshaft fuel 236 Rigid rotor 47,329
turbine turboshaft (Nj) 230, 232, 240, Push-pulltube 170-173, 184, 227, 278, Ring, synchronizing 240
237
285, 293, 297, 305 Robinson 28
Power-to-weight ratio 231 Rodend 171-172, 184, 274
Pylon mount 206
Powerplant Rod, pitch-change 164, 282-283, 284
Pylon, tailboom 277
cooling 223, 225-227
Roller

Q
installation 223-224
bearing 79, 81, 83, 98, 160, 198,
lubrication 224
212-221, 232, 281, 282, 285, 290
scavenge 223
Quill 212-221, 224, 225, 278, 293, 294, staking 81, 170, 288
Powerplant, 296, 298 unit 200
PT6 262-267
Roller,
turboshaft 238-275
Pratt & Whitney 224, 262-267
R needle
straight
79
79
Precession, gyroscopic vii, 44, 54, 166 Rack, blade 118 tapered 79
Precone angle 92, 122,329 Radial Root, blade 111, 112, 226, 291
Presection 142 bearing 87 Rotating star 329
Preservation, engine 268
engine 224 Rotor 329
Pressure filter 182 Ram blade 318
regulator valve 236 airflow 223 brake 201-203, 329
effect 49 feedback 176
Pressure,
ambient 237, 255-256 Ramjet 44 head overhaul 318
Range, inspection 110, 112, 115-120
atmospheric 231
boost 178 CG 189 Rotor,
center of 41, 109, 121 transit 131 compressor 229
compressor discharge 241, 255-257 ducted fan tail 54
Rate,
compressor inlet 237 fully articulated 48, 51, 53, 96-108,
flat 231
differential 182, 245, 253, 320 142, 148, 158
twist 160
hydraulic 180-183 lubrication head 92, 115, 126-127
Ratio, main torque 313
manifold 231
power-to-weight 231 rigid 47
servo 255-257
torquemeter 266 strength-to-weight 309 semirigid 47, 48, 161, 92-96, 122, 128,
Pressurizing valve 266 Rear cap spindle 282 140-143, 157, 207
Reduction softinplane 107-108
Pretrack tracking 135-136, 329 tandem 277
gear 263
Propeller region 50 underslung 47, 48, 91, 296
gearbox 266
Proseal 171, 172 variable pitch 45
Reduction, gear 229, 231, 253
Protection, weather 75 Rotor, tail 53-54, 277-308, 310
Regulator, hydraulic 178 tail AStar 350 288-293
Protractor,
Reitsch, Hanna viii tail balance 299-301
rigging 306-307
tab 138-139 Relative wind 40, 329 tail Bell 212 293-297, 305-308
universal 184 Relief valve 177-178, 182, 236 tailBell47 278-285, 298
tailblade 278, 285-286, 291, 296, 299,
Prussian Blue 89, 203, 301 Removal,engine 268-269
301-305
PT6 Rescue hoist 323 tail driveshaft 277, 278, 285, 290, 293
airbleed 266 Resonance, ground 315 tail gearbox 277-285, 288, 290-293,
collective 266 298-299, 307, 313
Restraint, transmission 208
combustion 263 tailguard 313
compressor 262-263 Restrictor, fuel 237
tailhub 286
flow divider 266 Retirement schedule 58-63, 329 tail Hughes 500 285-288
fuel system 264-266 Retreating blade vii, 40, 46, 50, 91, 148, tail installation 285-288, 307-308
ignition 267 150, 329 tail lubrication 279, 285, 294-299
linear actuator 266 tail rigging 305-308
Reverse flow combustor 329
lubrication 263, 266 tail track 301-305
manual fuel control 266 Richet, Professor vii
tail vibration 299
powerplant 262-267 Rigging protractor 306-307
Roving spar 291
torque limit 266-267
torquemeter 266-267 Rudder pedal 53
Rules, Instrument Flight (IFR) 324

