BUILDING UTILITIES 2

BUILDING HVAC SYSTEMS

REFRIGERATION vs AIR CONDITIONING
 Refrigeration refers to processes that take thermal energy
away from a place and gives off that energy to a place with
a higher temperature.
– Naturally, thermal energy flows from a place with a higher
temperature to a place with a lower temperature.
– Therefore, refrigeration runs against the natural heat flow and so
it requires work to be done.
REFRIGERATION vs AIR CONDITIONING
 Air conditioning is a type of refrigeration where
thermal energy is taken away from the air in a large
space such as a room or a vehicle.
– Air conditioners are fitted into rooms so that they cool the air
inside them.
– Modern age air conditioners are not only concerned with
maintaining the temperature of the air; they also help to regulate
humidity, filter the air and keep toxic gases out of human
reach.. Air conditioners reduce humidity in rooms, because the
water vapor in the room can condense around the colder parts of
the air conditioner. The condensed water can then be drained off.
 AIR CONDITIONING UNITS DON’T CREATE
COOL AIR.
 What they actually do is remove heat out of a given
area.
 In summary, refrigeration systems are used to
remove heat from one area and transfer it to
another location, thus cooling that designated area
off and reversing the natural flow of heat with the
application of energy.
 How this happens, however, varies among the four
different types of refrigeration systems.
TYPES OF REFRIGERATION
SYSTEMS
VAPOR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Mechanical compression is one method for removing heat from where it
is not wanted and releasing it elsewhere. The vast majority of domestic air
conditioners utilize the mechanical compression refrigeration cycle to
produce a cooling effect.
 A mechanical compression refrigeration system cools by circulating a
fluid through a sealed circuit of pipes or tubing. The fluid absorbs heat in
the space to be cooled and carries it away to where it is less
objectionable.
 The mechanical aspect of the cycle starts with a compressor, a
combination electric motor and pump. In the compressor, a low
pressure, gaseous refrigerant is squeezed down to a greatly reduced
volume.
 This compression raises the refrigerant’s temperature and pressure and
pushes it into the next component, the condenser. The condenser is
merely a coil of tubing over which air can flow. In the condenser, the
high pressure/high temperature gas releases its heat and becomes a
liquid.
 The heat being dumped out was originally absorbed by the refrigerant in
the air conditioned space. The now-liquefied refrigerant flows on
through the condenser because the compressor maintains pressure
behind it.
 The next stop is a mechanical valve or just a tube of a small diameter,
either of which chokes the refrigerant flow. The liquid refrigerant passes
through the valve into another coil called an evaporator. Here, its
pressure drops rapidly, and the refrigerant begins boiling at a
temperature approximately minus 18oCelsius. This low-temperature
boiling is actually the absorption of heat by the refrigerant. The heat-
laden, gaseous refrigerant flows back into the compressor, and the cycle
repeats until the thermostat is satisfied.
 The mechanical refrigeration cycle breaks down into four phases:
compression, condensation, metering and evaporation. Heat flows into
the evaporator and out of the condenser, making both coils types of heat
exchangers.
VAPOR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION
CYCLE
 The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises all
the processes in the vapor compression refrigeration system
like compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation.
 In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is
ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The refrigerant in the
absorption cycle flows through a condenser, expansion valve,
and an evaporator. The compressor is replaced with a
generator and an absorber.
 Simple Absorption System and How it Works?
– Refrigerant enters the condenser at high pressure and temperature
and gets condensed. The condenser is of water cooled type.
– When the refrigerant passes through the expansion valve or
restriction, its pressure and temperature reduces suddenly. This
refrigerant (ammonia in this case) then enters the evaporator.
– The refrigerant at very low pressure and temperature enters the
evaporator and produces the cooling effect. In the vapor
compression cycle this refrigerant is sucked by the compressor, but
in the vapor absorption cycle, this refrigerant flows to the absorber
that acts as the suction part of the refrigeration cycle.
– The absorber is a sort of vessel consisting of the weak solution of
the refrigerant (ammonia in this case) and absorbent (water in this
case). When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is
absorbed by the absorbent due to which the pressure inside the
absorber reduces further, leading to more flow of the refrigerant from
the evaporator to the absorber. At high temperature water absorbs
lesser ammonia, hence it is cooled by the external coolant to
increase it ammonia absorption capacity. The initial flow of the
refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber occurs because the
vapor pressure of the refrigerant-absorbent in the absorber is lower
than the vapor pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator.
– When the refrigerant entering in the absorber is absorbed by the
absorbent its volume decreases, thus the compression of the
refrigerant occurs. Thus absorber acts as the suction part of the
compressor.
– When the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant, strong solution of
refrigerant-absorbent (ammonia-water) is formed. The pump sends
this solution to the generator at high pressure.
– The refrigerant-ammonia solution in the generator is heated by the
external source of heat - steam, hot water or any other suitable
source. Due to heating, the temperature of the solution increases.
The refrigerant in the solution gets vaporized and it leaves the
solution at high pressure. The high pressure and the high
temperature refrigerant then enters the condenser, where it is
cooled by the coolant, and it then enters the expansion valve and
then finally into the evaporator where it produces the cooling effect.
This refrigerant is then again absorbed by the weak solution in the
absorber.
 High pressure
High temp
refrigerant

High pressure
Low pressure Lower temp
Low temp refrigerant
refrigerant

Lower pressure
Lower temp
refrigerant

VAPOR ABSORPTION CYCLE

EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS
 Unlike the mechanical-compression and absorption
refrigeration systems previously discussed, evaporative
cooling does not use the traditional refrigeration cycle.
Instead, these units cool warmer outdoor air by blowing it over
water-soaked pads as it enters the home.
 The water absorbs the heat from the air and evaporates. The
cooler air is channeled into the home and the warm air out of
it.
– Water has an advantage of high volume heat capacity and much
higher thermal conductivity compared to air. The heat exchange
coefficient for liquid such as water is many times higher than for air,
resulting in the possibility for compact and energy efficient cooling
system configurations.
