Section - 2

Civil Engineering (Track) 53-90

Structure of Railway Track 53

Track Maintenance & Modernisation of Railway Track 75

 Section -2
Civil Engineering (TRACK)
Lesson-I
Structure of Railway Track

1.1 Definition
Railway Track or Permanent Way is the rail-road on which trains run. It basically consists of
two parallel rails having a specified distance in between and fastened to sleepers, which are
embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over the formation. The rails are
joined to each other by fish plates and bolts and these are fastened to the sleepers at a specified
distance and are held in position by embedding in ballast.
Each of the components of track has a basic function to perform. The rails act as girders to
transmit the wheel loads of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers hold the rails in proper position
and provide the correct gauge with the help of fittings and fastenings and transfer the load to the
ballast. The ballast is placed on prepared ground known as formation. The sleepers are embedded
in ballast, which gives a uniform level surface, provides drainage and transfers the load to larger
area of formation. The formation gives a surface, where the ballast rests and transmits the total
load of the track and that of the trains moving on it to the natural ground below.
Permanent Way or track,
therefore, consists of (i) rails, (ii)
sleepers, (iii) fittings and
fastenings, (iv) ballast and (v)
formation as shown in Fig.1.1.
Permanent way is so called as it
is not easily dividedvis a vis the
roads todistinguish the final
track constructed for movement
of trains from the temporary
track constructed to carry
building materials etc. in olden times.
1.2 Requirements of good track
An efficient track should while serving its purpose of providing a safe and smooth ride, should
be easy to maintain and economical in construction. It should have minimum number of fittings
which should be of ‘fit and forget’ type. The performance of the track should remain unaffected
from the vagaries of weather. During rainy season, the track should have good drainage so as to
remain free from water logging and slush. During summer, the track should remain safe against
buckling and as such should have adequate ballast section to provide the required lateral strength
and stability. During winter, the rails have tendency of fractures due to tension developed on
account of low temperature, The rails should, therefore, be free from internal defects and cracks,
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particularly in the fish plate zones (at joints).
1.3 Gauge
Gauge as used with reference to track is the minimum distance between the two gauge faces
of rails. In India we have three different gauges as given below :
(a) Broad Gauge : 1676 mm
(b) Meter Gauge : 1000 mm or one metre
(c) Narrow Gauge : Three are two gauges under Narrow gauge which are 762 mm and 610
mm.
Adoption of Metre gauge and Narrow gauge is mainly based on traffic potential and
geographical conditions available along the alignment. In hilly area, Metre gauge and Narrow
gauge are economical as compared to Broad gauge but with the gauge being smaller, the capacity
and speed go down drastically. Other problems of having a number of gauges are indicated
below:-
(a) Problem of changing trains at junction points.
(b) Problem of transhipment-extra cost and theft of goods.
(c) Detention to wagons at change of gauge points.
As on 31.3.2016, the length of track (route km) with different gauges was as under:
Name of Gauge Width (mm) length Inkms
Broad Gauge 1676 60,510
Metre Gauge 1000 3,880
Narrow Gauge 762 or 610 2,297
Total --- 66,687
1.4 Rail
Rail is the main component of tack which provides a continuous and surface for smooth
running of wheels of railway vehicles.
1.4.1 Shape of Rail (Fig.1.2)
Rail is designed as a beam supported on a number of flexible supports. For optimum
design the shape of rail is such that it has maximum material at top and bottom. Mainly there are
two shapes.
(a) Double headed/Bull headed : Both top and bottom are either similar or top is a little
heavy.
(b) Flat footed : Bottom flange is flat.

