Migration- Definition In layman's language, the world ‘migration’ refers to the movements of the people from one place to another. According to Demographic Dictionary, “migration is a form of geographical mobility or spatial mobility between one geographical unit and another, generally involving a change in residence from the place of origin or place of departure to the place of destination or place of arrival, for a considerable period of time.” Migration, in the social sense refers to the physical transition of an individual or a group from fone society to another. This transition usually involves abandoning one social-setting and entering another and different one. People may move within a country between different states or between different districts of the same state or they may move between different countries. Therefore, different terms are used for internal and external migration. Internal migration refers to migration from one place to another within a country, while external migration or international migration refers to migration from one country to another. a) Immigration and Emigration: ‘Immigration’ refers to migration into a country from another country and ‘emigration’ refers to migration out of the country. These terms are used only in connection with international migration. For example migrants leaving India to settle down in the United States or Canada are immigrants to the United States or Canada and emigrants from India. b) In Migration and Outmigration: These are used only in connection with internal migration. ‘In migration’ refers to migration into a particular area while ‘out migration’ refers to movements out of a particular area. Thus, migrants who come from Bihar or Uttar Pradesh to Punjab are considered to be immigrants for Punjab and out migrants for Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The term ‘in migration’ is used with reference to the area of destination of the migrants and the term ‘outmigration’ is used with reference to the area of origin or place of departure of the migrant.The main forms of migration can be summarized in a chart. MIGRATION INTERNAL, EXTERNAL INMIGRATION —__ OUTMIGRATION IMMIGRATION EMIGRATION Typology based on time classified migration into long range migration and short range or seasonal migration. When a move is made for a longer period, it is called long range migration. However, when there is permanent shift of population from one region to another, it is known as permanent migration. But when people shift to the sites of temporary work and residence for some or several months, it is known as periodic or seasonal migration. For example, during peak agricultural season excess labour is required, and people from the neighbouring areas come in. The custom of women returning to her parents to deliver her first child also accounts for significant short range internal migration. Apart from these two important types, migration could be voluntary or involuntary or forced brain drain (migration of young skilled persons) and migration of refugees and displaced persons. Recording Migration Data There are three important sources of information on migration in a country. These are national census, population registers and sample surveys. In India, the most important sources of data on internal migration are national census and sample surveys. You are familiar with Census in India. It contains information about migration in the country. Actually migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881. This data were recorded on the basis of place of birth. However, the first major modification was introduced in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional components viz; place of birth i.e. village or town and duration of residence (if born elsewhere). Further in 1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of enumeration were incorporated. Information on reasons for migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive Censuses. In the Census the following questions are asked on migration ‘* Is the person born in this village or town? If no, then further information is taken on rural/urban status of the place of birth, name of district and state and if outside India then name of the country of birth. ‘© Has the person come to this village or town from elsewhere? If yes, then further questions are asked about the status (rural/urban) of previous place of residence, name of district and state and if outside India then name of the country. In addition, reasons for migration from the place of last residence and duration of residence in place of enumeration are also asked. In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases: 1. Place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life- time migrant); 2. Place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence). Observing Migration Trends in Census {A few facts pertaining to the internal migration (within the country) and international migration {out of the country and into the country from other countries) are presented in this section. Under the internal migration, four streams are identified:Rural to rural (R-R); Rural to urban (R-U); Urban to urban (U-U); and © Urban to rural (U-R). In India, during 2001, out of 315 million migrants, enumerated on the basis of the last residence, 98 million had changed their place of residence in the last ten years. Out of these, 81 million were intra-state migrants. The stream was dominated by female migrants. Most of these were migrants related to marriage. The distribution of male and female migrants in different streams of intra-state and inter-state migration is presented in Fig. 1a and 1b below. It is clearly evident that females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration in both types of migration. Contrary to this, men dominate the rural to urban stream of inter-state migration due to economic reasons. TD Mate TO Mak amr me Feo Ce —- om at Migauen Streams Migration Streams Fig. 1 a: Intra State Migration by Place of Fig. 1 b : Inter State Migration by Place of Last Residence Indicating Migration Streams Last Residence Indicating Migration Streams (Duration 0-9 years}, India, 2001 (uration 0-9 years), India, 2001 Source: Census of India, 2001 Apart from these streams of internal Table : Immigrants by last residence from neighbouring countries by all migration, India also experiences immigration pa een from and emigration to the neighbouring ‘Countries% No of % of countries. The table (in right) presents the immigrants total details of migrants from neighbouring ee countries. Indian Census 2001 has recorded || Tamune™™anomall a 1, aa that more than 5 million person have || sigration from migrated to India from other countries. Out of || neighbouring these, 96 per cent came from the || countries 4,918,266 95.5 neighbouring countries: Bangladesh (3.0 || Afghanistan 9.194 02 million) followed by Pakistan (0.9 million) and | Bangladesh 3.084.826 59.8 Nepal (0.5 million). Included in this are 0.16 || Bhutan eeo7 De million refugees from Tibet, Sri Lanka, || CD ra) Oe Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and eure ae a Myanmar. As far as emigration from India is |) patistan a7 108' 33 concerned it is estimated that there are | utanka 145 S00 29 around 20 million people of Indian Diaspora, ° Source : Census of ndia, 2001 spread across 110 countries. ioCharacteristics of Migrants in India There are some important characteristics of the migrants and migration. An important characteristic is the age selectivity of the migrants. Generally, young people are more mobile. Most migration studies, especially in developing countries, have found that rural-urban migrants are predominantly young adults. It is obvious that migration for employment takes place mostly at the young adult ages. Also a major part of the female migration consequential to marriage occurs at the young adult ages. The female migration in India is largely sequential to marriage, because it is a Hindu custom to take brides from another village (village exogamy). Thus people have a tendency to move when they are between their teens and their mid-thirties (15-35 years) than at other ages. Another important characteristic is that the migrants have a tendency to move to those places where they have contacts and where the previous migrants serve as links for the new migrants, and this chain is thus formed in the process, and is usually called chain migration. They usually have kinship chains and networks of relatives and friends who help them in different ways. In some cases, the migrants not only