 Evaporative cooling systems depend on an internally or
externally powered air circulation delivery/carrier systems (i.e.
fan) to draw air towards and blow air flow over the cooling
media (i.e. evaporative pad). Air must move into contact with
the liquid to affect the cooling process.
 Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 5 to 9°C,
and are best suited for dry climates. They’re also less costly to
install and more energy-efficient at times, than a conventional
compressor-type air conditioning units, in more optimal
conditions and environmental scenarios.
 The designs vary either through increased interior volume
capacity (i.e. larger containers), numerous intake fan options
(i.e. multiple fan orientations, various power and energy
consumption classes of fans), many intake opening,
placement and pattern variations and different materially
manufactured evaporative pads (natural and synthetic), but
ultimately all function under the same simple operating
principle of: water drips on vertical pad via pump mounted
in a reservoir; an air circulation system that both draws
air through an evaporative pad medium and redirect it out
the cooler system.
 Probably because evaporative coolers add moisture to the air
and blow it around, they are sometimes knows as "swamp
coolers."
THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION
 Thermoelectric refrigeration systems are unique from the
three other types of refrigeration in that no refrigerant or
water is used. These systems use an electric current and
a thermocouple.
 A thermocouple is made up of two different metal wires
that are united at both ends. Insulation separates the rest
of the wires from each other. When the current is directed
on the thermocouple, one end will become hot and the
other cool.
 Reversing the current’s direction has the effect of
swapping the cold and hot junctions.
– The hot end will typically be placed outside of the area to be
cooled with a heat sink attached to it to keep it the same
temperature as the surrounding air.
– The cold side, which is below room temperature, is placed in the
area to be cooled, attracting heat out of the air.
 This type of refrigeration is generally used for small
cooling loads that can be difficult to access, such as
electronic systems.
HEATING, VENTILATION AND
AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC)
SYSTEM LOADS
INTRODUCTION
 The field of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning—
HVAC—is a science and practice of controlling indoor
climate, thereby providing health and comfortable interior
conditions for occupants in a well-designed, energy-
efficient, and low emissions manner.
 The objective of HVAC are to control the temperature of air
inside the designated “Air Conditioned" space along with
control of moisture, filtration of air and containment of air
borne particles, supply of outside fresh air for control of
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the air conditioned
space, and finally control of the movement of air or draught.
 The field of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning—
HVAC—is a science and practice of controlling indoor
climate, thereby providing health and comfortable interior
conditions for occupants in a well-designed, energy-
efficient, and low emissions manner.
 The objective of HVAC are to control the temperature of air
inside the designated “Air Conditioned" space along with
control of moisture, filtration of air and containment of air
borne particles, supply of outside fresh air for control of
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the air conditioned
space, and finally control of the movement of air or draught.
 All these factors comprise of a successful HVAC system.
Air conditioning has changed over the years from just
cooling of a space to the effective control of all the above
parameters. of air conditioning.
 The term "H" in HVAC stands for heating that comprises
of any number of heating systems from gas furnaces,
electric furnaces, oil furnaces, oil and gas boilers, radiant
heating systems, and heat pumps.
 The Term “V” describes ventilation. This can be ventilating
the facility using ductwork or ventilating a kitchen using
ductwork and fans with a hood. It can also refer to
combustion air or the air needed to have combustion for
various heating systems.
 The Term "AC" refers to air conditioning that comprises of
3 main methods – mechanical compression, vapor
absorption and evaporative cooling. Air conditioners
(direct expansion – DX systems) and chillers usually
accomplish the job of air conditioning.
PROCESSES OF HVAC
 Heating: To increase the temperature by adding thermal energy to a
space.
 Cooling: To decrease the temperature by removing thermal energy
from a space.
 Humidifying: The process of increasing the relative humidity of a
space by addition of water vapor or steam.
 Dehumidifying: The process of removing the water vapor or
humidity of a space.
 Cleaning: The process of removing dust, pollens, smoke and
contaminants from air inside the space.
 Ventilating: The process of adding external air to freshen up the air
and maintaining gas ratio.
 Air movement: To control the movement of the supplied air so that
the inhabitants of the space do not feel discomfort.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
These units express the efficiency of a heating or cooling
source.
1. COP – “Coefficient of Performance”:
– It is the chiller efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling
capacity) divided by Btu input (electric power). Typical values are
2 – 4.
– Cooling capacity is specified in tons of refrigeration; 1 ton is
equivalent to 12000 Btu per hour.
– 1 kWh of electric power is equivalent to 3412 Btu per hour;
multiplying the COP by 3.412 yields energy efficiency ratio.
2. BTUh – “British Thermal Units per Hour”
– It is a rate of heating or cooling expressed in terms of Btu per
hour. (1kW = 3412 Btu)
– The amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water by 1oF

3. Ton
– One ton of cooling is the heat extraction rate of 12,000 Btu per
hour.
– Theoretically, it is energy required to melt one ton of ice in one
hour.
HVAC SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
Primary equipment includes
 Heating equipment such as steam boilers and hot water
boilers to heat buildings or spaces,
 Air delivery equipment as packaged equipment to deliver
conditioned ventilation air by using centrifugal fans, axial
fans, and plug or plenum fans, and
 Refrigeration equipment that delivers cooled or
conditioned air into space. It includes cooling coils based
on water from water chillers or refrigerants from a
refrigeration process.
Space requirement is essential in shaping an HVAC system
to be central or local. It requires five facilities as the following:
– Equipment rooms: since the total mechanical and electrical space
requirements range between 4 and 9% of the gross building area. It
is preferable to be centrally located in the building to reduce the long
duct, pipe, and conduit runs and sizes, to simplify shaft layouts, and
centralized maintenance and operation.
– HVAC facilities: heating equipment and refrigeration equipment
require many facilities to perform their primary tasks of heating and
cooling the building. The heating equipment requires boiler units,
pumps, heat exchangers, pressure-reducing equipment, control air
compressors, and miscellaneous equipment, while the refrigeration
equipment requires water chillers or cooling water towers for large
buildings, condenser water pumps, heat exchangers, air-conditioning
equipment, control air compressors, and miscellaneous equipment.