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FIG. 1.2 SHAPE OF RAIL

The top head is designed in such a manner that it takes stresses and also there is provision
for wear during the service life. The bottom flange or foot is designed so that it can be fixed to the
sleepers effectively. The Standard section now is flat footed as it provides a better fixing
arrangement to the sleepers.
1.5 Nominal weight of rails
The rail section is known by its weight which is the nominal weight of rail per yard or
metre.
The following rail sections are presently in use on Indian Railways :
Gauge Rail Section Types of Sections Height Actual Weight
BG 60 KG UIC * 172 MM 60.34 Kg/m
52 KG IRS* 156 MM 51.89 Kg/m
90 R RBS* 142.9 MM 90 Lbs/yard Or 44.61 Kg/m
MG 90 R RBS 142.9 MM 90 Lbs/yard. Or 44.61 Kg/m
75 R RBS 128.6 MM 75 Lbs/yard Or 37.18 Kg/m
*UIC- International Union of Railways.
*IRS- Indian Railway Standard
*RBS-Revised British Section.
1.5.1 Quality of Steel
Three types of steel used in Rails is 72 UTS, 90 UTS and 110 UTS. 110 UTS, 90 UTS & 72
UTS have ultimate tensile strength of 110 kg/mm2, 90 kg/mm2 and 72 kg/mm2 respectively.
Rails are made wear resistant by adding more Manganese. Chemical composition of rails steel of
various Grades is as under:

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Rail Carbon Managenese Silicon Sulphur& Aluminium
Phoshorus
Grade 710 0.45-0.60 % 0.95-1.40 % 0.040-0.50 % 0.05 % max.
(MM rails)
Grade 880 0.60-0.80 % 0.80-1.30 % 0.10-0.50 % 0.035 % max. 0.015%(Max)
(90-UTS Rails)
Grade 1080 0.60-0.80 0.80-1.20% 0.5-1.10% 0.25% 0.004%(Max)
Note: Hydrogen content for 90 UTS rail should not be more than 1.6 ppm
Service Life of Rails
Total traffic which a rail can take during its primary service life is as under:
Rails Section UTS GMT*
90R 72 UTS 250 GMT
90R 90 UTS 375 GMT
52 Kg 72 UTS 350 GMT
52 Kg 90 UTS 525 GMT
60 Kg 72 UTS 550 GMT
60 Kg 90 UTS 800 GMT
*GMT-Gross Million Tons of Traffic
1.6 Sleepers
1.6.1 Main purpose of providing sleepers is to hold the rails so as to have correct gauge and
transfer the load from rails to ballast and further to the formation. Sleeper should have the following
properties:
(1) They should be strong and economical.
(2) Should be able to absorb of vibrations.
(3) Should point easy correction of gauge.
(4) Should be heavy enough to provide stability.
(5) Should be easy to pack.
(6) Should provide lateral stability.
(7) Should suffer minimum damage during derailments.

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1.6.1 Types of Sleepers
The types of sleepers in use on Indian Railways are:
1.6.1.1 Wooden Sleepers : These are further classified as soft wood and hard wood sleepers.
These are very good sleepers to absorb vibrations but are not very durable and do not provide
much lateral stability due to light in weight. These are good for track circuiting works.
Standard size of Wooden Sleeper : (Fig. 1.3)
Gauge Size (Lx Bx H) in Cms
Broad Gauge 275 x 25 x 13
Metre Gauge 180 x 20 x 11.5

Fig. 1.3 Wooden Sleeper

However, as per Supreme Court orders now no new wooden sleepers are being procured on
Indian Railway in view of the need for conservation of forests.
1.6.1.2 Steel Trough Sleepers (Fig. 1.3a) : These are made from rolled trough section of steel
and then pressed hot to obtain desired shape. These sleepers are having better life, have better
stability and maintain gauge properly. Service life of steel sleepers is 25 to 40 years depending
upon traffic.

Fig. 1.3 a Wooden Sleeper

However, the holes in these sleepers have a tendency of elongating and cracks can be seen
under rail seat after certain time span. They are also not fit for track circuiting. Weight of a BG
sleeper is 81 Kg.
1.6.1.3 Cast Iron Sleepers (Fig. 1.4): Standard design of cast iron sleepers is CST-9. There are
two parts connected with a steel tie bar. These sleepers have poor strength and is not fit for high
speed or heavy traffic. There is problem of wear at rail seat & lateral stability is also not very
good.
Damage to sleepers is very heavy in case of derailments. These are also not fit for welded
track. C.I. Sleepers cannot absorb vibrations. There are also not fit for track circuiting. Weight of
complete set is 102 Kg. for BG.
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Fig. 1.4 CAST IRON SLEEPER (CST-9)