tend to have the same destination but also tend to have the same occupation. For example, in certain hotels in Jaipur almost all the workers belong to one particular sub-region of Kumaon. The agricultural labourers in Punjab and Haryana are mainly from Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. The male migrants from rural to urban and urban to urban, employment were the most important reason. Education accounted only for about 3 to 8 per cent of migration according to these migration streams. Among women, as expected, marriage was the most important reason for migration, followed by associational migration. Employment and education accounted for a very small proportion of the females. Factors causing Migration People, generally are emotionally attached to their place of birth, But millions of people leave their places of birth and residence. It is important to know why some migrate while others do not. The important factors, therefore, which cause migration or which motivate people to move, may broadly be classified into four categories: economic factors, demographic factors, socio-cultural factors, and political factors. Economic Factors & Demographic Factors The major reason of voluntary migration is economic. Low agricultural income, agricultural unemployment and underemployment are the major factors pushing the migrants towards areas with greater job opportunities. Even the pressure of population resulting in a high man- land ratio has been widely recognised as one of the important causes of poverty and rural outmigration. This is true of both internal as well as international migration.The most important economic factors that motivate migration may be termed as ‘Push Factors’ and ‘Pull Factors’. In other words it is to see whether people migrate because of the compelling circumstances at the place of origin which pushed them out, or whether they are lured by the attractive conditions in the new place. Now we shall discuss these factors. © Push Factors: The push factors are those that compel or force a person, due to various reasons, to leave that place and go to some other place. For example, adverse economic conditions caused by poverty, low productivity, unemployment, exhaustion of natural resources, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like healthcare, education, etc. and natural calamities may compel people to leave their native place in search of better economic opportunities. The main push factor causing the worker to leave agriculture is the lower levels of income, as income in agriculture is generally lower than the other sectors of the economy. Due to rapid increase in population, the per capita availability of cultivable land has declined, and the numbers of the unemployed and the underemployed in the rural areas have significantly increased with the result that the rural people are being pushed to the urban areas. The non-availability of alternative sources of income in the rural area is also another factor for migration. In addition to this, the existence of the joint family system and laws of inheritance, which do not permit the division of property, may also cause many young men to migrate to cities in search of jobs. Even sub division of holdings leads to migration, as the holdings become too small to support a family. © Pull Factors: Pull factors refer to those factors which attract the migrants to an area, such as, opportunities for better employment, availability of regular work, higher wages, better working conditions and better amenities of life, etc. There is generally city-ward migration, when rapid expansion of industry, commerce and business takes place. In recent years, the high rate of movement of people from India to the USA, Canada and now to the Middle- East is due to the better employment opportunities, higher wages and better amenities of life, variety of occupations to choose from and the possibility of attaining higher standard of living. Sometimes the migrants are also attracted to cities in search of better cultural and entertainment activities or bright city lights. However, pull factors operate not only in the rural-urban migration, but also in other types of internal as well as international migration.Socio-Cultural & Political Factors Besides these push and pull factors, social and cultural factors also play an important role in migration. Sometimes family conflicts also cause migration. Improved communication facilities, such as, transportation, impact of the radio and the television, the cinema, the urban-oriented education and resultant change in attitudes and values also promote migration. Sometimes even political factors encourage or discourage migration. For instance, in our country, the adoption of the jobs for ‘sons of the soil policy’ by the State governments will certainly affect the migration from other states. The rise of Shiv Sena in Bombay, with its hatred for the migrants and the occasional eruption of violence in the name of local parochial patriotism, is a significant phenomenon. Even in Calcutta, the Bengali-Marwari conflict will have far reaching implications. And now Assam and Tamil Nadu are other such examples. Thus the political attitudes and outlook of the people also influence migration to a great extent. There have also been migrations from Kashmir and Punjab because of the terrorist activities. Consequences of Migration Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over space. People tend to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity and better safety. This, in turn, creates both benefits and problems for the areas, people migrate from and migrate to. Consequences can be observed in economic, social, psychological, environmental, political and demographic terms. Economic Consequences Impact on Source and destination regions There is a view that migration negatively affects the emigrating region and favours the immigrating region, and that migration would widen the development disparity between the regions, because of the drain of the resourceful persons from the relatively underdeveloped region to the more developed region. But the exodus of the more enterprising members of a community cannot be considered a loss, if there is lack of alternative opportunities in the emigrating areas. As long as migration draws upon the surplus labour, it would help the emigrating region. It will have adverse effects only if human resources are drained away at the cost of the development of the region. Another important point is that when migration draws away the unemployed or underemployed, it would enable the remaining population of the region to improve their living conditions as this would enable the remaining population to increase the per capita consumption, since the total number of mouths to be fed into is reduced as a result of emigration. ‘A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants. Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange. Remittances in the 80s were mainly driven by the economic prosperity in the oil exporting countries. The policies of liberalization during the 90s led to a lot of Indian information technology professionals migrating to the US for better opportunities, thus leading to an increase in remittances. Since the 1990s, migration to other countries like Canada and Australia has also increased but the number is still less compared to the Gulf countries. In 2016, India received US$ 62.7 billion as remittances from international migrants and remains the top most remittance receiving country, ahead of China which stands at US$ 61 billion in 2016. Kerala Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Punjab are the major states which receive international remittance. The amount of remittances sent by the internal migrants is very meager as compared to international migrants, but it plays an important role in the growth of economy of the source area,Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc. For thousands of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc. internal remittance works as life blood for their economy. Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa to the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution strategy for agricultural development. Besides this, unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India has caused overcrowding. Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within the country. Indian workforce in Middle east ‘* Over five million Indian nationals are working in Gulf countries and majority of them are blue~ collared workers in labour-oriented sectors including construction, industrial sector, transport, supply and service sectors. ‘© Saudi Arabia has the highest number of Indian migrants and is also India's number one crude oil supplier. ‘* Five Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries—the UAE, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Oman— contributed 50% of the total value of remittances (2015), despite their economies suffering from a decline in oil prices. ‘+ _The slump in crude oil prices is affecting the remittances and number of people traveling to Gulf. Impact on migrants Job mismatch, labour market discrimination, unemployment and poor household income, poverty, precarious work conditions, occupation, industry, and property ownership are areas of concern for the migrant population. Employment discrimination can result in differences in access to particular occupations and can also lead to differences in pay between those employed in the same occupation. Demographic Consequences Impact on Source and Destination Regions Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country. Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities. Age and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure. However, high out migration from Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra have brought serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in the recipients states. ‘What do you think is the cause of imbalance in sex ratio in the place of origin and destination of the migrants? Migration of the unmarried males of young working age results in imbalances in sex ratio. The absence of many young men from the villages increases the proportion of other groups, such as, women, children and old people. This tends to reduce the birth rate in the rural areas. Further the separation of the rural male migrants from their wives for long durations also tends to reduce the birth rate. Can you think of consequences in the recipient states? ik tion from Bangladesh legal immigrants enter into the country without valid travel documents in clandestine and surreptitious means. There is no accurate data with regard to number of Bangladeshi citizens illegally residing in the country. Some Bangladeshi migrants may be prone to Islamic fundamentalism and become easy prey for militancy, communal conflicts, and anti-India elements like Pak ISI etc. Besides, illegal Bangladeshi immigrants are found to be involved in cases relating to theft/burglary, smuggling, human trafficking and drugs trafficking etc. During the last three years i.e. 2014, 2015 and 2016, more than 250 Pakistani nationals and 1750 Bangladeshi nationals were deported to their respective countries after due process of identification.Social and Psychological Consequences Impact on Source and destination regions Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girl's education, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as evolution of composite culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and widens up the mental horizon of the people at large. Impact on migrants Urban life usually brings about certain social changes in the migrants. Those migrants who return occasionally or remain in direct or indirect contact with the households of their origin are also likely to transmit some new ideas back to the areas of origin. There is technological change to the dynamism of the return migrants, who bring money as well as knowledge and experience of different production techniques, and this may lead to mechanization and commercialization of agricultural activity. A number of ex-servicemen, on retirement go back to their native areas and promote such practices in the villages. Contact with the urban and different cultures also brings attitudinal change in the migrants, and helps them to develop more modern orientation, including even the consumerist culture their own areas. But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonymity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse. Alongside, migration which results in the absence of the adult males for long periods of time may cause dislocation of the family, and, under such circumstances, women and children often have to take over more and different types of work and other more important roles in household decision-making. Very disturbing effects have been revealed because of the male migration from Kerala. Neurosis, hysteria and depression are said to be on the increase among the emigrant workers’ wives in Kerala. The gulf boom has also taken a toll of mental health of the families. Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly. As seen above, in the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well mental pressure on the women. Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the economy but also increases their vulnerability. Environmental Consequences Impact on Source and destination regions Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure in the urban areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and formation of slums and shanty colonies. Movement of people from ‘low-carbon’ to ‘high-carbon’ parts of the world will cause an absolute increase in GHG emissions if migrants from ‘low-carbon’ areas increase consumption of carbon-intensive products once they have migrated. For example aviation industry which is highly carbon-intensive is bound to grow with migration. Apart from this, due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground water , disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes. Impact on migrants As the evidence of global environmental change has accumulated over the past decade, academicians and policy makers has given more attention to environmental influences onhuman migration. Factors such as climate variability and soil degradation may serve as push factors for migration among vulnerable populations, particularly in the rural developing world, where livelihoods are highly dependent on natural resources. Political Consequences Impact on Source and destination regions © Immigration may adversely affect political stability if conflict becomes endemic among heterogeneous groups of people living in close proximity due to the process of migration. * A demographic shift in favor of immigrants may adversely affect incumbents control over resources and make them economically vulnerable. Societies may also react unfavorably to immigration if immigrants are perceived to be a social or an economic burden. © Immigration may impinge upon the capacity of the state to provide the public with adequate housing, education and transportation services, engendering local resentment and backlash against immigrants. For example in the United States the dominant perception of immigrants as nonworking beneficiaries, or even abusers, of a generous welfare system’ fuels anti-immigrant sentiments. © Immigrant receiving countries may find preserving their languages, values, norms and customs challenging in the face of immigration. European security discourses, for example, regularly feature discussions about the threat to European culture coming from the influx of Muslim immigrants who are unwilling or incapable of integrating into the society. In response to this threat, countries are increasingly adopting stringent residency requirements that stipulate immigrants to study the local language, culture and history to be eligible for residency permit. * It also adversely affects the quantity and quality of labor available for production as the most skilled and educated workers in the economy flee to avoid persecution (in the wake of political upheaval) or leave in search of better economic opportunities. Consequently, the level of output would decline and the economy would not be on an optimal growth trajectory. Impact on migrants Broadly, this dimension refers to the extent to which migrants and their descendants are included into the democratic process, civic organizations and associations of the host country. Migrants who are forced to migrate due to civil war or State politics which discriminate against particular categories of its citizens find it difficult to return home due to well founded fear of being persecuted. These migrants are unlikely to receive any protection from their government. Migrants, notably those in an irregular situation, tend to live and work in the shadows, afraid to complain, denied rights and freedoms, and disproportionately vulnerable to discrimination, exploitation and marginalization, Human rights violations against migrants, including denial of access to fundamental rights such as the