An integrated model and approach for the design of

effective leadership development programs

Ron Cacioppe
Graduate School of Business, Curtin University of Technology, Perth,
Western Australia

Leadership has been a major to leadership development. There has been

topic in management and Leadership development – it’s time little research to demonstrate which
business literature over the we did it better! approaches are more effective (Conger, 1992).
last few years. The rapid The last few years has seen an increasing There has been, however, a set of activities
changes in business, technol- interest in leadership development. This has and learning methods that have been fairly
ogy, political and social fac- come about for a few reasons. First because of successful over the last 40 years in manage-
tors has required the develop- the rapid change in business, technology, ment and leadership development programs.
ment of effective leadership global communication and in human values. There is a need therefore to integrate and
skills. As a result leadership The world and business is changing fast and clarify these various approaches and to give
development programs have when change occurs, leadership is needed. senior managers and human resource profes-
become an increasing priority Second, our society has lost confidence in the sionals a framework which they can use to
for business and government ability of science and technology to solve construct new leadership development pro-
organisations. This article problems. Science and technology rather grams, evaluate their current offerings and
puts forward an integrated than being able to solve our problems are improve or modify existing programs. The
model for leadership develop- seen the cause of many of them, such as purpose of this article therefore is to present
ment. The major focus of this worker alienation, pollution and unemploy- an integrated model for the planning of lead-
model is to develop leader- ment. Management has associated this scien- ership development. This will include a
ship competencies which tific, technological approach to running description of the various teaching
directly contribute to the organisations with its emphasis on account- approaches and activities and how they con-
strategic imperatives of the ing, finance, information sciences, systems tribute to leadership development under
business. In addition, it theory and marketing. As a result, a more three major tracks that are common in lead-
describes the key elements human perspective such as leadership seems ership development.
that contribute to a success- to be needed. Finally major studies like the
ful leadership experience Enterprising Nation Report (Industry Task
such as changing mindsets, a Force on Leadership and Management Skills, Leadership development
global focus, personal devel- 1995) and academic research like that of planning model: an integrated
opment and improved busi- Kotter (1990) has shown that there is a great approach
ness and leadership skills. need for leadership in organisations. The
Finally, the most widely used phrase “ over managed and underled” seems A comprehensive seven stage model that can
leadership methods and to provide the best summary of the reason for be used to plan leadership development is put
processes are covered under the growing interest in leadership. forward in Figure 1. This model has been
three major themes; con- The last five years has seen a great outpour- based on the work of Vicere (1997).
tributing to the strategic ing of books and programs on leadership and The Vicere model has been modified so that
business direction, building how leadership can be developed. The swing evaluation and assessment are two separate
leadership and team skills, from “ management development” to “ leader- steps instead of in-between each of the steps.
and self-development. The ship development” in the title of organisa- This has been done so that they are given
ideas put forward in this tional programs represents this shift. While more thorough attention. The Vicere model
paper provide senior man- some of the changes to leadership develop- requires an evaluation after each step .
agers and human resource ment have been merely cosmetic there have Actual experience shows this is difficult for
professionals with an inte- been some definite shifts in the content and organisations to carry out due to time and
grated and comprehensive style of these programs. expense. Having two steps of thorough and
framework to plan and build a According to Kotter (1990), leadership proper evaluation is more likely for many
leadership development involves the creation of a vision and strategic organisations.
program in their organisation. direction for the organisation, the communi-
cation of that vision to the people and cus- 1. Articulate strategic imperatives
tomers of the organisation and also involves This first step involves determining and
inspiring, motivating and aligning people and defining the key strategic objectives that are
the organisation to achieve this vision. vital to the survival, success and growth of
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal There is a wide variety of approaches to the organisation. These are similar to the
19/1 [1998] 44–53 leadership development. Each organisation, “strategic elephants” described by Argenti
© MCB University Press human resource professional, academic and (1989), those key issues or problems that the
[ISSN 0143-7739] consultant has their own preferred approach organisation must deal with in the next two
[ 44 ]
Ron Cacioppe Figure 1
An integrated model and An integrated approach to planning leadership development
approach for the design of
effective leadership 7. 3.
development programs 2.
Evaluation of Strategic Set Objectives Identify
Leadership & Organization Imperatives, Objectives for Development Appropriate Methods
Development Journal & HR Systems and Approaches
19/1 [1998] 44–53

4.
