PROFESSIONAL SUBJECT REVIEWER

POINTERS

A. THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

 The 14 Learner-centered Psychological Principles
 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches
 Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
 Research in Child and Adolescent Development
 Developmental Theories
1. Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic/Psychosexual Theory, Personality component &
adjustments
2. Jean Piaget: Stages of Cognitive Development
3. Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Theory of Development
4. Lawrence Kohlberge: Stage of Moral Development
5. Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory of Development
6. Urie Bronfrenbrenner: The Ecological Theory
7. Howard Gardner: Learning/Thinking Styles & Multiple Intelligence
8. Roger Sperry: Split-Brain Model
B. THE FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
 The Foundation of Education
 The Different Philosophical Foundation
 The Different Literacies
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CHAPTER 1: 14 Learner centered psychological principles

 The 14 learner-centered psychological principles was compiled by AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL

ASSOCIATION.
 The 14 psychological principles have the following aspects;
1. They focus on the psychological factors that are primarily INTERNAL to under the control of
the learner rather than conditioned habits or psychological factors.
2. It also attempt to acknowledge EXTERNAL environment or contextual factors that interact
with these internal factors.
3. These principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real world
situations. No principles should be viewed in isolation.
4. These principles are intended to all learners, children, teacher, parents in our education
system.
 It was divided into 4 main domains;
1. COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR
2. MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR
3. DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR
4. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE FACTOR

1.Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

 NATURE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS

-learning of complex subject matters is most effective when there is an INTENTIONAL PROCESS
of constructing meaning from information and experiences.
- MOTOR SKILLS is a function that involves specific movement of the body’s muscle to perform a
certain task.
-Learning in school emphasize the use of intentional process that students can use to construct
meaning of information.
 GOAL OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
-The successful learner, overtime and with support of instructional guidance can create
meaningful, coherent representation of knowledge.
 CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
-Successful learners can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
-Knowledge widens and deepens as students continued to build links between new information
and their existing knowledge base. Links can take variety of form (adding, modifying or
organizing existing knowledge)
 STRATEGIC THINKING
-The successful learner can create thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning
goals.
-Successful learner use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem
solving and concept learning.
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 THINKING ABOUT THINKING

-Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and
critical thinking skills.
-Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods and monitor
their progress towards these goals.
 CONTEXT OF LEARNING
-Learning can be influenced by environmental factors including culture, technology and
instructional practices.
-Learning don’t occur in a vacuum. Culture or group influences on students can impact many
educationally relevant variables such as motivation, orientation towards learning and ways of
thinking.
-Classroom environment can also have significant impact on student’s learning.

2. Motivational and Affective Factors

 MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING

-What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in
turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interest, goals, and habits of
thinking.
-Motivational and emotional factors also have influences in the quality thinking and information
processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.
-Positive emotions such as curiosity generally enhance motivation and facilitates learning and
performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s
attention on a particular task.
 INSTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO LEARN
-The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking skills & natural curiosity all contributes to
motivation to learn.
-Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking and creativity are major indicators of the learner’s
intrinsic motivation to learn.
 EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION ON EFFORT
-Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner’s effort and guided
practice. It demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort.
-Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance
learner’s effort.

3. Developmental and Social Factors

 DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING

-Learning is most effective when differential development within and across; physical,
intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into accounts.
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-Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling and the quality of language interaction
and 2-way communication between adult and children can influence these developmental
areas.
 SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON LEARNING
-Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication to
others.
-Learning can be enhanced if the learner has the opportunity to interact and to collaborate with
others on instructional tasks.
-Learning setting that allows for social interactions and that respect diversity, encourages
flexible thinking and social competence.
-POSITIVE LEARNING CLIMATE can also help to establish the context for healthier level of
thinking, feeling and behaving.

4.Individual difference Factor

 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING

-Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function
of prior experiences and heredity.
-Educators need to be sensitive to individual’s differences. They also need to attend to learner
perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying
instructional methods and materials.
 LEARNING AND DIVERSITY
-Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural, and social
background are taken into accounts.
-When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, background, culture and
experiences are valued, respected and accommodated in learning tasks and context level of
motivation and achievement are enhanced.
 STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENT
-Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress-including diagnostic process and outcome assessment are integral parts of the
learning process.
-ASSESSMENT provides important information to both learners and teacher at all stages of the
learning process.
-SELF-ASSESSMENT can improve student self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-
directing learning.

 ALEXANDER AND MURPHY gave summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five areas.
1. THE KNOWLEDGE BASE
-One’s existing knowledge as the foundation of all future-learning. The learner’s previous
knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he presents new information
makes association and filters new experiences.
2. STRATEGIC PROCESSING AND CONTROL
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-Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to
learn more effectively.

3. MOTIVATION AND AFFECT

-Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within) reason for wanting to learn, personal
goals and enjoyment of learning task all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. DEVELOPMENT AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
-Learning is from a unique journey for each person because each learner has its own unique
combination of genetic and environmental factors that influences him.
5. SITUATION OR CONTEXT
-Learning happens in context of a society as well as within an individual.
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CHAPTER 2: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts & Approaches

 Two approaches to human development

1. TRADITIONAL APPROACH
-Show extensive change from birth to adolescent, little or no change in adulthood and
decline in late old age.
2. LIFE SPAN APPROACH
-If you believe that even in adulthood, development can take place as it does during
childhood.

 PAUL BALTES is an expert in life-span development and gives the following characteristics of
human development from a life-span perspective.

 The six characteristics of life span development;

1. DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG
-It doesn’t end in adulthood.
2. DEVELOPMENT IS PLASTIC
-Development is possible throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn.
o PLASTICITY- refers to the potential for change.
o AGING- it is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities.
3. DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL
-Development consists of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions.
o BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES- involves the changes in the individual’s physical nature.
o DEVELOPMENT IS RELATIVELY IN ORDER- A person will learn to sit, crawl then walk
before they could run. The muscular control of the trunk and the arms will develop
earlier as compared to the hands and fingers.
 PROXIMODISTAL PATTERN- A growth pattern in which growth occurs to the
center of the body outwards.
 CEPHALO-CAUDAL PATTER- A growth pattern occurs from the head
downward through the body.
4. DEVELOPMENT TAKES TIME GRADUALLY
-It takes time before we are fully developed. While some changes occur a flash of insights,
more often takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that results in
the display of developmental characteristics;
o COGNITIVE PROCESSES- it involves changes in the individual’s thoughts, intelligent,
and language. Person develop from mere sound to a word becoming a sentence.
o SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROCESSES- it includes the changes in the individuals
relationship with other people, changes in emotions and changes in personality.
5. DEVELOPMENT IS CONTEXTUAL
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-Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These context includes the individual’s
biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and cultural
context.
6. DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES GROWTH MAINTENANCE AND REGULATION
-GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, AND REGULATION are the 3 goals of human development. The
goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individual reach
middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while maintenance
and regulation takes the center stage.
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CHAPTER 3: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

 Growth- it is a quantitative and measurable

 Development- it is qualitative and not measurable

 ROBERT HAVIGHURST
-Defines developmental task as one that arises at a certain period in our life. The successful
achievement of which lead to happiness and success with later tasks. While failure leads to
unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with the later tasks.
 The 6 developmental tasks;
1. INFANCY (0-1 years old), TODDLER (2-3 years old) AND EARLY CHILDHOOD (4-5 years old)
o Learn to walk
o Learn to take solid foods
o Learn to talk
o Learning to control the elimination of body waste
o Acquiring concepts and language to describe social and physical reality.
o Readiness of reading
2. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD & LATE CHILDHOOD (6-12 YEARS OLD)
o Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
o Building a wholesome attitude towards self
o Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating
o Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
3. ADOLESCENCE (13-18 YEARS OLD)
o Achieving mature relations with both sexes.
o Accepting one’s physique
o Preparing for marriage and family life
o Preparing for economic career
4. EARLY ADULTHOOD (19-25 YEARS OLD)
o Selecting a mate
o Learning to live with a partner
o Starting a family
o Rearing children
o Managing a home
o Starting an occupation
5. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (26-64 YEARS OLD)
o Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults
o Satisfactory career achievement
o Developing adult leisure time activities
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o Relating to one’s spouse as a person

o Accepting the physiological changes in middle age
o Adjusting to aging parents
6. LATE MATURITY (65 AND ABOVE)
o Adjusting to decreasing strength and health
o Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
o Adjusting to death of spouse

 John Santrok’s Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

1. PRENATAL PERIOD (FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH)
-It involves tremendous growth from cell to an organism with complete brain and behavioral
capabilities.
2. INFANCY (0-1 YEARS OLD)
-The time for extreme dependence to adult such as the parents. Many psychological
activities are; language, symbolic thoughts, sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. EARLY CHILDHOOD (4-5 YEARS OLD)
-Preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient, develop school
readiness skills and spent hours to play with peers.
4. MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD (6-12 YEARS OLD)
-The fundamental skills for reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is
formally exposed to larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central
theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
5. ADOLESCENCE (13-18 YEARS OLD)
-Begins with rapid physical change, dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body
contour and the development of sexual characteristics such as (breasts, pubic hair and etc.).
More time spent outside the family.
6. EARLY ADULTHOOD (19-25 YEARS OLD)
-It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development,
selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way.
7. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (26-64 YEARS OLD)
-Time for expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility of assisting next
generation in becoming competent and mature individuals.
8. LATE ADULTHOOD (65 and ABOVE)
-It is a time for adjustments to decreasing strength and health, life and review retirement
and adjustments to new social roles.
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CHAPTER 4: Research in Child and Adolescent Development

 Issues of Human Development

1. NATURE: Individual’s biological inheritance
2. NURTURE: Refers to environmental experiences

 RESEARCH
-Give teachers and policy maker important knowledge to use in decision making for the
benefit of the learners and their families.
-It enables to come up with informed decision on what to teach and how to teach.
Decisions related to educational policies.