right to education or the right to health, are often closely linked to discriminatory laws and practice, and to deep-seated attitudes of prejudice and xenophobia against migrants. Political impact may be evident from parameters like citizenship (citizenship rate, single/ multiple citizenship, rate of naturalizations, speed of access, pathway), participation in social and civic groups, participation in social activities, volunteering, voting participation, access to services, ability to access support, discrimination, victimization, feelings of safety/trust and cultural diversity.Inner Line Permit Inner Line Permit is required for Indian citizens to enter Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Mizoram. Inner Line Permit is issued under the Bengal Eastern Frontier Regulation, 1873. Protected Area Permit Under the Foreigners (Protected Areas) Order, 1958 under the Foreigners Act, 1946 all areas falling between the ‘Inner Line' (this line is defined by the Ministry of Home Affairs) and the International border of the State have been declared as Protected Area. Every foreigner except a citizen of Bhutan, who desires to enter and stay in a Protected or Restricted ‘Area, is required to obtain a special permit from a competent authority delegated with powers to issue such a special permit to a foreigner on application. A foreigner is not normally allowed to visit 2 protected/restricted area unless the Government is satisfied that there are exceptional reasons to justify it. However, to promote tourism, some notified tourist circuits can be visited by fo necessary permit from the competent authority. Restricted Area Permit Under the Foreigners (Restricted Areas) Order, 1963 no foreigner can enter or stay in the ‘Restricted Areas’ without obtaining permit from the competent authorities. ers after obtaining Internal Migration v/s External Migration Pernaps the single most significant aspect of internal migration is that it alters the spatial distribution of population. Moreover, internal migration shapes human settlement patterns. In 19th century for example, internal migration from rural areas was essential to the growth of industrial cities and towns in Britain, where mortality was high. There is also a longstanding pattern of migration outwards from city cores to the urban peripheries and beyond, driven by new household formation and facilitated by the development of rail and road transport for commuting. This process of suburbanization continues in most countries, although in some cities, central re-urbanisation is occurring. When advanced urbanisation has been achieved, a reversal occurs as migration cascades down the urban hierarchy leading in some countries to counter-urbanisation. International migration on the other hand plays an important role in adding to populations in metropolises in the developed world but makes a minor contribution to population redistribution in less developed countries. International migration may be compared to international trade as both are mechanisms for globalization. In most receiving countries, immigrants pay taxes and have the right to draw on at least some public services, changing the net tax burden on native residents. Once they become citizens, immigrants generally obtain the right to vote, altering domestic politics. In sending countries, emigrants cause corresponding fiscal and political disruptions by their departure. Increased inflows of low-skilled labor may exacerbate distortions created by social-insurance programs, which would possibly increase the net tax burden on native residents and thereby fuel political opposition to immigration. Internal Migration in recent times The recent pandemic-induced exodus of large number of migrants (in some parts of the country) to reach their hometowns has highlighted the prevalent migrant problem. Internal Migrants Seasonal Migrants: Economic Survey of India 2017 estimates that there are 139 million seasonal or circular migrants in the country.They dominate the low-paying, hazardous and informal market jobs in key sectors in urban destinations, such as construction, hotel, textile, manufacturing, transportation, services, domestic work etc. Seasonal or circular migrants have markedly different labor market experiences and integration challenges than more permanent migrants but precise data and systematic accounting of their experiences are unavailable. Reasons behind Internal Migration Unemployment in hinterland: An increasing number of people do not find sufficient economic opportunities in rural areas and move instead to towns and cities. Marriage: It is a common driver of internal migration in india, especially among women. Pull-factor from cities: Due to better employment opportunities, livelihood facilities etc Cities of Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata are the largest destinations for internal migrants in India. Issues related to Internal Migration Non-portability of entitlements for migrant labourers (such as the Public Distribution System) which further gets aggravated due to absence of identity documentation. Absence of reliable data: The current data structure lacks realistic statistical account of their number and an understanding of the nature of their mobility. © Data on internal migration in India is principally drawn from two main sources ~Census and the surveys carried out by the National Sample Survey Office. One of the main lacunae of both the Census and NSS surveys is their failure to adequately capture seasonal and/or short-term circular migration. © Alarge majority of migrants hail from historically marginalized groups such as the SCs and STs, which adds an additional layer of || Additional issues due to CovID-19 Vulnerability to. their | Uneettainty and desperation: The criss has further fueled ; uncertainty, This has resulted in many migrants leaving by urban experiences. foot, or on overcrowded buses and vans. Explottation by Employers | ck of quarantine facilities: Absence of adequate medical and Contractors. | infrastructure lke testing facilities, quarantine facilities could (Middlemen): in the form of |} g-asticaly aggravate the situation Non-payment of — wages, physical abuse, accidents. The existing legal machinery is not sensitive to the nature Disrupting the Agricultural Cycle: Many seasonal migrants usually head home just before June in preparation for the sowing season. : Apprehensions from source regions: For example, there are of legal disputes in the already reports of people in villages in West Bengal who unorganized sector. don’t want these workers coming back, particularly from Lack of Education: The issue |] maharashtra and Kerala. of lack of access to education | iacreasing unemployment: According to ILO, about 400 for children of migrants} imitiion people working in the informal economy in India are further aggravates the | 3¢ risk of falling deeper into poverty. Loss of jobs will result in intergenerational loss of livelihoods of these migrants. transmission of poverty. Housing: Migration and slums are inextricably linked, as labor demand in cities and the resulting rural-to-urban migration creates greater pressures to accommodate more people. Social Exclusion: Since the local language and culture is different from that of their region in they also face harassment and political exclusion. © Due to migrant’s mobile nature, they don’t find any place in the manifestos of trade unions. ‘Stuck in the cycle of poverty: Most migrants are generationally stuck in a vicious cycle of poverty. (See infographic.)141020 Years > 2110 27/30 Years Youth enter labour yy > Hard manual Manual labour Toke up local labour markets as manual £ labour for 12-14 takes tol opportunites, labour hours Commuters Secondary wage @ > Become Primary [Mp Frequent retum to ay» Lower eaming capacity earners wage earners village with chronic |i» Children stort migrating nesses Get Married and Slide back into poverty Start family with weak bodies Way Forward * universal foodgrain distribution: There are 585 lakh tonnes of grains stored in Food Corporation of India godowns, which could be proactively distributed. * Direct cash transfers: Mechanisms could be evolved to deliver cash directly into the hands of people, instead of routing it through bank accounts. + Inter-state coordination committee could be formed to ensure safe passage of migrants to their villages. © Legal cell at the central and state levels could be created to protect wages. As there have been claims of non-payment of wages, forced leaves and retrenchments. Mapping of migrant workers: There is