1.6.1.4 Concrete sleepers : Concrete sleepers are made of concrete, ordinary RCC or
prestressed reinforced Concrete designed suitably to take the stresses safely. The concrete sleepers
are much superior as compared to other types of sleepers as indicated below :
Advantages
(i) Concrete sleepers, being heavy, provide good stability to track.
(ii) This maintains gauge and cross levels very efficiently.
(iii) The sleepers can be used in track circuited area.
(iv) Life of concrete sleepers is very long, as long as 40-50 years.
(v) The concrete sleepers resist weather efficiently however, the concrete sleepers have the
following disdvantages:
(a) Manual handling of sleepers is very difficult due to heavy weight.
(b) Damage to sleepers during derailment is very heavy due to brittleness.
(c) Manual maintenance is very difficult.
Concrete sleepers are of two types :
(a) Twin Block sleeper : (Fig. 1.5 )
This is in the shape of two blocks connected bu an angle iron. This is made of ordinary
RCC.

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 Section -2

Fig. 1.5 TWIN BLOCK SLEEPER

(b) Monoblock Sleeper : (Fig. 1.6)
This is in the shape of a single block and is made of prestressed reinforced concrete.
Concrete sleepers require rubber pads and elastic fastenings to save the sleepers from
vibrations.

Fig. 1.6 MONOBLOCK SLEEPER

1.7 Rail Joints and Fish Plates
1.7.1 Rail joints are the weakest points in the track. The joints also cause knocking and reduce
the life of rolling stock also. Due to knocking, the maintenance of joint sleepers poses special
problem. Rail ends also get battered at joints which causes rough running. Incidence of rail
fractures are large in fish plate zone area (joints). In view of these rail joints related problem, a
good track always has least number of joints. Most of the joints can be avoided by welding the
rails.
1.7.2 Fish Plates (Fig. 1.7) : These are the plates
(in pairs) which are provided at joints to connect
the two rails end to end, often provided with 4
Nos. bolts called as fish bolts. Since the depth of
fish plates is less than rail, the strength of a pair
of fish plates is about 55% of the rail in bending.
To keep the stresses within limit, sleeper spacing
is reduced at joints.
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1.8 Sleeper Fittings
1.8.1 Fitting which fix rails to the
sleepers vary in shape and size as per the
type of sleepers. Important type of fittings
for different types of sleepers are described
in the following paragraphs.
1.8.2 Fittings for Wooden Sleepers
(a) Dog Spike (Fig. 1.8a): This is one
of the most basic type of fittings. Due to its
shape resembling the head of a dog it is called as dog spike. It is square in cross section and does
not have much holding power. A rail can be fixed directly to the sleeper
(b) Round Spike (Fig. 1.8b): It is round in section with a round head at the top. The spike
is used to hold the bearing plate. Its holding power is, however, not very good.
(c) Screw Spikes (Fig. 1.8c): These are having shape like a screw and are of two types. The
one used to fix the rail directly is called “Rail Screw” and the one used to fix the bearing plate is
called “plate screw”. Its holding power is much superior than the Round spike or Dog spike.
(d) Bearing Plates
These are of various types :
(i) Flat Bearing Plates (Fig.1.9) : These are
having uniform thickness of generally 19mm and
are used with points and crossing sleepers.

(ii) Canted Bearing Plate (fig. 1.10.) :

These plates are thicker at one end than on the
other, the slope being called as cant. Cant
provided in the bearing plate is 1 in 20.
(e) Cast Iron Anti Creep Bearing plate

(Fig.1.11): These plates are made of cast iron and

are used to fix the rail tight with the help of keys.
1.8.3 Fittings for Steel Trough Sleeper and
CST- 9 Sleepers :
(a) Loose Jaws (Fig. 1.12) :Loose jaws are used
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to fix the rail to the Steel Trough Sleeper with the help of keys.
There is another type of jaw called Modified Loose Jaws which is
specially designed to fix Pandrol clips instead of keys.
(b) Keys (Fig.1.13) :These are mild steel keys which are tapered
in shape and are used with steel
trough sleepers as well as CST-
9 sleepers.

