Quaternions

Basilio Bona

DAUIN-Politecnico di Torino

September 2013

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 Introduction
Quaternions were “discovered” in 1843 by Sir William Hamilton, who was
looking for the extension to 3D space of the complex numbers as rotation
operators.

Figure: Sir William Rowland Hamilton (1805-1865) and the plaque on Broom
Bridge, where the quaternions were discovered.

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 Definitions

The generic quaternion will be indicated as q.

Quaternions are elements of a 4D linear space H(R), defined on the real
numbers field F = R, with base {1 i j k}.
i, j and k are ipercomplex numbers that satisfy the following
anticommutative multiplication rules:

i2 = j2 = k2 = ijk = −1
ij = −ji = k
jk = −kj = i
ki = −ik = j

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 Definitions

A quaternion q ∈ H is defined as a linear combination expressed in the

base {1 i j k}:
q = q0 1 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k
where the coefficients {qi }3i =0 are real.
Another way to represent a quaternion is to define it as a quadruple of
reals, (q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 )
q = (q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 )
in analogy with complex numbers c = a + jb, where c is represented by a
couple of reals, c = (a, b),

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 Definitions

Quaternions are also defined as hypercomplex numbers, i.e., those

“complex numbers” having complex coefficients:

q = c1 + jc2 ,

where c1 = q0 + kq3 e c2 = q2 + kq1 .

Therefore, considering multiplication rules, it results:

q = c1 + jc2 = q0 + kq3 + jq2 + jkq1 = q0 1 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k

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 Definitions

In analogy with complex numbers that are the sum of a real part and an
imaginary part, quaternions are the sum of a real part and a vectorial part.
The real part qr is defined as qr = q0 , and the vectorial part qv is defined
as qv = q1 i + q2 j + q3 k.
We write q = (qr , qv ) or q = qr + qv ; note that the vectorial part is not
“transposed” since the conventional definition for the vectorial part of a
quaternion assumes a row representation.
Using the convention that defines vectors as “column” vectors, we can
write q = (qr , qT
v ).

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 Definitions

Quaternions are general mathematical objects, that include real numbers

r = (r , 0, 0, 0) , r ∈ R

complex numbers

a + ib = (a, b, 0, 0) , a, b ∈ R

real vectors in R3 (with some caution, since not all vectorial parts
represents vectors)

v = (0, v1 , v2 , v3 ) , vi ∈ R.

In
 this last
case, elements i j k are to be understood as unit vectors
i j k forming an orthonormal base in a cartesian right-handed
reference frame.

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 Definitions

Multiplication rules between elements i, j, k have the same properties of

the cross product between unit vectors i, j, k:

ij = k ⇔ i×j = k
ji = −k ⇔ −j × i = −k
etc.

In the following we will use all the possible alternative notations to

indicate quaternions

q = q0 1 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k = (qr , qv ) = qr + qv = (q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 )

i.e., a) a hypercomplex number; b) the sum of a real part and a vectorial

part; c) a quadruple of reals.

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 Definitions

An alternative way to write a quaternion is the following

q = q0 1 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k

where now

 
 
  
1 0 i 0 0 1 0 i
1= ; i= ; j= ; k= ;
0 1 0 −i −1 0 i 0

and i 2 = −1.
Hence every matrix is of the form
 
c d
;
−d ∗ c ∗

These matrices are called Cayley matrices [see slide on Rotations - Pauli
spin matrices].

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 Quaternions algebra

Given a quaternion q = q0 1 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k = qr + qv = (q0 , q1 , q2 , q3 ),

the following properties hold:
a null or zero 0 quaternion exists

0 = 01 + 0i + 0j + 0k = (0, 0) = 0 + 0 = (0, 0, 0, 0)

a conjugate quaternion q∗ exists, having the same real part and the
opposite vectorial part:
q∗ = q0 − (q1 i + q2 j + q3 k) = (qr , −qv ) = qr − qv = (q0 , −q1 , −q2 , −q3 )
Conjugate quaternions satisfy (q∗ )∗ = q

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 Quaternions algebra
a non-negative function, called quaternion norm exists kqk, defined as
3
kqk2 = qq∗ = q∗ q = ∑ qℓ2 = q02 + qTv qv
ℓ=0

A quaternion with unit norm kqk = 1 is called unit quaternion.

