UNIT-3 ROCKET MOTION IN FREE SPACE AND IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD. NEWTON'S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION: Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, (Separately it was shown that large spherically symmetrical masses attract and are attracted as if all their mass were concentrated at their centers.) This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Newton called induction. Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the Tine intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them F-quam™ re vier SEU ae Ole R=h=6—-5 « Fis the force between the masses, ‘© Gis the gravitational constant, mis the nt mas + Methesennd miss and * ris the distance between the centres of the masses, Assuming SCunits, Fis measured in newtons (N), m, and mm in kilograms (kg), rin meters (m), and the constant G is approximately equal to 6.674% 107"! N m? kg ‘Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, in which force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's Law has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses, and the electrostatic constant in place of the gravitational constant. 64Newton's law has since been superseded by Binstein's theory of general relativity, but it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity. Relativity is required only ‘when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with gravitation for extremely massive and dense objects. ‘THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION To describe the motion of the rocket vehicle we need the following reference frames: Inertial frame: OXYZ, This frame is chosen such that the trajectory of the centre of mass of the vehicle lies in the XZ, plane. So this plane is determined by the launch direction (initial velocity) and the direction of the gravitational field. The inertial frame will be specified further where necessary. The unit vectors along the axes of the inertial frame will be e,,¢,and e,. se wt oF OS ge! The origin of this frame is the centre of mass of the rocket. The x-axis coincides with the longitudinal axis of the rocket and is positive forwards. The y- and z-axes are chosen such that they form an orthogonal right handed Cartesian frame, the x2- plane coineiding with the XZ plane. The unit vectors along the axes of thé vehicle reference frame are ey, eyand cy. 9 Vehicle reference frame oxyz: ‘The position of the rocket is determined by the X and Z coordinates of its centre of ‘mass, while the orientation is determined by the angle between the x axis and X axis: the pitch angle @ The equation of two dimensional motion (along the axes of the vehicle reference frame) can be obtained by substitution of v=p=1=0.However, in this simple case, we prefer to express the equations in components along the axes of the inertial frame, The equations for translation motion can be obtained from the vector equation, d Vion dt As we will only consider nominal trajectory, the thrust is assumed to act along the x-axis, i.e,F,*Fy=0, while its application point will be assumed to Tie on the x axis, y=2.-0. The thrust F and aerodynamic force F, are given by, : M =F+W+F,. oy ow tn OF Y F= Fe,, { 44 ar ot : 4a FE, = X,€,+ Z,¢,. Ras <7 65< VU x Fig: coordinate systems to describe the two-dimensional rocket motion ‘The gravitational field sirength g, and the position vector, Rem of the contre of mass are resolved into components along the inertial axes et . a & = 8xex t+ 8zez, Ro, = Xex t+ Zez. By using the equation and the relation between the unit vectors in both reference frames, e, cos8 0 sin @qrex gi=t 0 1 6 Theyl, e, -sin@ 0 cos @jLez We obtain the equations, 66 Adx M- ade =F cos @+ Mgx +X, cos @— Z, sin 0, 4 i P M-y2 = F sin @+ Mgz+ X, sin 0+ Z, cos @. The equation of rotational motion is obtained by substitution of p=-Ze=F2=0 Letting Vx amd Vz be the velocity components of the centre of mass along the X and Z axes * respectively, and nothing that the pitch rate q, is related to the pitch angle @by ya _ 46 as ce ae ee fa q ‘The equations of motion can be written as dVvx My =F cos 6+ Mgx + X, cos @— Z, sin 0, Vaz MSX2— Fsin 6+ Mgz+ X, sin 90+ Z, cos 6, ‘de dz dt Vz, d?9_ «0 /al, —— age 7 ly Ss + mx2)—M’. This instantaneous mass of the rocket follows from the differential equation dM a ea eo FR ‘The thrust can be written as 67tn F=mV.