1. Select Providers
Articulate & Design Learning
Strategic Programs
Imperatives

6. 5.
Integrate Evaluation
with Human Resource of Program
Systems Delivery

to three years if it is to survive and prosper. organisation if these issues are not prop-
They include the vision and strategy of the erly responded to over the next two to
organisation and the external and internal three years.
factors that drive the decisions of the organi- 3 In order to effectively deal with these
sation (e.g. changing market share, return on issues what are the major areas of knowl-
capital, lack of human resource skills in a edge, competencies and skills your man-
particular area, etc.). agers will need to have (which they cur-
One of the biggest criticisms of many man- rently don’t have) over the next two to
agement development programs is that they three years?
do not contribute to the business objectives of 4 What are the things that will need to hap-
the organisation. They may develop manager- pen within the organisation in terms of
ial skills but they do not substantially con- human resource practices, rewards, organ-
tribute to business success. It is often incor- isational systems (e.g. strategic planning,
rectly assumed that if managers gain a skill reporting mechanisms, etc.) and reinforce-
they will use it to improve the business. ment to ensure these things will happen
It is important for strategic issues to be after the completion of the leadership
clarified and agreed on prior to the design of development program?
the leadership development program since 5 What role and specific actions (e.g. coach-
they should determine the objectives of the ing, facilitating, teaching, etc.) are you and
program as well as the key competencies that the senior managers willing to undertake
need to be developed in the participants. during and after the leadership develop-
Recent leadership development programs at ment program to ensure these strategic
PepsiCo, General Electric and Allied Chemi- changes and leadership competencies are
cal (Linkage, 1997) have involved a clarifica- carried out?
tion of the critical business issues and
designed leadership programs around the 2. Set objectives for development
need to achieve outcomes related to these. The next step is to set the main purpose and
The following questionnaire can be used to objectives of the leadership development
help senior executives and human resource program, as well as the specific knowledge
professionals determine these key issues and and skills that should be developed by the
leadership competencies: completion of the program. The experience,
Strategic issues and leadership level, function, previous management educa-
competencies vital to the organisation tion, current challenges faced and
1 What are the major issues, factors, trends demographic background of the potential
that are occurring in the external and participants needs to be considered when
internal environment of your organisa- setting the objectives so that the program is
tion? made relevant to the participant as well as
2 What are the most important two external the organisation. For example, middle level
issues and the two most important inter- managers may need specific skills in out-
nal issues that relate to the survival, suc- sourcing or contract management because a
cess and/or growth of your organisation? strategic objective of cost reduction has led to
Describe why each of these is important this activity being implemented at the
in terms of what will happen to the department level. This stage requires precise
[ 45 ]
Ron Cacioppe definition of objectives and competencies as practical exercise that requires certain
An integrated model and well as the issues and constraints such as knowledge or skills to be demonstrated.
approach for the design of time available, operating at the level of the For example, after teaching the situational
effective leadership managers, and budget. leadership model students are given a quiz
development programs
Training needs may be carried out at this or set of questions to see how well they
Leadership & Organization time which are linked to the strategic objec- have understood the model.
Development Journal
19/1 [1998] 44–53 tives and competencies needed for organisa- 3 Behaviour – this level requires changes in
tional success. Often, however, training needs behaviour or improvement in skills on the
are carried out independently of strategic job. At this level the person is able to
imperatives or are linked to a competency demonstrate that they have acquired skills
model that is also separate from the key and use them in their workplace. This
strategic needs of the firm. requires direct observation or reports
from others that they these new behav-
3. Identify appropriate methods iours are being used. Alternatively, the
During this step it is usually the human person may be able to accomplish a task
resource professionals inside the firm, in that they were unable to complete before
combination with external consultants, who (e.g. compile and submit a budget in the
determine the content, method and timing of correct format).
the program. Various approaches like case 4 Results – this means that the new knowl-
studies, team building sessions, project work edge, skills and behaviors that person
are considered as possible ways to deliver the acquires leads to actual results that
objectives. This can also include follow-up or improves the operation of the person, team
on-the-job assignments to ensure that the or organisation. If a leader is better able to
competencies are transferred and utilised conduct a performance management
back in the workplace. review after the leadership program, then
team members are more likely to achieve
4. Select providers and design specific organisational objectives. This level of
learning program evaluation can go as far as putting dollar
A specific relationship is developed with a estimates on the value of this increased
university, a management institute or some performance.