These keys are known as two way keys as the same can be driven both ways left to right or
right to left.
1.8.4 Fittings for Concrete Sleepers
(a) Elastic Rail Clips (ERC) or Pandrol Clips
(Fig.1.15): These clips are widely used with concrete
sleepers and also with steel trough sleepers. These are
elastic in nature made from silicon steel rod of 20.6 mm
diameter. Each sleeper needs 4 clips. These clips are
excellent in function as the rails are always kept pressed
under toe load of 710 kg by each clipfor a normal deflection
of 11.4 mm. The clips are able to adsorb vibrations due to
elastic in nature and do not fall out. ERC clip mark IV
gives higher toe load of 1000 Kgs.
The clips are generally used alongwith rubber pad and
liners (mild steel or nylon).

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(c) IRN-202 Clip (Fig.1.16) : This clip has
been designed by RDSO mainly for two block
RCC sleepers. This gives a toe load of 1000
Kgs. Per clip. The clip holds the track gauge.
(d) H.M. Fastening (Fig. 1.17) : This
fastening has also been used in a limited
number on Indian Railways. It consists of 4
coach screws (or plate screws) and two W-
shape clips. Each clip gives a toe load of about
1000 kgs. Gauge is maintained with the help
of angled guide plates.

1.9 Ballast
Ballast is a layer of broken stone, gravel, moorum or any other gritty material placed and
packed below and around sleepers for distributing the load from sleeper to formation and for
providing drainage as well as giving longitudinal stability to the track. On Indian Railways 65mm
Size stone ballast is being used.
Ballast is used in the track under the sleepers and performs the following functions:-
(i) Ballast provides resistance to the track which gives good running.
(ii) It provides good drainge.
(iii) It helps in transferring the load from sleepers to the formation.

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(iv) It provides lateral resistance against buckling of track.
1.9.1 Requirement of good ballast
1. It should be hard, durable and wear resistant.
2. It should be angular to provide good interlocking.
3. It should resist weathering effects.
4. It should be strong and should not get crushed under load and vibrations.
5. It should provide good drainage of water.
6. It should be cheap & economical in price.
1.9.2 Ballast Profile (Fig.1.18)

1.10 Formation
1.10.1 Purpose of Formation (Fig.1.19) :
(i) To provide an even and regular surface to lay ballast and track.
(ii) To ensure laying of track well above the high flood level.
(iii) To distribute the load over a wide area on natural ground.

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FIG. 1.19 CROSS SECTION OF FORMATION

Gauge Line Width of Embankment Width of Cutting

(for LWR Track)
B.G. Single Line 7850 mm 7850 mm
Double Line 13160 mm 13160 mm
M.G Single Line 5850 mm 5250 mm
Double Line 9810 mm 9210 mm
1.10.2 Mechanical Compaction
To ensure good quality of embankment, mechanical compaction of soil is preferred. This
ensures stability of bank even during rainy season. The objective of compaction is to achieve
95% to 98% of maximum dry density of the top layer the soil. This is achieved by adding controlled
quantity of water to the soil and compacting in layers not exceeding 250-300 mm in depth at a
time.
The compaction should be done preferably using vibratory rollers.
1.10.3 Blanketting
It is essential that the Formation be provided with a strong foundation. To improve the bearing
capacity the bank, it is necessary to provide top layer of the bank using coarse sand or other
harder material like quarry dust, moorum, except where the natural soil is grandeur and strong.
Blanket is usually of one metre depth but can vary as per actual sight condition. Geo-Grid is also
used as blanket.

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1.11 Coning Of Wheels
Unlike the arrangement of wheels and axles in road vehicles, the Railway vehicles have fixed
wheels on axles. The 2 wheels and axle form a rigid arrangement where the wheels and axle
rotate together.