a need to create a database to map migrant workers scattered across the country. © Government is planning to map migrant workers which would be first comprehensive exercise to map migrant workers scattered across sectors. The challenges of the migrant problem are complex, also lack of recognition for migrants is still to be fully addressed. But if policy makers are able to recognize migrant workers as a dynamic part of a changing India, migration instead of being part of the problem will start becoming part of the solution. Trends in International Migration Overall, between 1950 and 2015, the major areas of Europe, Northern America and Oceania have been net receivers of international migrants, while Africa, Asia and Latin and the Caribbean have been net senders, with the volume of net migration generally increasing over time. When countries are grouped by income rather than geography, the attraction of high-income countries is even more evident: from 2000 to 2015, high-income countries received an average of 4.1 million net migrants annually from lower- and middle-income countries. As per UN World Population Prospects 2015, Economic and demographic asymmetries across countries are likely to remain powerful generators of international migration within the medium-term future. Large-scale refugee movements have also had a profound influence on the level of net migration experienced by some countries, including those affected recently by the Syrian crisis. In the future, net migration is projected to be a major contributor to population growth in many high-income countries. Between 2015 and 2050, total births in the group of high-income countries are projected to exceed deaths by 20 million, while the net gain in migrants is projected to be 91 million. Thus, net migration is projected to account for 82 per cent of population growth in the high-income countries. The movement of people from Asia, Africa and Latin America to Europe, Northern America and Oceania has dominated the world migration patterns for almost half a century, but flows among developing countries have also been important. Several high-income and middle-incomecountries in the “global south” have also been attracting migrants in large numbers for several years. Between 2015 and 2050, the top net receivers of international migrants (more than 100,000 annually) are projected to be the United States of America, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, the Russian Federation and Italy. The countries projected to have net emigration of more than 100,000 annually include India, Bangladesh, China, Pakistan and Mexico. In countries or areas where fertility is already below the replacement level, the total population is expected to contract unless the excess of deaths over births is counterbalanced by a gain due to net migration. However, international migration at, or around, current levels will be unable to compensate fully for the expected loss of population due to low levels of fertility. WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM: MIGRATION TRENDS 2016 © The number of refugees worldwide will rise to yet new historic levels-Syrian crisis will be compounded by new displacement from Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Eritrea, Libya and Yemen ‘* The potential for migration to contribute to poverty reduction has been acknowledged in the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ‘© Over the last 20 years the number of women among migrants has increased worldwide, as the global demand for labour has become focused on domestic work, services, hospitality, and sex. A growing proportion of these women will migrate independently and as breadwinners for their families. A growing proportion will also be trafficked, and suffer human rights abuses. ‘* The global war for talent will intensify. Continued retrenchment in Europe will place even greater emphasis on employing the best and brightest, but Europe will face growing completion from new skills magnets like Brazil and China. Expect ageing, conservative, and increasingly xenophobic Europe ‘to lose out in this competition. Problems of Refugees and Displaced Persons The United Nations defines “a refugee as every person, who owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country.” (U.N. | Internally Displaced People: Internal Migration due to 1984) sters, India had the highest number of new disaster displacements (five million) in the world in 2019 as per the Global Report on internal Displacement, 2020. Thus many international movements of population involving very large numbers have occurred due to compelling reasons of political, religious or racial character. Perhaps the _largest movement of people in this century has occurred in the Indian sub-continent. The partition of the British India in 1947 into the Indian Union and Pakistan led ~These were the result of a combination of increasing hazard intensity, high population exposure, conflicts and high levels of social and economic vulnerability. --590,000 people live in internal displacement as a result of disasters in India. New disaster displacements were a result of various cyclones like Fani, Vayu, Bulbul 4 etc along with south west monsoon and droughts in to large exodus of the refugees into | various parts each nation from the other. Estimates netes | IDPs are different from refugees in that, having not indicate that not less than 7 million | crossed a border, they are not typically covered by Persons went to Pakistan from India | international refugee protections. They remain and more than 8 million people came to | subjected to national laws, and as such are afforded India from Pakistan. Indo-Pakistan war | jess protection. in 1971 also caused a large number of people from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to move into the north-eastern states of India as refugees, and this became a permanent problem for the region, as much as “Bihari” Muslims continue to be problematic for Pakistan and Bangladesh.Some of the largest forced international migrations in history have occurred through times in Asia. For example, in the 12 years following 1975 more than 1.7 million refugees have left Vietnam, Kampuchea and Laos. Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, in 1979, produced a flow of refugees which has led to some 2.7 million being temporarily settled in Pakistan and 1.5 million in Iran. Most of these refugees are still in the camps in the neighbouring countries. Due to political disturbances in Sri Lanka, large numbers of Tamilians have entered India, and are staying in Tamil Nadu. It is found that on humanitarian grounds the refugees are often given shelter by the governments of various countries. However, the sudden influx of the refugees creates enormous pressure on the native society. It leads to short supply of essential commodities, ecological imbalances and health hazards in the countries of asylum. The large magnitude and the various economic, political and social dimensions of the exodus of the refugees create many problems, particularly for the countries of destination. Sometimes they cause political complications in the receiving countries. They organize themselves by forming groups, and pressurize the governments for some concessions. For example the United Kingdom, Canada and Sri Lanka are facing political and racial crises due to migration. Sometimes this causes clashes between the natives and migrants. Sri Lanka is a recent example of this. But, in some instances, the refugees do make a positive contribution to the development of the host country, when settled in sparsely populated areas, by clearing and cultivating land. UNHCR: Global Trends : Forced displacement in 2016 ‘An unprecedented 65.6 million people around the world have been forced from home. Among them are nearly 22.5 million refugees, over half of whom are under the age of 18. ‘* More than half of refugees globally come from three countries: Syria, Afghanistan and South Sudan, Nearly two-thirds of Syrians have been forced to flee their homes. Developing regions host 84 percent of the world’s refugees. Lebanon cares for the largest number of refugees relative to its national population, with one in six people a refugee, followed by Jordan (one in 11) and Turkey (one in 28). ‘+ Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees (2.9 million) followed by Pakistan (1.4 mln) and Lebanon (1 min). ‘* _ Atleast 10 million people are estimated to be stateless. Rohingva Crisis ‘On October 9,2016 border posts on the border of Myanmar and Bangladesh were attacked by a