type of a consulting organisation to complete
the design and deliver the program. At this 6. Integrate with management and human
stage, specific content, timing, faculty and resource systems
other details of program design are worked The fifth step in this model requires the par-
out. Sometimes the objectives and content ticipant’s manager to be aware of the major
may change because of changing objectives of outcomes and competencies taught during
the organisation or unavailability of some the program and to actively push the partici-
people to teach certain segments. pant to utilise and implement the things cov-
ered. The human resource systems that oper-
5. Evaluation of program delivery and ate within the organisation such as selection,
effectiveness performance management, rewards and
Each of the above stages needs to be evaluated responsibilities also need to be aligned with
and assessed to ensure that it is delivering the the strategic directions, issues and skills that
promised outcomes. The first step of evalua- are covered in the program. The required
tion examines the program content and activ- skills, for example, can be added to perfor-
ities to ensure they lead to the competencies mance appraisal reviews and promotion
they have been designed for. criteria. This encourages participants to
The Kirkpatrick (1959) four levels of evalua- implement and utilise the ideas and skills put
tion framework is a useful approach to apply forward during the program by providing a
when trying to evaluate or assess any of the workplace environment that supports their
steps. This model involves: transfer to the workplace.
1 Reaction/satisfaction – how happy or dis- If this step is not taken, then the time, effort
satisfied were the participants with the and expense taken during the program is lost
experience? What is their personal evalua- because it is not actively encouraged and
tion as to whether the objectives were met, reinforced within the person’s actual work
whether the presenters were effective, etc.? environment.
This is usually obtained by course evalua-
tion questionnaires or “ happy sheets”. 7. Overall assessment of value of program,
2 Learning/knowledge – what was learned, broad objectives and program philosophy
what specific knowledge or skills were This involves a look at the broader and
gained? This can be done by tests, quizzes deeper questions of the leadership develop-
or assignments. It also can involve a ment program. It involves looking at the
[ 46 ]
Ron Cacioppe entire process, whether it is delivering value Figure 2 provides a way to consider the
An integrated model and to the business, whether the objectives them- individual in the learning experience.
approach for the design of selves (as well as the strategic issues) have
effective leadership changed, and examination of the philosophy Improved self-knowledge and self-worth
development programs
on how, when and where the program is run. Socrates, the ancient Greek philosopher,
Leadership & Organization suggests that to “know thyself ” is the basis
This requires looking at the program as part
Development Journal
19/1 [1998] 44–53 of the business and asking where this activity for all wisdom and right action. A number of
is working well and how it can it be improved. academics and writers in the field of leader-
This activity needs to be given proper time ship development have suggested that
and thought by the senior executive team and improving self-knowledge must be the basis
often needs to be facilitated by an outside for all true leadership development (Pedler
consultant in order to ensure objectivity and et al., 1986). Participants in over 30 leadership
a reasonable structure to the process. In this development programs run by by Curtin
way the initiation, continuation or termina- University consistently rate highly those
tion of leadership development activities will activities that contribute to improved
be given proper consideration rather than a self-understanding. This improved self-
knee-jerk response that can occur when there knowledge is enhanced in a program by
is a change of a senior executive, a need to cut giving participants time to reflect and to
back on costs, or interest in the latest man- assimilate their learning to their own world
agement idea or fad. at work and home. This can take the form of a
This model is similar to the steps that have course journal, writing a letter to one’s self,
been recommended by Nicholls in Curricu- 360 degree feedback, personality question-
lum Development and Design (Print, 1987) but naires or health appraisals.
includes the extra steps of articulating strate- A leadership program needs to expand and
gic imperatives and aligning human resource build a manager’s sense of self-esteem and
practices because of the need to embed lead- self-worth. A participant in a leadership
ership development in organisational program needs to feel that their ideas and
processes. input to the program are valued and worth-
Many current leadership development while. People do not want to spend three to 20
programs spend most of their efforts identify- days of their valuable time taking in informa-
ing methods and approaches (step 3) and tion without being given the opportunity to
selecting providers and learning methods contribute to others’ learning. Use of pro-
(step 4) (Vicere, 1997). Step 2, the objectives jects, presentations, group discussion, discus-
and priorities for development are often set sion of global issues and case studies allow
by the HR professionals and then approved by this contribution. In addition, the way the
the senior management team rather than lecturing and support staff treat the partici-
being based on an articulation of strategic pant, the venue, food, physical environment
imperatives with and by the chief executive and even the quality of the course notes tell
officer and senior management team. In addi- the participant how much they are valued.