– Fan rooms contain the HVAC fan equipment and other miscellaneous
equipment. The rooms should consider the size of the installation
and removal of fan shafts and coils, the replacement, and
maintenance. The size of fans depends on the required air flow rate
to condition the building, and it can be centralized or localized based
on the availability, location, and cost. It is preferable to have easy
access to outdoor air.
– Vertical shaft: provide space for air distribution and water and steam
pipe distribution. The air distribution contains HVAC supply air,
exhaust air, and return air ductwork. Pipe distribution includes hot
water, chilled water, condenser water, and steam supply, and
condenser return. The vertical shaft includes other mechanical and
electrical distribution to serve the entire building including plumbing
pipes, fire protection pipes, and electric conduits/closets.
– Equipment access: the equipment room must allow the movement of
large, heavy equipment during the installation, replacement, and
maintenance.
Air distribution considers ductwork that delivers the
conditioned air to the desired area in a direct, quiet, and
economical way as possible. Air distribution includes:
– air terminal units such as grilles and diffusers to deliver supply air
into a space at low velocity;
– fan-powered terminal units, which uses an integral fan to ensure the
supply air to the space;
– variable air volume terminal units, which deliver variable amount of
air into the space;
– all-air induction terminal units, which controls the primary air, induces
return air, and distributes the mixed air into a space;
– and air-water induction terminal units, which contains a coil in the
induction air stream. All the ductwork and piping should be insulated
to prevent heat loss and save building energy. It is also
recommended that buildings should have enough ceiling spaces to
host ductwork in the suspended ceiling and floor slab, and can be
used as a return air plenum to reduce the return ductwork.
The piping system is used to deliver refrigerant, hot water,
cooled water, steam, gas, and condensate to and from HVAC
equipment in a direct, quiet and affordable way.
– Piping systems can be divided into two parts: the piping in the
central plant equipment room and the delivery piping.
– HVAC piping may or may not be insulated based on existing code
criteria.
BASIC HVAC OPTIONS
 Local systems
– Often referred to as “unitary equipment”, “split-type” or
“packaged equipment” and require no central equipment
to perform their functions
– All system components (air circulating fans/refrigerant
compressor/condenser/cooling and heating coils) are
contained within one box
– Use air-cooled refrigeration equipment
– the packaged air conditioners are divided into two types: ones
with water cooled condenser and the ones with air cooled
condensers.
– Normally appropriate for only very small load and/or
small building/single room conditioning.
– The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the
small air conditioning capacities up to 5 tons.
– The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed rated
capacities of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons.
– Used commonly in places like restaurants, telephone
exchanges, homes, small halls, etc.
LOCAL HVAC SYSTEMS
CONFIGURATIONS
1. Rooftop unit
2. Split system, with
remote condenser and
indoor fan and coil
3. Through-wall unit
4. Window-mounted
unit
5. Floor-mounted
indoor unit
 Central systems
– Require a full complement of central equipment (boilers, chillers,
cooling towers, circulating pumps and similar equipment) and
space for these equipment
– Need a distribution system to convey the heating and/or cooling
medium to remote units
HEAT CONVEYORS/MEDIA
Another way to classify HVAC systems is by the means or by
the media used to convey heat to and/or from the spaces
served by the system. The three most common in building
applications are:
– Air
– Water
– Refrigerants – gases at normal temperatures and
pressures, and must be compressed and condensed
(liquefied) to be of service later as heat absorbers
(examples, CFC, Freon, HCFC, etc.)
TYPICAL HVAC LAYOUT
Three basic components common to all
HVAC equipment systems:
- Generation equipment
- Distribution system
- Terminal equipment
GENERATION EQUIPMENT
 Produces the heat (steam or hot water boilers, warm air furnaces and
radiant panels) or cooling (chillers and cooling towers, and air-cooled
compressors in packaged equipment).
 Packaged equipment (equipment that is self-contained, often all-
electric) requires no central mechanical equipment.
 Source of heating and cooling is contained within each piece of HVAC
equipment.
 Type of generation equipment can limit the choices available to the
designer.
 Critical architectural decisions related to HVAC generation equipment
are location, size, and service options of equipment rooms.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Method by which cooling and heating energy is "moved" throughout the
building (hot/chilled water piping systems, or ductwork that distributes
warm or cool air around the building).
 for packaged equipment systems, distribution is limited to a modest
amount of ductwork (if any).
 limited by the capacity of the supply air fan provided as part of the
packaged equipment. Larger central system distribution is powered
by large central pumps and/or air-handling units.
 critical architectural decisions in distribution system design involve
coordination with all other structure and services to eliminate conflicts
and to provide for effective and efficient distribution of air and water
throughout the building.
 critical junctures in a distribution system must be accessible for
testing and balancing.
TERMINAL EQUIPMENT
Include devices that distribute conditioned air to the space (a diffuser is
considered a terminal unit).
 either a separate or integral device is used to control the local space
temperature (the "temperature control device").
 both types are usually located in close proximity to the occupant.
 in some systems, they are visible (as in the case of window air-
conditioners or fan coil units, which act as both the terminal unit and
temperature control device).
 in others systems, they are concealed above the ceiling (a variable air
volume box acts as the temperature control device, which controls the
amount of air discharged from a number of ceiling diffusers, the
terminal units).
 in a single zone system, there is no separate terminal control device.
 local diffuser is the "terminal unit," and a single thermostat sends
control signals straight to the distribution equipment to maintain the
set-point temperature for the entire area served by the single zone
system.
 multiple single-zone air handlers achieve multiple zones of
temperature control within the building.
WINDOW AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
 The most widely used types of air conditioners and the simplest form
of the air conditioning systems.
 Comprised of the rigid base on which all the parts of the window air
conditioner are assembled. The base is assembled inside the casing
which is fitted into the wall or the window of the room in which the air
conditioner is fitted.
 Divided into two compartments: the room side, which is also the
cooling side and the outdoor side from where the heat absorbed by
the room air is liberated to the atmosphere. The room side and
outdoor side are separated from each other by an insulated partition
enclosed inside the window air conditioner assembly.