 JOHN DEWEY
-He was the one who provided the five steps of scientific method.
 The five steps of scientific method;

1. IDENTIFY AND DEFINE THE PROBLEM

2. DETERMINE THE HYPOTHESIS
3. COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA
4. FORMULATE CONCLUSIONS
5. APPLY CONCLUSIONS TO THE ORIGINAL HYPOTHESIS

 HYPOTHESIS
-This a tentative answer to a research problem or also known as the educational guess.

 Research design
1. CASE STUDY
-In depth look at an individual.
2. CORRELATIONAL STUDY
-Research design that determines association.
3. EXPERIMENTAL
-A research design that determines cause and effect relationships.
4. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
-Focuses on children’s experiences in natural setting.
5. LONGITUDINAL
-Follows through a single group over a period of time.
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6. CROSS-SECTIONAL
-Individual of different ages are compared at one time.

7. SEQUENTIAL
-Combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approach to learn about life span
development.
8. ACTION RESEARCH
-It is a reflective process of progressive problem solving lead by individuals working
with others.

 Data Gathering Techniques

1. OBSERVATION
-Can be made either in laboratories or natural setting. In naturalistic observation,
behavior is observed in classroom and home.
2. PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES
-Certain indicator of children’s development; heart rate, hormonal levels, bone
growth, body weight, and brain activity.
3. STANDARDIZED
-These are prepared test that assess individual’s performance in different domains.
These test are administered in a consistent manner.
4. INTERVIEW AND QUESTIONNAIRES
-Involve asking the participant to provide information about themselves based on
the interview given by the researcher. Gathering data can be conducted through
printed questionnaires, over the telephone, mail, in person or online.
5. LIFE-HISTORY RECORDS
-Record of information about life time chronology of events and activities. Involve
the combination of data records on education, work, family, and residence. Public
records, historical documents or interviews.

 THE DATA PRIVACY ACT OF 2012 (RA 10173)

-This law was passed in the Philippines on 2012 “to protect the fundamental human
rights of privacy communication while ensuring free flow of information to promote
innovation and growth.”
-It states that the collection of personal data must be declared, specified and legitimate.
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CHAPTER 5: Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic or Psychosexual Theory

 SIGMUND FREUD
-He is considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting
theory about the unconscious and sexual development.
-He is considered as the father of psychology.
-His theory remains one of the most influential in psychology and sparked the brilliant
ideas of the theorist and became the starting point of many theories just like Erikson’s
Psychosocial Theory of Development.
-He is the most popular psychologist that started the development of personalities, also
probably the theory “psychosexual theory.”
 Freud identified EROGENOUS ZONE (pleasure areas) for each stage of development. If
needs are not met along the area, fixation occurs.
 FIXATION is the act or process of fixing.
 VICTORIAN ERA is the period where Sigmund Freud constructed the theory.

 The 5 stages of Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development;

1. ORAL STAGE (BIRTH TO 18TH MONTHS)

-The erogenous zone is the MOUTH. During the oral stage, the child is focused on
oral pleasure (sucking).
-Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to fixation;
o ORAL RECEPTIVE- the tendency of smoking, drinking alcohol or overeating.
o ORAL AGGRESSIVE- the tendency to bite his nails, cursed words or even
gossip.
2. ANAL STAGE (18TH MONTHS TO 3 YEARS OLD)
-The child erogenous zone is the ANUS. The child needs to work on his toilet
training.
-The fixation during this stage can result in being;
o ANAL RELENTIVE- Obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control.
o ANAL EXPULSIVE- person may become messy and disorganized.
3. PHALLIC STAGE (3-6 YEARS OLD)
-The erogenous zone is the own GENITALS. During the preschool age, children
become interested in what makes boys and girls different.
o OEDIPUS COMPLEX- boys developing unconscious sexual desire for their
mothers and they see their fathers as a rival for their mother’s affection.
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o ELECTRA COMPLEX- Girls developing unconscious sexual attraction towards

their father and see their mother as their rival for their father’s affection.
4. LATENCY STAGE (6-PUBERTY)
-In this stage, the sexual urged is being repressed or deactivitaed. The children’s
focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys relate more with boys
and girls relate more with girls.
5. GENITAL STAGE (PUBERTY ONWARDS)
-The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when
sexual urges are once again awakened. It focus these urges towards the opposite sex
with pleasure centered on the GENITALS of the opposite sex.

 Freud’s Personality Component;

1. ID
-A child is born with ID. It plays a vital role in one’s personality because as a baby, it
works so that the baby’s essential needs are met.
-It operates on the pleasure principles and focuses on the immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its needs.
-It includes pleasure, instinct, seek what is pleasurable and avoid what is not
pleasurable.
2. EGO
-as the baby turns into toddler then preschooler, he relates more with his
environment. It operates using the reality principle.
-It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative
consequences.
-The one who balances id and superego and focuses on reality.
3. SUPEREO
-near the end of the pre-school years. It embodies the moral aspect. This develop
from what the parents, teachers and other people who extent influence impart to be
good or moral.
-It is linked with conscience.

 The 3 components & personality adjustments

(Topographical Model)
1. THE UNCONSCIOUS
-We go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses deep within are
not available to us at the conscious level. Just like Oedipus and Electra complex.
2. THE CONSCIOUS
-the things that are aware of is at out conscious level. We are only aware of very
small parts that makes up our personality; most of what is hidden and out of reach.
3. THE SUBCONSCIOUS
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-is also called “preconscious.” Information like telephone number, some childhood
memory or the name of your childhood friend.
-NONSCONSCIOUS-represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced and
that has not made part of our personality.

CHAPTER 6: Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

 This theory is only applicable for INDIVIDUAL LEARNING.

 This theory of development is truly a classic in the field of educational psychology. It
fueled other researches and theories of development and learning. It focuses on how
individual construct knowledge.
 JEAN PIAGET
-60 years, he conducted research on cognitive development. His research method
involves observing a small number of individual as they responded to cognitive task,
later known as PIAGETIAN TASKS.
-he was initially in biology and had a background of philosophy, it has influenced his
theories in child development.
 Piaget’s theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspective of learning like
BRUNER AND VYGOTSKY.
 GENETIC EPISTEMOLOGY
-this is what he called to his general theoretical framework because he was interested
on how knowledge developed in human organisms.
 COGNITIVE is a word relating or involving to conscious mental activities (such as
learning and understanding).

 Basic Cognitive Concepts

1. SCHEMA
-Refers to cognitive structure by which individual intellectually adapt to and organize
their environment.
-It is like the mind has filling cabinet and each drawer has folders that contains files
of things he had experience.
-Example, if a child saw an animal with 4 legs and tail that barks it means it’s a dog.
When he saw a dog again, he will immediately recognize.
2. ASSIMILATION
-This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing created cognitive
structure or schema.
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-if he sees another dog, this time a smaller one, he would make sense of what he is
seeing by adding a new information.
3. ACCOMMODATION
-The process of creating new schema. If the child now see another animal that looks
like a dog, he might try to fit into his schema and say, “Look mommy, what a funny
looking dog.” Then mommy explains. “That is not a dog. That’s a goat.” With
mommy’s explanation, he now adds a new file in his filling cabinet.

4. EQUILIBRIATION
-Achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When own
experience don’t match our schema, we experience COGNITIVE DISEQUILIBRIUM.
-COGNITIVE DISEQUILIBRIUM means that there is a discrepancy between what is
perceived and what is understood.

 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE (BIRTH TO INFANCY)
-This stage is more on REFLEX- response to an action.
-Example of reflexes;
i. MOTOREFLEX- magswimming ang bata sa swimming pool
ii. THUMB SUCKING REFLEX-
iii. KNEE JERK
-when the child is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more
organized in his movement and activity.
-it focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement.
-teacher should aim to provide reach and stimulating environment with appropriate
objects to play with.
-OBJECT PROMINENCE the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight.

2. PRE-OPERATIONAL (TODDLERS AND PRESCHOOLER; 2-7 YEARS OLD)

- based on ego centrisim (magfocus on their own) mailad ang student. Wala pa sila ka
learn of law of conservation.
- The child is intuitive in nature. INTUITIVE means having the ability to understand and
thinks without having any proofs/ evidence.
-The child can make mental representation.
-The child is now ever close to the use of symbols.
-The child is able to pretend.
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-SYMBOLIC FUNCTION means the ability to represent object and events.