tion, little thorough evaluation and assess-
ment of the outcomes, competencies and Reshaping mindsets
behavioural change is done. This is often Leadership development programs should
considered too time consuming, or costly, so also contribute something new, surprising
course satisfaction, personal feedback and and interesting to the participants about the
the feel of the HR people and managers about world they operate in. This can be informa-
tion or activities which help change their
the program are often the major evaluation
perspective or mindset. It can be in the form
processes.
of new knowledge or theories – especially if
they are supported by research or new data.
For example, the concept and research
Elements of an effective individual
described by Coleman (1996) on emotional
leadership development experience
intelligence (people high in emotional intelli-
While the modified Vicere’s model described gence are aware of their own and others’
above provides an excellent tool to guide the emotions, are able to persevere in a worth-
overall design of a leadership development while cause and can manage their emotions
process, it is the content, learning methods appropriately in situations) suggests that this
and presenters that deliver the “ moments of is a more important competency than intel-
truth” that result in a worthwhile individual lectual intelligence for managers. This can be
learning experience. An integrated process an interesting and challenging concept for
alone will not ensure that individual partici- many managers especially if a questionnaire
pants have an exceptional learning experi- is used to measure the emotional intelligence
ence. of participants and case studies and roles
[ 47 ]
Ron Cacioppe Figure 2
An integrated model and Elements in an effective individual leadership learning experience
approach for the design of
effective leadership
development programs Action Global
Learning Focus
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
19/1 [1998] 44–53 Integrated Model
Improve Skills of Leadership
& Development Networking
Relationships

Improve
Observe Models Self Knowledge Reshape
of Leadership & Mindset
Self Worth

plays are incorporated which demonstrate taught in the program. The team helps each
good and poor emotional intelligence. Other member and the total group learn as the pro-
ideas and concepts such as the learning ject proceeds. General Electric has shifted
organisation, internet for business, theories almost entirely to an action learning empha-
of change management, and international sis in their Executive Development and Busi-
social and market trends can be important ness Management Development courses
knowledge components in a program. (Mercer, 1997).

Action learning, testing behaviors and Improve abilities, skills and relationships
ideas in action It is important for participants to experience
A powerful component of a leadership devel- some improvement in their skills and abili-
opment is experiential or action learning. ties as a leader over the course of the pro-
This involves hands on, practical exercises or gram. They should be able to do something
activities where participants have to solve that they couldn’t do before they spent their
problems, perform tasks or achieve results, time in a leadership program. This can also
often within a certain time frame. These include skills or understanding they can
activities may take the form of a simulation bring into their personal and family life. A
that is very similar to normal work activities number of the concepts that are covered in
(e.g. dealing with a difficult employee) or may leadership courses, such as active listening or
look unrelated to the workplace (e.g. crash conflict resolution, are directly transferable
landing in the desert) but then are related to home life. They are ideal places to practice
back to workplace situations. The concepts, these skills as well, so that they become a
skills and relevance of the exercise are often more permanent part of a manager’s total
discussed after the exercise and arise out of behaviors.
the direct experience of the participants The development of skills is important not
rather than an intellectual concept given in a only from a personal point of view but man-
previous lecture. The participant has to agers also want to see that what they learned
transfer their experience through their own can directly contribute to the success of the
intellectual processes. Lessons frequently organisation. People like to feel that they
stay with participants for years because of have obtained skills and knowledge which
the vivid actual reality and emotions that will make them a better manager in the
they experience during this type of learning. organisation.