+(p.~ pA The above equations are the complete equations for two dimensional rocket motion. This system of ‘equations is still zather complicated. The aerodynamic forces are dependent on velocity and position; the gravitational components are in general dependent on the position, while the thrust is dependent ‘on the position owing to the atmospheric pressure term, In general, analytic solution of these equations is not possible. TSIOLKOVSKY ROCKET EQUATION (OR) IDEAL ROCKET EQUATION (OR) EQUATION OF OBERTH ‘The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, or ideal rocket equation, describes the motion of vehicles that follow the basic principle of a rocket: a device that can apply acceleration to itself (a thrust) by expelling part of its mass with high speed and move due to the conservation of momentum, ‘The equation relates the delta-v (the maximum change of speed of the rocket if'no other external forces act) with the effective exhaust velocity and the initial and final mass of a rocket For any such maneuver (or joumey involving a number of such maneuvers): mo veln 2 my Av where: ‘Mg is the initial total mass, including propellant, ‘TMs js the final total mass, Up is the effective exhaust velocity(Ve time period and 9ois Standard Gravity), Avis delta-v - the maximum change of speed of the vehicle (with no external forces acting), In refers to the natural logarithm function, Tap G0 where Fspis tne specific impulse of a This equation was independently derived by Konstantin Tsiolkoveky towards the end of the 19th century and is widely known under his name or as the ‘ideal rocket equation’ Derivation Consider the following system: In the following derivation, "the rocket” is taken to mean "the rocket and all ofits unbumed propellant” ‘Newton's second law of motion relates external forces (73) to the change in linear momentum of the system as follows: 68da . Pe— Pr DA= fea where tis the momentum of the rocket at time *=0: Pi =(m+Am)V and Pais the momentum of the rocket and exhausted mass at time £ = At: Py=m(V + AV) + Amv, and where, with respect to the observer: Vis the velocity of the rocket at time (= V + AVis the velocity of the rocket at time t = At Veis the velocity of the mass added to the exhaust (and lost by the rocket) during time At tr + Aamis the mass of the rocket at time (=0 ‘Mis the mass of the rocket at time £ = At The velocity of the exhaust Vein the observer frame is related to the velocity of the exhaust in the rocket frame Veby (since exhaust velocity is in the negative direction) V.=V—u Solving yields: P,— Py =mAV —v.Am and, using dim, = —Ami, since ejecting a positive Aymresults in a decrease in mass, av dm R= may tea If there are no external frees then 2 Fi = Oana av dm m= = ~te = dt dt Assuming Veis constant, this may be integrated to yield: r mo AV =yIn— ™m or equivalently ~AV fe AV |e My = Moe i or Mg = mye 7 or mg — my, = m,(e4¥ * — 1) 69~tL_____. where is the initial total mass including propellant, the final total mass, and _ the velocity of the rooRBexhaust with respect to the rocket (the specifiéwpulse, or, if measured in time, that multiplied by gravity-on-Earth acceleration). The value "70 — T4js the total mass of propellant expended, and hence: My=1-7ha1—eav ™o where Mis the mass fraction (the part of the intial total mass that is spent as reaction mass). Applicability The rocket equation captures the essentials of rocket flight physics in a single short equation. It also holds truc for rocket-like reaction vehicles whenever the effective exhaust velocity is constant; and ‘can be summed or integrated when the effective exhaust velocity varies. It does not apply to non rocket systems, such as aero braking, gun launches, space elevators, launch loops, and in tether propulsion, ~ ROCKET PARAMETERS: ‘The mass ratio is the very important parameter in determining the ideal velocity of the rocket. Mass ratio is defined as the ratio between the initial and final mass of the rocket. Mass ratio= MM, Next to the mass ratio we can also define some of the other dimensionless quantities, We divide the initial mass (Mo) of the rocket into three parts. They are, 1. Payload mass(M,) 2. Propellant mass(M,) 3. Structural mass (MJ) ‘Therefore we also define the initial mass and final mass as, Tnitial mass,Mg = M,#M,+M, Final mass, M, = My Mg 1. PAYLOAD MASS (i): Payload ratio is defined as the ratio between payload mass to the initial mass of the rocket. it is defined by the symbol 2. 