Optical Communication 3-5 Optical Sources and Detectors LED Structures * For providing high radiance and high quantum efficiency, LED uses carrier confinement and optical confinement. 1. Carrier confinement * Carrier confinement results in high quantum efficiency. * Carrier confinement provides a high level of radiative recombination in active region of device. 2. Optical confinement * Optical confinement prevents the absorption of the emitted radiation by the material surrounding the p-n junction. Heterojunctions * A_ heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal semiconductors with different energy bandgaps. + Heterojunctions are of two types, Isotype (n-n or p-p) or Antisotype (p-n). + Helerojunctions are used for carrier and optical confinement. Double Heterojunctions * In order to achieve efficient confinement of emitted radiation double heterojunctions are used in LED structures. A heterojunction is a junction formed by dissimilar semiconductors. * Double Heterojunction (DH) is formed by two different semiconductors on each side of active region. Fig. 3.2.1 shows Double Heterojunction (DH) light emitter. * The crosshatched regions represent the energy levels of free charge. Recombination occurs only in active InGaAsP layer. The two materials have different bandgap energies and different refractive indices. * The changes in bandgap energies create potential barrier for both holes and electrons. The free charges can recombine only in narrow, well defined active layer side. * A Double Heterojunction (DH) structure will confine both holes and electrons to a narrow active layer. Under forward bias, there will be a large number of carriers injected into active region where they are efficiently confined. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 3-6 Optical Sources and Detectors —1n- InP—+ys—n - InGaAsP—e-— p - InP—> = MUA cs Electron © 4 energy 0.95 ev Electron hole SUS bv 300 nm t3sev se njcted we, " MW. Up Nis H Active t t 35 T } Raltacte a2 fa Waveguide region Fig. 3.2.1 Double Heterojunction (DH) emitter * Carrier recombination occurs in small active region so leading to an efficient device * Another advantage of DH structure is that the active region has a higher refractive index than the materials on either side, hence light emission occurs in an optical waveguide, which serves to narrow the output beam Advantages of DH 1. Reduced active region. 2. Large numbers of carriers are inejcted. 3. Carriers can efficiently confined. 4. Narrow output beam. [EZEE LED Configurations * At present there are two main types of LED used in optical fiber links - 1. Surface emitting LED. (SLED) 2. Edge emitting LED. (ELED) Both devices uses a DH structure to constrain the carriers and the light to an active layer. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-7 Optical Sources and Detectors Surface Emitting LEDs (SLED) ‘AU o In surface emitting LEDs the plane of active light emitting region is oriented perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber. A DH diode is grown on an N-type substrate at the top of the diode as shown in Fig. 3.2.2 | — iter Epoxy resin bonding material Circular etched well we contact, }+— Substrate N P Double - heterojunctions P Active SiO, - isolation region |___ Metal contact, 1+ Gold heatsink Fig. 3.2.2 Cross-section through a typical surface emitting LED A circular well is etched through the substrate of the device. A fiber is then connected to accept the emitted light. At the back of the device is a gold heat sink. The current flows through the p-type material and forms the small circular active region resulting in the intense beam of light. Diameter of circular active area = 50 pm Thickness of circular active area = 2.5 um Current density = 2000 A/cm? half-power Emission pattern = Isotropic, 120° beamwidth. The isotropic emission pattern from surface emitting LED is of Lambartian pattern. In Lambartian pattern, the emitting surface is uniformly bright, but its projected area diminishes as cos 0, where 0 is the angle between the viewing direction and the normal to the surface as shown in Fig. 3.2.3. The beam intensity is maximum along the normal. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 3-8 Optical Sources and Detectors Beam intensity| Beam angle J Fig. 3.2.3 Lambartian radiation * The power is reduced to 50 % of its peak when 0 = 60°, therefore the total half-power beamwidth is 120°. The radiation pattern decides the coupling efficiency of LED. Edge Emitting LEDs (ELEDs) * In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the beam more directional, the light is collected from the edge of the LED. Such a device is known as edge emitting LED or ELED. + It consists of an active junction region which is the source of incoherent light and two guiding layers. «The refractive index of guiding layers is lower than active region but higher than outer surrounding material. Thus a waveguide channel is form and optical radiation is directed into the fiber. Fig. 3.2.4 shows structure of ELED. Guiding layers—*} Strip contact Metal contact SiO, isolation Double heterojunction layers +— Substrate Metal contact Heat sink Nt Fig, 3.2.4 Structure of edge emitting, DH, strip contact LED TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-9 Optical Sources and Detectors Edge emitter’s emission pattern is more concentrated (directional) providing improved coupling efficiency The beam is Lambartian in the plane parallel to the junction but diverges slowly the plane perpendicular to the junction. In this plane, the beam divergence is limited. In the parallel plane, there is no beam the more in confinement and radiation Lambartian. is To maximize the useful output power, a reflector may be placed at the end of the diode opposite the emitting edge. Fig. 3.25 shows radiation from ELED. Features of ELED : 2 3. Active region Fig, 3.2.5 Unsymmetric radiation from an edge emitting LED Linear relationship between optical output and current. Spectral width is 25 to 40 nm for A Modulation bandwidth is much large. 0.8 - 0.9 um. Not affected by catastrophic gradation mechanisms hence are more reliable. ELEDs have better coupling efficiency than surface emitter. ELEDs are less temperature sensitive. LEDs are suited for short range narrow and medium bandwidth links. Suitable for digital systems up to 140 Mb/sec. Long distance analog links. EH Comparison of Surface and Edge Emitting LED LED type Maximum Output power Fiber coupled modulation Ch) power (mW) frequency (MHz) Surface emitting 60 <4 <02 Edge emitting 200 <7 <10 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-21 Optical Sources and Detectors Advantages and Disadvantages of LED Advantages of LED 1 2, 4. 5. Simple design. 