-SYMBOL is a thing that represent something else.
 A 2 year-old may pretend drinking from an empty glass.
 At 4, after pretending from a glass, turn the glass from a rocket ship or
telephone.
 At 6-7, the child pretends to play with objects that exists only in his mind.
-EGOCENTRICISM it is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to
assume that everyone also has his same point of view. Example, a 3 year-old cannot
understand why her cousin call her daddy, “uncle” instead of daddy.
-CENTRATION refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing
and exclude other aspects. Example, glass of water vs. water on a tall narrow glass.
-IRREVERSIBILITY means that children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
-ANIMISM is the tendency of children to attribute human-like traits to inanimate
objects. Example, when at night, the children ask, “Where’s the sun?” she added, “Mr.
Sun is asleep.”
-TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING is a reasoning that is neither inductive and deductive.
Appears to be from particular to particular. Example, If mommy arrive home at 6 oclock,
when she was asked why is it already night, she’ll say, “because mommy is coming
home.”

3. CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (8-11 YRS OLD ELEMENTARY)

-Ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
-Concrete operational stage (elementary)- ang cognitive behavior is on tangible things.
-DECENTERING is the ability of the child to perceive different features of object and
situations. It allows the child to be more logical when dealing with situations.
-REVERSIBILITY is the ability of child to follow certain operations that can be done in
reverse. Example, they can now comprehend that subtraction is the reversing point of
addition.
-CONSERVATION is the ability of the child to know that certain properties of object like
numbers, mass, volume or area do not change, even if there is a change in its
appearance. Example, regular glass of water vs. narrow glass of water.
-SERIATION is the ability to order or arrange things in series based on one dimension
such as weight, volume or size.
4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (12-15 YEARS OLD, HIGH SCHOOL)
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-Formal operational stage (high school)- astract thinking. Abstract ideas.

-Learnability- the lesson is learnable to the students
-SPIRAL CURRICULUM- ang lesson pwede magbalik balik. Every year kay mabalik balik
with increasing difficulty.
-In this stage, thinking become more logical. They can solve abstract and can
hypothesize.
-HYPOTHETICAL REASONING is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make final decision or judgement.
-ANALOGICAL REASONING is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and
then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar
situation/problem. Example, UK is to Europe, then Philippines is to________
-DEDUCTIVE REASONING is the ability to think logically by applying general rule in
particular situation. Example, if countries near north pole have cold temperature.
Greenland is near north pole. Which is why Greenland has cold temperature.
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CHAPTER 7: Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

STAGES NAME AGE VIRTUE

STAGE 1: Trust vs. Mistrust Infancy- 0-1 Hope
STAGE 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Toddlerhood- 2-3 Willpower and
Determination
STAGE 3: Initiative vs. Guilt E. childhood/ Purpose or Courage
preschool- 4-5
STAGE 4: Industry vs. Inferiority M-L. Childhood/ Competence
Elem- 6-12
STAGE 5: Identity vs. Identity Diffusion Adolescent/ High Fidelity
School- 13-18
STAGE 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation E. Adulthood / Love
College- 19-25
STAGE 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation M. Adulthood- Care
26-64
STAGE 8: Integrity vs. Despair L. Adulthood- 65 Wisdom
and above

 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial is derived from 2 sources namely;

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL- On the root of “psycho” which means relating to the mind and brain
personality
2. SOCIAL- relating to the external relationship or environment.
 This theory is occasionally extended to BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL in which BIO means life.
 Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by SIGMUND FREUD but extended the theory into
cultural and social.
 Erikson’s model is simple and well-disciplined. It is a bases of broad and complex discussion and
analysis of personality and behavior.
 This theory is also known as BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY.
 EPIGNETIC PRINCIPLE is what we develop through pre-determined unfolding of our personality
in 8 stages. Our progress through each stage is part determined by our success or lack of
success, in all the previous stages
 CONTRARY DISPOSITIONS it is a helpful term used by Erikson for these two opposing forces.
 SYNTONIC refers to the first listed positive disposition (ex: trust)
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 DYSTONIC refers to the second listed negative disposition (ex: mistrust)

 MALIGNANCY it means it involves too little of positive and too much of the negative. (ex: person
who don’t trust)
 MALADAPTATION it means it involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative (ex:
person who trust too much)
 Successfully passing through each crisis involves achieving a healthy ratio or balance between 2
opposing dispositions that represent each other.
 If we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptation and malignancies.
 CRISES STAGES connects with each other like interlaced fingers not like series of neatly stacked
boxes.
 More on the crises of an individual at every life stages and struggles.

1. STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST

- Trust vs. mistrust (infancy)- ang baby muhilak if malayo sa mother because he is afraid,
“is this a safe place?” (HOPE)
-The goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust.
-If the parents can give the baby the sense of familiarity, he will develop the feeling that the
world is safe and he develop TRUST.
-If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, then the infant will develop mistrust.
-SENSORY MALAJUSTMENT if the parents were overly protective and who are always there
when the baby cries, the baby will overly trust.
-MAGLIGNANT TENDENCY OF WITHDRAWAL when the child tipped away from mistrust side,
this would lead to depression, paranoia and psychosis.
-HOPE is the virtue that the child will develop when the proper balance was achieve.

2. STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT

- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (toddler): can I do it on my own? Pa hawd hawd ang
mga bata. Develop sense of independence (WILL).
-The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt.
-People often advise to parents “firm but not tolerant.”
-If the parents permits the child to explore his environment, he will develop sense of
autonomy, independence that boost self-control and self-esteem.
-If parents come down hard on any attempt to explore and be independent, he give up
with the belief that he should not act on his own.
-IMPULSIVENESS is a maladaptive tendency, a sort of shameless willfulness that leads
you to jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities.
-COMPULSIVENESS. The person feels as if their entire being rides on everything they do
and must be done perfectly.
-WILLPOWER AND DETERMINATION. This is the virtue you will develop of the proper
positive balance of autonomy, shame and doubt.

3. STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT

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- Initiative vs. guilt (preschoolers): ang mga bata sila ang mag initiate sa mga butang.
Similar sa autonomy (PURPOSE)
-The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt.
-INITIATIVE is a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities
learning new skills and feeling purposeful. It attempts to make non-reality a reality.
-RUTHLESSNESS is a maladaptive tendency. To be heartless or unfeeling or be “without
mercy.” The child has plans whether in school, politics, romance or career. It’s just that
they don’t care who they step on to achieving their goals. The goals are only the things
that matter and the guilt feeling are only signs of weakness.
-SOCIOPATHY it is the extreme form of ruthlessness.
-INHIBITION is a malignancy. The person will not try anything and afraid to start a
project, the fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
-COURAGE is the virtue that a child will develop of good balance between initiative vs.
guilt. It is the capacity of action despite a clear understanding of your limitations and
past failings.

4. STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

- Industry vs. inferiority (elementary): pa bida bida. Competitive kaayo sila sa mga
activities. The want competency. (COMPETENCE)
-The task is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding excessive sense of
inferiority.
-If the child is allowed too little success because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers,
then he will develop sense of inferiority or incompetence.
-If a child believes that success is related to who you are, rather than to how much you
tried? Then why try?
-NARROW VIRTUOSITY is a maladaptive tendency. When the children are not allowed
to be children like; child actor, child athletes, child musician. We all admire their
industry but if we look at a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of empty life.
-INERTIA is a malignancy tendency. This includes those who suffer from inferiority
complexes. Just like when we were once humiliated, we never tried again. Just like
others didn’t develop any social skills.
-COMPETENCY. Industry with just a touch of both inferiority to keep us sensibly humble.
The right balance.

5. STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. IDENTITY DIFFUSION/CONFUSION

- Identity vs. role confusion (high school): gender roles, future roles, what course to
take, what passion to pursue. (FEDILITY; SENSE OF SELF)
-The task is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion.
-EGO IDENTITY means knowing who you are and how you fit in the society.
-Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain accomplishment and
rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child.
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-Erikson says he/she is suffering from identity crises if they ask, “who am I?”
-One of Erikson’s suggestion about adolescence is psychosocial moratorium. He suggest
to take a little time out and dream a little.
-FANATICISM is a maladaptive tendency. Believes that his way is the only way.
Adolescents are idealist and likes to gather people and present their believes without
taking into consideration of other’s right to disagree.
-REPUDIATION is a malignant tendency. It means to reject. They reject their
membership in the world of adult. They maybe involved in destructive activities like
drugs, alcohol. After all “bad” and being “nobody” is better than not knowing their
selves.
-FIDELITY is when you negotiate this stage. This is the virtue you will develop. It means
loyalty, the ability to live by society’s standards despite their imperfections and
incompleteness. It means you have found a place where you belong in that society and a
place that will allow you to contribute something meaningful.

6. STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION

- Intimacy vs. isolation (college): relationship building. Intimacy with friends and
partners. (MA DEVELOP: LOVE)
-May be fuzzier than in childhood stages and people may differ dramatically.
-This task is to achieve some degree of intimacy as opposed to remaining in isolation.
-INTIMACY is the ability to be close to others (as a lover, a friend or a participant in the
society.) The fear of commitment that some people may seem to exhibit is an example
of immaturity in this stage.
-PROMISCUITY is a maladaptive tendency. To become too freely, too easily and without
any depth to your intimacy.
-EXCUSION is a malignancy tendency. To isolate oneself from love, friendship and
community and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation to someone’s
loneliness.
-LOVE is the virtue that you will develop. It means being able to put aside differences
and antagonism through “mutuality of devotion”. It is not always the love we find in a
good marriage.

7. STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

- Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): Generation. Creating generation.
Family life. Children. Magkaanak ba or dili. (CARE)
-It would include the period during we are actively raising a child.
-The task was to activate the proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
-GENERATIVITY is the extension of love into future. It is unlike to intimacy because
parents does not expect to be repaid for his or her love. Few parents expect a return of
investment from their children. If they do, we don’t think they are good parents.
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-STAGNATION. It is self-absorption, caring for no one. This person stops to be a

productive member of society.
-OVEREXTENSION. Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time
for themselves, for rest, and relaxation. It is a maladaptive tendency.
-REJECTIVITY it is a too little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer
participating or contributing to the society.
-This stage is middle crisis. Sometimes men and women take a look at their lives and ask
a big bad question, “What am I doing this for?”. In their panic at getting older and not
having experienced anything, they try to recapture their youths.
-CARING. If you became successful at this stage, this is the virtue that you will develop.

8. STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR

- Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood): Retirees. The question is have I lived a good life?
There’s a lot of wisdom. (WISDOM)
-The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair.
-This stage seems to be the most difficult of all. It comes to the detachment from the
society, sense of usefulness, illness and death. And everyone would feel despair.
-Woman experiences DRAMATIC MENOPAUSE.
-EGO INTEGRITY means coming to terms with your life and thereby coming to terms
with the end of life.
-PRESUMPTION. This is what happens when a person presumes ego integrity without
actually facing the difficulty of old age. He doesn’t respect the ideas and views of the
young.
-DISDAIN means contempt of life, one’s own and anyone’s. The person becomes
negative and appears to hate life.
-WISOM a virtue and means someone approaches death without fear.
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CHAPTER 8: Lawrence Kohlberge’s Stages of Moral Development

MORAL DEVELOPMENT: LAWRENCE KOHLBERGE

 LAWRENCE KOHLBERGE was interested on studying the development of moral
reasoning. He based his theory from Piaget’s Cognitive Development. He utilizes the
moral dilemmas which he call as KOHLBERGE DILEMMAS.
 AMORAL – there’s no sense of right and wrong
 LAWRENCE KOHLBERGE
 Was born on October 25, 1927, an American psychologist best known for his
theory of stages of moral development.
 He served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of
Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.
 He also helped smuggled Jews through British Blockade in Palestine during World
War II.
 He was born wealthy but chose to be a sailor and began to be interested in
moral reasoning, extending Jean Piaget’s account on children’s moral
development and John Dewey’s Theory.
 PIAGETIAN TASKS- these are specific tasks designed by Piaget in order to learn about
the cognitive development of children.
 KOHLBERGE DILEMMAS- more dilemmas utilized by Kohlberge. These dilemmas are
represented to individuals in his research and asked for their responses. The main goal
of this is not to judge whether the response is write or wrong but in analyzing the moral
reasoning behind the responses.

LEVEL STAGE DESCRIPTION

PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL
(Toddlerhood- 2 to 3 and Stage 1 PUNISHMENT/OBEDIENCE
Preschool- 4 to 5) -The person is scared of punishment. One is
motivated with fear of punishment and act in order
-Moral reasoning is based on to avoid it.
the consequence / result of act, REWARD
not whether the act itself is -you perform an act because you wanted to be
good/bad. rewarded.

Stage 2: MUTUAL BENEFIT

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-one is motivated to act by the benefit that one

may obtain. “You scratch my back and I’ll scratch
yours.”
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 3: SOCIAL APPROVAL
(Elementary- 6-12 and -One is motivated by what others expect in
High School- 13-18) behavior- good boy and good girl. It gives
importance to what people think or say.
-Moral reasoning is based on - peer expactation. Fullfil what is expected of
the conventions or norms of you.
society. This may include
approval of the others, laws and Stage 4: LAW AND ORDER
orders. -one is motivated to act in order to uphold law and
order.
- this is the law of the society. Letter of the
law. What is in the law, follow.

POST CONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT

(College to death) -Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act
based on social justice and the common good.
-moral reasoning is based on - spirit of the law, you break the law for the
enduring/consistent principles. common good.
It is not just recognizing the
laws but the principles behind UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLE
them. -This is associated with the development of one’s
conscience. Having a set of standards that drives
one to possess moral responsibility to make social
changes regardless of consequence to oneself.
- justice, equity. It is always true in all religion.
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CHAPTER 9: Lev Vygotsky’s Socio Cultural Theory

 The more makig interact sa uban, the more maka learn

 Language is important
 Learning that includes interaction with other people.
 CAN DO INDEPENDENTLY: what we can do alone, abiity na independent ta maghimo.
 CAN I DO WITH ASSISTANCE: with more knowledgeable others and technology. Zone of
proximal development (the difference between what you can do and what you can with
assitance) Scaffolding (the teacher’s role in scaffolding is to assist the students) learner-
centered approach.
 VYGOTSKY THEORY- it states that social interaction plays a very important role in
cognitive development.
 SCAFFOLDING- it is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teachers
to assist the learner accomplish a task. It is also the support or assistance that let the
child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently.
 SCAFFOLD AND FADE-AWAY TECHNIQUES- Scaffolding when done appropriately can
make a learner confident and eventually he can accomplish the task without any need
for assistance.
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 When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was educated under a teacher who uses SOCRATIC
METHOD.
 SOCRATIC METHOD It is a systematic question and answer approach.
 SOCIAL INTERACTION AND LANGUAGE is the two central factors in cognitive
development.
 SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT- is the name of the theory of Lev
Vygotsky.

PIAGET VYGOTSKY

-More individuals in focus believe that there -More social in focus. Did not propose
are universal stages of cognitive stages but emphasized on cultural factors in
development. cognitive development.
-Did not give so much emphasis on the Stressed a role of language in cognitive
language. development.

 SOCIAL INTERACTION- Piaget’s theory was more on individual but Vygotsky was more
on social. He gave more weight on the social interaction that contributed to the
cognitive development of individuals. For Vygotsky, social environment takes a major
role in one’s development.
 CULTURAL FACTOR- Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the
cognitive development in children. For instance, one’s culture’s view about education,
how children trained, all can contribute to cognitive development of the child.
 LANGUAGE- learner can use language to know and understand the world and solve
problems. It serves as social and individual function.
 PRIVATE SPEECH- it is a formal self-talk that guides the children’s thinking and action.
(Just like when the child is talking to himself while playing).
 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT- the difference between what the child can do
when alone and what she can do with guidance of others (MKO- MORE
KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHERS) competent adult.
 When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels;
Level 1: “I do, you watch.”
Level 2: “I do, you help.”
Level 3: “You do, I’ll help.”
Level 4: “You do, I watch.”
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CHAPTER 10: Urie Bronfrenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

 URIE BRONFRENBRENNER came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the
different factors that exert influence on the individual’s development. His model is
known as BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS.
 BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY present child development within the context of
relationship system that comprises the child development.
 BIOECOLOGICAL- point out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key factor
in one’s own development.

 BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL: STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENT

1. MICROSYSTEM- direct and immediate environment. This is the layer nearest to the
child like; family, school, and environment. This means that the child is affected by
people with whom he interacts and in turn these people are also affected by the
child. Like if the mother gave love to her child, the child will feel warm and smile in
return the mother will feel happy.
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-BI-DIRECTIONAL INFLUENCES: the child is affected by the beliefs of his parents and
he can affects his parents as well. It is quite similar to Erikson termed as mutuality.
2. MESOSYSTEM- connection ni parent sa teacher. Connection between the structure of
child’s microsystem. Just like if the parents is connected or linked with teachers.
3. EXOSYSTEM- indirect environment. Bigger social system that includes the city
government, workplace, and mass media. This includes the circumstances of the
parent’s work like location.
4. MACROSYSTEM- social and cultural waves. The outermost part of the child’s
environment like; cultural values, customs and laws. Like for example, teens in US
are expected to be independent after their teenage years unlike in Asian countries.
5. CHRONOSYSTEM- change of the time. Covers the element of time as it relates to a
child’s environment. This involves patterns of stability and change in the child’s life.
This involves whether the child’s day is characterized by an orderly predictable
pattern or whether the child is subjected change in routine.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT: LAWRENCE KOHLBERGE
 AMORAL – there’s no sense of right and wrong
 PRE-CONVENTIONAL (PRE SCHOOLER AND TODDLER ON AVERAGE)
o Punishment- you are scared of punishment
o Reward- you perform an act because you wanted to be rewarded.
 CONVENTIAL (ELEM. AND HS.)- others
o Good boy nice girl- peer expactation. Fullfil what is expected of you.
o Law and order- this is the law of the society. Letter of the law. What is in the law,
follow.
 POST-CONVENTIONAL
o Social contract- spirit of the law, you break the law for the common good.
o Universal ethical principles- justice, equity. It is always true in all religion.
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CHAPTER 11: Howard Gardner’s Learning/ Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligence

 LEARNING/ THINKING STYLES

-Refers to the preferred way an individual processes information. They describe a person’s
typical made of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually
considered to be bipolar dimensions.
-Having a learning/thinking styles simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner.
Your style is usually described as personality dimensions which influences your attitudes, values,
and social interactions.
 SENSORY PREFERENCES
-individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and maintain a
dominance in one of the following types;

1. VISUAL LEARNER- Visual-iconic / visual symbolic. This learner must see the teacher’s actions
and facial expression to fully understand the content of a lesson. (pictures, visual aids, diagrams,
textbooks, videos and handout.