It has been possible for a group of managers,
for example, over the course of a few days Observing models of leadership
involving several experiential exercises to A great deal of learning occurs through trans-
develop their own theory and guidelines for ference – from one human being watching
team dynamics and team building. These another. The leader of the program, the pre-
results can be as comprehensive as many text senters, the senior executives who participate
books on group behavior. in sessions, all represent models of behavior,
Action learning is a more extended version intelligence and interpersonal skill for the
of this approach in that teams are organised participants. How a presenter delivers infor-
to complete a workplace project over the mation, structures the learning experience,
course of several months. The project is used answers challenging questions, introduces
as a basis to learn the concepts and skills humour and treats participants, represents
[ 48 ]
Ron Cacioppe their total philosophy on life and leadership. vital to success of the business. Levi Strauss
An integrated model and The person who stands in front of a group of & Co. uses overseas placement as a definite
approach for the design of experienced and intelligent managers with step in career development for their man-
effective leadership agers and international projects as part of
something to teach is putting themself in a
development programs
very exposed position. Participants have the their leadership development program to give
Leadership & Organization their managers this global focus (Schmidt,
opportunity to examine them closely since
Development Journal
19/1 [1998] 44–53 they are in a receptive, observing role for 1997). The use of the Internet to obtain infor-
most of the time. They pass judgments mation and to market products and services
quickly and can learn important lessons, worldwide is a current topic that leaders are
consciously and unconsciously, about leader- exposed to in many leadership development
ship from the people that are brought before programs. “ Think globally, act locally!” is a
them. The HR staff, internal managers and common message recommended to many
outside faculty need to represent models of leaders.
leadership for managers to emulate.
Link up with other people relevant to your
Participate in the changing direction and work
new culture of the business Another element that is rated as one of the
major benefits in attending a leadership
This is a similar area to the strategic impera-
development program is meeting and build-
tives in the Vicere model described earlier,
ing a relationship with other participants.
but from a different perspective. At the indi-
The time spent with other managers
vidual level, managers have a need to know
discussing similar issues, problems and con-
their relationship to the larger picture and
cerns builds a bond that can be called on
how their world is being shaped by the
again and again in dealing with everyday
unknown forces beyond their own depart-
problems. Participants get to know other
ment. It is important for an individual to
members of the organisation, share experi-
know the strategic issues and direction of the
ence of problems, effective actions and strate-
firm and how they can contribute to this.
gies on how to manage within the organisa-
Information about the status and future
tion.
direction of the firm gives the participant
some idea of their career and future in the
organisation. Hearing a chief executive
Tools, methods and processes
describe his or her views that outsourcing
for developing leaders
some of the human resource functions could
have merit would probably trigger the begin- The design of a leadership development pro-
ning of a job search for the HR managers who gram involves using different methods, tools
attended the leadership program. On the and processes to enhance the learning experi-
other hand, the new ventures manager who ence. This section describes the more widely
hears that the organisation is hoping for 20 used methods and processes of current lead-
percent growth in international markets over ership programs.
the next three years might feel that they are
central to the organisation’s strategic initia- Contributing to the strategic business
tives and get an idea on how important their direction
section’s activities are to the overall success Competencies
of the firm. Conger (1997), Tichy and Devanna In recent years, managerial competencies
(1986) and Vicere (1997) – well known experts and the accreditation of programs to develop
in the leadership development field – have competencies have been of considerable inter-
indicated the importance of designing leader- est. Australia Post’s “Team Leader Program”
ship development programs that contribute and the Exective Leadership Development
directly to the strategic objectives of the firm, Program in Western Australia have been
and which help build the new type of culture accredited as providing key leadership com-
suitable for this direction. petencies. There is a considerable amount of
information about which competencies are
Global focus most required of leaders and managers (Wal-
Leadership development programs are lace and Hunt, 1996). In Australia, the Front
rapidly moving to include substantial compo- Line Management initiative is an attempt to
nents involving international markets, world standardise key competencies all supervisors
economic trends and a focus on particular will have.
regions such as the Asia Pacific rim. Leaders While there are important and difficult
are being exposed to how the world is becom- questions which need to be considered, the
ing interdependent and the need to keep up- competency approach has several useful
to-date with international trends that are benefits It requires presenters and program
[ 49 ]
Ron Cacioppe designers to be very clear on what outcomes such as “Markstrat” to teaching strategic
An integrated model and and skills are needed to be developed. Presen- marketing (Larreché and Gatynon, 1990),
approach for the design of ters may have objectives, but competences “Business Policy Game” for strategic plan-
effective leadership force them to look at exactly what skills par- ning (Cotter and Fritzsche, 1986), and the
development programs
ticipants will have when they complete the “Human Resource Management Simulation”
Leadership & Organization learning session. Presenters and course
Development Journal
(Smith and Golden, 1994). There are also
19/1 [1998] 44–53 designers are also required to demonstrate available interactive computer case studies
that participants have obtained the compe- which cover conflict management, motiva-
tences, so there needs to be clear and assess- tion, leadership, team dynmics and organisa-
able activities that show this. tional change (Moberg and Caldwell, 1995).
