Journal of Institute of Science and Technology, 2014, 19(2): 142-144, © Institute of Science and Technology, T.U.

NOTE

Algebra and Logics

Tika Ram Bhusal

Department of Mathematics, Patan Multiple campus,
Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email:tikrambhusal@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The context of abstractness in Algebra depends on the study of logics. Logics when dealt in some meani ngful way
may give challenges to the game of theories and theorems. We have tried to find some examples which should be
with the spirit of trends of thoughts. Axioms are basic assumptions but they should be consistent throughout the
problem. In the study of logics, statements should satisfy certain property. We cannot introduce any statement in the
curriculum dictatorially.
Keywords: Algebra, logics, axioms, statements, lemmas, Fermat’s last theorem, Falting’s theorem

INTRODUCTION Basic assumptions

Few examples of axioms, theorems, statements and
Let f : AB be a function. If A is partitioned by
lemma are stated in this report. Starting with the
definitions followed by consistency is discussed taking disjoint sets Pi , each set Pi consists of n elements and
with different examples. each of the n elements of Pi is mapped to single element
Definitions of B. Then we say that f is n to 1 function. This i s a
definition and counts as basic assumption (Axiom) for
D1 : Axioms- In general, axioms are basic further studies. It means A contains m n elements; m,
assumptions which are not proved, it is only n  N, N is the set of positive integers.
necessary that they be consistent throughout This axiom is not consistent throughout the discourse of
the problem. mathematics.
D2 : Theorems- The conclusion obtained from Examples
the axioms by logical reasoning are called (a) Let Z be the set of integers:
Theorem. (i) Let f : Z Z be a function such that
f (x) 0 , x  x Z ,this is to 1 function.
D3 : Statements- Sentences which have the
property of being either true or false are (ii) Let f : Z Z be a function such that
called statements. f (x) r , x= 2n+r , 0  r < 2, n, r  Z, this
D4 : Lemmas – A lemma is a statement is to 1 function.
(iii) Let f : Z Z be a function such that
introduced to help in the proof of a theorem.
f (x) r , x= 5n+r ,0  r<5, n, r  Z, this
D5 : Invalid statements - If one example fails out
is to 1 function.
the intrinsic property of statement of (b) The above mentioned axioms (definitions) are not
theorem or problem, we call such statement consistent throughout above three examples (i), (ii)
as invalid statement. Invalid statement and (iii).
cannot satisfy the definition of statement. (c) Let R be the set of real numbers, taking the sine
Here we are going to discuss on two topics. The fir st function sin: R  R , n to 1 is possible, but the case
one is basic assumptions (Axioms) and the other one is becomes ambiguous because R is uncountable and
statements. its every close interval is uncountable. It may

142
 Tika Ram Bhusal

challenge the definition of function. This example is Now, when n=3, U(23)=U(8)={1,3,5,7}. We see that,
also not consistent with the axiom (definition). {3,32 ,33 ,34 }  {1,3}  U (23 )
Statements {1,12 ,13 ,14 }  {1} U (23 )
When dealing with an implication p
q as a statement
{5,5 2 ,53 ,54 }  {1,5}  U (23 )
of theorem or problem, it is customary to refer to p as
the hypothesis (assumption) and to q as the conclusion {7,7 2 ,7 3 ,7 4 }  {1,7} U (23 )
(or a statement to be proved). Main focus is on the This shows that U (23) is not cyclic. Above illustration
statement of popularly known Fermat’s last theorem, implies that S is not true for n=3. This implies that S is
which is a conjecture. The validity of its statement is invalid statement by definition D5. This implies that
discussed. U(2n) is not cyclic for all n > 3.
Motivations
Hence proved
Motivation (a): It is well known statement that “square
of an even integer is an even integer”, this is a valid Motivation(c): Case: It is given that out of three
statement. Study of logics has given us another numbers x, y and z, if at least one is integer. Let ’s
statement of theorem (lemma). take three statements“{x,y,z}has integers” be the
2 statement for S2 has "{x,y,z} has at least one integer" be
“If a is even integer then a is an even integer”.
the statement for S3 “{x,y,z} has no integers” be the
Let’s state it more properly by giving the name S1 statement S4.
2
S1 : In the universal set  “ if a is even then a is
Statements S2 and S4 are invalid for this case.
even”.
Let’s give counter example for it. Reason: In particular, suppose x is an integer and y, z
2
If a is even then we can suppose a 2 2m , are non integers. It will be meaningless to say “{x, y , z}
m  Now, if m=1 then a 2 2.1 2 . has integers”
There doesn’t exist any a  such that a 2 2 . Similarly, since y, z are non integers and x is an integer.
Similarly, if m=-1 then a 2.(
1) 
2 =2.
2 It will be meaningless to say that“{x,y,z} has no
2 integers”. That is why statements S2 and S4 are invalid
There doesn’t exist any a  such that a = -2
2
for this case.
We conclude that, if a is even, then, 1Z . It fails
2 Invalidity of statement of Fermat’s last theorem or
to say that “if a is even integer then a is an even conjecture or problem:
integer”.
Further, in the universal set Z, we can split it into The statement given by Fermat in translated form is as
two sets E and O such that E O = Z and E O follows:
=  , E is set of even integers and O is set of odd “It is impossible to separate a cube into two cubes , a
2
fourth power into two fourth powers or generally any
integers. a cannot cover all elements of E, so no power above the second into two powers of the same
question arises to see the Truth Table. This counter degree”.
example suggests that the statement S1 is invalid
If universal discourse is the set of positive whole
statement of theorem or lemma or problem. numbers and Faltings theorem is not considered, then
Motivation (b): Let n  such that n>1. We define this statement according to the definition is valid.
U(n) to be the set of all positive integers less than n
and relatively prime to n, then U(n) is a group under In the present context, statement given in times
multiplication modulo n. magazine, July 5, 1993 by Michael D. Lemonick is as
U(2n), n is positive integer, is also defined in the follows, Fermat’s last theorem:
same way. “The equation xn +yn=zn, where n is an integer greater
Statement of the problem: Prove U(2n) , is not cyclic than 2, there is no solution in positive integers”.
group for all n > 3. In the text of Michael Artin, the statement is as follows:
Let’s prove it using logics.
Proof: The equation xn+yn=zn, for n > 3 has no integer solution
Let "U(2n) is cyclic for all n > 3” be the statement S x,y,z, except for the trivial solutions in which one of the
and S be valid for all n > 3. variable is zero.

143
Algebra and Logics

144