RI CHARDE- he breaks down visual learners into;

a. Visual Iconic: interested in visual imagery like film, graphic displays or pictures in order to
solidify learning.
b. Visual Symbolic- feel uncomfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical
formulate on the written word.

2. AUDITORY LEARNER- listeners/talkers. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions,
talking things through and listening to what others have to say.
a. The Listener- they learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard others say (most likely
to do well on school.)
b. The Talker- they are the one’s who prefer to talk and discuss.

3. TACTILE / KINESTHETIC LEARNERS- tactile person benefit from hands-on approach, actively
exploring the physical world around them. They tend to prefer “learning by doing”. Preferring to
use psychomotor skills. They have a good motor memory and motor coordination.

 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
-The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by HOWARD GARDNER in frames of
mind (1983).
 INTELLIGENCE
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-Gardner defines this term as the ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve problems
or fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures.

 The 9 Distinct forms of Intelligence (Howard Gardner)

1. VISUAL/SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE (PICTURE SMART)
-learning visually and organizing ideas spatially. The ability to “see” things in one’s mind in
planning to create a product or solve a problem.
2. VERBAL/ LINGUISTIC (WORD SMART)
-learning through the spoken and written word. This intelligence was always valued in the
traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of intelligence and achievement.
3. MATHEMATICAL/ LOGIC (NUMBER/LOGIC SMART)
-learning through reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional
classroom, where students were asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of
instruction.
4. BODILY/KINESTHETIC (BODY SMART)
-learning through interaction with one’s environment. It promotes understanding through
concrete experience.
5. MUSICAL (MUSIC SMART)
-learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not only auditory learning, but
the identification of patterns through all the senses.
6. INTRAPERSONAL (SELF SMART)
-learning through feelings, values and attitudes. The student place value on what they learn
and take ownership for their learning.
7. INTERPERSONAL (PEOPLE SMART)
-the learning through interactions with others. This intelligence promotes collaboration with
others.
8. NATURALIST (NATURE SMART)
-learning through classification, categories and hierarchies.
9. EXISTENTIAL (SPIRIT SMART)
-learning by seeking the big picture. This intelligence seeks connections to real world
understanding and application of new learning.
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CHAPTER 12: Roger Sperry’s Split Brain Model

 GLOBAL-ANALYTIC CONTINUUM
 ANALYTIC THINKER
-tend toward the linear, step by step process of learning. They tend to see finite
elements of pattern rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers”. They are more
comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.
 GLOBAL THINKER
-lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle
elements. They are the “forest seers” who give attention only to the overall structure
and sometimes ignore details.
 A SUCCESSIVE PROCESSOR (LEFT BRAIN)
-prefers to learn step-by-step sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual
understanding of a skill.
 A SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSOR (RIGHT BRAIN)
-prefers to learn beginning with general concept and then going to specifics.

LEFT BRAIN (ANALYTIC) RIGHT BRAIN (GLOBAL)

Verbal Visual
Responds to word meaning Responds to the tone of voice
Sequential Random
Process of information linearly Process information in varied orders
Responds to logic Responds to emotions
Plans ahead Impulsive
Recalls people’s name Recalls people faces
Speaks with few gestures Gestures when speaking
Punctual Less punctual
Prefers formal study design Prefers sound/music backgrounds while studying
Prefers bright lights while studying Prefers frequent mobility while studying
Successive hemisphere style Simultaneous hemisphere style
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CHAPTER 13: The Foundation of Education

 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

o Theories in Child and Adolescent Education (Famous theories)
 SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
o Theories of learning (teacher-centered and student-centered)
o Philosophical foundation of education
 LEGAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
o PPST
o Magna Carta for Public School
o K-12 laws
 TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH
o The students are passive learners and the only recipient of knowledge
o The role of the teacher is the main source of information
 STUDENT-CENTERED APPROACH
o The students are active learners
o The teacher is only the facilitator of learning
 THEORIES OF LEARNING

BEHAVIORISM COGNITIVISIM/ CONSTRUCTIVISM

 The teacher is the main source of  It is a student-centered approach
knowledge and information  The teacher will only activate
 It is a teacher-centered approach prior knowledge of his students
 According to the theorist, the
mind of a child is like a black slate
(Tabula Rasa)

 THE PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

o BEHAVIORISM (TEACHER-CENTERED)
1. EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE
-Laws of learning
 LAW OF READINESS- Learning is much more effective when the
students are ready and are capable to learn.
 LAW OF EXERCISE- more practice, more learning.
 LAW OF EFFECT- If the outcome is pleasurable, the students will most
likely to repeat the action.
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2. BF. SKINNER
-Operant condition. (Whether you give a reward or a punishment)
3. IVAN PAVLOV
-A theory where in you were used to something. (Nasanay ka)
-The bell ringing experiement on a dog
-Also known as classical conditioning

o COGNITIVISM / CONSTRUCTIVISM (TEACHER-CENTERED)

- The students should not be passive
-Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development
-Experts believe that students have a background knowledge
-Background knowledge is also known as LATENT IDEAS.

1. JEROME BRUNER
-He constructed the 3-tiered model.
-According to him, always start with an activity.
-Starts with concrete to abstract
-He formulated the spiral curriculum
I. CONCERETE- This is enactive. The first hand experience of the students.
II. ICONIC- image and visuals
III. SYMBOLIC- the use of symbols.
2. DAVID AUSBEL
-He is the founder of the Meaningful Learning Theory and Schema Theory
-Schema theory: There is a background knowledge. Starts with the
experiences of students.
-He also introduced the graphic organizer.
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CHAPTER 14: The Different Philosophical foundation of Education

 TEACHERS are the most responsible and notable members of the society because of
their professional effort that affects the fate of the Earth. -Helen Caldicott-
 Your Philosophy of life and your Philosophy of Education serves as your “window” to the
world and your “compass” in the sea of life.
 TEACHER CENTERED APPROACH / BEHAVIORISM
1. BEHAVIORISM
-Teacher is the one who will give or input knowledge and information.
-we are product of our environment.
-This philosophy is concerned with the modification and shaping of student’s
behavior by providing for a favorable environment, since they believe that they are a
product of their environment.
-Teachers teaches students to respond favorably to various stimuli in the
environment.
2. IDEALISM
-This philosophy is more on spiritual and values.
-It was proposed by Plato. There is a latent idea on the children.
-The main source of philosophies along with realism
3. REALISM
-Subject-centered. The teacher focuses on the subject.
-Use of the senses.
-The main source of philosophies along with idealism
4. ESSENTIALISM
- This philosophy only focuses on what is need such as; 3RS (Reading, Writing and
Arithmetic. There is an emphasis on the academic content for students to learn the
basic skills as these are essential to the acquisition of higher and more complex skills
needed in preparation for adult life.
-The teacher teaches for learners to acquire the basic knowledge skills and values.
They teach not to radically shape society but to rather to transmit the traditional
moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model
citizens.
-This philosophy includes the traditional disciplines such as Math, Natural Science,
History, Foreign language and literature.
-This philosophy frown upon vocational courses and emphasizes mastery of the
subject matter. They were expected to be intellectual and moral models of their
students.
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-Teachers are fountain of knowledge and paragon of virtue. They administer and
decide what is important for the students to learn and place little emphasis on
students’ interests.
-This philosophy uses prescribe textbooks, drill methods that will enable them to
cover as much academic content as possible like the lecture method.
5. PERENNIALISM
-The things that are being taught are the things that last. Something that is true
before and until present.
-The things that last are the classics or great books.
-This philosophy believes that school should develop the student’s rational and
moral powers. According to ARISTOTLE if we neglect the students’ reasoning skills,
we deprive them from the ability to use their higher facilities to control their passion
and appetites.
-Its curriculum is heavy on the humanities, on general education. It is not a specialist
curriculum but rather a general one. There is less emphasis on vocational and
technical education.
-The teachers don’t allow the students’ interests and experiences to substantially
dictate what they teach.
-The students engaged in Socratic dialogues or mutual inquiry session to develop an
understanding of history’s most timeless concepts.
-PHILOSOPHER MORTIMER ADLER claims that great books of ancient and medieval
as well as modern times are repository of knowledge and wisdom, tradition of
culture which must initiate each generation.