Quaternion q and its conjugate q∗ have the same norm

kqk = kq∗ k

The quaternion

qv = 01 + q1 i + q2 j + q3 k = (0, qv ) = 0 + qv = (0, q1 , q2 , q3 ),

that has a zero real part is called pure quaternion or vector . The conjugate
of a pure quaternion qv is the opposite of the original pure quaternion

q∗v = −qv

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 Quaternions algebra

Given two quaternions

h = h0 1 + h1 i + h2 j + h3 k = (hr , hv ) = hr + hv = (h0 , h1 , h2 , h3 )

and

g = g0 1 + g1 i + g2 j + g3 k = (gr , gv ) = gr + gv = (g0 , g1 , g2 , g3 )

the following operations are defined

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 Sum

Sum or addition h+g

h+g = (h0 + g0 )1 + (h1 + g1 )i + (h2 + g2 )j + (h3 + g3 )k

= ((hr + gr ), (hv + gv ))
= (hr + gr ) + (hv + gv )
= (h0 + g0 , h1 + g1 , h2 + g2 , h3 + g3 )

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 Difference

Difference or subtraction

h−g = (h0 − g0 )1 + (h1 − g1 )i + (h2 − g2 )j + (h3 − g3 )k

= ((hr − gr ), (hv − gv ))
= (hr − gr ) + (hv − gv )
= (h0 − g0 , h1 − g1 , h2 − g2 , h3 − g3 )

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 Product
Product

hg = (h0 g0 − h1 g1 − h2 g2 − h3 g3 )1 +
(h1 g0 + h0 g1 − h3 g2 + h2 g3 )i +
(h2 g0 + h3 g1 + h0 g2 − h1 g3 )j +
(h3 g0 − h2 g1 + h1 g2 + h0 g3 )k
= (hr gr − hv · gv , hr gv + gr hv + hv × gv )
where hv · gv is the scalar product
hv · gv = ∑ hvi gvi = hT T
v g v = gv hv
i

defined in Rn , and hv × gv is the cross product (defined only in R3 )

 
h2 g3 − h3 g2
hv × gv = h3 g1 − h1 g3  = S(hv )gv
h1 g2 − h2 g1
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 Product
The quaternion product is anti-commutative, since, being

gv × hv = −hv × gv

it follows

gh = (hr gr − hv · gv , hr gv + gr hv − hv × gv ) 6= hg;

Notice that the real part remains the same, while the vectorial part
changes. Product commutes only if hv × gv = 0, i.e., when the vectorial
parts are parallel.
The conjugate of a quaternion product satisfies

(gh)∗ = h∗ g∗ .

The product norm satisfies

khgk = khk kgk .

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 Product properties

associative
(gh)p = g(hp)
multiplication by the unit scalar

1q = q1 = (1, 0)(qr , qv ) = (1qr , 1qv ) = (qr , qv )

multiplication by the real λ

λq = (λ, 0)(qr , qv ) = (λqr , λqv )

bilinearity, with real λ1 , λ2

g(λ1 h1 + λ2 h2 ) = λ1 gh1 + λ2 gh2

(λ1 g1 + λ2 g2 )h = λ1 g1 h + λ2 g2 h

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 Product
Alternative forms
Quaternion product may be written as matrix product forms:

h0 −h1 −h2 −h3 g0 g0

    
−hT
 
h1 h0 −h3 h2  g1  h0 v g1 
hg =  =

h2 h3 h0 −h1  g2  hv h0 I + S(hv ) g2
 
h3 −h2 h1 h0 g3 g3
= FL (h)g

or

g0 −g1 −g2 −g3 h0  h0

    
−gT

g1 g0 g3 −g2  h1  g  h1 
hg =  = 0 v
g2 −g3 g0 g1  h2  gv g0 I − S(gv ) h2 
g3 g2 −g1 g0 h3 h3
= FR (g)h

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 Quotient

Since the quaternion product is anti-commutative we must distinguish

between the left and the right quotient or division.
Given two quaternions h e p, we define the left quotient of p by h the
quaternion qℓ that satisfies
hqℓ = p
while we define the right quotient of p by h the quaternion qr that satisfies

qr h = p

Hence
h∗ h∗
qℓ = p; qr = p
khk2 khk2

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 Inverse

Given a quaternion q, in principle one must define the right q−1

r and the
left inverse q−1
ℓ as

qq−1
ℓ = 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0); q−1
r q = 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0)

Since qq∗ = q∗ q = kqk2 = kqk kq∗ k, one can write

q q∗ q∗ q
= = 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0)
kqk kq∗ k kq∗ k kqk

It follows that right inverse and left inverse are equal

q∗ c∗
q−1 −1
ℓ = qr = q
−1
= 2
similar to c −1 =
kqk kck2

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 Inverse

For a unit quaternion u, kuk = 1, inverse and conjugate coincide

u−1 = u∗ , kuk = 1

and for a pure unit quaternion q = (0, qv ), kqk = 1, i.e., a unit vector

q−1 ∗
v = qv = −qv .