FIG. 1.20 CONING OF WHEEL

The movement of wheels is guided by flange on the wheels provided on the inside which
prevents derailment of vehicles. The tread of wheel is provided with a slope of 1: 20, the main
function of which is to keep the vehicle centrally.
As the axle and wheels move to the right, the diameter of contact surface on the right side
wheel increases and the same on the left side wheel decreases. Because of this wheels and axle
have a tendency to move in a circular path and move to the left. Thus coning of wheels helps in
neutralizing the sidewise movement of wheels and keeps them centrally, reducing the side wear
on rails and wheels.
1.12 Canting of Rails (Fig.1.21)
To match the coning of wheels and to ensure proper contact of wheels and rails, the rails are
also provided at a slope of 1 in 20 from the vertical. This is done by providing the slope of 1 in
20 in the rail seat in the sleeper as shown below.

FIG. 1.21 CANTING OF RAIL

1.13 Main Components of a Turn-out are :
(i) Switches (Points) (ii) Lead rails (iii) Crossing

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(a) Switch: A Switch is composed of a stock rail and a tongue rail. A set of two switches is
called as point. Tongue rail is a piece of rail, one end of which is tapered (called toe) and the other
end is fixed to the lead rail (called heel). The tapered end is pushed or pulled to set the routes as
indicated below.
The two tongue rails are joined together with the help of 2 or 3 stretcher bars. The rear end of
the tongue rail is joined with the stock rail with the help of heel blocks. If the tongue rail has a
joint at the heel block, it is called a loose heel and if the joint in tongue rail is ahead of the heal
block, it is called as fixed heel type. Recently form shape Switches have been introduced an
Indian Railway.

FIG. 1.23 DETAILS OF SWITCH

(a) The Tongue Rails are of two types.
(i) Straight tongue rail : The rail is straight upto the heel block.
(ii) Curved tongue rail :The tongue rail is in the shape of a curve. This ensures
smooth entry of the trains into the curved track.
(b) Lead rails : Lead rails serve to join the switches to the crossing. These rails are ordinary
rails and fixed to the sleepers rigidly.
(c) Crossings (Fig. 1.24) : This is a built up assembly and provide necessary gap for the
passage of wheel-flange to either direction. The nose assembly is made up of a point
rail and a splice rail. There are two wing rails attached to the nose assembly. The
minimum distance between the wing rail is called throat.

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FIG. 1.24 DETAILS OF A CROSSING

Opposite to the crossing, a check rail is provided on both sides which avoids hitting of wheels
against the nose of crossing.
Angle of crossing (Fig.1.25) :The angle made at crossing between the two tracks is known
as angle of crossing, There are various standard angles of crossings. (i) 1 in 8½ (ii) 1 in 12 (iii)
1 in 16 (iv) 1 in 20

FIG. 1.25 ANGLE OF CROSSING

A flat crossing angle provides higher speed but the length of turn out becomes more. 1 in 8½
crossings are not normally permitted for passenger lines.
1.13.1 Classification of Crossings
Crossings are classified as under :
(a) Built up Crossing
(b) CMS Crossing
(a) Built up Crossing :This is the type of Crossing in which two wing rails and ‘V’
which consist of splice and point rails are assembled together by means of bolts & distance
blocks to form a crossing.
(b) CMS Crossing :This type is one piece Cast manganese Crossings with no bolts
and therefore needs less maintenance. It is more rigid crossing being one complete mass.
1.13.2 Permissible speeds on turn outs
The speeds of passengertrains negotiating a crossing and entering the curved side are regulated
as under:
Type of Straight Switch or Speed
Crossing Curved Switch
1 in 8½ Straight 10kmph.
Curved 15kmph

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Symmetrical split 30 kmph
1 in 12 Straight 15kmph.
Curved 30kmph.
1 in 16 Curved 50 kmph.
1 in 20 Curved 50 kmph.
1.13.3 Various Layouts
(a)Diamond crossings (Fig.1.26) : When two tracks with same or different gauges cross
each other.

(b) Cross Over (Fig.1.27) :A set or two turnouts is called a cross over.