6. Simpler fabrication. Ease of manufacture. 7. Simple drive circuitry. Simple system integration. 8. Linear light output against current characteristics. Low cost. 9. Less temperature dependent. High reliability. Disadvantages of LED 1. 2. 3. 4 Refraction of light at semiconductor /air interface. The average life time of a radiative recombination is only a few nonoseconds, therefore modulation BW is limited to only few hundred megahertz Low coupling efficiency-usually low optical power coupled into fiber (4W) Large chromatic dispersion. SE eerie 1 10. With the help of a neat diagram explain the construction and working of a surface emitting LED. COED Sree Draw and explain surface and edge emitting LEDs. ‘AU : May-12, Marks 8 Draw the structures of SLED and ELED and explain their principle of operation. ‘AU : May-13, Marks 8 Explain the working of n hetero structure LED. ESE Define internal quantum efficiency of a LED. Deduce the expression for the same. ESE With diagram, explain surface and edge emitters of LED structures ‘AU : May-14, Marks 16, May - 19, Marks 7 With neat sketch, explain the working of a light emitting diode ‘AU : May-15, Marks 8 Devine am expression forthe quantum efficiency of double totter What are the characteristics required for an optical source ? With help of meat diagram, describe the operation of surface emitting LED. COEDS CREE Describe with the aid of suitable diagrams the mechanism giving the emission of light from a LED. Discuss the effects of this mechanism on the properties of the LED in relation fo its use as an optical source for communication. CURDS Cae TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 3-22 Optical Sources and Detectors Laser Diodes ‘AU : May-11,12,13,19, Dec.-09,11,12,13,14,15,18,19 The laser is a device which amplifies the light, hence the LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The operation of the device may be described by the formation of an electromagnetic standing wave within a cavity (optical resonator) which provides an output of monochromatic highly coherent radiation. Population Inversion Principle of Operation rm In thermal equilibrium, the density of excited atoms is very small. Hence most of the photons incident on the system will be absorbed. Stimulated emission exceeds absorption only if density of excited atoms is greater. Population of upper energy level > lower energy level is known as population inversion. Pra Material absorb light rather than emitting. Three different fundamental process occurs between the two energy states of an atom. 1) Photon absorption 2) Spontaneous emission 3) Stimulated emission. Laser action is the result of three process absorption of energy packets (photons) spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission. (These processes are represented by the simple two-energy-level diagrams) Where, F, is the lower state energy level E, is the higher state energy level. Quantum theory states that any atom exists only in certain discrete energy state, absorption or emission of light causes them to make a transition from one state to another. The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the difference in energy E between the two states. If _E, is lower state energy level. and __ E, is higher state energy level. E=(E,-E)=he where, h = 6,626 x107% J/s (Plank's constant). TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 3-23 Optical Sources and Detectors Photon Absorption + An atom is initially in the lower energy state, when the photon with energy (E,-E,) is incident on the atom it will be excited into the higher energy state E, through the absorption of the photon. risa Final state & __Fiatstate ; Absortion ! we ' ' ' ' &,—_» —___ st Fig. 3.3.1 Absorption * When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E,, it can make a transition to the lower energy state E, providing the emission of a photon at a frequency corresponding to E = hf, The emission process can occur in two ways. 1. Spontaneous emission 2. Stimulated emission. Spontaneous emission + In spontaneous emission the atom returns to the lower energy state in random. manner. Initial state Final state E+ i Spontaneous 1 emission 1 hv ' | e, ——1____ —__.___. Fig. 3.3.2 Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission + In stimulated emission when a photon having equal energy to the difference between the two states (E, — E,) interacts with the atom causing it to the lower state with the creation of the second photon. Initial state Final state £, + ' Stimulated ' emission 1 ==> we te Un wen AA iv frase t =, —___1___ ——__.+___ Fig. 3.3.3 Stimulated emission TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” ‘An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-24 Optical Sources and Detectors + Spontaneous emission gives incoherent radiation while stimulated emission gives coherent radiation. Hence the light associated with emitted photon is of same frequency of incident photon, and in same phase with same polarization. * It means that when an atom is stimulated to emit light energy by an incident wave, the liberated energy can add to the wave in constructive manner. The emitted light is bounced back and forth internally between two reflecting surface. «The bouncing back and forth of light wave cause their intensity to reinforce and build-up. The result in a high brilliance, single frequency light beam providing amplification. ' Emission and Absorption Rates ‘AU * If N, and N, are the atomic densities in the ground and excited states. Rate of spontaneous emission Ryson = ANa + G31) Rate of stimulated emission Roi = BN2 Pom + G32) Rate of absorption Ry. = BON bs 1 Pom « G3.3) where, A, B and B’ are constants. Pem is spectral density. + Under equilibrium condition the atomic densities N, and Ny are given by Boltzmann statistics. Nz _ ket) wT - B34) Nz _ o(-hy/KaD N; > ° where, Ky is Boltzmann constant. T is absolute temperature. * Under equilibrium the upward and downward transition rates are equal. AN, + BN3 Py, = BYNy Poem 33.6) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-25 Optical Sources and Detectors Spectral density p,,. A/B Pe = 63.7) en BT IRR Comparing spectral density of black body radiation given by Plank’s formula, 8rhv3 /c3 = Sah fc" 3.3.8) Pem = Tav7KpD =q G38) 3 Therefore, A = 5% iw B ws 3.3.9) c =B ss (3.3.10) * A and B are called Einstein's coefficient. Modes and Threshold Conditions Modes of Cavity + Ina laser diode, the optical radiation within resonance cavity sets up a pattern of electric and magnetic lines referred as modes of cavity. + Three modes of cavity are 1. Longitudinal modes - related to length 'L’ of cavity 2. Lateral modes - in the plane of p-n junction 3. Transverse modes - associated with electromagnetic