Strategic team projects Lately, organisations are participating in
This usually involves four to eight partici- simulations that act out as real situations
pants working on a real organisational pro- which are similar to actual organisational
ject defined by senior management. A senior events or involve a scenario that is totally
manager is usually a project sponsor and the outside the participants’ normal frame of
team is ultimately carrying out this project reference (Hall and Dentico, 1997). In a pro-
on their behalf. Projects usually involve gath- gram conducted for Western Mining Petro-
ering of data, interviewing staff or customers, leum a three-day simulation was conducted
understanding a part of the business that is where participants had to find clues that led
important strategically and implementing or to the discovery of a new energy source called
making recommendations to a panel of senior “petronium”. This involved the use of
managers and outside panel members. One problem solving, teamwork and planning
example of a project in a law firm was to that directly related to the W.M. Petroleum
assess what is working well in communica- strategic plan and values.
tion within the firm and what could be
Learning organisation simulations
improved on. Over six months the team ana-
The concept of the “learning organisation”
lyzed the problem, implemented a number of
(Senge, 1990) has been used by a number of
improvements in communication within the
companies in leadership development pro-
firm and piloted a number of other improve-
grams. Use of dialogs where employees and
ments such as team briefing in one section.
management discuss the assumptions, beliefs
At Australia Post, one team looked at the not-
and actions that occurred during key inci-
so-successful parcel delivery business and
dents is part of this approach that receives
made recommendations as to what improve-
the widest acceptance. The “Beer Game” is
ments could be made.
also another part of the learning organisation
Job rotation approach that has been used in leadership
A number of organisations give managers development. This is a simulation game that
assignments as head of departments different teaches several of the key system concepts
from their previous experience. For example, covered in the learning theory approach. The
a manager of finance was made the director of Curtin University Master’s Degree of Leader-
marketing for six months to a year. In another ship and Management in Perth, Western
program, a manager of a headquarter’s func- Australia includes a 14-week course that is
tion was transferred to manage a department conducted like a learning organisation with a
in the field so that she gained experience of management team comprising leadership
the other aspects of the company, including students, performance indicators, ownership
having to deal directly with customer prob- shares and a final report to shareholders on
lems. the performance of participants in the
Leaders developing leaders course.
This involves getting senior managers Case studies
directly involved in teaching and facilitating Actual situations of the real organisation, or
leadership development. This can occur case studies that cover a different company,
through live-in programs, forums and case are used extensively in senior leadership
studies. This approach has been used exten- programs. Participants are asked to analyze
sively by General Electric and PepsiCo the situation, consider the alternatives avail-
(Cacioppe, 1997; Tichy, 1997).
able and make recommendations as what
Business game simulations should be done to improve the situation
Computer based business games have been described in the case study. A course facilita-
used in leadership courses to teach strategic tor, manager within the company or if the
planning, marketing, human resource strate- case is about another company, a manager
gics and organisation behavior. There are a from that company is brought in to describe
wide range of these simulations available what happened after the case study was
[ 50 ]
Ron Cacioppe written and how it would have compared to Role plays
An integrated model and the respondents’ recommendations. Typical situations such as dealing with a
approach for the design of difficult staff member or customer, conduct-
effective leadership Strategic planning sessions and future ing performance reviews or managing con-
development programs searches flict can be used for live role plays in which
Leadership & Organization A number of organisations are now bringing
specific skills can be demonstrated or taught.