 STUDENT CENTERED APPROACH / CONSTRUCTIVISM / COGNITIVISM

1. CONSTRUCTIVISM
-Activating prior knowledge.
-This philosophy aims to develop intrinsically motivated and independent learners
adequately equipped with the learning skills for them to be able to construct
knowledge and make meaning of them.
-The learners are taught on how to learn. The teacher provides students with data or
experiences that allow them to hypothesized, predict, manipulate object, impose
questions, research, investigate, imagine and invent.
-Knowledge is not a thing that can be simply deposited by the teacher into the
empty minds of the learners. Rather knowledge is constructed by learners through
an active, mental process of development; learners are the builders and creators of
meaning and knowledge.
2. PROGRESSIVISM
-Learning by doing. Teachers employ experiential method because they believe that
one learns by doing. According to JOHN DEWEY who is one of the most popular
advocate of this philosophy, book learning is no substitute for actual experiences.
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-Teachers teach to develop learners into becoming enlightened and intelligent

citizens of a democratic society. They teach students to live fully now and not to
prepare them for adult life.
-The curriculum responds to student’s needs and that relates to students’ personal
lives and experiences.
-This philosophy accepts the impermanence of life and the inevitability of change.
Change is the only thing that does not change. They teach learners the skills to cope
with change, instead of occupying themselves with teaching facts or bit of
information that are true today but become obsolete tomorrow.
-The subjects that are given emphasis are natural and social sciences. Teachers
exposed students to many new scientific, technological and social development,
reflecting the their notion that progress and change are fundamental.
-Teachers heavily rely on problem solving method. This make use of scientific
method and others uses field trips during which children interact with nature or
society. Teachers also stimulate students through thought provoking games and
puzzles.
3. RECONSTRUCTIONISM
-Social, society and globalization
4. NATURALISM
-Going back to nature
5. HUMANISM
-Self actualization
-Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, self actualization is the greatest need.
6. EXISTENTIALISM
-Choice and freedom
-The students are accountable of their own choices in life.
-Teachers help students understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals
who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings and actions. The role
of the teacher is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to
various paths they take in life.
-Vocational education is regarded more as means of teaching students about
themselves and their potential than of earning livelihood.
-This philosophy encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying
and imitating established models.
-Teachers remain non-judgmental and take care not to impose their values on their
students since values are personal.
7. PRAGMATISM
-Practicality
-Utilization
-After the lecture, there is application of learning.
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8. Linguistic Philosophy
-This philosophy aims to develop the communication skills of the learners because the
ability to articulate, voice out the meanings and values of things that one obtains from
his experience of life and the world is there very essence of man.
-Teachers teach to develop the in the learner the skills to send messages clearly and
receive messages correctly.
-The communication takes place in three ways- verbal, nonverbal and para verbal.
-VERBAL COMPONENTS refers to the content of our messages, thee choice and
arrangement of our words. This can be oral or written.
-NON VERBAL COMPONENTS this refers to the message we send through our body
langauge.
-PARAVERBAL COMPONENTS refers to how we say, what we say, the tone pacing and
volume of our voices.
-There is a need to help students expand their vocabularies to enhance their
communication skills. Teachers should make the classroom a place for the interplay of
minds and hearts. The teacher facilitates dialogue among learners and between him
students because in exchange of words, there is also an exchange of ideas.
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CHAPTER 15: The Different Literacies

 MEDIA LITERACY
-it refers to the understanding and the ability to read, analyze, evaluate and produce
communication in a variety of media form, ex; television, print, radio, computer and etc.
-It is the ability to access, analyze and response to range of media.
-It is not restricted to one medium.
-Advantages:
 able to get information to the public in a quick and timely manner.
 It allows people to learn about the cultures of other than their own.
-Disadvantages:
 Can result in the spread of misinformation.
 Development of bad values.
 ARTS AND CREATIVITY LITERACY
 ART- the expression or application of human creative skills and imagination, typically in
a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily
for their own beauty and emotional power.
 CREATIVITY- the use of imagination or original ideas, especially in the production of an
artistic work.
 GLOBALIZATION-MULTI CULTURAL LITERACY
 GLOBALIZATION
-is the process of interaction and interaction among people, companies and government
world wide. It means integration of economies and societies through cross country flows
of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people.
-describes the acceleration of the integration of nations into global system. It
contributes to the expansion of cultural ties between people and human migration.
 MULTI-CULTURAL LITERACY
-refers to the skill involved when uncovering bids of regards to culture, as well as the
ability to take different perspectives to gain a more humane.

 SOCIAL LITERACY
-from the perspective of the social-cultural theory. It is more than the ability to read and write,
and more than mastering literary skills.
-Children can learn literacy through social interaction between themselves and children and or
adults in or outside school.
-This refers to the development of social skills to interact positively in a defined environment.
 TRADITIONAL LITERACY
-students need to learn about how knowledge is created, especially how the most reliable
knowledge is made through scientific methods.
 21ST CENTURY LITERACY
-It is more than reading and writing. It is knowing how to learn and know.
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 CYBER/DIGITAL LITERACY
-means having the skills you need to live, learn, and work in a society where communication and
access to information is increasingly through digital technologies like internet platforms, social
media and mobile devices.
-the ability to navigate various digital platforms and understand, assessing, and communicating
through them.

4 Principles of Digital Literacy

1. COMPREHENSION
-the ability to exact implicit and explicit ideas from media.
2. INTERDEPENCE
-how one media form connects with one another, whether potentially, metaphorically,
ideally or literally.
3. SOCIAL FACTOS
-sharing is no longer just a method of personal identity or distribution, but rather can create
messages of its own. Who shares what to whom through what channels can not only
determine the long-term success of media, but can create organic ecosystem of sourcing,
sharing, storing and ultimately repacking media.
4. CURATION SPEAKING OF STORING
-over storage of favored content through platform such as Pinterest, peartrees, pocket and
others is one method of save to read later.
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CHAPTER 16: On Becoming A Global Teacher

 Being world-class does not mean going internationally and showing our best out there. Being
world class is passion and commitment to our profession; being world-class is giving our best to
teaching. Being world class starts right inside the classroom. –Conrado de Quiros—
 Our world has been called a “global village.” SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS make possible
television, telephone and documents transmitted through fax and electronic mails across
thousands of miles in thousands of a second. We live in a global village, hence we need global
teachers.
 GLOBAL EDUCATION poses variety of goals ranging from increased knowledge about the people
of the world to resolutions of global problems, from increased fluency in foreign languages to
the development of more tolerant attitudes towards other cultures and people.
 CONTEMPOARY CURRICULA respond to the concept of this global village.
 To become a global teacher, you should be equipped with wider range of knowledge of the
various educational system outside the country. You need to master skills and competencies
which can address to global demands and posses values that are acceptable to multicultural
communities.
 As a future teacher, think globally but act locally! You can be a global teacher by being best
inside your school.
 BENCHMARKING is a term which means learning the best from the best practices of the world’s
best educational systems.
 GLOBAL EDUCATION
-according to UNESCO, it is define as a goal to become aware of educational conditions or lack of
it, in developing countries worldwide and aim to educate all people to a certain world standard.
-it is a curriculum that is international in scope which prepares today’s youth around the world
to function in one world environment under teachers who are intellectually, professionally,
humanistically prepared.
-It addresses the need of the smallest schools to the largest classrooms in the world. It responds
to borderless education that defies distance and geographical locations.
-It provides equal opportunity and access to knowledge and learning tools which are the basic
rights of every child in the global community.
 THE UNITED NATIONS has entered into an agreement to pursue 6 goals to achieve some
standards in education in place by 2015 worldwide.
1. EXPAND EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE EDUCATION
2. PROVIDE FREE AND COMPULSORY PRIMARY EDUCATION FOR ALL
3. PROMOTE LEARNING AND LIFE SKILLS FOR YOUNG AND ADULT
4. INCREASE ADULT LITERACY BY 50%
5. ACHIEVE GENDER PARITY BY 2005, GENDER EQUALITY BY 2015
6. IMPROVE QUALITY OF EDUCATION
 In 2000, the PHILIPPINES committed itself to the above EFA 2015 Goals at the World Education
Forum in DAKAR.
 JAMES BECKER (1982) defined global education as an effort to help individual learners to see
the world as a single and global system and to see themselves as a participant of that system.
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 GLOBAL TEACHER B is a competent teacher who is armed with enough skills, appropriate
attitude and universal values to teach students with both time tested as well as modern
technologies in education in any place in the world. He or she is someone who thinks and acts
both locally and globally with worldwide perspectives, right in the communities where he or she
is situated.
 As a future teacher, you shall be guided by UNESCO’s principle that education is for ALL and that
this education is anchored on the Five Pillars which are;
1. LEARNING TO KNOW
2. LEARNING TO DO
3. LEARNING TO BE
4. LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER
5. LEARNING TO TRANSFORM

 Education in Australia
-AUSTRALIA has been called by many as the last paradise on earth, has a high quality
educational system. The educational system in Australia is similar with that of Canada and
England.
 PRIMARY SCHOOLS- 6 years (starts at 6 years old to 12 years old)
 HIGH SCHOOL- 6 years
a. Junior High School- Grade 7-1 (12 to 16 years old)
b. Senior High School- Grade 11-12 (16 to 18 years old)
 COLLEGE / UNIVERSITIES- 3 to 6 years

-During the Junior High School studies, most Australians students decided what to do after High
School. Students who intend to go to college continue year 11 to 12 to prepare for college or
university entrance examination.