group of Istamic militants. The attack, that was reported to have been carried out by Rohingya Solidarity Organisation, was soon followed by a counter terrorism insurgency carried out by the Tatmadaw (Burmese military). Myanmar has been under severe attack from the international community in recent times for what is being considered as ‘genocide’ against the Rohingya Muslims. Considered by the United Nations as the “most persecuted minority group in the world”, the Rohingyas are a stateless group of people ‘concentrated in western Myanmar, and facing brutal assaults from the Burmese state and military. According to a UN report, at present around 5,500 Rohingya refugees have been registered in India, The Rohingyas trace back their ancestry to those who were brought into western Myanmar (referred to as Arakan previously and as Rakhine at present) by the British colonial government when they took over Burma in 1824. In 1982, the Burmese government passed a Citizenship law under which Rohingyas were classified as ‘associate’ citizens. The rules laid out for ‘associate’ citizens deprived Rohingyas of holding any government office and several other citizenship rights. Further clauses of discrimination restricted the movements and even marriages and birth rates within the community were closely monitored and inhibited. The assault on the Rohingyas has been fast gaining attention from Jihadists around the world, making the ground ripe for extremism.‘An advisory commission chaired by Kofi Annan was tasked with finding solutions to the ethnic conflict in Myanmar's Rakhine state. The report recommends urgent and sustained action on a number of fronts to prevent violence, maintain peace, foster reconciliation and offer a sense of hope to the State's hard- pressed population. Environmental Migration According to Global Report on Internal Displacement (GRID, 2019), in 2018, of the total new 28 million internally displaced people in 148 countries, 61% were due to disasters. In comparison, 39% were due to conflict and violence. As per the estimates, climate change resulted in the displacement of 2.7 million Indians in 2019. Environmental Migrants * According to International Organization for Migration (10M), Environmental migrants are persons or groups of persons who, predominantly for reasons of sudden or progressive change in the environment that adversely affects their lives or living conditions, are | Environmental Refugees obliged to leave their habitual homes, or | Environmental Refugee is a specific term which choose to do so, either temporarily or | Covers only cross-border migrants forced to do permanently, and who move either within | £° due to environmental factors. It has not their country or abroad. eae ate 20 * According to Internal Displacement | UN Refugee Convention (1951) Monitoring Centre (IDMC), every year |* It grants certain rights to people fleeing since 2008, an average of 26.4 million persecution because of race, religion, persons around the world have been nationality, affiliation to a particular social forcibly displaced by floods, windstorms, ‘group, or political opinion. earthquakes opdroighis * Cross-border displaced who have ee ’ migrated due to climate change are not In 2019/6, milion: peagte spleens recognised as refugees under the 1951 by disasters were still in camps or ‘Bcfigea Convention or ia 157 pretocal) places out of their homes. and thus do not qualify for protection © At 2.7 million people, India had the under national or international legal highest number of people displaced by frameworks for refugee protection. disasters and extreme weather events in 2018, * The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) predicts that in the next 50 years between 250 million and 1 billion humans will leave their homes because of climate change. © According to an UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (formerly known as UNISDR) report in 2017, India has been ranked as the world's most disaster-prone country for displacement of residents. Impact of climate change on the movement of people + Greater frequency and, potentially, greater intensity of weather-related natural disasters — both sudden- and slow-onset ~ may lead to higher risk of humanitarian emergencies and increased population movements. ‘© The adverse consequences of warming, climate variability and of other effects of climate change on livelihoods, health, food security and water availability are likely to exacerbate pre-existing vulnerabilities. © When household income in rural areas decreases, livelihood stress linked to climate change could, in some places, result in lower levels of outmigration. As migration requires resources, those people wanting to move but could not due to lack of resources become trapped populations.ing sea levels may make coastal areas and low-lying islands uninhabitable. * Competition over shrinking natural resources may exacerbate tensions and potentially lead to conflict and, in turn, to displacement. Challenges with Environmental/ Climate Migrants and Climate Refugees Terms such as climate migrant and climate refugees are used interchangeably, however they are not the same. "Environmental refugee" or "climate change refugee” have no legal basis in international refugee law. These terms are misleading and could potentially undermine the international legal regime for the protection of refugees. There are following challenges associated with defining a climate migrant or according climate refugee status: + Climate migration is mainly internal: When migration is internal, people moving are under the responsibility of their own state, they do not cross borders and are not seeking protection from a third country or at the international level. ‘+ Migration is not necessarily forced, especially for very slow onset processes migration is still a matter of choice, even if constrained, so countries need to think first migration management and agreements rather than refugee protection. + Isolating environment/climatic reasons is difficult, from humanitarian, political, social, conflict or economic ones. It can sometimes be an impossible task and may lead to long and unrealistic legal procedures. + Creating a special refugee status for climate change related reasons might unfortunately have the opposite effects of what is sought as a solution: it can lead to the exclusion of categories of people who are in need of protection, especially the poorest migrants who move because of a mix of factors and would not be able to prove the link to climate and environmental factors. ‘+ Opening the 1951 Refugee Convention might weaken the refugee status which would be tragic given so many people are in need of protection because of persecution and ongoing conflicts. © Moreover, creating a new convention to recognise the climate migrants and refugees might be a lengthy political process and countries might not be ready for it Way Forward ‘ate migration discussions should not lose their focus on preventive measures: The key objective is to invest in climate and environmental solutions so that people will not have to leave their homes in a forced way in the future. The Paris Agreement offers anchorage for climate action that considers human mobility to avert, minimize and address displacement in the context of climate change. «Full use of all already existing bodies of laws and instruments, both hard and soft law in humanitarian, human rights and refugee law, instruments on internal displacement, disaster management, legal migration and others. Many responses can come from migration management and policy as highlighted already in the 2011 International Dialogue on Migration and the recently adopted Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration. ‘© Human rights-based approaches are key for addressing climate migration: States of origin bear the primary responsibility for their citizens’ protection even if indeed their countries have not been the main contributors to global warming; they should therefore apply human rights-based approaches for their citizens moving because of environmental or climatic drivers. © Regular migration pathways can provide relevant protection for climate migrants and facilitate migration strategies in response to environmental factors. Many migration management solutions can provide a status for people who move in the context of climate change impacts, such as humanitarian visas, temporary protection, authorization to stay, regional and bilateral free movements’ agreements, among several others.International Conventions on Environmental