Inverse satisfies

(q−1 )−1 = q; (pq)−1 = q−1 p−1

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 Selection function

We define the selection function

ρ(q) = q0 = qr

as the function that “extracts” the real part of a quaternion

This function satisfies
q + q∗
ρ(q) = .
2

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 Hamilton product
If we multiply two pure quaternions , i.e., two vectors

uv = (0, uv ) = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k

and
vv = (0, vv ) = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k
we obtain
uv vv = (−uv · vv , u × v).
Hence, with a slight notation abuse, we can define a new vector product,
called Hamilton product

uv = −u · v + u × v.

This product implies uu = −u · u, and for this reason, among others the
quaternions were abandoned in favor of vectors.
Nonetheless the quaternion product has an important role in representing
rotations.
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 Unit quaternions

Before starting to illustrate the relations between quaternions and

rotations, we look closer to the properties of the unit quaternions, that
we indicate with the symbol u.
A unit quaternion (kuk = 1) has an unit inverse and the product of two
unit quaternions is still a unit quaternion.
We assume that a unit quaternion is represented by a sum of two
trigonometric functions

u = cos θ + u sinθ = (cos θ, u sinθ)

where u is a unit norm vector and θ a generic angle.

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 Unit quaternions

Notice the analogy with the unit complex number expression

c = cos θ + j sinθ

The analogy applies also to the exponential expression c = e jθ ; substituting

x with uθ in the series expansion of e x and recalling that uu = −1, we have

e uθ = cos θ + usin θ = u

The relation above shows a formal identity between a unit quaternion and
the exponential of a unit vector multiplied by a scalar θ
Notice the similarity between u = e uθ and R(u, θ) = e S(u)θ

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 Unit quaternions

From the previous relation one obtains the power p of a unit quaternion as

up = (cos θ + usin θ)p = e uθp = cos(θp) + u sin(θp)

and the logarithm of a unit quaternion

log u = log(cos θ + usin θ) = log(e uθ ) = uθ

Notice that the anti-commutativity of the quaternion product inhibits to

use the standard identities between exponential and logarithms. For
instance, e u1 e u2 it is not necessarily equal to e u1 +u2 , and log(u1 u2 ) is not
necessarily equal to log(u1 ) + log(u2 ).

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 Quaternions and Rotations

Now we relate rotations and unit quaternions: the unit quaternion

u = (u0 , u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (u0 , u) = cos θ + usin θ

represents the rotation Rot(u, 2θ) around the axis specified by the unit
 T
vector u = u1 u2 u3
The converse is also true, i.e., given a rotation Rot(u, θ) of an angle θ
 T
around the axis specified by the unit vector u = u1 u2 u3 , the unit
quaternion

θ θ θ θ θ θ
   
u = cos , u1 sin , u2 sin , u3 sin = cos , u sin =
2 2 2 2 2 2
θ θ
cos + u sin
2 2
represents the same rotations.

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 Quaternions and Rotations

We know that a rigid rotation in R3 is represented by a rotation

(orthonormal) matrix R ∈ SO(3) ⊂ R3×3 .
We can associate to every rotation matrix R a unit quaternion u and
viceversa, indicating this relation as R(u) ⇔ u.

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 Quaternions and Rotations

To compute the rotation matrix R(u) given a unit quaternion u = (u0 , u),
we use the following relation

R(u) = (u02 − uT u)I + 2uuT − 2u0 S(u) =

 2
u0 + u12 − u22 − u32 2 (u1 u2 − u3 u0 )

2 (u1 u3 + u2 u0 )
 2 (u1 u2 + u3 u0 ) u02 − u12 + u22 − u32 2 (u2 u3 − u1 u0 ) 
 

2 (u1 u3 − u2 u0 ) 2 (u2 u3 + u1 u0 ) u02 − u12 − u22 + u32

where S(u) is an skew-symmetric matrix.