340
 S Skid gear
shoes
73, 310, 313, 315, 317
329
Starter, Allison 250 253
Starter-generator 275,320
Saddle 173
Sleeve, Starting, turboshaft 275
Safety 73,74 collective 166, 167
Static
Safetying 78 input 281
balance 122, 125-132, 293, 299-301,
Scale, fish 185 Sling load 323 330
Scavenge system 219-220 Softin plane rotor 107-108 balance, stabilizer 164
compressor 232 Solenoid 197 spanwise balance 121-122
oil 223, 246 valve 178, 179, 182, 244-245 Stability 51-52
powerplant 223 stop 92, 330
Solenoid,
Scissorsassembly 169 flight-idle 270 Stator,
Scribe mark 121 fuel 236, 243, 318 compressor 229, 234
Scrollassembly 249 Span 39 variable 235
Scupper 178, 180 Spanwise balance 125-132, 299-301 Stick track 133, 301-303
Seal, Spar 111,112,114 Stop plate 206
garlock 281, 282, 290 Stop,
Spar, roving 291
labyrinth 290 droop 98, 102
Special
Seesaw flight-idle 270-271
lighting 324
action 91 static 92
purpose equipment 321-324
rotor 329 Stopcock 238
Spherical bearing 79-81, 86, 171-172,
system 46, 48 Stoppage, sudden 318
184, 198, 206, 284, 288
Semimonocoque construction 309, Straight roller 79
Spider
311, 315 Strap pack 98, 101, 117, 286, 330
assembly 212-221
Semirigid rotor 47, 48, 92-96, 122, 128, valve assembly 164 Strength-to-weight ratio 309
140-143, 157, 161, 207, 329
Spindle 104 Stress load 309-310
Sensor, torque 200
Spindle, rear cap 282 Striker plate 102, 103
Separator, particle 232-234
Spline 159, 212-221, 278-285, 288, 293, Stringer 313, 330
Service 294, 307 Strobe tracking 136-138, 330
bulletin 68-69, 72, 329
Split needie 261, 330 Strobe, dampenertest 150
information notice 68
instruction 69 Splitters 83 Strobex 146, 148, 303-304, 330
letter 329 Spoiler strip 55 Strut 51
Servo Sprag 330 Sudden stoppage 318
actuator 305-306 clutch 198-200, 203, 215, 264, 330
Sump
cylinder 179-180 mount 204-205
case 180
pressure 255-257 unit 330
system 223
valve 176-178, 183, 256 Spray equipment 324
Sump,
Servo, Spring, bungee 170, 175 dry 223
fuel filter 236 Spurgearpump 256 oil 223
hydraulic 170, 177, 293, 305
Stability 51-53 Sun gear 212-221
tail rotor 179, 183
Stability, Supercharger 223
Shaft
dynamic 52 Supplemental Type Certificate
horsepower (SHP) 229, 231, 329
static 51-52 (STC) 69, 166, 321, 324
short 329
turbine engine 228, 329 Stabilization equipment 324 Support assembly 207
twist 200 Stabilizer Support,
Shaft, assembly 159 ground 268
engine output 240 bar 52, 116-117, 161-164, 330 mast 317
gear 198 static balance 164
Surge margin 233, 240
input 281, 285 Stabilizer,
Swashplate 44, 47, 136, 146, 159,
output 224, 281-282, 285, 288, 307 horizontal 55, 310, 313, 316-317
166-170, 173, 177, 184-185, 285, 288,
power output 264 movable 55
330
Sheet metal construction 309, 317, 318 Stall, /
Sweeny wrench 117
Shroud 225-226, 250 blade 41, 154
blade tip 49-50 Sweeping blade 122, 140-141
Shutoff valve 237, 269, 320 Swirl chamber 232
Standard day condition 231, 330
Sikorsky viii, 18-23, 96-101, 104-105, 113, Switch, trim 171
193, 224-225, 247, 262, 277 Starassembly 44
Start, Symmetrical airfoil 330
Skikorsky,!gor vii, viii
hot 275 Synchronizing ring 240
hung 275 Synchro-rotor blade viii
torch 275

