UNIT 3.2.

GRAPHICAL MODELLING

Essential Idea:

Graphical models are used to communicate design ideas.

Nature of design:

Graphical models can take many forms, but their prime function is to simplify the data and
present it in such a way that understanding of what is being presented aids further
development or discussion. Designers utilize graphical modelling as a tool to explore
creative solutions and refine ideas from the technically impossible to the technically
possible; widening the constraints of what is feasible.

Aim:

The development of ideas through graphical models allows designers to explore and deepen
their understanding of a problem and context of use.

Guidance:

 How graphical models are used to communicate with oneself and others
 How the choice of graphical models varies in relation to the context
 Advantages and disadvantages of using different graphical models

Product design starts with sketching and modelling. It is employed by designers to preview
their ideas, prove concepts, develop iterations, detect errors, ergonomic assessments and
make client presentations. Models are also used to improve in-house communication
between designers, engineers and non-engineering staff during the design phase. The
process is fast, cheap and time efficient. Initially, sketches, photographs, doodles, verbal
descriptions, etc. are often employs as a fast way of communicating fundamental design
concepts that may be gradually developed and refined. The nature of this process
encourages both freedom and creativity.

Early design models may be virtual or physical. Virtual models may be 2-D or 3-D, rendered,
wireframe or orthographic, while physical models may be anything from cardboard
mockups to fully functional prototypes. This creative first step represents the product
concept for the first time in terms of appearance, form, fit size and function.

Note:

Mock-up: A mock-up is a high-fidelity render of your design that showcases how the
finished product will look.

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Prototype: A prototype is an early model of a product that focuses on functionality and
gives your stakeholders (a person with an interest or concern in something, especially a
business) a taste of the final version.

Wireframes: Wireframes are low-fidelity sketches or digital illustrations created from boxes
and lines illustrating content blocks and navigation elements. The low-fidelity wireframes
give a product team a chance to see the basic structure of the user interface.

Concepts and principles:

Sketching versus formal drawing techniques:

Graphical models are 2-D representations and communications of an idea. They are ways
for a designer to quickly explore a number of possibilities, and then communicate these to
users, clients, or their design team.

Designers might use sketching at the beginning of a design inquiry to quickly explore ideas
and communicate the direction of their thinking.

As the design becomes more refined, they may switch to isometric and orthographic
drawings to create a higher fidelity model that could be used to communicate information
about size, scale, etc. 3D renderings in CAD might be used to communicate with the client
or other members of the design team.

In each case, different types of models are being used to achieve different outcomes.

Figure 1: Sketching

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Mathematical models:

Mathematical models typically offer convenience and cost advantages over the
alternatives. They can be extremely powerful, enabling predictions to be made about a
system or a process. Predictions inform designers of possible developments that are worthy
of further investigation or may be employed to optimise use of: materials, strength,
materials choice, performance, etc.

 Mathematical modelling allows for the testing and development of optimal

solutions using simple mathematical processes or complex techniques such as
matrix algebra.
 Manufacturers may use mathematical models to optimize profits through the
calculation and manipulation of such variables as: inventory, production time,
plant capacity, ware housing constraints and transportation timings.
 Unfortunately, mathematical models cannot be entirely reliable in predicting real
world situations and are only as good as their programming allows.
 Graphs and tables could be classes as simple mathematical models and are often
employed to document operations and processes or predict performance.

Example: Formula One Motor Racing

 In the elite world of Formula One motor racing, mathematical models are employed
to design high performance fuel mixtures.
 Using data gathered from engine tests, mathematical models of molecules are
simulation tested in virtual engines to determine performance characteristics
before field testing.

Figure 2: Aerodynamics test by Ansys software (Lift and Drag calculation)

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2-D and 3-D graphical models:

Designers work with both 2D and 3D graphical models. 2D models represent detail,
proportion, measurements, and relationships. These can be considered "flat views" of an
object. Orthographic drawings show all the details and dimensions of an object, and are
typically produced at a high level of fidelity (detail). 3D graphical models show how design
might look. Their purpose is to communicate a sense of proportion, scale, and aesthetics. 3D
graphical models can take several forms depending on their function. Both 2D and 3D
graphical models typically include annotations in the drawing. Annotations are used to

 record thoughts about features of a design

 clarify function, material, or purpose of features
 identify possible areas for improvement