-Others may get a job after year 10 or go to Technical and Further Education (TAFE) college to
learn technical skills.

-Primary education is provided by government and non-government primary schools. The length
of the program is for 6 years to 12 years old children. However, in most states, children start
primary school at the age of 5 years old when they enrolled in preparatory or kindergarten.

-At the end of the Junior Secondary level, a JUNIOR SECONDARY CERTIFICATE OF EDUCATION
(Year 10 Certificate) is awarded.

-A senior secondary level is provided for two years after the junior secondary level. Senior
secondary level is no longer a compulsory education. A SENIOR SECONDARY CERTIFICATE OF
EDUCATION (Year 12 Certificate) is awarded at the end of the senior secondary level.

-Academic years in Australia begins in MARCH TO NOVEMBER. Its long vacation is on

DECEMBER 1 TO FEBRUARY 28. The language of instruction is ENGLISH.

-The main stage of University education leads to a bachelor’s degree. Undergraduate studies last
between 3 to 6 years.
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 3 YEARS – Arts, Science and Commerce

 4 YEARS- Education and Engineering
 5 YEARS- Veterinary Science, Dentistry, and Architecture
 6 YEARS- Medicine and Surgery

-A graduate with a bachelor’s degree can proceed to a 1 years or 2 year post graduate course
leading to a post graduate diploma. A student who has qualified for a bachelor’s degree
(Honours) may proceed to master’s degree. This degree may be obtained after 1 year (pass
degree) or 2 years (Honours degree) of full time study.

-MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION enables teachers and educators to give value to the differences
in prior knowledge, experiences of learners from diverse background and familiarity with
students’ histories of diverse culture.

 Education in China
-the most populous country of the world with over 200 million students attending public schools
taught by over 9 million teachers in the elementary, junior and senior high schools, it is the
largest educational system of the world. The class size ranges from 40 to 60 students.
 Primary school- 6 years
 High school- 6 years
a. Junior Middle School- 3 years
b. Senior Middle School- 3 years
 University- 6 years

 Education in Japan
-The Japanese education system is highly centralized and is administered by the MOMBUSHO
OR MINISTRY OF EDUCATION.
-The Japanese educational system is sometimes seen as a model on how to operate schools. The
system gives us a mental picture of obedient, quiet school children sitting on their desks,
listening to the teacher and working hard to pass various entrance examinations.
-The Japanese educational system is divided into five basic level;
 Kindergarten also known as YOCHIEN
 Elementary school (6 years)
 Lower Secondary School (3 years)
 Upper Secondary Schools (3 years)
 University (4 years)
-Mainly female teachers are teaching in Yochien or Kindergarten. These are not official part of
the educational system.
-Classes are large and teaching method are usually LECTURE.
-Upper secondary school offers academic, technical and vocational programs. The Upper
Secondary Schools are ranked on their success in placing graduating students into prestigious
universities.
-To get into universities, the students must take two exams, the first one is the NATIONAL
ACHIEVEMENT TEST and the second one given by the University itself which is highly
competitive. Students who fail the test will take another year to study and prepare to take the
test again. These students are called RONIN which originally meant samurai.
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 Education in South Africa

-Formal education in South Africa is categorized into sectors or levels. These sectors are closely
linked to particular levels namely;
 Public Ordinary School Education
 Independent School Education
 Special School Education
 Technical College Education
 Teacher Training
 Technikon
 University Education
-As a rule, children starts primary education when they turn 7 years old.
-The education system of South Africa;
 Primary Education
a. Junior Primary- Grades 1-3
b. Senior Primary- Grade 4-6
 Secondary Education- Grades 7 to Grade 9
-This is the last stage of compulsory education and will lead to GENERAL EDUCATION
AND TRAINING CERTIFICATION
-FURTHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING (FET) or senior secondary education (Grade 10 to 12) is
not compulsory. At the end of Grade 12, students a public examination leading to Senior
Certificate.
-Institution of higher education includes colleges, technikons, and universities. Other relevant
sectors of educational structure includes
 SPECIAL EDUCATION
 PRIVATE EDUCATION
 INDEPENDENT SCHOOLS
 ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
 HIV/AIDS EDUCATION

 Education in United Kingdom

-In England, education is compulsory for children ages 5-16 years old. Most children attend
primary schools until they are eleven and then transfer to secondary schools. In the primary
schools, the subjects are taught by the same teacher for a year before moving on the next
teacher and thee next grade level on the next year.
-THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM is defined as the minimum educational requirement for
compulsory school age, 5 to 16 years old. It is mandatory for all state schools to provide a
balance broad-based curriculum which promotes spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical
development that prepares them for opportunities, responsibilities, and experiences for adult
life.
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-The core subject of national curriculum includes, English, Mathematics and Science. The key
levels are provided below;
 FOUNDATION STAGE
-This is included in the national curriculum which covers children aged 3-5 years old.
This is not yet mandatory.

 KEY STAGE ONE

-It includes children aged 5-7 years old and year groups grade 1-2. It mandates the core
subjects stated above and non-core foundation subjects such as design/technology,
history, art/design, music and physical education.
 KEY STAGE TWO
-It includes children aged 7-11 and year group 3—6. It mandate core subjects and non-
core foundation subjects, with more emphasis on more difficult topics and the addition
of sex education.
 KEY STAGE THREE
-It includes children aged 11-14 and grades 7-9. It mandates the same basic in key stages
1-2 but adds Foreign language, and Information/communication technology to the mix
while adding appropriate difficulty to the core subjects.
 KEY STAGE FOUR
-It includes those aged 14-16 and grades 10-11.

-Higher education system in UK needs to include reference to the Open University as a major
provider of the undergraduate and postgraduate degrees for adults. THE OPEN UNIVERSITY
pioneered the way for opening access by offering greater flexibility for adult learners through
distance learning programs.

-Students studying at a university for their first degree are called UNDERGRADUATES. Once a
student has graduated, he/she becomes a GRADUATE of the university. Undergraduates
completing these programs successfully are awarded either a BACHELOR OF ART (B.A) OR
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B. SC) degree but they are not permitted to place B.A or B. Sc after their
names.

-Honours degree programmes are usually four year courses. The degree title is extended to B.A
(HONS.) and B.SC. (HONS.)

-Master’s degree is usually achieved after TWO more years study the following an Ordinary or
an Honours degree. The students are awarded M.A. or M.Sc.

-A doctorate is normally awarded after several years (three years full time) of research of a
member of a department in the possession of a doctorate and the presentation of a doctoral
dissertation or thesis.

 Education in the United States of America

-Students living in the city or state pay less tuition because some tax money is used to subsidize
the tuition. Non-US residents would pay more, since they would not be residents of the city or
state where the college or university is located.
-The basic education is as follows;
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 PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION- Type of school providing this education are kindergarten,

nursery schools, preschool programmes, child/day care centers. Age level is 4-6 and the
duration is 2 years.
 PRIMARY EDUCATION- This is elementary school.
 MIDDLE SCHOOL EDUCATION- Grades 4-6, 5-7 or 6-8. The age level is from 10-14 and
the length of the program is 3 years.
 SECONDARY EDUCATION- This is High School. Grade 7-12 or 8-12. The age level is
between 12-18 years old.
-The duration of compulsory education is from entry of 6 years old to exit of 18 years old.
-In reality, the average American takes over 6 years to finish a four year degree. The reason is
that more than 50% of college freshmen do not know what major or specialization they wish to
study. Also, many students work to pay for college expenses. Thus they may take fewer classes
in order to work.
-Both colleges and University education has Bachelor’s (4 year) program. Universities often have
graduate programs as well. For most purposes, a Bachelor’s degree from college is equivalent to
a Bachelor’s degree from a University, so that the two words “college” and “university” means
the same thing to most Americans.
-For non-residents of the US, a TOEFEL is required and a GRADUATE RECORD EXAMINATION OR
GRE is a must.