field. EEEY Lasing Conditions * The condition at which light amplification possible is referred as lasing condition, * An important condition for lasing is that a population inversion must be achieved, * The electromagnetic wave propagating in longitudinal direction is expressed as - E(z,t) = 1(z) lot w= G31) where, (2) is optical field intensity. © is optical radian frequency. f is propagation constant. + The fundamental expression for lasing in Fabry-Perot cavity is - 1@) = 1(0) lf" 8@Y)-20)}] on (8.3.12) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-26 Optical Sources and Detectors where, I’ is optical field confinement factor or the fraction of optical power in the active layer, Z is effective absorption coefficient of material. is gain coefficient. hy is photon energy. z is distance traverses along the lasing cavity. + Lasing (light amplification) occurs when gain of modes exceeds above optical loss during one round trip through the cavity ie. z = 2L. If Ry and Ry are the mirror reflectivities of the two ends of laser diode. Now the expression for lasing expressing is modified as, TQL) = 1(0) Ry Ry el2*{F8ry)-2O)}] (33.13) Lasing conditions + The condition of lasing threshold is given as - i) For amplitude : I (2L) = I (0) ii) For phase: e7i?)l =4 iii) Optical gain at threshold = Total loss in the cavity. ie. Pegi = oy + Now the lasing expression is reduced to - Pam = ap -a+2in(—t Baa a E+ op nl ee @3.4) P gm = Oy =F + oes (3.15) where, Geng is mirror loss in lasing cavity. ‘An important condition for lasing to occur is that gain, ¢ 2 gm ie. threshold gain. Find the optical gain at threshold of a laser diode having following parametric values ~ Ry =Rp = 0.32, &% = 10 cm™ and L = 500 wm Solution : Optical gain in laser diode is given by - = 1 1 ees TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-27 Optical Sources and Detectors 1 1 Igy = 10+ ———__ In (satan . 2x (500x104) 08250 gq = 337 emo? o Ans, Power Current Characteristics © The output optic power 5 _ versus forward input current characteristics is 4 plotted in Fig. 3.3.4 for a typical laser diode. 3 Below the threshold t ‘Stimulated it I, hs Optical emission coment (lw) only Se spontaneous emission fw) is emitted hence there is small increase in ' . optic power with drive Spontaneous current, 0 50 ty, 100 180 * At threshold when Current (ov) => lasing conditions are Fig. 3.3.4 Power current characteristics satisfied, the optical power increases sharply after the lasing threshold because of stimulated emission. The lasing threshold optical gain (gin) is related by threshold current density (iu) for stimulated emission by expression - Bu = Blu where, B is constant for device structure, External Quantum Efficiency (3.3.16) The external quantum efficiency is defined as the number of photons emitted per electron hole pair recombination above threshold point. The external quantum efficiency Nex is given by - Ni (Sn -®) Bin Next =. G.3.17) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-47 Optical Sources and Detectors Solution : Given : No. of electrons collected = 1.210"? No. of photons incident = 3x10! 2 = 0.85 pm = 0.85x 107 © m Quantum efficiency (n) Quantum efficiency is given by _ No. of electrons collected No. of photons incident 1.2x 101 3x10! n = 04= 40% o Ans, Responsitivity is given by - _ nga he 0.4x (1.602 10" 19) x (0.85x 10 ®) _ 5.4468 x 107 26 (6.625x 107) x (3x 108) 1.9875% 10- 0.2740 A/W + Ans. R= R PIN Photodiode Construction * PIN diode consists of an intrinsic semiconductor sandwiched between two heavily doped p-type and n-type semiconductors as shown in Fig. 3.5.1 Intrinsic layer 1 » |O~ +0] » Lye Bias voltage hy photons . 3.5.1 PIN photodiode structure TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-48 Optical Sources and Detectors Principle of Operation Sufficient reverse voltage is applied so as to keep intrinsic region free from carriers, so its resistance is high, most of diode voltage appears across it, and the electrical forces are strong within it. The incident photons give up their energy and excite an electron from valance to conduction band. Thus a free electron hole pair is generated, these are called as photocarriers. These carriers are collected across the reverse biased junction resulting in rise in current in external circuit called photocurrent. In the absence of light, PIN photodiodes behave electrically just like an ordinary rectifier diode. If forward biased, they conduct large amount of current, Operating Modes PIN detectors can be operated in two modes : Photovoltaic and photoconductive. In photovoltaic mode, no bias is applied to the detector. In this case the detector works very slow, and output is approximately logarithmic to the input light level. Real world fiber optic receivers never use the photovoltaic mode. In photoconductive mode, the detector is reverse biased. The output in this case is a current that is very linear with the input light power. The intrinsic region somewhat improves the sensitivity of the device. It does not provide internal gain. The combination of different semiconductors operating at different wavelengths allows the selection of material capable of responding to the desired operating wavelength. Diffusion Length When charge carriers flows within channel length, few electron-hole pairs recombine and not contributing any photo-current. The average length travelled by electrons and holes is denoted by L, and L,, respectively. This distance is known as diffusion length. Carrier Life Time ‘The carrier life time is defined as the time taken for an electron-hole pair recombination. Carrier life time for electrons and holes is denoted by t, and ty respectively. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 3-49 Optical Sources and Detectors The carrier life time and diffusion length are related by expressions. L, a = (Oy ta)? cm?/sec L, = D,-tp)'? cm?/sec where, D,, is electron diffusion co-efficient D, is hole diffusion co-efficient Optical Power Absorbed p(x) = Py [1 -e7s4)] where, Pj is incident optical power The optical power absorbed by photo diode at distance 'x' is given by a, (2) absorption coefficient at wavelength A Comparison of PN and PIN diode Sr. No. PN PIN 1, | Ithas two layer : p-layer and It has three layer: p-layer, intrinsic-layer and rlayer. nelayer. 2, | It does not require any bias. Due to the intrinsic layer, a PIN photodiode must be reverse biased (Vr). The Vr increases the depletion region allowing a larger volume for electron-hole pair production, and reduces the capacitance thereby increasing the bandwidth. 