702, PROPELLANT RATIO (®): = 77. Propellant ratio is defined as the ratio between useful propellant mass to the initial mass of the rocket. 3. STRUCTURAL EFFICIENCY (6): M. M.+M, Structural efficiency is defined as the ratio of structural mass to the summation of propellant ‘mass and structural mass, It is denoted by the symbol « NOTE: 1. Mass ratio A, is always larger than 1 But in gravitation less field it is less than 1. 2. The payload ratio, structural efficiency and propellant ratio are always less than 1 3. In general the range of these parameters for a single stage rocket is, 2 For burnout range we have to derive expressions for two different propellant consumptions. > The first one yields a constant thrust and the second one yields the constant specific thrust There are two cases in case of burn out range. They are, 1. Constant Thrust 2. Constant Specific Thrust CASEI: CONSTANT THRUST: In this case the propellant consumption is, m=mo=constant; Ot, : ‘Consequently the instantancous mass of the rocket during thrusting is given by, M=Mo~- mot. ‘The burning time f, follows from, M, = Mo~ mots, 72Solve the above equation for getting t, using mass ratio and thrust to weight ratio, which yields I, 1 = (t -3). Yo A IMPULSIVE SHOT: > Fora fixed yo the burning time increases with increasing specific impulse, and increasing mass ration, > The buming time decrcascs if yo increases, and tj—+0 if yoo, > In that case all the propellant is consumed instantaneously. This is called an impulsive shot The velocity as a function of time is given by (for zero initial velocity) Mc Mo- mot" V= gol In Substitute the velocity equation in eqn nol, and evaluate the integral which leads to Mo- mot _ }]. {in Meret 1 ‘The bumout range ice, the distance covered at tty, then, Bole As, ==? * bo ‘Where, 73LJ. 1 Pp = p(t) =1 a (in A+1). ‘Therefore the burnout range is given by, As, > 805 Wo. > We see that the burnout range is proportional to the square of the specific impulse and inversely proportional to the thrust to weight ratio. > For an impulsive shot As, ~0. If Ao» the function p, approaches unity. DIMENSIONLESS ACCELERATION: Iis defined as, 1dv This equals the specific thrust and is increasing monotonically from yo to Ayo at bumout. 2 & The Bo Rage sy i & a & 2 The figure gives the dimensionless burnout range, Asy/gol,", as a fimetion of Aand also depicts the range as a function of instantancous mass ratio Mo! (Mo-met) CASE 2: CONSTANT S EC CIFIC THRUS In this case, 4bt F &oM = Bo = constant. So inMo_ Bo , M I, M= Mgexp (~£2 ). ‘SP By differentiating the above equation, the propellant consumption as a function of time is found to be, M 0 Bo exp( _ Bo ) Ip I, SP And the buming time follows from the eqn 2, t=—P ln A. Ii this case, the specific impulse can be interpreted as a burning time, namely the burning time of the rocket with mass ration=e and a constant specific thrust of unity. As the acceleration is constant and equal to goo, velocity and range are given by V= SoBot, As =380Bot”, And thus the burnout Vi, = 80Bot, = Bols, In A, Pr 2. Asp 142 As, = 280Bols = 4803 In? A. ‘0 It can be verified easily that, in the case of constant specific thrust, buming time and burnout range are larger than the corresponding quantities in the case of constant thrust with the same initial specific thrust 75 kiROCKET MOTION IN A HOMOGENEOUS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD: Homogencous gravitational field is defined as the gravitational field at which the field strength g, is constant throughout. If we consider the earth locally as being flat, the local gravitational field may be considered homogeneous. Actually the earth is nearly spherical and its gravitational field can bbe approximated very well by a central inverse square field ‘However as long as the altitude and range are small relative to the mean earth’s radius, the carth may be considered flat and the field strength can be approximated very well by a constant, For small rockets, such as sounding rockets and tactical missiles this approximation yields good results, For launch vehicles and intercontinental ballistic missiles the powered flight trajectory of the first stages can also be calculated by good approximation with the flat earth assumption. 