A study on Group Theory: Basic Concepts and

Examples
Aung Chan Min
July 2023
Term paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics of University of Mandalay.
Introduction to Group Theory:
Basic Concepts and Examples
Abstract
Group theory is a fundamental branch of mathematics that studies the
algebraic structures known as groups. This term paper provides an introduction
to the key concepts of group theory, exploring its basic definitions, properties,
and examples. By understanding the fundamental principles of group theory, we
lay the foundation for further exploration into more advanced topics in algebra
and other fields. This paper aims to provide a clear and accessible introduction
to group theory, enabling readers to grasp the essential concepts and applications
of this fundamental branch of mathematics.

Introduction
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1 Normal Subgroup and Factor Groups

1.1 Cosets
Let G be a group under ∗ and H be a subgroup of G. If a ∈ G, then Ha =
{h ∗ a|h ∈ H} is called the right coset of H and aH = {a ∗ h|h ∈ H} is called

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the left coset of H

1.1.1 Example
Let H be the subgroup of Z6 consisting of the elements 0 and 3. The left cosets
are

0 + H = 3 + H = {0, 3}
1 + H = 4 + H = {1, 4}
2 + H = 5 + H = {2, 5}

[1]

1.1.2 left coset is not always equal to right coset

1.1.3 Not all coset is a group
We have seen the set of integers, Z is a group under + in blah. We have seen
the set of even integers, E is a p of subgroup of Z in blah. Note that The left
coset, 1 + E = {±1, ±2, ±3, ...} is not a group.

1.2 Normal Subgroup

If N is a subgroup of a group G and aN a−1 ⊂ N for every a in G, then we call
N is a normal subgroup of G and write N ◁ G .

1.3 Factor or Quotient Group

If G is a group under ∗ and N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then
the set of cosets,{aN |a ∈ G}, forms the group under the operation ⋄ where
aN ⋄ bN = (a ∗ b)N . The set, {aN |a ∈ G}, is called factor or quotient group of
G by N and is denoted by G/N (read “G over N or G mod N ”)

2 Homomorphism
2.1 Definition:Homomorphism
Let G be a group under the operation ∗ and G′ the group under the operation
◦; then the mapping φ : G → G′ is a homomorphism if φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b) for
all a, b ∈ G.

2.2 Properties of Homomorphism

If φ is a homomorphism of G into G′ , then
(a) φ(e) = e′ , where e is the unit element of G and e′ is the unit element of G′ .
(b) φ(a−1 ) = φ(a)−1 for all a ∈ G.

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2.3 Definition of Kernel
If φ is a homomorphism of G into G′ and e′ is the identity element of group G′ ,
the kernel of φ is defined by Kerφ = {x|φ(x) = e′ }

2.3.1 Propert of kernel

Every kernel forms normal subgroup.

Proof. Suppose G is a group under ⋄ and G′ is a group under

Let φ be a homomorphism of G into G′ .
Then φ(a ⋄ b) = φ(a)♠φ(b)
Let K be the kernel of φ.
Then K = Ker φ = {g ∈ G|φ(g) = e′ }, where e′ is the identity element of G′ .

Let x ∈ a−1 Ka, where a ∈ G

Then there exists k in K such that x = a−1 ⋄ k ⋄ a

φ(x) = φ(a−1 ⋄ (k ⋄ a))

φ(x) = φ(a−1 )♠φ(k ⋄ a)
φ(x) = φ(a)−1 ♠(φ(k)♠φ(a))
φ(x) = φ(a)−1 ♠(e′ ♠φ(a))
φ(x) = φ(a)−1 ♠φ(a)
φ(x) = e′
x∈K
−1
a Ka ⊂ K
K ◁G

3 Isomorphism
3.1 Definition of a Isomorphism
Let G be a group under the operation ∗ and G′ the group under the operation
◦; then the mapping φ : G → G′ is a isomorphism if φ is bijective(both 1-1 and
onto) and φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b) for all a, b ∈ G.
In other words, a bijective homomorphism is called isomorphism.

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3.2 Examples of Isomorphism
3.3 Definition: Isomorphic
Two groups G and H are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism of G
onto H.
We shall denote that G and H are isomorphic by writing G ≃ H.

4 Homomorphism Theorems
4.1 First Homomorphism Theorem
Let φ be a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K. Then G′ ≃ G/K,
the isomorphism between these being effected by the map φ : G/K → G′ defined
by φ(Ka) = ψ(a).
Proof. Let G be a group under ∗ and e be the identity element of G.
Let G′ be a group under ◦ and e′ be the identity element of G′ .
Let φ be a homomorphism of G onto G′
Then φ(a ∗ b) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b)
Also Kerφ = {g ∈ G|φ(g) = e′ } is a normal subgroup of G.
Hence G/K = {Ka|a ∈ G} forms a group under the operation ⋄, where
Ka ⋄ Kb = K(a ∗ b)

Define ψ : G/K → G′ by ψ(Ka) = φ(a) for a ∈ G.

First of all, we shall show that ψ is well defined.