3. | APN photodiode is more suitable | The Vr also introduces noise current, which for lower light applications because | reduces the $/N ratio. Therefore, a reverse bias it allows for unbiased operation. | is recommended for higher bandwidth applications and/or applications where a wide dynamic range is required, 4. | Applications : Remote control, Applications : Microwave mixers, duplexers optocouplers A photodiode is constructed GaAs which has a band gap energy of 1.43 eV at 300 K. Find the long wavelength cut-off ‘AU : May-15, Marks 4 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-50 Optical Sources and Detectors Solution : Ae = 867 nm w Ans. GEER) 4 siven silicon APD has a quantum efficiency of 65 % at a wavelength of 900 nm. Suppose 0.5 uW of optical power produces a multiplied photocurrent of 10 #A Find multiplication factor. CORTESE Solution : Responsivity x = 7% hv 19 -9 0.65%1.602%10!9 «90010 _ 4 4747 awe? 6.62610 x 2.998 x108 The photocurrent Tp = Pyo® = 05x 107° x 04717 = 0.23 pA Multiplication factor 6 = 10x10” = 43.47 -- Ans. 0.23x10°° 1. Explain the operation of pin photodetector with necessary diagram and expressions. ORS Tae) 2. Draw and compare the construction and characteristics of PIN and avalanche photo diode. Avalanche Photodiode (APD) * When a pn junction diode is applied with high reverse bias breakdown can occur by two separate mechanisms direct ionization of the lattice atoms, zener breakdown and high velocity carriers causing impact ionization of the lattice atoms called avalanche breakdown. * APDs uses the avalanche breakdown phenomena for its operation. The APD has its internal gain which increases its responsivity. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-51 Optical Sources and Detectors + Fig. 3.6.1 shows the schematic structure of an APD. By virtue of the doping concentration and physical construction of the n* p junction, the electric field is high enough to cause impact ionization. Avalanche region Gain ‘Absorption mmin.field needed for impact ionization id across diode Fig. 3.6.1 APD schematic and variation of E- * Under normal operating bias, the Hayer (the p~ region) is completely depleted This is known as reach through condition, hence APDs are also known as reach through APD or RAPDs. 1, Impact lonization + The photo generated carriers traverse a region where a very high electric field is present. These carriers can gain enough energy under high electric field and excite new electron-hole pairs. This phenomena is called impact ionization. 2. Avalanche Effect * During ionization new generated carriers also accelerated by high electric field and gain enough energy to cause further impact ionization. This phenomena is called avalanche effect. 3. lonization Rate + The average number of electron hole pairs created by a carrier per unit distance travelled is called the ionization rate (k). * Different materials have different ionization rates. Electron ionization rate is denoted by « and hole ionization rate is denoted by 6. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” ‘An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-52 Optical Sources and Detectors * A photo detector performance is measured by the ratio of two ionization rates ie k= 8 o * Similar to PIN photodiode, light absorption in APDs is most efficient in Layer. In this region, the E-field separates the carriers and the electrons drift into the avalanche region where carrier multiplication occurs. * If the APD is biased close to breakdown, it will result in reverse leakage current. Thus APDs are usually biased just below breakdown, with the bias voltage being tightly controlled 4. Avalanche Multiplication + The multiplication for all carriers generated in the photodiode is given as - M = ™ 6.1) Ip where, Ty = Average value of total multiplied output current. Ip = Primay unmultiplied photocurrent. + Responsivity of APD is given by - nq R = Um ArD hy ngh Rg, =——M ap = pe Rapp = RoM w= 3.6.2) where, Ry = Unity gain responsivity. Advantages and Disadvantages of APD Advantages of APD : 1. Excellent linearity over optical power range from nanowatts to several microwatts. 2. Better sensitivity (5 to 15 dB) 3. Wide range of gain variation. 4. APD offers internal gain. 5. Better S/N ratio. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-53 Optical Sources and Detectors Disadvantages of APD : 1 BYR 5. Due to complex structure, fabrication is difficult, APD and supporting circuitry is more expensive. Random nature of gain mechanism contibutes additional noise. High voltage (60 to 400 V) and temperature compensation is needed for stabilization, Internal gain of APD s temperature dependent. Comparison of PIN and APD Sr. Parameters PIN APD No. 1. Sensitivi Less sensitive (0 - 12 dB). More sensitive (5 to 15 dB), 2. Biasing Low reverse biased voltage High reverse biased voltage ( to 10 V). (20 - 400 volts). 3. Wavelength region 300 - 1100 nm, 400-100 nm. 4. Gain No internal gain. Internal gain, 5._S/N ratio Poor. Better. 6. Detector circuit Simple. More complex. 7. Conversion efficiency 05 to 1.0 Amps/watt. 0.5 to 100 Amps/watt. 8. Cost Cheaper. More expensive. 9. Support circuitry required None. High voltage and temperature compensation. 1 2 3 Explain the structure and working of a silicon APD. CUES eee Explain the operation of APD with neat diagram. AU : May-12, Marks 8 Draw the structure and electric fields in the APD and explain its working CORDS rae Draw the structures of PIN APD photo detectors and explain their operations. ‘AU : May-13, Marks 8 Draw the structures of PIN and APD photo detectors and explain their operations. ‘AU : May-13, Marks 8 Develop the schematics of PIN photodiode and APD and also explain in detail ‘AU : May-19, Marks 13 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 4-17 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling + Neglecting dark current, the mean output current is given as - Go) = MS byhp (t- n Th) on (4.4.3) * The mean output current is amplified, filtered to give mean voltage at the output, EE] comparison of Receiver Performance Parameter PIN Detector APD Detector Preamplifier noise level (A*) 1075 to 10-18 107 to 10-718 Digital receiver sensitivity (1Bm) = 3421 to — 49.21 51.00 to ~ 51.65, Analog receiver S/N (dBm) 13.00 to 37.78 34.36 to 38.27 1. Discuss with necessary expressions that different types of noises that affect the performance of a photo detector EEA Probability of Error ‘AU, + Bit Error Rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of number of errors occuring over a time interval to the number of pulses transmitted during the interval. oo» 45.1) on (45.2) where, Ng is number of errors occuring during the interval N; is number of pulses transmitted during the interval. Bis bit rate oo Jor pulse transmission rate. \ ob) * BER for optical fiber communication system is ranging between 107° to 107 !?. * BER of