STATISTICS

SHORT QUESTION

 What is population and what are the types of population?

Population: population is totality or collection of all objects, items, or individuals on which observation
are taken on the basis of the some characteristic of the objects in any field of inquiry.

Types of population: There are two types of population these are,

1. Finite population.
2. Infinite population.

Finite population: when it contains finite number of experimental unit.

Infinite population: when it contains infinite number of experimental unit.

 What is sample?

Sample: A sample is a part of population that is taken and considered for study.

 Distinguish between parameter and statistics.

parameter statistic
Any numerical value that describing the Any numerical value that describing the
characteristic of population is called parameter. characteristic of sample is called parameter.
It is denoted by the Greek letter (mu) It is denoted by small letter of the English alphabet

It’s represent the population. It’s represent the sample.

Population parameter is more accurate than sample Sample statistic is less accurate than population
statistic. parameter.

 What is sampling?

Sampling: Sampling in statistics is a process or method of drawing a representative group of individuals

or cases from a particular population.
On the other hand sampling defined as it is the process of selecting a sample from population.

 Difference between probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling Non – probability sampling

It is a type of sampling where each number of It is a type of sampling where each number of
population has a known probability of being population does not have a known probability of
selected in the sample. being selected in the sample.
There are five types of probability sampling. But it has four types.

Probability sampling is objectives. But non- probability sampling is subjective.

It’s also called random sampling. It’s also called non-random sampling.

Randomly basis of selection. Arbitrarily basis of selection.

 What is sampling error & bias?

Sampling error: Statistical error are sample error. The sampling error are influenced by sample size and
sampling scheme. It’s occurred by the act of taking sample and also occurs when the result from sample is
very different from result of population.

Sampling bias: According to Gillian Fournier it is also known as selection bias an error in choosing
participants for a scientific study.

On the other hand sampling bias is a bias in which a sample collected in such a way that some members
of the intend population are less likely to be included than others.

 What do you mean by test of significance?

Test of significance: it is a procedure which enable us to decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis
or to determine whether observed samples differ significantly from expected results is called test of
significance.

According to C.R Kothari the procedure which enable us to decide on the basis of sample if the deviation
between the observed sample statistic and hypothetical parametric value or two independent sample
statistics is significant or might be attributed to the calculation.

 What is test of hypothesis?

Test of hypothesis: A testable statement which may be true or not true is called test of hypothesis.

 What is variance?

Variance: variance is the expectation of the squared deviation of a random variable from its mean.
Informally, it measures how far a set of (random) numbers are spread out from their average
value. ... Variance is an important tool in the sciences, where statistical analysis of data is common.

 What is co-efficient of correlation?

Co- efficient of co-relation: co- relation coefficients are used in statistics to measure how strong a
relationship is between two variables. There are several types of correlation coefficient
Pearson’s correlation  is a correlation coefficient commonly used in linear regression.

 What is statistical hypothesis? What are types of statistical hypothesis?

Statistical hypothesis: In attempting to reach decisions, it is useful to make assumptions or

guesses about the population involved, such assumptions which may or may not be true are
called statistical hypothesis.

Types of hypothesis: there are two types of hypothesis. These are

1. Null hypothesis.
2. Alternative hypothesis.

Null hypothesis: There are no significant differences between parameter and statistic.

Alternative hypothesis: which differ from null hypothesis is called alternative hypothesis.

 What do you mean by level of significance?

Level of significance: In testing a given hypothesis, the maximum probability with which we
would be willing to risk a type-I error is called level of significance of the test.

 What do you mean by df?

Degrees of freedom: In statistics, the number of degrees of freedom is the number of values in
the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary.
  Explain the type-I & type-II error.

Type-I error: In hypothesis testing if we reject hypothesis when it should be acceptable then it is
called type-I error.

Type-II error: In hypothesis testing if we accept a hypothesis when it should be rejected then it is
called type-II error.

 Differences between one-tailed & two-tailed test.