It is expected that your sketches include annotations

Source: Tinker Hatfield, Designer for Nike

Figure 3: Annotations accompany drawings

Perspective, projection and scale drawings

Perspective drawing is based on observation from a single point, the eye, which produces
images similar to that of a camera. Perspective drawings create the illusion of an object’s

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size diminishing the further it retreats from a fixed view point. Early artists employed the
technique of perspective. A contemporary of da Vinci, German artist Albrecht Durer further
perfected the technique of perspective in use at the time. Durer developed several
machines designed to ‘capture’ an image that would maintain spatial relationships of
objects, varying in distance from the observer. “Durer’s window” as shown in Figure, used a
piece of glass acting as a picture plane to accurately create a perspective image. The
concepts of picture planes, vanishing points and spatial relativity are equally relevant today.

Figure 4: Durer’s perspective machine

The natural appearance of perspective drawings makes them popular choices with artists
and architects. The receding lines give emphasis to objects in the foreground and less
prominence to those in the background. The most important characteristics of perspective
drawings are:

 objects appear smaller as their distance from the observer increase

 An object’s dimensions are foreshortened along the line of sight compared with
those dimensions across the line of sight.
 Objects appear as an approximate as if perceived by the eye

Styles of perspective drawing are classified by the number if vanishing points employed.

 Single-point perspective uses objects facing the viewer and receding to a single,
often central vanishing point as shown in figure.
 Two point perspectives shows all horizontal lines receding to one of two, (left and
right) vanishing points situated on the horizon. This is the convention most often
used in architectural drawings.
 Three point perspectives incorporate a third vanishing point that appends to the
vertical axis receding either upwards or downwards, depending on the viewer’s
standpoint.

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 Figure 5: Single point mechanical perspective drawing

Orthographic drawing uses line of sight that are always perpendicular to the viewing plane
to produce a projected image, hence the name orthographic projection.

Figure 6: Orthographic projection

Varieties of different forms of orthographic projection are named depending on the

positioning of the object and the observer in relation to the plane or planes of projection.

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Different styles, such as first and third angle projections are identified by the one of four
quadrants or angles they enclose. (Figure 7). In the third angle projection, the front and
horizontal planes of projection are perpendicular to each other, however, using the line of
intersection of the two projection planes as a hinge, the top view is swung directly above
the front view.

First and third angle projections are both used extensively throughout the world. When the
first quadrant is used, the line of sight travel from the observer’s eye to the object and then
to the plane of projection.

Figure 7: Drawing quadrants

When the third angle of projection is used, the line of sight travels from the observer’s eye
through the plane of projection to the object (Figure 8). In each type of projection the views
are obtained in a similar way but their relative positions vary.

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 Figure 8: Difference between first angle and third angle projection

S.No. First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection

1.

2. Object lies in between the observer and the Plane of projection lies in between the observer
plane of projection and the object
3. Plane of projection is non-transparent Plane of projection is transparent
4. FV is drawn above the XY line FV is drawn below the XY line
5. TV is drawn below the XY line TV is drawn above the XY line
6. LHSV is drawn on the right hand side and vice LHSV is drawn on the left hand side and vice versa.
versa.
7. Used in India and European countries Used in USA
8. First angle symbol Third angle symbol

NOTE:

FV – Front View; TV – Top view; LHSV – Left Hand Side View

Orthogonal views are carefully selected and sectioning and other conventional
representations used to successfully communicate the complete design. Critical overall
dimensions may be shown along with accompanying notes explaining details for overall
assembly and function. Sub-assembly drawings are used for large or highly complex
products. Product assembly may also have to be broken down into sub-assemblies to allow

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a sufficient level of detail to be shown. In this situation a hierarchy of assembly drawings
may be required to relate each part to the functioning of the whole.

An orthographic drawing, (commonly referred to as an engineering or working drawing),

show precise details and dimensions. It is most often used as a workshop or production
drawings. Generated in the final stage of the design process, and fully dimensioned, they
provide valuable information to manufacturers and engineers relating to: dimensions,
tolerances, construction methods, materials, surface finishes and assembly.

Scale drawings are constructed to a specific ratio relative to the actual size of the place or
object. Various scales may be used for different drawings in a set. Ratios may be used to
enlarge or reduce the appearance of the subject.