receiver depends on S/N ratio. To compute the BER at receiver probability distribution of output signal is considered TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” ‘An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-18 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling Conditional PDF * P(y/x) is the probability that the output voltage is y when x was transmitted. The functions p(y/1) and p(y/0) are conditional PDF as shown in Fig. 4.5. Threshold Fig. 4.5.1 Probability distribution of received 1 and 0 + The probability distributions are given as - ri(v) = J p(y ay * It is the probability that output voltage is less than threshold when logic ‘I’ is sent. Po(v) = J eo dy + It is the probability that output voltage exceeds threshold voltage when a logic is sent. ERI Probability of Error When '0' Pulse Sent * When '0" pulse is sent, no pulse is present at the decoding time * Under this condition the probability of error is when noise exceeds the threshold voltage (V,,) and is misread as 'I' pulse. PoVa) = f p(v/o dy = f fly) dy Vth Vth TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-19 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling (W=boft? 1 . Don Po(Vy,) = ——_ of dv Ve) = eo on vn when data is 'I' its amplitude is V. (EEA Probability of Error When ‘1' Pulse Sent * When transmitted pulse '1' is misinterpreted as ‘0’ by decoder circuit. Vin Vin PAVa) = J PO/1)dy = f fC) dv PuVin) = eS ERS Error Probability (P,) + The error probability is expressed as : P, = aP\v) + bPo(w) 45.3) where, a and b are probabilities that either 1 or 0 occurs. if, v_)| = 1)1- ent 5, 2) «=r (45.4) P, where, V is the pulse amplitude. 6 is standard deviation (measure of width of probability distribution) aR Cea cod 1. Considering the probability distributions for received logic 0 and 1 signal pulses, derive the expressions for BER and error function. aS ae) 2. Define the term - ‘Probability of error with respect to a receiver with typical values. Osea 3. Derive the probability of error of fiber optic receiver. CUE SES a 4. What are the performance measures of a digital receiver ? Derive an expression for bit error rate of a digital receiver. ES ee TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 5-41 Optical Communication Systoms and Networks Solution : Component/ Parameter Output / Sensitivity / Loss Power margin LED output (0.1 mW) =10 dBm Receiver sensitivity —46 dBm Allowed loss 31 dB [10(-46)] = 36 4B Fiber loss (10 x 2.5) 25 dB Splice loss (5 x 0.3) 15 dB Connector loss (1 x 1.5) 15 dB Safety margin 6.0 dB Excess power margin 3dB University Question The system is viable and provides 3 dB excess power margin. 1. Explain fiber optic link power budget with an example. Oa) EZ] Rise Time Budget COREA ALEC RR RAC) Rise time gives important information for initial system design. Rise-time budget analysis determines the dispersion limitation of an optical fiber link Total rise time of a fiber link is the root-sum-square of rise time of each contributor to the pulse rise time degradation. = fes2e tys = fet rte. The link components must be switched fast enough and the fiber dispersion must be low enough to meet the bandwidth requirements of the application. Adequate bandwidth for a system can be assured by developing a rise time budget ‘As the light sources and detectors has a finite response time to inputs. The device does not turn-on or turn-off instantancously. Rise time and fall time determines the overall response time and hence the resulting bandwidth. Connectors, couplers and splices do not affect system speed, they need not be accounted in rise time budget but they appear in the link power budget. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 5-12 Optical Communication Systems and Networks + Four basic elements that contributes to the rise-time are, - Transmitter rise-time (tix) - Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD) rise time (tgyp) - Modal dispersion rise time of fiber (tmoa) ~ Receiver rise time (ty,) -feae 2. 272 * Rise time due to modal dispersion is given as _ 40 _ 4401. met“ Bu Bo t, where, By is bandwidth (MHz) Lis length of fiber (km) q is a parameter ranging between 0.5 and 1 Bg is bandwidth of 1 km length fiber. + Rise time due to group velocity dispersion is tovp = Doi where, D is dispersion [ns/(nm.km)] ©, is half-power spectral width of source Lis length of fiber * Receiver front end rise-time in nanoseconds is = 350 t ~ "8B where, B,x is 3 dB - BW of receiver (MHz). + Equation (5.4.1) can be written as = fear 2 2 72 tos = [+ thea teu +8] 72 2 ,(MOLAY | 25212 4( 350) [a-( oF ) sprit (ae) All times are in nanoseconds s t, sys (64.1) (5.4.2) . 6.4.3) (6.44) (6.45) TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 5-13 Optical Communication Systems and Networks + The system bandwidth is given by, 0.35 BW = eeu GEEREZED For «multimode fiber tink following parameters are recorded. i) LED with drive circuit has rise time of 15 ns. ti) LED spectral width = 40 nm iii) Material dispersion related rise time degradation = 21 ns over 6 km link iv) Receiver bandwidth = 25 MHz ») Modal dispersion rise time = 3.9 nsec Calculate system rise time. (6.4.6) rT 5 Solution: ty = 15 nsec tat = 21 nsec tmod = 3:9 nsec ty, = 2 Now 1x Bu 350 toe = Gps Md nsec Since | tyys = = 2 2 2 2y2 toys = [1527 +217 +392 +147] tuys = 29.61 nsec o Ans, GEEREZED 4 fiber link has following data Component BW Rise time (t,) Transmitter 200 Miz 175 nsec LED (850 nm) 100 MHz 3.50 nsec Fiber cable 90 MHz 3.89 nsec PIN detector 350 MHz 1.00 nsec Receiver 180 MHz 1.94 nsec Compute the system rise time and bandwidth. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-17 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling + Neglecting dark current, the mean output current is given as - Go) = MS byhp (t- n Th) on (4.4.3) * The mean output current is amplified, filtered to give mean voltage at the output, EE] comparison of Receiver Performance Parameter PIN Detector APD Detector Preamplifier noise level (A*) 1075 to 10-18 107 to 10-718 Digital receiver sensitivity (1Bm) = 3421 to — 49.21 51.00 to ~ 51.65, Analog receiver S/N (dBm) 13.00 to 37.78 34.36 to 38.27 1. Discuss with necessary expressions that different types of noises that affect the performance of a photo detector EEA Probability of Error ‘AU, + Bit Error Rate (BER) is defined as the ratio of number of errors occuring over a time interval to the number of pulses transmitted during the interval. oo» 45.1) on (45.2) where, Ng is number of errors occuring during the interval N; is number of pulses transmitted during the interval. Bis bit rate oo Jor pulse transmission rate. \ ob) * BER for optical fiber communication system is ranging between 107° to 107 !?. * BER