One-tailed test Two-tailed test

A test of any statistical hypothesis where the A test of any statistical hypothesis where the
alternative hypothesis is one sided is called alternative hypothesis is two sided is called
one-tailed test. one-tailed test.
The one-tailed test is directional hypothesis The one-tailed test is non-directional
test. hypothesis test.
In a one-tailed test the region of rejection is In a two-tailed test the region of rejection is on
either on the left or right of the sampling both the sides of the sampling distribution.
distribution.
In this test the test parameter calculated is more In this test the result obtained is within or
or less than critical value. outside critical value.

 What do you mean by power of a test?

Power of a test: Ability to correctly rejecting a null hypothesis is called power of a test.

On the other hand the power of a statistical test gives the likelihood of rejecting the null hypothesis when
the null hypothesis is false.

 What are the assumptions of parametric test?

Parametric test: parametric test are those test that are stated in terms of making assumption about
population parameter.

Assumptions of parametric test:

1. Observation must be independent.

2. Observation must be drown from normally distributed population.
3. Population must have been the same variance.
 4. Variables must have been measured in at least interval scale.
5. Example: t-test, F-test, Z-test.

 What do you mean by non-parametric test?

Non-parametric test: Non-parametric test are those that do not compare population parameter and make
fewer assumption than parametric test.

Example: frideman two way analysis of variance, U test .

 Distinguish between t-test & F-test.

t-test F-test
In this test sample should be relatively small. In this test the sample size can be 30 or more than
30.
t-test used to justify differences between two F-test used to justify differences between more than
groups. two groups.
Data obtained from two groups in this test. Data obtained from more than two groups.

Co-related & uncorrelated types of t-test. One way and two way analysis of variance is a type
of F-test.

 What is main effect and interaction effect?

Main effect: when an independent variable individually effect on dependent variable is called main effect.

Interaction effect: when an independent variable combinedly effect on dependent variable then its called
interaction effect.

 What are the characteristic of chi square test?

Characteristic of chi square test:

1. It’s not normally distributed.

2. It has observed frequency and expected frequency.
3. Difference must be observed.
4. Data is in nominal or ordinal scale.
5. The negative value of chi square test is not possible.
6. It is a continuous distribution.
7. Bell shaped.
8. The value of df of chi square test is considered as variable.
 9. At least 50 observations.
10. Every cell must contain 5 observations.

 What do you mean by goodness of fit?

Goodness of fit: Goodness of fit is the extent to which observed data matches the values expected by
theory. Chi square test and coefficient of determination can be used to determine goodness of fit.

In other words goodness of a fit of statistic model describes how well it fits a set of observation.

 What is factor analysis?

Factor analysis: factor analysis is a class of procedures that allow the researchers to observe a group of
variables that tend to be correlated to each other and identify the underlying dimensions that explain these
correlations.

According to C.R Kothari factor analysis is a technique applicable when there is a systematic
interdependence among a set of observed or manifest variables and the researchers is interested in finding
out something more fundamental or latent which creates this commonality.

 What is uniqueness?

Uniqueness: Uniqueness is a state or condition where in someone or something is unlike anything else in
comparison.

 What is communality?

Communality: The concept of communality in factor analysis shows how much of each variable is
accounted for the underlying factor taken together.

A high value of communality means not a much of the variable is left over after whether the factors
represent is taken into consideration.

 What is factor loading?

Factor loading: factor loading is the correlation between the original variables and the factors.

According to C.R Kothari factor loading are those values which explain how closely the variables are
related to each one of the factors discovered. They are also known as a factor variable correlations.

 What do you mean by tied score?

Tied score: The score obtained from tied observation is known as tied score.Tied observations are
observations having the same value which prohibits the assignment of unique rank number .

 What do you mean by significant & insignificant difference?

Significant difference: The difference which arises due to some other reasons except sampling fluctuation
is known as a significant difference.

Insignificant difference: the difference which arises due to sampling fluctuation is known as insignificant
difference.