 The various parts of the window air conditioner can be divided into
following categories: the refrigeration system, air circulation system,
ventilation system, control system, and the electrical protection
system.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM OF THE
WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER
 The refrigeration system of the window air conditioner comprises of all
the important parts of the refrigeration cycle; the compressor, condenser,
expansion valve and the evaporator. The refrigerant used in most of the
window air conditioners is R22.
 The compressor used in the window air conditioners is hermetically
sealed type, which is portable one.
 The condenser is made up of copper tubing and it is cooled by the
atmospheric air. The condenser is covered with the fins to enable faster
heat transfer rate from it.
 The capillary tubing made up of various rounds of the copper coil is used
as the expansion valve in the window air conditioners. Just before the
capillary tubes, there is a drier filter that filters the refrigerant and also
removes the moisture particles, if present in the refrigerant.
 Like the condenser, the evaporator is also made up of copper tubing of
number of turns and is covered with the fins. The evaporator is also
called as the cooling coil since the room air passes over it and gets
cooled. Just in front of the evaporator there is an air filter fitted in the
front panel or front grill. As the room air is absorbed, it is first passed
over the filter so that it gets filtered. The filtered air is then blown over
the cooling coil and the chilled air is passed into the room.
 The refrigerant after leaving the cooling coil enters the accumulator
where it is accumulated and then it is again sucked by
the compressor for recirculation over the whole cycle.
AIR CIRCULATION SYSTEM OF THE
WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER
The air circulation system of the window air conditioner
comprises of the following parts:
1. Blower: It is fitted behind the evaporator or cooling coil inside the
assembly of the window air conditioner system. The blower sucks
the air from the room which first passes over the air filter and gets
filtered. The air then passes over the cooling coil and gets chilled.
The blower then blows this filtered and chilled air, which passes
through the supply air compartment inside the window air conditioner
assembly. This air is then delivered into the room from the supply air
grill of the front panel.
2. Propeller fan or the condenser fan: The condenser fan is the
forced draft type of propeller fan that sucks the atmospheric air and
blows it over the condenser. The hot refrigerant inside the
condenser gives up the heat to the atmospheric air and its
temperature reduces.
3. Fan motor: It is located between the condenser and the evaporator
coil. It has double shaft on one side of which the blower is fitted and
on the other side the condenser fan is fitted. This makes the whole
assembly of the blower, the condenser fan and the motor highly
compact.
Window air-conditioning systems
SPLIT-TYPE AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS
 The split-type air conditioning system comprises two parts:
the outdoor unit and the indoor unit.
– The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like
the compressor, condenser, condenser cooling fan, and the
expansion valve. The compressor is the maximum noise making
part of the air conditioner, and since it is located outside the
room, the major source of noise is eliminated.
– The indoor unit is the unit that produces the cooling effect inside
the room or the office. It comprises the evaporator or cooling coil,
air filter, the cooling fan or blower, the drain pipe, and the louvers
or fins.
– After passing from the expansion coil, the chilled Freon fluid
enters the cooling coil. The blower sucks the hot, humid and
filtered air from the room and it blows it over the cooling coil.
 – As the air passes over cooling coil its temperature reduces
drastically and also loses the excess moisture. The cool and dry
air enters the room and maintains comfortable conditions of
around 18-27o Celsius as per the requirements.
 For this unit, there is no need for any slot in the wall of the
room. Further, present day split units have aesthetic appeal
and do not take up as much space as a window unit.
 A split air conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms.
 The window and split air conditioners are usually used for
the small air conditioning capacities up to 5 tons.
Split-type air-conditioning systems
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEM
 In this system, the important components of the air
conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like window
AC. Thus, the compressor, cooling coil, air handling unit
and the air filter are all housed in a single casing and
assembled at the factory location.
 Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these
systems, the packaged air conditioners are divided into two
types: ones with water-cooled condenser and the ones
with air-cooled condensers.
 The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed
rated capacities of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons. These units are
used commonly in places like restaurants, telephone
exchanges, homes, small halls, etc.
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONERS WITH
WATER-COOLED CONDENSER
 The condenser, of shell and tube type, is cooled by the
water with refrigerant flowing along the tube side and the
cooling water flowing along the shell side. The water has to
be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain
functioning of the air conditioning system.
 The shell and tube type of condenser is compact in shape
and it is enclosed in a single casing along with the
compressor, expansion valve, and the air handling unit
including the cooling coil or the evaporator. This whole
packaged air conditioning unit externally looks like a box
with the control panel located externally.
 In the packaged units with the water cooled condenser, the
compressor is located at the bottom along with the
condenser (see next slide). Above these components the
evaporator or the cooling coil is located.
 The air handling unit comprising of the centrifugal blower
and the air filter is located above the cooling coil. From the
top of the package air conditioners, the duct comes out that
extends to the various rooms that are to be cooled.
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONERS WITH
AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS
 The condenser of the refrigeration system is cooled by the
atmospheric air. There is an outdoor unit that comprises of
the important components like the compressor, condenser
and in some cases the expansion valve (see next slide).
 The outdoor unit can be kept on the terrace or any other
open place where the free flow of the atmospheric air is
available. The fan located inside this unit sucks the outside
air and blows it over the condenser coil cooling it in the
process. The condenser coil is made up of several turns of
the copper tubing and it is finned externally
 The packaged ACs with the air cooled condensers are used
more commonly than the ones with water cooled
condensers since air is freely available and it is difficult to
maintain continuous flow of the water.
 The cooling unit comprising of the expansion valve,
evaporator, the air handling blower and the filter are located
on the floor or hanged to the ceiling. The ducts coming
from the cooling unit are connected to the various rooms
that are to be cooled.
CENTRALIZED AIR-CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS
 Central air conditioning plants are used for applications like big hotels,
large buildings having multiple floors, hospitals, etc., where very high
cooling loads are required.
 The central air conditioning plants or the systems are used for large
buildings, hotels, theaters, airports, shopping malls etc.
 In the central air conditioning systems there is a plant room where
large compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion valve and the
evaporator are kept in the large plant room. They perform all the
functions similar to a typical refrigeration system. However, all these
parts are larger in size and have higher capacities.