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 Quaternions and Rotations

To compute the unit quaternion u = (u0 , u) given a rotation matrix R we

use the following relations
1p
u0 = ± (1 + r11 + r22 + r33 )
2
1
u1 = (r32 − r23 )
4u0
1
u2 = (r13 − r31 )
4u0
1
u3 = (r21 − r12 )
4u0

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 Quaternions and Rotations

Another alternative set of relations is

1p
u0 = (1 + r11 + r22 + r33 )
2
1 p
u1 = sgn(r32 − r23 ) (1 + r11 − r22 − r33 )
2
1 p
u2 = sgn(r13 − r31 ) (1 − r11 + r22 − r33 )
2
1 p
u3 = sgn(r21 − r12 ) (1 − r11 − r22 + r33 )
2
where sgn(x) is the sign function, with sgn(0) = 0.
This relation is never singular compared with the previous one that is
singular for u0 = 0

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 Quaternions and Rotations

Elementary rotations around the three principal axes R(i, α), R(j, β) and
R(k, γ), correspond to the following elementary quaternions
 α α 
R(i, α) → ux = cos , sin , 0, 0
2 2
β β
 
R(j, β) → uy = cos , 0, sin , 0
2 2
 γ γ
R(k, γ) → uz = cos , 0, 0, sin
2 2
It is easy to see that the “vectorial base” of quaternions correspond to
elementary rotations of π around the principal axes

i = (0, 1, 0, 0) → R(i, π)
j = (0, 0, 1, 0) → R(j, π)
k = (0, 0, 0, 1) → R(k, π)

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 Quaternions and Rotations

Notice an important fact: while the product among the unit base
quaternions gives

ii = jj = kk = ijk = (−1, 0, 0, 0) ,

the product among the associated rotation matrices gives:

R(i, π)R(i, π) = R(j, π)R(j, π) = R(k, π)R(k, π) =

R(i, π)R(j, π)R(k, π) = I

Since I represents a rotation that leaves the vectors unchanged, it seems

natural to associate it to positive unit scalar, i.e., the quaternion (1, 0, 0, 0).
The apparent discrepancy between the two results can be explained only
introducing a most basic mathematical quantity, called spinor, not
discussed in the present context

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 Quaternions and Rotations

We shall see now some correspondence between quaternion operations and

matrix operations
Rotation product
Given n rotations R1 , R2 , · · · , Rn and the corresponding unit quaternions
u1 , u2 , · · · , un , the product

R (u) = R (u1 ) R (u2 ) · · · R (un )

corresponds to the product

u = u1 u2 · · · un

in the shown order.

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 Quaternions and Rotations

Transpose matrix
Given the rotation R (u) and its corresponding unit quaternion u, the
transpose matrix (i.e., the inverse rotation) RT corresponds to the
conjugate unit quaternion u∗ (i.e., the inverse quaternion)

R ⇔ u
RT ⇔ u∗

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 Quaternions and Rotations

Vector rotation
Given a generic vector x, and the corresponding pure quaternion

qx = (0, x) = (0, x1 , x2 , x3 )

and given a rotation matrix R (u) with its corresponding unit quaternion u,
the rotated vector y = R(u)x is given by the vectorial part of the
quaternion obtained as
qy = (0, y) = uqx u∗

where qy = kqx k

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 The map
qx 7→ qy = uqx u∗ ⇔ y = R(u)x
that transforms a pure vector into its rotated counterpart, in quaternion
form, is called conjugation by u.
Notice that the transpose map is equivalent to exchange the order of the
conjugation
qx 7→ qy = u∗ qx u ⇔ y = RT (u)x
Quaternions u and u∗ = u−1 are called antipodal, because they represent
opposite points on the 3-sphere of unit quaternions.

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 Quaternions and Rotations

If we use the homogeneous coordinates to express the vector x

 T
x̃ = wx1 wx2 wx3 w

and the quaternion x is defined as

x = (w , w x)

the product uxu∗ provides the quaternion y, defined as

y = (w , w R(u)x)

The resulting vector y, in homogeneous coordinates is therefore

 T
ỹ = wy1 wy2 wy3 w ⇔ y = R(u)x

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 Quaternions and Rotations

Product matrices
Since the bi-linearity property holds for the product between two
quaternions, this can be represented by linear operators (i.e., matrices).
We recall that the product qp can be expressed in matrix form as

qp = FL (q)p

This can be interpreted as the left product of q by p.

Similarly for the right product pq, expressed as pq = FR (q)p.