FIG. 1.27 CROSS OVER

(c) Ladder (Fig.1.28) : When a number of parallel tracks are joined to main line, the
arrangement is known as a ladder

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(d) Symmetrical Split (Fig.1.29) :When the two directions are making equal angle with
the main line, it is called a symmetrical split.

FIG. 1.29 SYMMETRICAL SPLIT

(e) Single and Double Slips (Fig.1.30) : It is a combination of diamond crossing and turnouts
so that there is facility available from either track on one side to go to either track on the other
side.

FIG. 1.30 DIAMOND CROSSING WITH SINGLE / DOUBLE SLIP

1.14 Curves
11.1 Curves are a necessary evil. We cannot avoid provision of curves in Railway alignment
as it is not possible to have the entire alignment in a straight line due to

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(a) The necessity of avoiding natural obstructions.
(ii)To connect several important cities which are not on a straight line.
(iii) To provide extra length to regulate the gradient.
1.14.1 Defining Curvature
One of the important parameter of a curve is its curvature. It is defined either by radius or
degree of curvature. The angle subtended by 30.5 meter chord at the centre is called the Degree
of Curve. (Fig. 1.31)
One degree curvature is equivalent of 1750 m radius. Thus 20 curve means 875 m radius.\

FIG. 1.31 DIGREE OF A CURVE

(1) Cant or superelevation is the amount by which one rail is raised above the other rail. It is
positive when the outer rail on a curved track is raised above inner rail and is negative whenthe
inner rail on a curved track is raised above the outer rail.
(2) Equilibrium speed is the speed at which the centrifugal force developed during the
movement of the vehicle on a curved track is exactly balanced by the cant provided.
(3) Cant deficiency – Cant deficiency occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed
higher than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference between the theoretical cant required for
such higher speed and actual cant provided.
(4) Cant excess – Cant excess occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower
than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference between the actual cant and the theoretical cant
required for such a lower speed.
(5) Maximum permissible speed of the curve–
It is the highest speed which may be permitted on a curve taking into consideration the radius
of the curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess and the length of transition. When the
maximum permissible speed on a curve is less than the maximum sectional speed of the section
of a line,permanent speed restriction becomes necessary.

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(6) Cant gradient and cant deficiency gradient indicate the amount by which cant or deficiency
of cant is increased or reduced in a given length of transition e.g., 1 in 1000 means that cant or
deficiency of cant of 1mm. is gained or lost in every 1000mm.
1.14.2 Maximum Permissible Curvatureon plain track -

Gauge Maximum Degree Curvature Radius permitted

BG 100 175 m
MG 160 109 m
NG 400 44 m
1.14.3 (a) : Length of Curve (Fig.1.32)

Fig.1.32 DEGREE OF A CURVE

Straights BT1 and AT2
Tangent points T1 and T2
O is the point of intersection of the tangents.
OT1 and OT2 are called tangent lengths.
T1T2 is the long chord.
O1 is centre of curve.
ø is the angle of deflection.
O1T1 = O1T2 = Radius of curve
Tangent length O1T1= O1T2= R tan (ø/2)….(i)
T1T2= Long Chord = 2R sin (ø/2),….(ii)
Length of curve = 2 π R x ø/360 = R ø/180 …..(iii)