 The compressor is of several types - reciprocating, rotating screw,
centrifugal, scroll - with multiple cylinders and is cooled by water like a
car engine. The compressor and the condenser are of shell and tube
type. While the small air conditioning system uses capillary expansion
valve, the central air conditioning systems use thermostatic expansion
valve.
 The chilled air is passed via the ducts to all the rooms, halls and other
spaces that are to be air-conditioned. Thus, there is only the duct
passing the chilled air in all the rooms and there are no individual
cooling coils, and other parts of the refrigeration system in the rooms.
What we get is the completely silent and highly effective air conditioning
system in the rooms.
 The amount of chilled air that is needed in the room can be controlled by
the openings depending on the total heat load inside the room.
TYPES OF CENTRAL AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ACCORDING
TO COOLING SYSTEMS
Direct expansion or DX central air conditioning plant
 In the DX type of central air conditioning plants, the air used for
cooling the room is directly chilled by the refrigerant in the cooling
coil of the air handling unit. Due to this heat transfer process is more
efficient, since there is no middle agency involved for the heat
transfer resulting in higher cooling efficiency.
 In this system the huge compressor, and the condenser are housed
in the plant room, while the expansion valve and the evaporator or
the cooling coil and the air handling unit are housed in separate
room.
 The cooling coil is fixed in the air handling unit, which also has large
blower housed in it.
 The blower sucks the hot return air from the room via ducts and
blows it over the cooling coil. The cooled air is then supplied through
various ducts and into the spaces which are to be cooled.
 DX type of central air conditioning plants the refrigerant travels only
through the small distances and there is no pump involved so the
additional heat absorption is less, which makes the DX plants even
more efficient.
 This type of system is useful for small buildings.
Chilled water central air conditioning plant
 This type of system is more useful for large buildings comprising of a
number of floors. It has a plant room where the compressor, condenser,
throttling valve and the evaporator are housed.
 The evaporator is a shell and tube. On the tube side the refrigerant fluid
passes at extremely low temperature, while on the shell side the brine
solution is passed. After passing through the evaporator, the brine
solution gets chilled and is pumped to the various air handling units
installed at different floors of the building.
 The air handling units comprise the cooling coil through which the
chilled brine flows, and the blower. The blower sucks hot return air from
the room via ducts and blows it over the cooling coil. The cool air is
then supplied to the space to be cooled through the ducts.
 The brine solution which has absorbed the room heat goes back to the
evaporator, gets chilled and is again pumped back to the air handling
unit.
 There is some loss of the cooling effect when it is being transferred from
the refrigerant to the chilled water and from there to the air due to which
the chilled water systems have lesser cooling efficiency. The chilled
water acts as the secondary medium for cooling the room air in air
handling unit.
 Further, the chilled water has to flow long distance along the whole
building. On its way it tends to get heated due to friction of flow and also
due to surrounding heat absorption. The chilled water also has to be
pumped by the pump, which adds more heat to it. Thus as the chilled
water flows from the chiller to the air handling unit and again back to the
chiller, apart from the heat from air, it also absorbs lots of additional
heat, which leads to high increase in its temperature. The chiller has to
remove this additional heat from the water due to which its efficiency
decreases or rather additional power is required to remove this
additional heat.
TYPES OF CENTRAL AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ACCORDING
TO THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER
MEDIUM
THREE MAJOR TYPES
 Centralized Ducted “All – Air” Systems
 Centralized Fluid Based Hydronic (All-Water) Systems
 Combined (Hybrid) Water and Air Systems
CENTRALIZED DUCTED “ALL–AIR”
SYSTEMS
 Employ large, central air-handling units, that circulate
conditioned air to and from the spaces through long runs of
ductwork.
 Offer the most energy-efficient equipment options, and are
the most flexible of any HVAC system. When outdoor air is
cool, an all-air system can switch to an economizer cycle, in
which it cools the building by circulating a maximum amount
of outdoor air.
 Can use a wide variety of terminal units to provide unlimited
cooling capabilities, and factory-built air handlers can serve
an area of up to 4,650 sqm of conditioned space
 “All-air” systems are usually described by 2 variables: the
type of air-handling unit provided (constant volume/reheat or
variable volume/cooling only), and the type of terminal
control device used (constant air volume/variable air
temperature or variable air volume/constant air temperature)
to control local zone comfort conditions.
 Constant-volume systems operate at a constant airflow rate; only
temperature varies to maintain the zone set point.
 The volume of supply air from a VAV air handler varies in
response to terminal units' intake of supply air to maintain zone
temperature set points. The supply-air fan is controlled to
maintain a static pressure set point in the ductwork.
 Fresh air is drawn into the building through the intake louver,
mixed with return air, heated or cooled to a controlled
temperature, circulated around the building and provided to
the occupied space. Local temperature control is provided
by a terminal unit attached to a temperature controller within
the occupied space. Exhaust air is extracted from the space
and dumped to the outside. In general, the majority of the
return air is recycled via the return air duct.
 All-air systems offer excellent control of interior air quality.
The central air-handling equipment can be designed for
precise control of fresh air, filtration, humidification,
dehumidification, heating, and cooling.
Basic Components of All-Air System
CENTRALIZED FLUID-BASED
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
 An all-water hydronic system typically use small modular
equipment, such as fan-coil units or unit ventilators, to
provide the local temperature control. When heating, the
terminal units draw heat from the water and when cooling
these reject heat to the water.
 Hot and chilled water piping systems are the primary
distribution system, so ductwork is eliminated. The water
piping is much smaller than the equivalent ductwork, making
all-water systems the most compact of all.
 Use of chilled water and hot water coils offers closer control
over temperature and relative humidity than do the
cooling/heating coils used in self-contained systems.
 Offer more energy-efficient operation than self-contained
systems, but at a higher initial cost.
 The biggest drawback of all-water hydronic system is the
difficulty in providing adequate indoor air quality. These
systems are fairly common in office rooms, hotel rooms,
schools, building perimeter control etc.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF ALL-WATER
SYSTEM
1. The use of a chiller (on roofs or plant rooms) to cool the
water which would be circulated via circulating pumps to the
terminal units (example fan coil units) located in the occupied
space.