Migrants New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, UNHCR (2016): It seeks to protect the human rights of all refugees and migrants, regardless of their status. The Global Compact on safe, orderly and regular migration,2018: It is the first-ever UN global agreement on a common approach to international migration in all its dimensions. ‘Climate refugees’, migrants who move due to natural disasters and climate change, are now recognised under its Objective. The Peninsula Principles on Climate Displacement Within States (2013): The Principles provide a comprehensive normative framework, based on principles of international law, human rights obligations and good practice, within which the rights of climate displaced persons within States can be addressed. Nansen Initiative Protection Agenda for Cross-Border Displaced Persons (2015): It’s a state-led consultative process to build consensus on a protection agenda addressing the needs of people displaced across borders in the context of disasters and the effects of climate change. Platform on Disaster Displacement (2016): It was launched to implement the recommendations of the Nansen Initiative Protection Agenda. Climate Migrants and Refugees Project: It aims to spread the word about this challenge, its potential impacts, and to seek out solutions and connections that will help the people most threatened by climate change live safe, dignified, and prosperous lives.International Migration As per World Economic Forum, Demographic forces, globalization, and environmental degradation mean that migration pressures across borders will likely increase in the coming decades. And cross-border challenges demand cross-border solutions. Global policy efforts, therefore, must focus on better cooperation and dialogue among the affected countries. This includes promoting fair burden-sharing, facilitating remittance flows, protecting labor rights, and promoting a safe and secure working environment for migrants. ‘A well-designed integration policy for international migrants includes: © First, strengthening the ability of labor markets to absorb migrants—by enabling immediate ability to seek work and providing better job matching services. * Second, enhancing access to education and training—by providing affordable education, language and job training. © Third, improving skill recognition—by adopting simple, affordable and transparent procedures to recognize foreign qualifications. * Finally, supporting migrant entrepreneurs—by reducing barriers to start-ups and providing support with legal advice, counseling and training. A second issue related to international migration is that of Brain drain. Outflow of trained manpower is cause for concern, as it adversely affects the quality and quantity of local human capital formation. As a democratic country built on the cornerstone of individual rights, India cannot forbid its citizens to leave. It can, however, put in place systems that would make it possible for the country to benefit from the investment made in the young through subsidized education, particularly technical and medical. One way to ensure this would be to adopt a system like Australia's deferred tuition plan. Under this system, all tertiary education is subsidized by the government, with students paying only a portion of the cost as fees. Graduates who go on to work in sectors deemed as priority by the government are not required to pay any additional amounts, but those who migrate or move to. non-priority sector have to pay the subsidy amount over a set number of years. This ensures that higher education remains affordable and that government's education subsidy is not misused.The story of contemporary India is a story of migration. In this context, explain how migration has shaped India socially and economically. Approach: © Introduction can begin by taking historical or contemporary view of migration. It may also be in the form of a definition. © The key demand of this question is to test a) understanding of concept and b) the ability to observe. © Hence, exposit migration in as many aspects as possible, external, internal, factors responsible etc. © Give examples from economy, society as well as culture. Answer: Migration is about movement of people. It involves significant economic, social and cultural aspects. For many millennia India has been at the cross roads of movement of people and ideas. The 2001 census recorded 29.9 percent of the population as migrants internally. The International Migrant Stock 2019 puts India as the top source of international migrants. This movement of people has shaped India economically and socially. This can be further understood by considering the following:Economic Impact of Migration: © Domestically the increase in economic activities created a demand for labour and the migration of labour is a key aspect of modern day economy in India. This labour migration is seen linked to the much-debated phenomenon such as feminization of poverty and agriculture. It has also added to the number of vulnerable people requiring support. The recent Covid-19 related lockdown drew focus to the condition of this section. * The economy from the local to the national is shaped by migration of entrepreneurs and traditional business communities e.g. Marwaris in various parts of India © The economic impact of international migration on India has been primarily shaped by two key channels — financial and human capital. © Financial remittance has emerged as an important part of India’s balance of payments. Remittances rose to $2.8 billion in 1980. In 2019 it stood at USS 83 billion, the largest in the world. Paralleling the inflows of remittances have been NRI deposits standing at US$130 billion in 2019. © Skilled migration from India has been seen as ‘brain drain’ but it has also materialized in the skilled creating a network of flow of tacit information, commercial and business ideas, and technologies into India. Social impact of migration: © The identity of India as land of diversity is a testimony to the impact of migration. Internally migration has led to the creation of cultural pockets all over India. For e.g. North Indian educated youth in service industry in Bangalore and South Indian educated youth in the IT hubs of Noida and Gurugram. © Migration has been a key feature of marriages for women in India as also testified by the census data. * The phenomenon of urbanization is also driven largely by migration in India. Circular migration has created an organic link between urban and rural areas. * Externally the Indian diaspora is the largest in the world. Movement of people is key factor in special ties with Mauritius, Gulf countries, USA and the Caribbean. This is an important link for India’s global cultural engagement © Migration from neighboring countries such Bangladesh and Nepal is both part of cultural interaction and a contentious social issue in some areas such as Assam. Thus, it is evident that India is shaped by the migration of people internally as well as externally. The need is to adopt a holistic approach towards migration in order to amplify its benefits and minimize its challenges.Migration You are familiar with Census in India. It contains information about migration in the country. Actually migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881. This data were recorded on the basis of place of birth. However, the first major modification was introduced in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional components viz; place of birth i.e. village or town and duration of residence (if born elsewhere). Further in 1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of enumeration were incorporated. Information on reasons for migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive Censuses. In the Census the following questions are asked on migration : * Is the person born in this village or town? If no, then further information is taken on rural/urban status of the place of birth, name of district and state and if outside India then name of the country of birth. * Has the person come to this village or town from elsewhere? If yes, then further questions are asked about the status (rural/urban) of previous place of residence, name of district and state and if outside India then name of the country. In addition, reasons for migration from the place of last residence and duration of residence in place of enumeration are also asked. In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases : (i) place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant); (ii) place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence). As