Physical Geology

Atoms, Elements, Minerals and

Rocks
Geowetenschappen 2022-2023

fydji.sastrohardjo@uvs.edu

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Atoms, Elements and Minerals

• What is a mineral?
• Different types of atomic bonds
• Physical Properties of Minerals

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 Atoms and Elements
An element is a substance that can not be
broken down into others by ordinary chemical
reactions

An atom is a chemical unit that cannot be

broken down by chemical means composed of:
• Protons (positively charged)
• Neutrons (zero net charge)
• Electrons (negatively charged)

A molecule is made of 2 or
more atoms bonded together.
 Atomic Structure
• Protons and neutrons form the nucleus
– Represents tiny fraction of the volume at the
center of an atom, but nearly all of the mass
• Electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete
shells or energy levels
– Shells represent nearly all of the volume of
an atom, but only a tiny fraction of the mass
– Numbers of electrons and protons are equal
in a neutral atom
– Chemical reactions involve outer shell
(valence) electrons
 Chemical Bonding
Chemical bonding is controlled by outermost shell (valence) electrons.
Vacancies allow reactions.

• Ionic bonding
– Involves transfer of valence
electrons from one atom to
another
• Covalent bonding
– Involves sharing of valence
electrons among adjacent atoms
• Metallic bonding
– Electrons flow freely throughout
Ionic bonding of NaCl (sodium chloride)

metals; results in high electrical

conductivity
 Four types of bonding
Ionic bonding
Halite When one atom transfers an
electron to another.

Figure 2.3
© 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Four types of bonding
Covalent Bonding
When electrons from different
atoms “pair up” or are shared.
Diamond
Four types of bonding
Metallic Bonding
Gold (Au) In metals, atoms are so tightly packed
that electrons can be shared among
several atoms. Here each atom is in
contact with 12 other gold atoms.
Outermost electrons are loosely held
and drift easily – allowing for high
heat and electrical conductivity.
Four types of bonding Van der Waals Bonds
A weak attraction that occurs between
neutral molecules that have asymmetrical
charge distribution. (The positive end
Graphite of one molecule is attracted to the
negative end of another)
Covalent Bonds in Diamonds and Graphite

Graphite Diamonds
-Diamond and graphite are both made of carbon (C), but one is the
hardest substance on Earth and the other very soft.
 Composition of Earth’s Crust
• Common elements
– Most common elements in Earth's
crust
• O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg
• Common mineral types
– Most minerals are silicates
(contain Si and O)
The earth’s crust is mostly composed of oxygen and
silicon, more than 70 weight % of the Earth’s crust. This
suggests that Si and O are important constituents of most
rock-forming minerals
 What is a Mineral ?
A mineral is an inorganic, naturally occurring solid
that has a definite chemical composition, atomic
structure and specific physical properties

Halite (NaCl)
-Table salt Olivine (MgSiO4)
Gold (Au)

•The study of minerals is called Mineralogy

Where do Minerals Form ?

• Geosphere (most minerals)

• Hydrosphere (e.g., halite)
• Biosphere (e.g., calcite)
• Atmosphere (water ice, snow)

foraminifera
 The Mineral Ice

Ice occurs in nature and has a Is water a mineral?

specific chemical formula (H2O).
© 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
 Is this crocodile bone a mineral?

How about this crocodile skull

which has been fossilized?

© 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

 Would you call coal a mineral?
Why or why not?

Steel in a processing plant.

Is steel a mineral?
© 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Vitamins and Mineral Supplements you buy at a
Drugstore. Are these minerals?
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 How about quartz?

© 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

 Mineral Properties
Physical and chemical properties of minerals are closely
linked to their atomic structures and compositions
• Hardness
- Scratch-resistance
• Cleavage
– Breakage planes
• Streak
– Color left behind when mineral
is scraped on unglazed porcelain
• Luster
– Manner in which light reflects
off surface of a mineral
• Color
– Visible hue of a mineral
 ? Mystery Mineral ?

Geologists have several “low tech” methods to

identify unknown minerals in the field...
© 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Mohs' Hardness Scale

Gypsum

Quartz

Diamond
 Crystal Faces and Angles

Crystal faces can have different surface area but will retain
© 2008, the angle
John Wiley between
and Sons, Inc. surfaces.
Mineral cleavage is different from crystal growth !

Cleavage:
- Planar surfaces left from a freshly broken surface
- Rocks break along defects or planes of weakness
Mineral cleavage

Halite has cubic cleavage

Try breaking it!
 Color Streak

Hematite is a grayish silver mineral

but produces a red streak (high iron content)
© 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
 Mineral Luster

Luster is how light Vitreous

reflects off a surface Quartz (SiO2)

Resinous
Sphalerite (ZnS)

Pearly
Talc (MgSi4O10(OH2))
What type of luster do you see in the mystery mineral ?

Our mystery mineral has a metallic luster.

 Color Only can be Deceiving

Corundum (Al2O3) has different colors:

Ruby: red from substitution of Cr3 for Al3
© 2008, John Wiley and Sons,Sapphire:
Inc. High iron and titanium content
Magnetite Characteristics
 What is a Rock ?
A rock is a naturally formed, consolidated material
usually composed of grains of one or more minerals

Granite
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 The Rock Cycle
Rock-forming materials come from Earth’s mantle, space (meteorites),
organisms (parts of plants and animals), or the fragmentation and chemical
decay of mineral crystals and other rocks. Environmental changes and processes
affect these materials and existing rocks in ways that produce three main rock
groups

The earth changes because of

its internal and external heat
engine and therefore it has a
highly varied and ever-
changing surface. As such
minerals and rocks change as
well

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The Rock Cycle
 Three Main Groups of Rocks

1. Igneous rocks
form when magma
or lava cool to a
solid form

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 Three Main Groups of Rocks

2. Sedimentary rocks
form mostly when
mineral crystals and
clasts of plants, animals,
mineral crystals, or rocks
are compressed or
naturally cemented
together. They also form
when mineral crystals
precipitate from water

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 Three Main Groups of Rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks are rocks deformed or changed
from one form to another (transformed) by intense
heat, intense pressure, and/or the action of hot fluids.

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The Rock Cycle

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The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics

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