Commonly used ratios in the metric system for the purposes of reduction are

1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:5000.

Orthographic Drawings

Orthographic drawings show the "side" of an object.

Features:

 show the "side" of a product

 no vanishing point or perspective
 accurate representation of form

Application:

 used in planning drawings to communicate dimensions, form, and shape

 Communicate detailed and accurate information for manufacturing

These orthographic views of an iron show how the design looks from different perspectives.
Each view is aligned with the others and is drawn to the same scale.

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Isometric Drawings:

Isometric drawings show the shape and form of an object.

Features:

 do not have vanishing points (compare with perspective drawings below)

 Drawn on a 30/90/30 degree grid.

Application:

Used to communicate the overall form of a product

Fig: The isometric view of the Mondrian chair shows its overall form.

Sketching versus formal drawings techniques:

Sketch drawing and more formal drawing techniques each have their place in product
design and manufacture. Sketches are used to quickly convey ideas, modify concepts and
communicate with inside and outside design teams at the earliest stages of the design
process. Drawing techniques such as isometric and perspective are employed in the later
stages of the design process to communicate near complete design proposals to clients or
marketing staff. In a user friendly pictorial form these drawings convey a closer
approximation to the final appearance of a design. Technical drawings such as engineering
or orthographic drawings are used in the manufacturing stage to define the exact size, fit,
finish and appearance of the final product. While this type of drawing can be more time
consuming than sketching, it contains and conveys significantly more information.

Part and assembly drawings:

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General assembly drawings are often orthogonal drawings that communicate the functional
detail by indicating the size and relative position of all parts, fastenings and functional
relationships between parts.

Assembly drawings are required for any item consisting of more than one part. A table
often accompanies these drawings identifying parts, the quantity of individual parts
required and materials. Further instructions may document assembly and even surface
finishes to be applied.

Assembly drawings may also be drawn in an exploded isometric style. Exploded isometric
drawings display component parts displaced or exploded along an assembly axis. This type
of drawing is more visually descriptive, showing actual assembly configurations and
fastening details. Exploded drawings serve to clearly identify parts for both assembly and
maintenance procedures.

Exploded isometric drawing of a pump Exploded isometric drawing of a pen.

Figure: Exploded assembly drawings

Exploded isometric drawings show how an object with more than one component might be
assembled. Parts are depicted in the order of how they are assembled.

Assembly drawings show how an object may be assembled. They may be shown as an
exploded isometric drawing. Their primary purpose is to communicate the sequence of
assembling a project.

Assembly drawings include the names and numbers of parts, as well as bill of materials
(BOM).

Assembly drawings can be quite complex and have many steps. IKEA furniture, for example,
is designed to be assembled by the user. Each product includes detailed assembly drawings.

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Note how the instructions are communicated graphically, with no words.

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 Figure: Part and Assembly drawings

Orthographic and Isometric drawings are important components of Criterion C and E (HL) of
the DT IA.
Below is guidance for preparing and presenting your Planning Drawings for Criterion C (SL)
and Criterion E (HL)

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Perspective drawings are drawings showing an object as if viewed from a single point. They
attempt to represent space by using foreshortening, and vanishing points. These types of
drawings are often used in early planning stages to communicate what a design might look
like. Most people are familiar with perspective drawings. They are a more accurate
representation of what the design is.

PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS

Single point perspective drawing

Two point perspective drawing

Three point perspective drawing

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Comparison of orthographic and perspective rendering of a building. Notice how the perspective
drawings have a vanishing point, while the orthographic does not.

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 Comparison of different graphical models

Advantages Disadvantages
Sketching  quick to create  no details
 no specialized tools required  may not accurately represent
 easy to communicate with the final product
others

Orthographic  highly accurate  requires specialized CAD

 can be used to produce a skills and equipment
product  clients may not easily
 clear communication with understand the drawings
manufacturer  time-consuming to create
(compared to sketching)
 require careful planning

Isometric  shows multiple views  not accurate (missing details

 easily understood by client like dimensions; some sides not
and manufacturer shown)
 may not look like the
finished product

Perspective  realistic looking  time consuming to produce

 easily understood by client  not accurate (missing details
like dimensions; some sides not
shown)
 require developed skills to
accurately represent a product
(i.e. a poorly drawn perspective
drawing looks "wrong")

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