of receiver depends on S/N ratio. To compute the BER at receiver probability distribution of output signal is considered TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” ‘An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-18 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling Conditional PDF * P(y/x) is the probability that the output voltage is y when x was transmitted. The functions p(y/1) and p(y/0) are conditional PDF as shown in Fig. 4.5. Threshold Fig. 4.5.1 Probability distribution of received 1 and 0 + The probability distributions are given as - ri(v) = J p(y ay * It is the probability that output voltage is less than threshold when logic ‘I’ is sent. Po(v) = J eo dy + It is the probability that output voltage exceeds threshold voltage when a logic is sent. ERI Probability of Error When '0' Pulse Sent * When '0" pulse is sent, no pulse is present at the decoding time * Under this condition the probability of error is when noise exceeds the threshold voltage (V,,) and is misread as 'I' pulse. PoVa) = f p(v/o dy = f fly) dy Vth Vth TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-19 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling (W=boft? 1 . Don Po(Vy,) = ——_ of dv Ve) = eo on vn when data is 'I' its amplitude is V. (EEA Probability of Error When ‘1' Pulse Sent * When transmitted pulse '1' is misinterpreted as ‘0’ by decoder circuit. Vin Vin PAVa) = J PO/1)dy = f fC) dv PuVin) = eS ERS Error Probability (P,) + The error probability is expressed as : P, = aP\v) + bPo(w) 45.3) where, a and b are probabilities that either 1 or 0 occurs. if, v_)| = 1)1- ent 5, 2) «=r (45.4) P, where, V is the pulse amplitude. 6 is standard deviation (measure of width of probability distribution) aR Cea cod 1. Considering the probability distributions for received logic 0 and 1 signal pulses, derive the expressions for BER and error function. aS ae) 2. Define the term - ‘Probability of error with respect to a receiver with typical values. Osea 3. Derive the probability of error of fiber optic receiver. CUE SES a 4. What are the performance measures of a digital receiver ? Derive an expression for bit error rate of a digital receiver. ES ee TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-3 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling 3. Draw the block diagram of fundamental optical receiver. Explain each block. URS Cae 4. With schematic diagram, explain the blocks and their function of an optical receiver. ORS eo 5. Explain in brief the blocks and their functions of an optical receiver with schematic diagrams. CURSO Preamplifiers ‘AU : May-11,12,13, Dec.-11,12,13,18 + The preamplifiers are front end amplifiers. + The bandwidth, BER, noise and sensitivity of optical receiver are determined by preamplifier stage. Preamplifier circuit must be designed with the aim of optimizing these characteristics. * Commonly used preamplifier in optical communication receiver are - 1. Low - impedance preamplifier (LZ) 2. High - impedance preamplifier (HZ) 3, Transimpedance preamplifier (IZ). Low Impedance Preamplifier (LZ) + In low-impedance preamplifier, the photodiode is configured as low - impedance amplifier. The bias resister R, is used to match the amplifier impedance. Ry along with the input capacitance of amplifier decides the bandwidth of amplifier. «Fig. 4.2.1 shows low impedence preamplifier configuration. * Low - impedance preamplifier can operate over a wide bandwidth but they have poor receiver sensitivity. Therefore the low - impedance amplifier are used where sensitivity is of not prime concern. eR wu Ee > Detector and bias Voltage amplifier Fig. 4.2.1 Low impedance front end optical receiver TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-4 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling EZ] High Impedance Preamplifier (HZ) ee NP Incident Tight In high - impedance preamplifier the objective is to minimize the noise from all sources. This can be achieved by - Reducing input capacitance by selecting proper devices. Selecting detectors with low dark currents Minimizing, thermal noise of biasing, resistors. Using high impedance amplifier with large Ry. ‘The high impedance amplifier uses FET or a BJT. As the high impedance circuit has large RC time constant, the bandwidth is reduced. Fig. 4.2.2 shows equivalent circuit of high input impedance pre-amplifier. ' ext) ' QF ano | ' + }~V, =~ R : (at ‘6 Cg i | it : Photodetector | Amplifier Hi "itn bias ——»] equivalent ckt | Equalizer resistor — Fig, 4.2.2 High - input impedance preamplifier High-input impedance preamplifier are most sensitive and finds applications in long - wavelength, long haul routes. The high sensitivity is due to the use of a high input resistance (typically > 1 MQ), which results in exceptionally low thermal noise. The combination of high resistance and receiver input capacitance, results in very low BW, typically < 30 kHz, and this causes integration of the received signal. A differentiating, equalizing or compensating network at the receiver output corrects for this integration. High Impedance FET Amplifier High input impedance preamplifier using FET is shown in Fig. 4.2.3, Basic noise sources in the circuit are - ‘Thermal noise associated with FET channel Thermal noise from load. Thermal noise from feedback resistor. Shot noise due to gate - leakage current (Iyate) FET 1/f noise. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-6 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling Vv Vv Incident "Amplifier light 22> VY Photodiode ‘and Vout equalizer Coupling a capacitor Fi 4.2.3 High input impedance preamplifier using FET * As the amplifier input resistance is very high, the input current noise spectral density S; is expressed as - . 