Suppose Ka = Kb, where Ka, Kb ∈ G/K
Since ϕ is homomorphism, ϕ(e) = e′
Thus e ∈ K
Hence e ∗ a = a ∈ Ka
If Ka = Kb, there exists c ∈ Kb such that a = c
If c ∈ Kb, there exists k ∈ K such that c = k ∗ b

a=k∗b
φ(a) = φ(k ∗ b)
φ(a) = φ(k) ◦ φ(b)
φ(a) = e′ ◦ φ(b)
φ(a) = φ(b)

Hence ψ(Ka) = ϕ(Kb) implies φ(a) = φ(b). ψ is well-defined.

Now we shall prove prove ψ is homomorphism and then ψ is 1-1 and onto.

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 ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = ψ(K(a ∗ b))
ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = φ(a ∗ b)
ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = φ(a) ◦ φ(b)
ψ(Ka ⋄ Kb) = ψ(Ka) ◦ ϕ(Kb)

Hence ψ is homomorphism of G/K into G′

Now we shall prove that ψ is 1-1 and onto.

Suppose that ψ(Ka) = ψ(Kb)

φ(a) = φ(b)

−1 −1
φ(a) ◦ φ(b) = φ(b) ◦ φ(b)−1 φ(a) ◦ φ(a) = φ(b) ◦ φ(a)−1
φ(a) ◦ φ(b−1 ) = e′ φ(b) ◦ φ(a−1 ) = e′
φ(a ∗ b−1 ) = e′ φ(b ∗ a−1 ) = e′
a ∗ b−1 ∈ K b ∗ a−1 ∈ K
Let x ∈ Ka, where x = k ∗ a for k ∈ K Let y ∈ Kb, where y = k ∗ b for k ∈ K
−1 −1
Then x ∗ b = k ∗ (a ∗ b ) Then y ∗ a−1 = k ∗ (b ∗ a−1 )
φ(x ∗ b−1 ) = φ(k ∗ (a ∗ b−1 )) φ(y ∗ a−1 ) = φ(k ∗ (b ∗ a−1 ))
φ(x ∗ b−1 ) = φ(k) ◦ φ(a ∗ b−1 ) φ(y ∗ a−1 ) = φ(k) ◦ φ(b ∗ a−1 )
φ(x ∗ b−1 ) = e′ ◦ e′ φ(y ∗ a−1 ) = e′ ◦ e′
φ(x ∗ b−1 ) = e′ φ(y ∗ a−1 ) = e′
x ∗ b−1 ∈ K y ∗ a−1 ∈ K
x = (x ∗ b−1 ) ∗ b ∈ Kb y = (y ∗ a−1 ) ∗ a ∈ Ka
Ka ⊂ Kb Ka ⊂ Kb

write this as new theorem/properties in cosets: ab−1 ∈ K if and only if Ka = Kb

[1][page 97] Hence Ka = Kb and ψ is 1-1.
Suppose y ∈ G′ .
Since φ is onto, there is an element x ∈ G such that y = φ(x)
This means that there is an element Kx ∈ G/K such that y = φ(x) = ψ(Kx)
ψ is onto.
Therefore ψ is isomorphism of G/K onto G′ . G′ ≃ G/K

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4.2 Correspondence Theorem
Let the map φ : G → G′ be a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K. Let
H = {a ∈ G|φ(a) ∈ H ′ }. If H ′ is a subgroup of G′ , then H is a subgroup of G,
K ⊂ H, and H/K ≃ H ′ . Finally, if H ′ ◁ G′ , then H ◁ G.
Proof. Let G be a group under ♡
Let G′ be a group under ⋄

Let e and e′ be the identity elements of G and G′ respectively.

Since H ′ is a subgroup, e′ ∈ H ′
Then φ(e) = e′ ∈ H ′
e∈H
H ̸= ϕ

Hence clearly, H is a nonempty subset of G.

Let a, b ∈ H
φ(a), φ(b) ∈ H ′
φ(a) ⋄ φ(b) ∈ H ′
φ(a♡b) ∈ H ′
a♡b ∈ H

H is closed under ♡

Let a ∈ H
φ(a) ∈ H ′
Since H ′ is a subgroup,
φ(a)−1 ∈ H ′
φ(a)−1 = φ(a−1 ) ∈ H ′
a−1 ∈ H
H is a subgroup of G

Let k ∈ K
Then φ(k) = e′ ∈ H ′
Hence k ∈ H
K⊂H

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 Now we can say that φ is a homomorphism of H onto H ′ with kernel K. By
first homomorphism theorem, H/K ≃ H ′

Finally, if H ′ ◁ G′ and a ∈ G,
φ(a)−1 H ′ φ(a) ⊂ H ′
Hence φ(a−1 )H ′ φ(a) ⊂ H ′
Let x = a−1 ♡h♡a ∈ a−1 Ha
φ(x) = φ((a−1 ♡h)♡a)
= φ(a−1 ♡h) ⋄ φ(a)
= (φ(a−1 ) ⋄ φ(h)) ⋄ φ(a)
φ(x) ∈ φ(a−1 )H ′ φ(a)
φ(x) ∈ H ′ (∵ φ(a−1 )H ′ φ(a) ⊂ H ′ )
x∈H
−1
a Ha ⊂ H
H ◁G

4.3 Second Homomorphism Theorem

Suppose G is a group under ∗. Let H be a subgroup of a group G and N a
normal subgroup of G. Then HN = {h ∗ n|h ∈ H, n ∈ N } is a subgroup of G,
H ∩ N is a normal subgroup of H, and H/(H ∩ N ) ≃ (HN )/N .
is HN double coset? check this out!