341
 T Thrust
bearing
vii, 42, 43, 310, 330
98, 105, 106, 159, 166, 167,
Transit range 131
Translating tendency 48
Tab protractor 138-139 213-221, 281, 282
Translational lift 49,330
Tab, trim 109, 110, 111, 138-139, 148, 175 load 309-310, 311
Transmission 83, 159, 160, 180, 186,
Tachometer 131, 202-203, 212-221, 232, Thrust, engine 231
224-226, 228, 231, 277-278, 285, 290,
250, 267-268 Tierod 197 293, 298, 311, 318
generator 244, 263 assembly 163 inspection 318
Tailboom 277-279, 290, 293, 310, 313, Tightener, belt 197-198 mainrotor 191-221
315, 316, 318 restraint 208
Tilt, disc 260
boom pylon 277 vibration 203
Time Between Overhaul
driveshaft 313
(TBO) 223 Transonic airfoil 233, 240
Tail rotor 53-54, 277-308, 310, 330
Time, engagement 202-203 Transverse flow effect 49
balance 299-301
blade 278, 285-286, 291, 296, 299, Timing 224 Trim
motor 175
301-305 Tip path plane 43, 44, 48, 54, 132, 133,
driveshaft 277, 278, 285, 290, 293 330 switch 171, 330
tab 109, 110, 111, 138-139, 148, 175
gearbox 277-285, 288, 290-293, Tip
298-299, 307, 313, 330 Trimming, engine 274
cap 330
guard 313 pocket 109, 111, 128, 330 Trunnion 91, 92, 126, 159, 161, 164,
hub 286 167, 186, 204, 205, 284, 296, 306,
Torch start 275
inspection 318 330
installation 285-288, 307-308 Torque vii, 44, 78, 159
Truss, airframe 317
lubrication 279, 285, 294-299
Control Unit (TCU) 331
correction 54 Tub assembly 315
quill 212-221
rigging 305-308 limit, PT6 266-267 Tube,
servo 179, 183 limited 231, 238, 330 push-pull 170-173, 184, 227, 278, 285,
track 301-305 sensor 200 293, 297, 305
vibration 299 signal conditioner 160 torque 170, 172-173
tube 170, 172-173 tunnel 187
Tail rotor,
Allison 250 260-261 Torque, Tubular construction 309
AStar 350 288-293 friction 293 Tubular-truss fuselage 309
main rotor 313
Bell 212 293-297, 305-308 Tunnel tube 187
Bell 47 278-285, 298 Torquemeter 160, 200-201, 231-232,
Turbine
ducted fan 54 245-246, 330
assembly, Allison 250 250
Hughes 500 285-288 Torquemeter, engine maintenance 268-275
Tandem Allison 250 253, 255 Outlet Temperature (TOT) 260, 261,
bearing 330 pressure 266 275
rotor 277,330 PT6 266-267 wheel 238
Tangs, locking 78 Torsional Turbine,
Taper bearing 160 load 192-193 direct drive 229-230, 232, 238
vibration 19 free 229-230, 232, 238,
Tapered roller 79
Tow pin 109 247
Target blade 330
Towing 74 gas producer 240
Teetering axis 330
Track 43 Turbojetengine 228-229
Tefion bearing 167, 169, 173, 184
Track, Turboshaft
Temperature Turbine Outlet (TOT) 260, acceleration 234-235
electronic 303-304
261, 275 airflow 229
stick 301-303, 330
Temperature, combustion 235, 237-238, 240,
Track, outof 43
Exhaust Gas (EGT) 232, 275 243-245, 250, 275
Inter Turbine (ITT) 232 Tracking 132-139, 148
combustor 230, 234, 2335, 238
Tension-torsion 92, 117, 285, 330 Tracking, components 229-2316
flag 133-134, 330 compression 235
Thermo relief valve 179
light reflector 134-135 compressor 275
Thermocouple system, Allison 250 260 pretrack 135-136 compressor (N;) 229, 232-234, 237
Thermoswitch 218 stick 133 compressor balance 234
Throttle 170 strobe 136-138 compressor blockage 234
correlation 227-228 Trammel 80, 172 compressor damage 234
grip 227 Transfer valve 243 diffuser 230
linkage 227-228 engine 228-238, 330
Transient rem 9223
rigging 227-228 erosion 234
valve 227

342
Turboshaft (cont.)
fuel control 235-238
V Vibration,
fuselage 310, 318
fuel control computer 237, 243 V-belt 225 tail rotor 299
fuel emergency systems 236 Valve, Vibrex 303-304
fuel filter 236 airbleed control 255 Visibility 310
fuel metering 235 bleed 235
fuelpump 236
gearbox (N,) 240, 243-244
bypass 182-183, 218-219, 266, 306
change-over 236 Ww
governor (N,) 237-238 check 177-178, 180, 182, 183, 320 Weight and Balance Report 58
governor (N,) 237-238, 259-262, 266, combustor drain 245
Weight, midspan 111
270 dump 245
guide vane 233 foot 237-238 Welding, electronbeam 193
ignition 235, 237-238 fuel control 241 Wethead 92, 115, 126, 331
lubrication 232 fuel shutoff 243 Wheel
power actuator 238 metering 164, 236-238, 243, 266 gear 310
power turbine (N,) 237 particle separator 233 gearsystem 74
powerplants 238-275 pilot 187, 240 Wheel,
starting 275 poppet 179 ground handling 73-74
system oil 232 pressure regulator 236 turbine 238
Turboshaft, power turbine (N,) 230, pressurizing 266
Wind, relative 40
232, 240 relief 177-178, 182, 236
servo 176-178, 183, 256 Wing loading 50
Twin Star 37
shutoff 237, 269, 320 Wooden blade 109-110, 331
Twin-Pac 262-267
solenoid Woodruff Key 281, 282
coupling 266-267 178, 179, 182, 244-245 Wrench,
Twist spider assembly 164 multiplier 117
grip 170-171, 227, 237-238, 257-261, thermo relief 179 Sweeny 117
266, 268-270, 330 throttle 227
rate 160 Wright brothers vii
transfer 243

xX
Twist, shaft 200 Vane,
Type certificate 57 guide 233, 240
variable inlet guide 240-242
U
Xenon 324
Variable

Underslung rotor 47, 48, 91, 296, 331

pitch rotor 45
stator 235, 331
Y
Uniball . 167, 169 Vertical fin 45, 54,310, 313, 316-317 Yoke 92, 107, 122, 128, 278, 280, 283,
Uniball bearing 296 Vertol 26-27 284, 286, 291, 296, 299, 331
Universal
Z
Vibration 130-148
balance 129, 299-300 cooling fan 227
joint 166, 193, 277-279 dampener 315
protractor 184 Zerk 226
torsional 192
pullers 83 transmission 203 Zero pitch 300
vertical 331

343