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1.14.4 Super Elevation on curves or Cant
Whenever a vehicle moves in a circular path, a radial force called centrifugal force is applied
on it. This is because the natural tendency of the vehicle being to move always in a straight line.
This causes extra vertical load on the other wheel. To neutralize the effect of centrifugal force,
the outer rail is raised by certain amount which is called super elevation or cant.
1.14.5 Maximum Value of Super Elevation
Maximum value of super elevation on curves shall be as under :
Gauge Group Normal Value With special permission of Chief Engineer
BG A 165 mm 185* mm
B&C 165 mm _____
D &E 140 mm ______
MG ___ 90 mm 100 mm
NG ___ 65 mm 75 mm
* Note: maximum cant of 185 mm may be assumed for the purpose of locating all permanent
structures etc. by the side of curve on new construction and doubling of A route having potential
for increase in future. The transition length should also be provided on the basis of 185 mm
cant for the purpose of planning and layout of the curve.
1.14.6 Cant Deficiency
The actual cant provided is always less than the equilibrium cant required as per calculations,
Maximum cant deficiency allowed is as under :
Gauge Cant Deficiency (max. value)
BG 75 mm*
MG 50 mm
NG 40 mm
Note : * (can be allowed as 100 mm on routes of BG with track maintained with C&M -1
Vol. 1standard for nominated rollingstock with permission of Principal Chief Engineer)
1.14.7 Cant Excess
Maximum value of cant excess on BG is 75 mm and on MG 65 mm for all rolling stock. The
cant excess should be worked out taking into consideration the booked speed of a goods train on
a particular section.
1.15 Train Resistance and Hauling Capacity of a Locomotive
1.12.1 When a train is moving at a certain speed, it offers various types of resistance against
movement. Locomotive power has to be more than the sum total of maximum resistance it has
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to overcome. Even when the train is at standstill and when the locomotive is about to start, there
are various types of resistances which resist the movement of the train. These are due to friction
in the bearings of wheel axles, unevenness of rail surface, dip at the joints, curvature of track,
gradient wind etc. These are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs :-
(i) Resistance due to wind and speed (Rw) : This resistance is proportionate to the square of
speed of the train. This is equal to :
Rw = 0.00156V2 W (in kg)
V = speed in kmph
W = weight of train in tones
Value of Rw is zero at start
(ii) Resistance due to friction in bearings and wave action of rails (Rf)
The resistance due to friction (Rf) caused by bearings and wave action of rails including
unevenness of rail surface is generally taken as 0.0025 pf weight of the train while the train is in
movement and double of this value when the train is about to start. Hence it can be expressed as
:
Rf = 0.0025 W in motion
Rf = 0.005 W at start
(iii) Resistance due to Gradient (Rg) :
Value of resistance due to gradient is proportional to the gradient of track. If the gradient is G
in 100 (G%), the value of Rg can be expressed as :
Rg = G x W/100
In case of a falling gradient, the value of G will be negative, so will be the value of Rg i.e. we
will get support from the falling gradient. But since trains move both in up or down directions,
the value of Rg is always taken as positive.
(iv) Resistance due to Curves (Rc)
As per Newton’s law of motion, a body always keeps on moving in straight direction. Hence,
when a train moves on a curved track, the outer wheels always rub against the inner face of the
outer rail creating lot of resistance to train movement. The amount of resistance is expressed as
function of curvature and is different for different gauge as shown below :
for BG Rc = 0.0004 degree of curvature
for MG Rc = 0.0003 degree of curvature
for NG Rc = 0.0002 degree of curvature

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1.15.1 Solved Example
Find out the maximum permissible load of a goods train when hauled with a locomotive of
30 tonne tractive effort (pulling power), over a gradient of 0.75% grade and 20 sharpest curvature
when the maximum speed is 75 kmph.
Assuming the total weight of train is W tones
(i) Resistance due to wind and speed = Rw = 0.00156x75x75xW
(ii)Resistance due to friction, Rf = 0.0025 W (in motion) and = 0.005 W at start
(iii) Resistance due to gradient, Rg = 0.75 x W/100
(iv) Resistance due to curvature, Rc = 0.004 x 2 x W
Hence
30 = 0.00156/1000 x 75 x 75 x W + 0.0025W +0.75/100 x W + 0.004 x 1 xW
30 = 0.008775 W + 0.0025 W + 0.0075 W + 0.008 W
30 = 0.026775 W
W = 30/0.026775 tonnes ............... (a)
W = 1120 tonnes (including the weight of locomotive)
Checking at start
∴
30 = 0 + 0.005 W + 0.0075 + 0.008 W
30 = 0.0205 W
W = 30/0.0205 = 1460 tonnes (OK)
However, the maximum weight should be limited to 1120 tonnes due to ‘a’ above.

  

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