9 For upper stages, however, the velocity will be so large that the flat earth approximation will lead to unacceptable deviations from the real trajectory. However, as most part of this trajectory is a coast phase, the trajectory can be approximated by a ballistic one and can be determined analytically in case of spherical earth. Ifwe choose the X-axis of the inertial system to coincide with the flat earth surface and the Z-axis vertical, then g.=0 and g.= -go, where it is assumed that motion takes place near the surface of the earth. Then the equation of transitional motion become, MSYx_ F cos 6, dt dV, Me Fsin 6— Mgo, oaJL Then the thrust is given by, F= mc = mgpl,,. woe wal) ogre Wor The pith prayen ee0Ch) There are two cases in case of homogeneous gravitational field. They are, 1. Vertical Flight 2. Inclined Flight (or) Constant Pitch Angle CASEI: VERTICAL FLIGHT: If during the whole flight 6=90°, and if we have zero initial horizontal velocity, the trajectory will be straight line parallel (o the z-axis. In that case V, equals to the total velocity V, and the equation of motion simplifies to dv __ [dM | ae [Mar 74} dh_ dz dt dt As initial conditions we will choose a zero velocity and altitude at (=0. Equation 1 can be integrated independently of the mass flow program, leading to M, V=g0| lp net : ‘We see that, in order to determine V as a function of time. Even the burn out velocity in this case is dependent on the thrust program because the burning time depends on it. Again we will assume a constant thrust, in which case the mass flow is given by, m=; Ot,. For this case the burning time is already derived in burn out range derivation. Then we find the velocity as a funetion of time M, V=eo| fy Ing tf Ot, Sub the above in equations V,, Vand tana equations. We then find that during powered flight, +y increases and the trajectory is curved upwards, By taking the limit for t—+0 1 Wy COS Oy Consequently, the angle of attack decreases during powered flight. Its initial value is given by, tan yo = tan 0)— COS A $o—sin Oo After bumout, y decreases and « increases. Then the trajectory is curved downwards. Culmination altitude is reached if 0, or equivalently if V,=0, leading to, tan a= t, = I, In A sin 4. ‘The culmination time is independent of thrust. Fig: the angle of attack for flights with constant pitch angle and constant thrust in a homogeneous gravitational field and in vacuum. Ae of atk fe) "ptm oe Roo Mit 81During powered flight, the coordinates are determined by, Bol, X= 222p(t) cos 0, Yo Z= 80lp . 1 = p(t) sin 0y—4gt?. bo The position at burn out is given by, I X, = Pb COS Oo, oO Bol2, ft 1\? = Sate ; paeceeted gee | Zy : Dy Sin 85 7 (1 ) . After burnout the position follows from X= X, + Vx,(t— b), Z=Z,+ Vz,(t- t)—3go(t- 4)’. ‘The coordinates for the culmination point are obtained by substitution of tt, in the above equations Bol? Yo Z = folie [1+3¥. In? A si 6-2 In A] sin 6. 7" [i+4 In? Asin >In A} cos 6, £ GRAVITY TURN TRAJECTORY (OR) ZERO LIFT TRAJECTORY: ‘To reduce the aerodynamic forces on a rocket during its flight through the atmosphere, one will endeavour to keep the angle of attack as small as possible. For simple acrodynamically stabilized vehicles, this is accomplished by fixed fins. ‘Vehicle that are mechanically stabilized or more or tess complicated control systems to generate the moments necessary to keep the angle of attack as small as possible. This is of course not the case for aerodynamically controlled rockets during manocuvring, 82For launch vehicles, ICBMs and uncontrolled aerodynamically stabilized rockets wwe can say that the flight through the atmosphere takes place with zero angle of attack. In that case there is no lift and the curvature of trajectory is solely due to gravity, and hence the name gravity tum or zero lift trajectory As the angle of attack is zero, the flight path angle equals the pitch angle, Vz 6= y=arctan—Z. y =arc Vy ‘Then the equation of motion