Development Journal their strategic planning and leadership devel-
19/1 [1998] 44–53 Situations can be written ahead of time or
opment processes closer together. Shell, GE developed on the spot by participants.
and PepsiCo are gathering input and making
decisions about their strategic direction for Interpersonal skills
the future in the Leadership Program (Link- A common and important component of
age, 1997). This often includes a talk by the many leadership development programs is
CEO on future directions, use of SWOT and interpersonal skills. This can include listen-
force field analysis and projects around the ing skills, conflict resolution, motivation,
objectives set. Burswood Resort Casino has communication facilitation, negotiation
adopted this approach in their leadership skills and many others. Different trainers
program which has resulted in a great deal of cover different aspects even within the same
topic. For example, one person may teach
participation in the leadership program by
transaction analysis in communication skills
the CEO and senior management team.
while another may use active listening tech-
niques.
Building leadership, team and
interpersonal skills Development center
Project work This is a process where individuals partici-
Teams or individuals can set their own or be pate in various activities over one to three
given work projects to implement over the days while trained observers rate them on
course of the program. These are often estab- various leadership and team skills. Each
lished in co-operation with the next level of individual then gets an individual report and
management and are designed to relate to the a development plan with specific recommen-
objectives of the course and the skills to be dations for their development. Department of
developed. While projects can be difficult to Productivity and Labour Relations
manage and some may have a moderate (DOPLAR) in Western Australia conducted
chance of failure for a number of reasons, an entire leadership development program
they can lead to substantial learning and around the use of the development center and
benefit to the organisation. follow-up coaching. These centers are often
used as a main focus for leadership develop-
Problem-solving team exercises ment (Ballantyne and Povah, 1995).
This involves team problem-solving situa-
tions sometimes in an outdoor environment. Self-development
Simulations of actual company problems or 360 degree feedback process
set simulations like the peg game, tower This has been widely used in recent years in
power or computer simulations are used. leadership development programs (Conger,
1992). It involves participants completing a
Leadership models
self-assessment of the key skills and compe-
The use of situational and transformational
tencies of leadership. Five other people,
models exposes participants to the current
including the participant’s manager, one or
theories, research and ideas about effective
two peers and several subordinates also com-
leadership which helps sharpen and deepen
plete an evaluation of the person’s skills.
managers’ understanding of leadership. These are compiled into a summary report
Questionnaires, case studies and the use of for the person which includes a comparision
simulation board games have been used to of their self-ratings with the others. This
improve understanding and skills in leader- report can be used to focus on specific skills
ship. The Blanchard Situational Leadership that need developing. The is often combined
II Model with supporting materials and, more with a one-on-one interview with a psycholo-
recently, the Transformational Leadership gist or HR professional to help the person
Framework developed by Tichy and Devanna interpret the report. The 360 degree profile
(1986) are probably the more frequently used has been used by the Executive Development
approaches. The Competing Values Frame- program in Western Australia, the Water
work developed by Quinn et al. (1996) has Corporation, Australia Post, the Centre for
been modified by the author to provide an Creative Leadership, General Electric and
integrated model of leadership and manage- many other organisations. It is often rated as
ment skills and is the basis of the 360 degree the most useful and powerful element of the
profile mentioned earlier. leadership development process.
[ 51 ]
Ron Cacioppe Coaching things they have learned and to translate
An integrated model and Recently coaching for leaders has become a these into actions in their own workplace.
approach for the design of major aspect of leadership development. This The Master’s Degree in Leadership and Man-
effective leadership can be one-on-one through the use of external agement, Australia Post , Human Services
development programs
coaches who work with either a focus on and Health, and the Public Sector Executive
Leadership & Organization interpersonal, goal-setting or more manager- Development program have used learning
Development Journal
19/1 [1998] 44–53 ial skills such as budgeting, use of computer journals throughout the program.
technology or marketing. As mentioned
above, the Department of Productivity and
On-the-job and follow-up
In order to gain full value from a leadership
Labour Relations in Western Austalia
program there has to be transference and
included coaching as a major component of
follow-up to ensure the leadership skills are
its leadership development program. A man-
being utilized in the job. This could take the
ager may have a team of coaches each focus-
form of special assignments or a resurvey of
ing on one aspect of the manager’s compe-
tency need for a time. In some organisations, the 360 instrument to see if skills have
coaches work with a team and team leader, improved. In order to do this well some
during team meetings or in more informal thought needs to be given to the most effective
ways with each of the team members. and efficient ways to gather useful informa-
tion without taking too much in time or
Group feedback resources. This might involve tests of knowl-
Over a four-hour period, team members give edge, activities that have to be completed to a
each person feedback on what they are doing certain standard or on-the-job activities that
well and what each team member can are assessed by the person’s peers or by inde-
improve on. This is facilitated by an outside pendent outside experts who observe and
consultant skilled in this process. Each mem- indicate the level of proficiency.