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 Quaternions and Rotations

We can obtain pq∗ as FR (q∗ )p and

qpq∗ = FL (q)FR (q∗ )p = Qp

where the matrix Q ∈ R4×4 is

Q = FL (q)FR (q∗ ) =
 2
q0 + q12 − q22 − q32 2 (q1 q2 − q3 q0 )

2 (q1 q3 + q2 q0 ) 0
 2 (q1 q2 + q3 q0 ) q02 − q12 + q22 − q32 2 (q2 q3 − q1 q0 ) 0 
 
 
 2 (q q − q q )
 1 3 2 0 2 (q2 q3 + q1 q0 ) q02 − q12 − q22 + q32 0  
2
0 0 0 kqk

We observe that the upper left 3 × 3 matrix of Q equals the matrix R(q)
previously defined

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 Quaternions in Aerospace literature

In space applications quaternions are used when dealing with satellite

orientation control; unfortunately they may be “organized” in a different
way wrt to our conventions: often the real part is the last element of
quaternions
q = (q1 , q2 , q3 , q0 )

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 Historical notes

Hamilton tried to use the quaternions for a unified description of

space-time physics (before Einstein), considering the real part of the
quaternion as the representation of time, and the vectorial part as the
representation of space q = (t, x, y , z).
Unfortunately the quadratic form

q∗ q = qq∗ = t 2 + x 2 + y 2 + z 2

has the wrong signature (+, +, +, +).

We know that, in special relativity, the Minkowski spacetime standard
basis has a set of four mutually orthogonal vectors (e0 , e1 , e2 , e3 ) such that

−(e0 )2 = (e1 )2 = (e2 )2 = (e3 )2 = 1

with signature (+, −, −, −) or (−, +, +, +).

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 The development of hyperbolic quaternions in the 1890s prepared the way
for Minkowski space.
Indeed, as a mathematical structure, Minkowski space can be taken as
hyperbolic quaternions minus the multiplicative product, retaining only the
bilinear form
pq ∗ + (pq ∗ )∗
η(p, q) = −
2
which is generated (evidently) by the hyperbolic quaternion product pq ∗ .
[from Wikipedia: Minkowski space]

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 Hamilton tried for many years to extend the complex numbers rotation
operator from plane to space trying with triads of real number (a, b, c),
with base (1, i, j), but he did not succeed.
A story goes that every morning his sons would inquire “Well, Papa can
you multiply triplets?”
The problem is that the general result on which he based his reasoning,
i.e., the extension of the complex number result

(a12 + a22 )(b12 + b22 ) = (c12 + c22 )

to the R3 space, cannot be solved with triads of numbers, i.e.,

(a12 + a22 + a32 )(b12 + b22 + b32 ) 6= (c12 + c22 + c32 )

that is the same to ask for the existence kak kbk = kabk in general cases
(three components vectors in particular).
[from J. Stillwell, Mathematics and Its History, Springer ]

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 The problem is that, while for complex numbers the product result is well
known
(a1 + ja2 )(b1 + jb2 ) = a1 b1 − a2 b2 + j(a2 b1 + a1 b2 )
or
(a1 , a2 )(b1 , b2 ) = (a1 b1 − a2 b2 , a2 b1 + a1 b2 )
for triad of numbers it is impossible.
Hamilton failed to acknowledge this and did not notice a result already
given by Diophantus, that for example, 3 = 11 + 12 + 12 and
5 = 02 + 12 + 22 are both sums of three squares, but their product 15 is
not. So he persisted for 13 years before discovering that he needed four
numbers, i.e., the quaternions.

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 By the way the only number systems with a product satisfying

kak kbk = kabk

are
the real numbers R = R1 .
the complex numbers C = R2 ; they are couples or real numbers.
the quaternions H = R4 ; they are couples or complex numbers.
the octonions O = R8 ; they are couples or quaternions.

Basilio Bona (DAUIN-Politecnico di Torino) Quaternions September 2013 46 / 1

 Commutative multiplication is possible only on R1 and R2 and it
yields the number systems R and C.
Associative, but noncommutative, multiplication is possible only on
R4 , and it yields the quaternions H.
Alternative, but nonassociative, multiplication is possible only on R8 ,
and it yields a system called the octonions O.

Partial associativity law called cancellation or alternativity

a−1 (ab) = b = (ba)a−1

Basilio Bona (DAUIN-Politecnico di Torino) Quaternions September 2013 47 / 1