per 2011 census, out of 1,210 million people in the country, 455.8 million (about 37%) were reported as migrants of place of last residence.SRanctivity Conduct a survey of five households in your neighbourhood to find out their migration status. If migrants, classify these on the basis of the two criteria mentioned in the text. Streams of Migration A few facts pertaining to the internal migration (within the country) and international migration (out of the country and into the country from other countries) are presented here. Under the internal migrants. The stream was dominated by female migrants. Most of these were migrants related to marriage. The distribution of male and female migrants in different streams of intra-state and inter-state migration is presented in Fig. 2.1.a and 2.1 b. It is clearly evident that females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration in both types of migration. Contrary to this, men predominate the rural to urban stream of inter-state migration due to economic reasons. Apart from these streams of internal migration, India also experiences immigration 50 = Mae =m Female 40 30 20 Migration in Millions i i Ruralto” Ruralto” Urbanto” Urbanto Rural ‘urban Rural Urban Migration Streams 5 Male 2 om Female! g4 = 5 3 g 2 zo ° Ruralto Ruralto "Urban to” Urbanto Rural urban Rural Urban Migration Streams Fig. 2.1 a : Intrastate Migration by Place of Last Residence Indicating Migration Streams India, 2011 Source: Census of India, 2011 migration, four streams are identified: (a) rural to rural (R-R); (b) rural to urban (R-U); () urban to urban (U-U); and (d) urban to rural (U-R). In India, during 2011, out of 455.0 million migrants, enumerated on the basis of the last residence, 141.9 million had changed their place of residence in the last ten years. Out of these, 118.7 million were intra-state Fig. 2.1 b : Interstate Migration by Place of Last Residence Indicating Migration Streams India, 2011 from and emigration to the neighbouring countries. Table 2.1 presents the details of migrants from neighbouring countries. Indian Census 2011 has recorded that more than 5 million person have migrated to India from other countries. Out of these, about 88.9 per cent came from the neighbouring countries: Bangladesh followed by Nepal and Pakistan.=a Table 2.1 : Migrants classified by place of last residence outside India, 2011 Represent the data given in Table 2.1 by pie diagrams | Countries No of % of total assuming the migration from neighbouring countries ee ee 47,66,231 persons as 100 per cent). Total migration 53,63,099 100 Migration from Spatial Variation in Migration neighbouring countries 47,66,231 88.9 Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujaratand | Afghanistan er Ci Haryana attract migrants from other states | Bangladesh 27,47,062 Sua such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, ete. | pinion ee O1 Maharashtra occupied first place in migrants, Gia nana aa followed by Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana. Onthe | 4, noses . other hand, Uttar Pradesh was thestate, which | Y7"""™" ahha had the largest number of net out-migrants from eal 10. 15.1 the state, Pakistan 9,18,982 71 Sri Lanka 1,98,193 37 ‘Source: Census of India, 2011Causes of Migration People, generally are emotionally attached to their place of birth. But millions of people leave their places of birth and residence. There could be variety of reasons. These reasons can be put, into two broad categories : (i) push factor, these cause people to leave their place of residence or origin; and (li) pull factors, which attract the people from different places. In India people migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care, education, etc. Apart from these factors, natural disasters such as, flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake, tsunami, wars and local conflicts also give extra push to migrate. On the other hand, there are pull factors which attract people from rural areas to cities. The most important pull factor for majority of the rural migrants to urban areas is the better opportunities, availability of regular work and relatively higher wages. Better opportunities for education, better healthfacilities and sources of entertainment, etc., are also quite important pull factors. Examine the reasons for migration for males and females separately in Fig. 2.2. On the basis of the figures, it can be seen that reason for migration of males and females are different. For example, work and employment have remained the main cause for male migration (26 per cent) while it is only 2.3 per cent for the females. Contrary to this, about 67 per cent of females move out from their parental houses following their marriage. This is the most important cause in the rural areas of India except in Meghalaya where reverse is the case. In comparison to these marriage migration of the male, is only 4 per cent in the country. Consequences of Migration Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over space. People tend to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity and better safety. This, in turn, creates both benefits and problems for the areas, people migrate from and migrate to. Consequences can be observed in economic, social. cultural, political and demographic terms. Economic Consequences A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants. Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange. In 2002, India received US$ 11 billion as remittances from international migrants. Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive very significant amount from their international migrants. The amount of remittances sent by the internal migrants is very meagre as compared to international migrants, but it plays an important role in the growth of economy of the source area. Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc. For thousands of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc. remittance works as life blood for their economy. Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha to the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution strategy for agricultural development. Besides this, unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India has caused overcrowding. Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within the country. Demographic Consequences Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country. Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities. Age and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure. However, high out migration from Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra have brought serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in the recipients states. What is the cause of imbalance in sex ratio in the place of origin and destination of the migrants? Social Consequences Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girl's education, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as evolution of composite culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and widens up the mental2% 196 66% Work Employment fg] Business Business Ei eaucation | Marrisge EB esucation ] Marriage EE] Moved after Birth FE] Moved with Household Hf] Moved after Birth EE] Moved with Household Others A] otners Fig. 2.2 a : Reasons for Male Migration by Last Residence, India, 2011 horizon of the people at large. But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonimity, which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse. Environmental Consequences Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure in the urban areas. This ultimately leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies. Apart from this, due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground water, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes. Fig. 2.2 b : Reasons for Female Migration by last Residence India, 2011 Others Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly. In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well mental pressure on the women. Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the economy. If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of the source region, the loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is the most serious cost. The market for advanced skills has become truly a global market and the most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of the highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, the existing underdevelopment in the source region gets reinforced.