2. The use of boilers (in plant rooms) to heat the water which
would be circulated via circulating pumps to the terminal units
located in the occupied space. Hydronic heating systems
employ a variety of terminal units that include fan coil units,
baseboard radiators, convectors, unit heaters, and radiant
floors.
3. The use of Fan coil units:
A fan coil unit is a terminal unit with:
Heat exchange coil.
A fan motor.
A filter.
A condensate drain pipe.
Fan coil units
COMBINED “WATER AND AIR”
SYSTEMS
 This include any type of air-water system that is combined with a
separately-ducted ventilation air system, plus a unique system called
the “induction” system. The “induction” system uses “primary” air
from a high velocity central air-handling system, which is ducted
through a type of terminal unit specially designed to induce room air
into the unit across the heating/cooling coil.
 Operates like a fan coil unit without requiring a local fan.
 Found in high-rise buildings where a minimum amount of ductwork is
desirable
 Improved air quality and humidity control is provided, since a central
ventilation system air handler can be used to provide better outside
air filtration, better control of relative humidity, and an opportunity to
recover waste heat from building exhaust airstreams.
Air Portion of the System
 The air side is comprised of central air conditioning equipment, a duct
distribution system, and a room terminal.
 The supply air, called primary air, usually has a constant volume
which is determined by the need for outside (fresh) air for ventilation.
 When in cooling mode the primary air is dehumidified, to provide
comfort and prevent condensation, by a central conditioning unit. In
the winter, heating mode, the air is humidified, by the central
conditioning unit, to limit dryness.
Water Portion of the System
 The water side consists of a pump and piping to convey water to heat
transfer surfaces within each conditioned space.
 The water used can be chilled by direct refrigeration, by using chilled
water from a primary cooling system, or by heat transfer through a
water-to-water exchanger.
 Chillers usually supply chilled water anywhere from 2-9°C (35-48oF).
Individual room temperature control is by regulation of either the water
flow through it or the air flow over it. In the winter, the heating capacity
of the coil in a conditioned space must be great enough to heat the
space and offset the cool primary air, which is provided.
 Water Portion of the system which is determined by the need for
outside (fresh) air for ventilation. When in cooling mode the primary air
is dehumidified, to provide comfort and prevent condensation, by a
central conditioning unit. In the winter, heating mode, the air is
humidified, by the central conditioning unit, to limit dryness.
Basic Water and Air
Cooling Systems
HVAC EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT TO GENERATE
HEATING OR COOLING
Heating Systems Main Cooling Systems
Equipment Main Equipment
The main equipment used in The main equipment used in
heating systems include: cooling systems include:
 Furnace  Chillers & Compressors
 Hot Water & Steam Boiler  Cooling Towers
 Heat Pump  Air Handling Units & Fan
 Local heating Systems Coil Units
Chillers
 Chillers are the primary piece of equipment in a central
cooling system. These devices remove the heat gathered
by the re-circulating chilled water system as it cools the
building. Selection depends on the fuel source and the total
cooling load
 They have two principal types; air-
cooled and water cooled. Compared
to water, air is a poor conductor of
heat and therefore air-cooled chillers
are larger and less efficient.
 Air cooled chillers are generally located
outside the building and reject heat
directly to the atmosphere, while
 Water cooled chillers are generally
located within the building and use
cooling towers located outside the
building to reject the heat.
 A water chilled system has to be used for larger buildings. In
such a system, the entire refrigeration cycle occurs within a
single piece of equipment known as a chiller. An electrically
driven water chiller uses the same vapor-compression
refrigeration as a DX system. But instead of cooling air, it
chills water which is pumped to the air handling units.
 Chillers include both absorption and compressive
refrigeration processes in a wide range of sizes. They are
packaged together with those individual components
necessary to support the vapor compression cycle and
create a cooling effect (evaporator, condenser, compressor).
 Absorption chillers are considered in applications where
there is an existing low-cost source of heat – steam or
waste heat.
 With chillers, there must be a way to reject the heat that is
removed from the re-circulating chilled water system.
Reject heat is handled by the condensing water system,
which serves the condensing process within refrigeration
cycles. For large buildings, this requirement is satisfied by
the cooling towers.
 Components may be contained in one piece of equipment,
or separated with the evaporator inside, and the
compressor/condenser outside.
 They are usually classified by the type of compressor used
to drive the refrigeration cycle.
 https://youtu.be/0rzQhSXVq60

Compressor

Evaporator

Condenser
Compressors
The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas, causing it to become
much warmer than the outside air. The refrigerant enters the
compressor on the "suction side" and after it leaves the compressor, the
refrigerant is referred to as "hot gas”.
Reciprocating Compressors
 Reciprocating compressors are driven
by a motor and use pistons, cylinders
and valves to compress the refrigerant.
They use a proven technology and
generally have a lower initial cost than
other chiller types.
 They have more individual parts than
some other chiller types and therefore
require more maintenance.
 They produce more vibration and for this
reason, care must be exercised in
mounting, particularly if used on a
rooftop.
 Reciprocating compressors are usually
used in smaller systems up to 100 tons
and are typically more efficient than
centrifugal units.
Rotating Screw compressors
 Screw compressors are based on a
mechanism made up of two threaded
inter-fitting rotors (screws) that are
coupled together to compress the
volume occupied by the gas
(refrigerant).
 The COP of screw compressors is not
reduced at higher condensor
temperatures as much as other chillers,
thus, it is frequently selected for use as
a heat recovery chiller.
 The refrigeration capacity of twin-screw
compressors is 50 to 1500 tons but is
normally used in the 200 tons to 800
tons range.
Centrifugal compressors
 Centrifugal compressors are made up of a
rotor located inside a special chamber.
 The rotor compresses the refrigerant, is
rotated at high speed, imparting high
kinetic energy to the gas, which is forced
through the narrow outlet opening, thus
increasing its pressure.
 The characteristics of a centrifugal
compressor make it ideal for air
conditioning applications because it is
suitable for variable loads, has few
moving parts, and is economical to
operate.
 The available refrigeration capacity for
centrifugal compressors ranges from 100
to 2,000 tons, making them applicable for
large central plants.