become, AV _ Vix nal dt Vi dVz_ Vz at y Mbo» VEN Viet V2. Itis convenient in this case to use the total velocity V and the flight path angle yas dependent variables instead of V, and V, and the summation yields, Se dr mM 8 Sit y- ‘The differential equation for y is found by nmultiplication of eqn of motion eqn by V, and by ‘Vaand subtract the results we get, Se dt vos ‘The equations for the gravity tum, in general, cannot be solved analytically. However some special cases exist which allow for analytical solutions. These are constant specific thrust and constant pitch rate 83.a CASE 1: CONSTANT SPECIFIC THRUST: B= Bo In this case the the equations of motion become dv_ ne a 7 80 (Bo sin y), dy cos y ay Elimination of t from the above equations leads to dv sin a [-e ost | dy. V_ {cosy cosy Integration of the above equation leads to 1+sin y 0/2 7 | = constant. 1-siny Vos | ‘We now define a velocity factor, F 1 [1-sin y]°°? cos y |1+sin y i I£Vo and yo are initial velocity and initial flight path angle respectively, then the above two equations can be combined and ean be written as, Pons Vo ver. r= KICK ANGLE: Jn preliminary trajectory calculations the pitch over period is represented mathematically by an instantancous rotation of both vehicle and velocity vector over an angle 6p, called the kick angle, The flight path angle then is, 7 Yo a 8. 84‘The relation between time and flight path angle ean be written as, Erect dt= - 80 COS Y ‘The velocity factor and the time factor for the gravity turn with constant specific thrust in a homogeneous gravitational field (a) 0 15 30 48 60 75 90 Flight Path Angle y (deg) as Te Time Foctor oz oa ° 6S » & 6 75 90 Fight Path Angie P eg? Substitution of V(.y0,.Ve) from above two equation and changing to the variable q, defined as 85Simplifies and integrate which leads to 1 : : t~ty = FBP 1) [V(Bo+sin y)— Vo(Bo +sin Yo)]. By introduction of a time factor I", defined as, Botsin y y= Po r. Bo-1 ‘0 tHy can be written as Bolo Ve (t-t))=I"-T'G ‘The coordinates X and Z follows from 1 Vv? X= -| —dy+Xy ty 8 80 COS y Again using the variable q is defined and we can derive as, X-X,T? 1 Va & 483-1 Z-Zi “V8 & 2(B8—1) Z= -{ ——dyt+Z. hy [f? cos y(2Bo+sin y)—T3 cos yo(2Bo tsin yo)], - [1?(Bo sin y+ 1—4 cos? y) ~T6(Bo sin Yo+ 1-32 cos* ¥0)]. CASE2: CONSTANT PITCH RATE: a=. Jn that case d@ dy dt dt & a) And the equations of motion become 868o COS ¥ _ V o> @ dvV_F i Gem 5in . : Differentiation of equation 2yields, ‘ a) i d 0. dt\ Vv vP \SoSin yay) = “ Equation (4) can be satisfied cither if cos y = 0, which means that we have a vertical ascent with zero pitch rate or if dv = —— = gy sin y. dies 6) By combining the (2) and (4) eqn we see that the specific thrust is determined by, F — =2sin y. aM a © As according to eqn (1) Y= %~% (t=); Eqn (6) can be integrated, leads to in2@ Mo 4olsp thus as burnout, (cos ¥. —cos y). ® I, COS Y, = COS e+ In A, o Which determines 7 . the burning time follows from Yo — Yo fy — by = PE ‘o oy 87——_——_________—_l_ Sub equation (7) into eqn (5) and the integration of resulting yields the velocity as the function of 7 V=V, +22 (cos y—cos Yo). do (aly By using the equations we find Vi = Vy +4elep In A, a2) (©) AV, =34 Via- (3) So in this case gravity losses emount to 50% of the ideal velocity. This is the consequence of ow thrust (B<2) and the resulting large burning time. The trajectory is obtained by integrating dx a V cos y, a4) dZ ——= Vsin y. dt lf as) ‘These equations can be also integrated analytically. SHORT ANSWERS Define Newtons Law Of Universal Gravitation Write the Equation of Translation motion of a rocket ‘Write the Rotational Motion of a rocket State the equations of motion of a rocket What is Tsiolkovsky Rocket Equation? What ate the Applications of Tsiolkovsky Rocket Equation? Define mass ratio What is pay load ratio? Define the following with their specific notations : 2) Propellant Ratio b) Structural efficiency ©) Specific thrust @)_ Thrust to weight ratio, 10, What is mean by burnout? 11. What is an impulsive shot? 12, Define Dimensionless acceleration and also draw the dimensionless bumout range in free space 13, What do you mean by homogeneous gravitational field? 14, What is zero lift trajectory and state its significance? 15, Define kick angle 88