ber of the team takes a turn to receive specific The combined activities of defining pre-
feedback and to discuss it fully. This process cisely the competencies and the follow-up
can be an excellent way for team members to methods of helping the person use these com-
develop each other because it is very per- petencies in their workplace ensures a
sonal, constructive and deals with the key greater amount of skills are effectively used
issues each person feels. as a result of the program.
Health appraisals
Another way to help managers develop is to Self-business development – an integrated
include a health appraisal in the leadership approach
development program. This often includes In summary, three major elements of effective
fitness testing, blood chemistry measures leadership development involve:
(cholesterol, HDL, LDL, etc.), and weight. 1 the self-development of leaders;
This can provide individuals with an impor- 2 improving their ability to contribute to the
tant “wake up call” about their health and teams they lead; and
work-home life balance. Individual coun- 3 skills which help them contribute to the
selling sessions can be an important turning business and strategic change.
point in terms of health and stress in several Individual leaders respond best when they
participants’ lives because of the information learn about themselves, learn skills that help
they receive about the state of their health them better lead their team and learn how to
and the illness it will lead to if they continue make a substantial contribution to the organ-
this behavior. isation’s business success. Kur and Bunning
Personality questionnaires (1996) have recognised similar themes in
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and other designing a three track leadership develop-
measures of personality (e.g. internal exter- ment program which includes a business
nal locus of control, self-monitoring, Type A track, leadership track and personal develop-
versus Type B, etc.) can help participants ment track.
gain a deeper self-understanding if credible It is important therefore for leadership
instruments are used and are conducted by development programs to have all of these
professionals who are accredited to use these elements to some degree:
instruments. 1 contributing to improved business
performance;
Learning journals
2 enhancing leadership and team skills; and
Another way to enhance leadership develop-
3 based on enhancing self-development and
ment is to have participants write down
self-worth.
observations and evaluation of the learning
process. Learning journals are a structured Leadership development has been undergo-
way to help managers reflect on the main ing a rapid learning curve. Rapidly changing
[ 52 ]
Ron Cacioppe business competition, new technology and Society of Training Directors, No. 13, pp. 3-9,
An integrated model and new concepts have resulted in new 21-6.
approach for the design of approaches to leadership development. Use of Kotter, J. (1990), A Force for Change, How Leader-
effective leadership 360 degree feedback, including a global focus, ship Differs from Management, Free Press,
development programs New York, NY.
computer simulations, outdoor learning,
Leadership & Organization personality questionnaires, real world pro- Kur, E. and Bunning, R. (1996), “A three track
Development Journal process for executive leadership develop-
19/1 [1998] 44–53 jects and many other tools is possible in a
leadership program. There has been a ten- ment”, Leadership and Organization Develop-
ment, Vol. 4 No. 17, pp. 4-12.
dency to use a number of these because of
Larreche, J. and Gatignon, H. (1990), Markstrat: A
what the HR department or the outside con-
Marketing Strategy Simulation, Scientific
sultant are familiar with or prefer. The seven
Press, San Francisco, CA.
stage model described in this paper provides
Linkage Inc., Proceedings of The 2nd Annual
an overall guide to the design of leadership
Leadership Development Conference, Linkage
development programs. The tools and activi- Inc., San Francisco, CA.
ties described in this paper can then be used Mercer, S. (1997), “Using action-learning as a
to provide the specific objectives which have method of leadership development: how GE
been set. The combination of the comprehen- is developing leaders”, Proceedings of the
sive Leadership Development Model, the 2nd Annual Leadership Development
elements of an effective leadership experi- Conferences, Linkage Inc., San Francisco,
ence and the activities which are effective in pp. 387-422.
developing long-term leadership competences Moberg, D. and Caldwell, D. (1995), Interactive
which have been described in this paper can Cases in Organization Behavior, Harper-
provide a thorough approach to leadership Collins, VS.
development. Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J. and Boydell, T. (1986), A
Manager’s Guide to Self-Development, 2nd ed.,
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