Proof. Since H is a subgroup, H is not empty. Since N is a (normal) subgroup,

N is not empty. Then HN = {h ∗ n|h ∈ H, n ∈ N } is not empty. Let a ∈ HN
Then there exist h1 in H and n in N such that a = h ∗ n
Since h ∈ H, h ∈ G
Since n ∈ N , n ∈ G
Since G is a group under ∗, G is closed under ∗.
a=h∗n∈G
Hence HN is nonempty subset of G

Let x, y be any two elements of HN

Then there exist h1 , h2 ∈ H and n1 , n2 ∈ N such that x = h1 ∗n1 and y = h2 ∗n2 .

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 x ∗ y = h1 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ∗ n2
x ∗ y = h1 ∗ (h2 ∗ h−1
2 ) ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ∗ n2
= h1 ∗ h2 ∗ (h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ) ∗ n2
Since h1 , h2 ∈ H,
h1 ∗ h2 ∈ H
Since N is normal subgroup of G,
h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ∈ N
∴ (h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ) ∗ n2 ∈ N
h1 ∗ h2 ∗ (h−1
2 ∗ n1 ∗ h2 ) ∗ n2 ∈ HN
x ∗ y ∈ HN

HN is closed under ∗

Let a = hn ∈ HN , where h ∈ H and n ∈ N . Let e be the identity element

of G and b be the inverse of a.

Then a ∗ b = e
(h ∗ n) ∗ b = e
h ∗ (n ∗ b) = e
n ∗ b = h−1
b = n−1 ∗ h−1
b = h−1 ∗ h ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1
b = h−1 ∗ (h ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 )
b = h−1 ∗ ((h−1 )−1 ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 )
Since h ∈ H, h−1 ∈ H
Since n ∈ N, n−1 ∈ N
Then, since N is normal subgroup, (h−1 )−1 ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 ∈ N
h−1 ∗ (h−1 )−1 ∗ n−1 ∗ h−1 ∈ HN
b = a−1 ∈ HN

4.4 Third Homomorphism Theorem

If the map φ : G → G′ is a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K then,
if N ′ ◁ G′ and N = {a ∈ G|φ(a) ∈ N ′ }, we conclude that G/N ≃ G′ /N ′ .
Equivalently, G/N ≃ (G/K)/(N/K).

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Proof. Suppose G is a group under ∗
Suppose G′ is a group under ⋄
Since N ′ ◁ G′ , G′ /N ′ forms a group under ♠, where N ′ a′ ♠N ′ b′ = N ′ (a′ ⋄ b′ ),
a′ , b′ ∈ G′
Clearly N ′ e′ = N ′ is the unit element of G′ /N ′
Define the mapping ψ : G → G′ /N ′ by ψ(a) = N ′ φ(a) for every a ∈ G.

ψ(a ∗ b) = N ′ φ(a ∗ b)
= N ′ (φ(a) ⋄ φ(b))
= N ′ φ(a)♠N ′ φ(b)
= ψ(a)♠ψ(b)

Hence ψ is homomorphism of G into G′ /N ′ .

Let N ′ y ∈ G′ /N ′ , where y ∈ G′
Since φ is onto and y ∈ G′ , there is x ∈ G such that φ(x) = y
Hence there is x in G such that ψ(x) = N ′ φ(x) = N ′ y
ψ is onto.
Let M be the kernal of ψ
Let a ∈ M
Then ψ(a) = N ′
By the definition of ψ, ψ(a) = N ′ φ(a)
Hence N ′ φ(a) = N ′
WHY φ(a) ∈ N ′
a∈N
M ⊂N
Now let n ∈ N

Then φ(n) ∈ N ′
Also, by definition of ψ, ψ(n) = N ′ φ(n)
ψ(n) = N ′
n∈M
N ⊂M

Therefore N = M is the kernel of ψ. Since ψ is homomorphism of G into

G′ /N ′ with kernel N , by first homomorphism theorem, G/N ≃ G′ /N ′ .
Since φ is homomorphism of G into G′ with kernel K, by first homomorphism
theorem, G/K ≃ G′ .
Since φ : G → G′ is a homomorphism of G onto G′ with kernel K, N ′ ◁ G′
and N = {a ∈ G|φ(a) ∈ N ′ }, by correspondence theorem, N/K ≃ N ′
Hence G/N ≃ G′ /N ′ ≃ (G/K)/(N/K).

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 Acknowledgements
References
[1] Thomas W. Judson. Abstract Algebra Theory and Application. 2012.

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