 Education in New Zealand

-New Zealand educational system is world-class, modern and responsive. It combines proven,
traditional principles of education with innovation, creativity and fresh thinking to produce
learners and citizens equipped for the 21 st century.
-In the basic education, school is compulsory for all children in New Zealand from 6 to 16 years
old. Children are eligible for free education if they are New Zealand citizens or residents, or if
they qualify as domestic students.
-There are three types of schools in New Zealand;
 STATE-FUNDED
 STATE INTEGRATED
 PRIVATE
-The New Zealand levels of education is presented below;
 EARLY CHILDHOOD – PRE-SCHOOL (BIRTH TO 5)
 PRIMARY SCHOOL- GRADE 1-8 (5-13)
 INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL (Not always applicable as some primary schools include these
years) – GRADE 7-8 (11-13)
 SECONDARY SCHOOL (Also known as college/ high school or grammar school)- YEAR 7-
13 (11-18)
 TERTIARY (Also includes Institute of Technology and Polytechnics)- UNIVERSITY (18
ONWARDS)
-The New Zealand school year is divided into FOUR TERMS for primary, intermediate and
secondary schools. They have six week summer holiday break and THREE TWO WEEK break
between each terms.
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-There are EIGHT GOVERNMENT FUNDED universities in New Zealand and all have
internationally respected academic and research standards.
-New Zealand Institute of Technology and Polytechnic are STATE-OWNED.
-There are 20 POLYTECHNIC AND TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTES in the country. They also offer short
term courses that may begin any time of the year.
-College of Education in most cases are merged with regional universities. Course content and
start dates are synchronized with the Universities.
 Education in the Philippines
-The K-12 basic education in the Philippines consists of;
 KINDERGARTEN (This became mandatory in SY 2012-2013.)
 ELEMENTARY- 6 YEARS
 JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL- 4 YEARS
 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL- 2 YEARS
-From Grades 1 to 10, is a core of academic subjects taught using the SPIRAL PROGRESSION
APPROACH. This means that the same concepts are taught across subject areas in increasing
breadth and depth.
-MOTHER TONGUE is used as a medium of instruction from K to Grade 3 and is taught as a
subject only in Grade 1, 2, and 3.
-SCIENCE as a subject is taught only beginning Grade 3.
-TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION (TLE) is taught starting Grade 4 to Grade 10.
-The focus in Grade 11 and 12 is on the specialization subjects that equip the learner for the
career path of his/her choice.
-These career paths comes in 3 tracks;
 ACADEMIC
 TECHVOC
 SPORTS AND ARTS
-Higher Education Institutions are supervised by a government agency called COMMISSION ON
HIGHER EDUCATION (CHED).
-Most college degree porgrams are;
 Baccalaureate degrees
a. Average- 4 YEARS
b. Specialized fields like; Medicine and Dentistry- 8 YEARS
 Technical vocation education or post secondary education- 2 YEARS
-Most of the college degree programs require passing a licensure examination for the specific
profession. Some examples are;
 NURSING
 DENTISTRY
 MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
 ENGINEERING
 MEDICINE
 TEACHING
-The examination are given by the PROFESSIONAL REGULATION COMMISSION (PRC)
-While for the Law, the examination is given by the SUPREME COURT.
-The post graduate years are as follows;
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 MASTER’S PROGRAM- 2 YEARS

 DOCTORAL PROGRAM- 3 TO 5 YEARS

 SUMMARY
-Basic education is compulsory in all these countries.
-Kindergarten or Pre-school has now made compulsory by the virtue of REPUBLIC ACT 10157,
institutionalizes universal kindergarten.

CHAPTER 17: Multicultural Diversity: A Challenge to Global Teachers

 TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAMS enhances professional development and broaden

perspectives.
 JAMES BANKS, a leading researcher in the area of students, “the major goal of multicultural
education is to transform the school so that the male and female students, exceptional learners,
as well as students coming from diverse cultural, social class, racial and ethnic group will
experience an equal opportunity to learn in school.”
 MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION enables teachers and educators to give value to the differences in
prior knowledge, experiences of learners from diverse background and familiarity with students’
histories of diverse culture.
 The inclusion of learners with special needs has also increased diversity in schools.
Environmental adaptation of classrooms, behavior support plans, cooperative learning, peer
tutoring and team teaching are some of the responses of multicultural education.
 MULTICULTURALISM has broadened and deepened our traditional curriculum into a wider
range of accommodating cultures not of the teachers’ culture alone.
 Diversity of learners has now become a local and global concern among teachers. Even in our
classrooms, diversity has been recognized as an element that needs attention.
 With regional, national and international boundaries opened to education, a greater demand for
understanding diversity of learners has come to the fore.
 Differences in race, ethnic and religious groups, languages, economic status and family
backgrounds are some of the factors or reasons which requires as to have multiple approaches
in teaching.
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CHAPTER 18: Broadening Teaching Perspectives: Teaching Exchange Programs

 Expanding the teacher’s experiences beyond the confines of your classroom to the wider
learning environment of the world is one of the many avenues in order to achieve a level of
global competitiveness. Opportunities for this endeavor can be achieved through TEACHER
EXCHANGE PROGRAMS.
 Let us take a look at some of the teacher exchange programs below;
1. VISITING INTERNATIONAL FACULTY PROGRAM (VIF)
-it is the United States’ largest cultural exchange program for teachers and schools.
-this program offers highly qualified teachers from around the world serving as teachers and
cultural ambassadors in the United States.
-Teachers who participate in the VIF program work in the US for up to THREE YEARS and
then return home to their country to share international experiences with students and
colleagues.
-HISTORY: This program was founded in the year 1987 and began accepting teachers from
other countries of the world to teacher Kindergarten to Grade 12 in 1989. The project is in
cooperation with NORTH CAROLINA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

2. FULBRIGHT TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM

-For the U.S. teachers, this opportunity involves a year or semester direct exchange with a
counterpart in another country teaching THE SAME SUBJECT AT THE SAME LEVEL.
-33 countries including the Philippines currently participate in the Fulbright Teacher
Exchange programs which varies from year to year. The program in the Philippines is
managed by the PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION.

3. INTER-AFRICAN TEACHER EXCHANGES

-The objectives of this program are to provide opportunity for African teachers to learn from
the teaching environment in other African countries and also aimed to extend experiences
and widen the horizon of the African teachers by encouraging exchange visits to countries
outside Africa as well.
-The teacher will travel to neighboring countries to work for over a period of TWO WEEKS
after which in pairs they will engage in the following activities;
 Be stationed at one school for one week and another school for another week.
 Observe teaching in the said teacher’s subject.
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 Guest teach using ICTs at the schools that the teacher is visiting
 Engage in discussions with teachers in another school.
 Write a journal of their exchange visit.

4. CANADIAN EDUCATORS EXCHANGE

-It is a non-profit foundation which handles both students and educator exchanges.
-In Alberta, two kinds of exchanges are possible for a powerful professional development
experiences. These are;

 ONE YEAR EXCHANGES

-These exchanges enables teachers in Alberta to swap their jobs and homes with
teachers in countries such as; Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United
States, Germany and others for a period of one year. During this time, the teacher
continues to be paid by his school board in Alberta.
 SHORT-TERM EXCHANGES
-These exchanges which occur during the spring and summer holidays, enable the
teachers and administrators to job shadow with the other counterpart in another
country.
5. GLOBAL TEACHERS MILLENIUM AWARDS
-THE GLOBAL TEACHER EXCHANGE PROGRAM commits to improving the quality of
education in South Africa, Ghana, Uganda, and the UK and to promote partnership between
the North and South African countries.
-This program has touched the lives of nearly half a million people through their work in
South Africa, Uganda, Ghana, and the United Kingdom. These teachers have undoubtedly
changed their own lives too, because they have achieved a broader perspective of what it
means to be a global teacher.
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CHAPTER 19: Bringing the World Into the Classroom Through Educational Technology

 TECHNOLOGY it is now link to new knowledge, resources, and higher order thinking skills have
entered the classrooms and schools worldwide.
 With the diversity of learners, breakthrough in technology and multiple teacher perspectives, an
innovative teaching is one of the answers to global demands for quality education.
 Let us take a look at the roles of technology in achieving the goal of learning for understanding.

1. TECHNOLOGY PROVIDES SUPPORT TO THE SOLUTION OF MEANINGFUL PROBLEMS

-finding answers to complex problems brought to the classrooms is one important function
of technology. Unlike authentic problems or problems that occur in real world, some
problems brought to the classrooms can be simulated and created with graphics, video and
animation.
-WORLDWIDE WEB OR HYPERMEDIA allows students to search easily for parts that interest
them most.
-Simulations or exploratory environments called MICROWORLDS allow students to carry out
actions, immediately observe the results and do a lot of investigations right there in the
classrooms with the use of the computers.

2. TECHNOLOGY ACTS AS COGNITIVE SUPPORT

-The use of technology provides cognitive support to learners. It assumes interaction with
others who are knowledgeable who can coach, model, guide and give reminders in the
accomplishment of various tasks.
-Electronic references are easy to search and they provide information very quickly.
Technology can help learners visualize processes and relationships that are invisible or
difficult to understand.
3. TECHNOLOGY PROMOTES COLLABORATION AS WELL AS INDEPENDENT LEARNING
-Technology provides avenues for discussion and communication among learners.
-Two-way video and two-way audio systems allow students and teachers at remote sites to
see and hear from each other.
-Face to face interactions can take place over great distances in real time.
 Programs available on the Internet. There are several programs which are available on the
internet from where the school can choose a site.
 PROFESSIONAL SUBJECT REVIEWER

1. KNOWLEDGE INTERGRATION ENVIRONMENT (KIE)

-Teaches students to think of web information as evidence and evaluate it critically with
regard to authorship, credibility and relevance.
2. THE GLOBE PROGRAM (GLOBAL LEARNING AND OBSERVATIONS TO BENEFIT
ENVIRONMENT)
-involves students in gathering data about local environment and creating database open to
the GLOBE community.
PROFESSIONAL SUBJECT REVIEWER