4kp T Sirer = 2 + 2qlpate ~ 24 Tgate . (4.2.1) Thermal noise associated with FET channel «The voltage noise spectral density is - 4ke TT wee (4.2.2) Bm Se = where, &m is transconductance. is channel noise factor. Thermal noise characteristic equation is a very useful figure of merit for a receiver as it measures the noiseness of amplifier. The equation is reproduced here - Sp) 2m)? R)? Pac ~ SplsB Substituting S; and Sp, the equalizer output is then, we {2a + Hot est), = (280 ska 28 b Bm RE Ld) 8m ww (4.2.3) where, C= Cyt Cy + Oya + Cy TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-6 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling * If bias resistor Ry, is very large, so that the gate leakage current is very low. For this the detector output signal is integrated amplifier input resistence. It is to be compensated by differentiation in the equalizer. The integration-differentiation is known as high input impedance preamplifier design technique. However, the integration of received signal at the front end restricts the dynamic range of receiver. It may disrupt the biasing levels and receiver may fail. To correct it the line coded data or AGC may be employed. Such receivers can have dynamic ranges in excess of 20 dB. * Of course, FET with high gq is selected. For high data rates GaAs MESFET are suitable while at lower frequencies silicon MOSFETs or JFET are preferred. EEERA High impedance Bipolar Transistor Amplifier «High input impedance preamplifier using BJT is shown in Fig, 4.2.4. + “t Ry “Amplifier |__| + }—> Vous cae Equalizer R Ry 4.2.4 High input impedance preamplifier using BJT * Input resistance of BJT is given as - kT app (4.2.4) where, Ipp is base bias current. * Spectral density of input noise current source because of shot noise of base current is - S, = 2qIp5 2kgT 5, = 2X8 1 Rin TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 47 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling * Spectral height of noise voltage source is given as - sp = 2ket (4.2.6) Bm where, gm is transconductance. gle _ B Bm “ke kpT Rin * The performance of receiver is expressed by thermal noise characteristic equation (W) where, B If Ry >> Rin, then R r 2 _ 2kgT)T) B+1 (2nC) We a ike B 1 + SEER Is ~ (4.2.8) Rin, the expression reduces to Transimpedance Preamplifier (TZ) * The drawbacks of high input impedance are eliminated in transimpedance preamplifier. A negative feedback is introduced by a feedback resistor Ry to increase the bandwidth of open loop preamplifier with an equivalent thermal noise current ir (t) shunting the input. Incident aL ight Mi) eRe igtt) out Photodetector Amplifier [with bias ———>| ‘equivalent ckt Equalizer resistor Fig. 4.2.5 Transimpedance preamplifier equivalent circuit TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-8 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling * An equivalent circuit of transimpedance preamplifier is shown in Fig. 4.25 eq(t) = Equivalent series voltage noise source. ig(t) = Equivalent shunt current noise. Rin = Ra II Ca. Ry = Feedback resistor. ig (Q) = Equivalent thermal noise current. * Although the resulting receiver is often not as sensitive as the integrating front end design, this type of preamplifier does not exhibit a high dynamic range and is usually cheaper to produce Transimpedance Amplifier using CE/CC + An ideal transimpedance preamplifier provides an output voltage which is directly proportional to the input current and independent of source and load impedance. * A transimpedance amplifier is a high-gain high-impedance amplifier with feedback resistor Ry. Fig. 4.2.6 shows a simple CE/CC. Shunt feedback transimpedance receiver. +V Ry Fig. 4.2.6 CE/CC shunt feedback transimpedance receiver Bandwidth (BW) * To find BW, the transfer function of non-feedback amplifier and feedback amplifier is compared. The transfer function of non-feedback amplifier is, TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 4-9 Optical Receiver, Measurements and Coupling AR Hf) = ——_ we (4.2.9) = Tyme (25) where, A is frequency independent gain of amplifier. Now the transfer function of feedback (transimpedance) amplifier is - 1 Hy = -———— we (4.2.10) 1% 14 JERE (42.10) A This yields the BW of transimpedance amplifier. A 7 — (4.2.11 Brz TRC ¢ ) i.e. BW of transimpedance amplifier is A times that of high-impedance amplifier. Because of this equalization becomes easy. Characteristic equation The thermal noise characteristic equation (W) is reduced to - Wrz = Wry +28 4807 Pu Re I (4.2.12) where, Whiz is noise characteristic of high-impedance amplifier (non-feedback amplifier) Thus thermal noise of transimpedance amplifier is sum of output noise of non-feedback amplifier and noise associated with Ry. [EERE] Benefits of Transimpedance Amplifier 2 Wide dynamic range : As the BW of transimpedance preamplifier is high enough so that no integration takes place and dynamic range can be set by maximum voltage swing at preamplifier output. No equalization required : Since combination of Rin and Ry is very small hence the time constant of detector is small Less susceptible to external noise : The output resistance is small hence the amplifier is less susceptible to pick up noise, crosstalk, RFI and EML. Easy control : Transimpedance amplifiers have easy control over its operation and is stable. Compensating network not required : Since integration of detected signal does not occur, compensating network is not required. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 3-13 Optical Sources and Detectors A = 1.2671 pm A = 1.27 um w» Ans. Quantum Efficiency and LED Power + The internal quantum efficiency (niqt) is defined as the ratio of radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate. R, Nit = RGR o» 8.25) where, R, is radiative recombination rate. Ry is non-radiative recombination rate. If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, t, a R, non-radiative life time, tar = + The internal quantum efficiency is given as - tim = int = RS ee 1 Thine ~~ B26) z 14h Thr * The recombination time of carriers in active region is t. It is also known as bulk recombination life time. a w=» 8.2.7) Therefore internal quantum efficiency is given as - t Nine (3.2.8) + The interval quantum efficiency in the active region is a fraction of electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively. «If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge then total number of recombinations per second is - TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 3-14 Optical Sources and Detectors From equation (3.2.5) Tine 2 (3.2.9) q * Optical power generated internally in LED is given as - Pint R,- hv (. I Pint = {Mine X —|- hv = [nin ’) _ I c Pine = {nin 4) he _ hel = Mint aa (3.2.10) + Not all internally generated photons will available from output of device. The external quantum efficiency is used to calculate the emitted power. «The external quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of photons emitted from LED to the number of photons generated internally. It is given by equation 1 w= (B21) Next = ——z n(n? + The optical output power emitted from LED is given as - t° Pint 1 P = ——_.- Pin rade ™ (3.2.12) P=, GEEREEED 4 double heterojunction InGaAsP LED operating at 1310 nm has radiative and non-radiative recombination times of 30 and 100 ns respectively. The current injected is 40 mA. Calculate - i) Bulk recombination life time ii) Internal quantum efficiency. iii) Internal power level. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 2-41 Transmission Characteristic of Optical Fiber EE] Design Opti n of Single Mode Fibers * Features of single mode fibers are : izat - Longer life. - Low attenuation. - Signal transfer quality is good. - Modal noise is absent. - Largest BW-distance product. + Basic design - optimization includes the following : - Cutoff wavelength. - Dispersion. - Mode field diameter. - Bending loss. - Refractive index profile. Refractive Index Profile * Dispersion of single mode silica fiber is lowest at 1300 nm while its attenuation is minimum at 1550 nm. For achieving maximum transmission distance the dispersion null should be at the wavelength of minimum attenuation. The waveguide dispersion is easier to control than the material dispersion. Therefore a variety of core-cladding refractive index configuration fibers. Such as 1300 nm - optimized fibers, dispersion shifted fibers, dispersion - flattened fibers and large effective core area fibers. 1. 1300 nm - Optimized Fibers * These are most popularly used fibers. The two configurations of 1300 nm - optimized single mode fibers are a) Matched cladding fibers. b) Dressed cladding fibers. * Matched cladding fibers have uniform refractive index throughout its cladding. Typical diameter is 9.0 um and A = 0.35 %, * Dressed cladding fibers have the innermost cladding portion has low refractive index than outercladding region. Typical diameter is 8.4 um and A; = 0.25 %, Ay = 0.12 %. Fig. 2.9.1 shows both types of fibers. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 2-42 Transmission Characteristic of Optical Fiber be 2a—+1 be 2a—+1 a= 4.5 um| A= 0.35% A, = 0.12% (@) Matched cladding (b) Dressed cladding Fig. 2.9.1 1300 nm - opt ized refractive index profile 2. Dispersion Shifted Fibers + The addition of waveguide and material dispersion can shift the zero dispersion point to longer wavelength. Two configurations of dispersion shifted fibers are : a) Step index dispersion shifted fiber b) Triangular dispersion shifted fiber. real A=12% (a) Step index (b) Triangular Fig. 2.9.2 Dispersion shifted fibers 3. Dispersion Flattened ay=3um Ay=.0.75 % a)7 3.4 um a= 4.7 um a) 0.45% ~ | [~ la, -— Sealed al {a) Double clad profile (b) Quadruple clad profile Fig. 2.9.3 Dispersion flattened TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedgeOptical Communication 2-43 Transmission Characteristic of Optical Fiber * Dispersion flattened fibers are more complex to design. It offers much broader span of wavelengths to suit desirable characteristics. Two configurations are : «Fig, 2.9.4 shows total resultant dispersion. ol Sm petite > Dispersion flattened te as 920 gp 1300 1400» 1500-1600 Wavelength (nm) => persion ig. 2.9.4 Total resultant EEF Dispersion Calculations + The total dispersion consists of material and waveguide dispersions. The resultant intermodal dispersion is given as, dt dy where, t is group delay per unit length of fiber. + The broadening o of an optical pulse is given as, o = D@&LoA where, 6 ;, is half power spectral width of source. D@ = + As the dispersion varies with wavelength and fiber type. Different formula are used to calculate dispersions for variety of fiber at different wavelength. * For a non - dispersion shifted fiber between 1270 nm to 1340 nm wavelength, the expression for dispersion is given as : where, Ag is zero dispersion wavelength. Sq is value at dispersion slope at Ao. * Fig. 29.5 shows dispersion performance curve for non-dispersion shifted fibers in 1270 - 1340 nm region. @ TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 2-44 Transmission Characteristic of Optical Fiber * Maximum dispersion specified as 3.5 ps/(nm - km) marked as dotted line in Fig. 29.5. 4 D = 3.5 psi(nm - km) 3 2 4 1 Dispersion (esinm km) 0 Dispersion performance region 3.5 ps/ (am: km) 1270 1300 1320-1340 Wavelength (nm) c=> Fig. 2.9.5 Cut-off Wavelength of an Optical Fiber + The cut-off frequency of an optical fiber is determined not only by the fiber itself (modal dispersion in case of multimode fibers and waveguide dispersion in case of single mode fibers) but also by the amount of material dispersion caused by the spectral width of transmitter. + The cut-off wavelength of a single mode operation is given as - or Where, V. is cutoff normalized frequency. Vo = 2.405 for step index fiber. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 2-45 Transmission Characteristic of Optical Fiber + The cut-off wavelength also decides the radius of curvature. For a single mode fiber the radius of curvature is given by expression a3 20%. i Res = —2%* __(2,748- 0.996 % “s mena ( Re Bending Loss Limitations + The macrobending and microbending losses are significant in single mode fibers at 1550 nm region, the lower cut-off wavelengths affects more. Fig.2.9.6 shows macrobending losses. 3 | Added toss due to macrobending tf 2 [Added toss due to microbending Loss (681k) Basie fber loss 1 1000 1200 1400 1500 1600 1800 Wavelength(nm) => Fig. 2.9.6 Fiber attenuation due to macrobending and microbending * The bending losses are function of mode-field diameter, smaller the mode-field diameter, the smaller the bending loss. Fig. 2.9.7 shows loss due to mode-field diameter. +— Macrobending loss (a8/km) — Microbending loss 0s 8 9 10 1" 2 Mode - field diameter (um) => . 2.9.7 Loss due to mode field diameter variation TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - An up thrust for knowledgeOptical Communication 2-46 Transmission Characteristic of Optical Fiber * The bending losses are also function of bend-radius of curvature. If the bend radius is less, the losses are more and when the radius is more, the bending losses are less. TOR een) 1. With refractive index profiles and other relevant diagrams, explain standard single mode, dispersion shifted and dispersion flattened fibers 2. Discuss the attenuation encountered in optical fiber communication due to : Absorption 3. Discuss about the design optimization of single mode fiber 4. Suggest and validate the techniques employed and the fiber structures utilized to provide. 1) Dispersion shifted single mode fibers ii) Dispersion flattened single mode fibers iil) Non zero dispersion shifted single mode fibers, EXD Modal Dispersion In Multimode Fibers * Multimode fibers can guide many different light modes since they have much larger core size. This is shown in Fig. 2.10.1. Each mode enters the fiber at a different angle and thus travels at different paths in the fiber. Input Output Modal Mode 1 Mode 2: Mode 3° ig. 2.104 * Since each mode ray travels a different distance as it propagates, the ray arrive at different times at the fiber output. * So the light pulse spreads out in time which can cause signal overlapping so seriously that you cannot distinguish them any more * Model dispersion is not a problem in single mode fibers since there is only one mode that can travel in the fiber. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® ‘An up thrust for knowiedge