Scroll compressors
 Scroll compressors generally have
smaller capacities than many other types
and are becoming popular in residential
equipment.
 Have fewer parts, thus, less maintenance
concerns, have smoother, quieter
operations, and can operate under dirtier
conditions.
 They feature two involute scrolls, one
stationary and one orbiting around the
first. This movement draws gas into the
outer pocket and the gas is forced toward
the center of the scroll, creating
increasingly higher gas pressures.
 The upper limit of the refrigeration
capacity of currently manufactured scroll
compressors is 60 tons.
Heat Rejection Equipment
 With chillers, there must be a way to reject the heat that is removed
from the re-circulating chilled water system. Reject heat is handled by
the condensing water system which serves the condensing process
within the refrigeration cycles. For large buildings, this requirement is
satisfied by the cooling tower.
 The purpose of heat rejection equipment in an air-conditioning system
is to provide a heat transfer means to reject all the heat from the air-
conditioning system. This heat includes the heat absorbed by the
evaporator from the space plus the heat of the energy input into the
compressor.
 Three common types of heat rejection equipment:
– Air-cooled
– Water-cooled
– evaporative
Air-cooled Heat Rejection Equipment
 Typically used with refrigerant-based air-conditioning systems
 Two variations of the air-cooled heat rejection equipment are
condensers and condensing units
 A condenser has the refrigeration compressor located remotely; the
condensing unit has the compressor included within the unit
 Typically contains centrifugal or propeller fans to draw air over
aluminum fins with hot refrigerant running through copper tubing
connected to the aluminum fins
 Air-cooled condensers and condensing units may be located indoors
or outdoors and the discharge may be vertical or horizontal
 Heat transfer in air-cooled condensers or condensing units occur in 3
phases: the superheating of the refrigerant, condensing of the
refrigerant, and sub-cooling of the refrigerant
AIR-COOLED CONDENSER
Water-cooled Heat Rejection Equipment
 Heat rejection equipment is commonly used in 4 configurations; shell
and tube, shell and coil, tube and tube, and braised plate
 Type selected depends upon the capacity required, refrigerant used,
temperature control required, and amount of water available
 Condenser typically takes water from an external source to be
superheat, condense, and sub-cool refrigerant
 Compressor is located remote from the water-cooled condenser
 Typically have a higher capital cost and a higher maintenance cost
associated with them
 This cost, however, is off-set by the higher efficiency of the water-
cooled types
WATER-COOLED CONDENSER
Evaporative type Heat Rejection Equipment
 Two major classifications in evaporative systems: the evaporative
condenser in refrigeration systems and the cooling tower in water-
cooled systems
 Evaporative condenser circulates refrigerant through a coil that is
continuously wetted by outside recirculating water system; the most
efficient type
 Where fans are used to assist in the heat rejection process, adequate
space is required around the heat rejection equipment to allow proper
airflow; if proper clearances cannot be maintained, considerable
capacity reduction of the equipment will result
 Free clearance at the air inlet should equal the length of the unit
 Cooling tower is used for systems where water is used as the
condenser source in lieu of refrigerant, such as a water source heat
pump system or a chilled water system
Cooling Tower
 A cooling tower is a heat rejection
device, installed outside of the building
envelope, through which condenser
water is circulated.
 Refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle is
condensed in a refrigerant-to-water heat
exchanger. Heat rejected from the
refrigerant increases the temperature of
the condenser water, which must be
cooled to permit the cycle to continue.
 The condenser water is circulated to the
cooling tower where evaporative cooling
causes heat to be removed from the  Floor space requirement are 0.20% of
water and added to the outside air. the building gross floor area (for towers
 The cooled condenser water is then up to 2.40m high) and 0.30% of the
piped back to the condenser of the building GFA for towers above 2.40m
chiller. high.
Types of Cooling Towers
Forced Draft Tower In forced draft cooling towers, air is "pushed"
through the tower from an inlet to an exhaust.
A forced draft mechanical draft tower is a
blow-through arrangement, where a blower
type fan at the intake forces air through the
tower.
 Induced Draft Tower
A second type of tower, induced draft has a
fan in the wet air stream to draw air
through the fill. The fan located is located
at the discharge end, which pulls air
through tower.
 Natural Draft Tower
Natural draft tower has no mechanical means to
create airflow. Natural-draft cooling towers use
the buoyancy of the exhaust air rising in a tall
chimney to provide the draft. Warm, moist air
naturally rises due to the density differential to
the dry, cooler outside air.
Air Handling Units & Fan Coil Units
 An air handling system is a means of providing conditioned air to the space
in order to maintain the environmental requirements.
 There are two types of air-handling equipment: refrigerant type (considered
air-conditioning units) and chilled water type (called air-handling units).
 An air-conditioning unit is typically factory-assembled with refrigerant-type
cooling and electric, steam or hot water heating.
 Air-handling units are usually a semi-custom type of air-handling device that
can be factory-assembled, field-assembled, or a combination of both.
 Air-handling units typically use chilled water or refrigerant as the cooling
medium and electric, steam or hot water for heating medium. Sufficient
space is required around the system to allow for proper maintenance.
Types of AHU
Central system

Consists of more than one AHU served

by the same source of heat and/or
cooling. These are usually custom built
for particular application.
Fan coil unit (FCU)
 A fan-coil unit is a small-scale air handling unit with circulation fan, cooling and/or
heating coil, filter, and appropriate controls. It is essentially a terminal device
because it serves only one room or a small group of rooms.
 Fan-coil control is typically achieved through control of water flow through the coil
using a control signal from the zone thermostat. Further control is sometimes
provided by a multi-speed fan option. Occupants can usually adjust supply air
louvers to provide some control over air distribution patterns.
 The most critical performance issue facing an all-water fan-coil system is ventilation
air. Fan-coil units installed on an exterior wall can be equipped with an outdoor air
connection so that ventilation may be provided. Fan coils installed in interior zones
can not easily provide such outdoor air ventilation. An air-water fan-coil system can
overcome this constraint.
 In a fan-coil system, a major system component (the fan coil unit itself) is installed in
or adjacent to occupied spaces, requiring that filter changes and maintenance of
fans and coils occur in these spaces. Fan noise may be a concern in some critical
occupancies.
 It is most commonly used in hotels, condominiums, and apartments.
HVAC Control Systems
HVAC control system, from the simplest room thermostat to the most complicated
computerized control, has four basic elements:
Sensors
Controllers
Controlled devices
Source of energy
Aims of HVAC Control Systems
HVAC Control Systems are used for the following benefits:
Lower energy cost.
Lower operations cost.
Increase flexibility.
Ensure quality building environment.
Eliminate human error
Act as safety devices
Air Distribution Outlets
1. Ceiling diffuser – the most common air outlet. They have either radial or directional
discharge which is parallel to the mounted surface. Some typical applications are spot
heating or cooling, large capacity, mounting on exposed ductwork, horizontal
distribution along a ceiling, and perimeter air distribution. They come in various shapes
and sizes: round, rectangular, square, perforated face, louver face, modular type.
2. Linear slot outlets - long narrow air supply device with an air distribution slot
between 12-25mm in length. Various types are linear bar, T-bar slot, linear slot, and
light diffuser. Some applications are high sidewall installation with flow perpendicular
to the mounting surface, high sidewall installation with 15-30 degree upward/downward
directional adjustability, perimeter ceiling installation, sill installations, and floor
installations.
3. Grille – a supply air outlet that consists of a frame enclosing a set of vanes which
can be mounted vertically, horizontally or in both directions. A grille combined with a
volume control damper is called a register. Grilles mounted on the ceiling and
discharging down are unacceptable. Ceiling installation would require a special grille
with curved vanes to discharge the air parallel to the mounting surface.
Pumps
The 4 most common types of HVAC centrifugal pumps are end-suction, horizontal or
vertical split-case, in-line mounted, and vertical. The configuration of the pump shaft
determines if the pump is a horizontal or vertical pump. Pumps may be arranged in
various configurations to provide the design flow and economical operation at partial
flow or for system backup.

Fans
Fans are available in a variety of impeller or wheel design and housing design. These
variables affect the performance characteristics and applications for each individual
type of fan. The most common fan designs used in HVAC systems are centrifugal and
axial.
HVAC SPACE PLANNING
Space Planning
Space required to house HVAC equipment and associated
pipe and duct shafts can amount to 10% of the building floor
area, depending on the building application and type of HVAC
system used. The first step in planning the HVAC system
layout is to identify the location and configuration of the
central equipment. In large buildings using central systems,
this often includes 3 types of equipment rooms:
– A central plant equipment space (usually one location in the
building housing central chillers, boilers, and related equipment
– A rooftop location for cooling towers
– Equipment room/s for large central air-handling units
Central plant equipment rooms are often located at the top of
a building to:
• Minimize the piping distance to connect the chillers to the rooftop
cooling towers
• Minimize the length of expensive boiler flues that typically extend
well above rooftop heights
• May also be located on the lowest floor of the building
• Or the boilers and chillers may be located in two different
locations
Central Equipment Room Planning
 Central equipment rooms should have between 3600-4200mm clear
height available from the finished floor to the soffit of the structure to
allow for adequate clearance above the main equipment for
accessories and large piping crossovers.
 Long narrow rooms with a ratio of 1:2 (width to length) usually allow
for the most flexible and efficient layout of the equipment.
 Equipment such as chillers and shell-and-tube heat exchangers
require clear space equal to the length of the equipment in order to
pull the heat exchange tubes for servicing.
 Provide proper vibration isolation for large equipment, particularly
rotating equipment, such as chillers and pumps
 Access to equipment rooms is an important consideration. Adequate
doors and routes to freight elevators and/or to the building exterior
should be planned such that the largest piece of equipment can be
easily installed and possibly removed for servicing in the future
Air-handling Equipment Room Planning
 The number and location of central air-handling unit
equipment rooms (commonly called fan rooms) are critical to
a successful HVAC system.
 Once the number of AHUs is determined, the next decision
is how or whether they are to be grouped together in
separate rooms. The following summarizes typical AHU
room arrangement approaches:
− Scattered or separated units – often used in low-rise buildings
employing rooftop equipment
− Central core placement – most efficient layout and duct
distribution layout
− Perimeter rooms – minimizes ducting required for outside air and
exhaust air
− Detached rooms – moves the equipment room outside the main
building requiring an adjacent protruding service shaft
Scattered or separated units
− Air handlers are simply located as centrally as possible to the
separate zones they serve (and are thus scattered throughout the
building as a function of its separate zones)
− Results in the most efficient duct sizing and minimal duct sizes
− Because air handlers will be located directly above occupied
spaces, noise and vibration isolation are critical factors
Central core placement
− All air handling unit rooms are located together near the building
core, often on multiple floors in high-rise buildings
− Tends to yield the most efficient layout and duct distribution layout
if one air handler can serve an entire floor
− Horizontal or vertical ducting is required to admit and reject fresh
outside air and to exhaust spent air
− Air handling unit rooms placed in the central core can take
advantage of other service elements such as elevator shafts and
restrooms to buffer noise
− No equipment room wall should be located immediately adjacent
to an occupied space, and equipment rooms are best stacked
vertically to minimize piping and airshaft requirements
− At least 2 and preferably 3 sides of the equipment room are free
of vertical obstructions so that supply and return ductwork can
pass through them to serve the occupied areas
− Because floor-to-ceiling height is limited to the typical building
floor height, the supply/return mains tend to be dimensioned
flatter than desired for optimal airflow efficiency and noise control
− Often results in excessive fan noise and high velocity duct noise
from the mains
− Place existing ducts to pass over low occupancy service spaces,
such as closets and restrooms, and also to include a duct turn
above these spaces to reduce duct-transmitted noise
“Perimeter” rooms
− Can reduce the efficiency of the supply/return duct system, unless
multiple units are required for each floor
− Potential lost use of premium perimeter floor areas
− Potential negative aesthetic impact of large intake/exhaust louvers
on the exterior
− Proximity of potentially noisy equipment close to occupied areas
of the building

“Detached” rooms
− Sometimes allow for maximum space utilization and flexibility
within the main floor plate of the building they serve