A PROJECT ON FASHION

BY

ODUTOYE RACHEAL JOLA

SUBMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION,

JUNE, 2023
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 WHAT IS FASHION .................................................................................................. 1

1.2 THE FASHION INDUSTRY...................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 4

LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 4

2.1 HISTORY OF FASHION ........................................................................................... 4

2.2 TYPES OF FASHION .............................................................................................. 12

2.3 FUNCTIONS OF FASHION .................................................................................... 16

2.4 CLOTH PRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 18

2.5 CLOTHING MATERIALS ...................................................................................... 20

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 23

3.1 FASHION INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA ...................................................................... 23

3.2 FASHION INDUSTRY IN EUROPE....................................................................... 31

3.3 INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON FASHION ................................................. 33

3.4 SOCIAL MEDIA AND FASHION .......................................................................... 35

3.5 FIGURE TYPES AND CHALLENGES OF MAKING GARMENT ...................... 37

3.6 CRITERIA THAT AFFECT FASHION PURCHASE ............................................. 44

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 49

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................... 49

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 50

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 WHAT IS FASHION

Fashion refers to the prevailing style or trend in clothing, footwear, accessories,

makeup, and hairstyles that are popular and widely accepted within a specific time and culture.

It is a form of self-expression and a way for individuals to showcase their personal style and

creativity. It is not limited to clothing and accessories; it extends to various aspects of our lives,

including the way we decorate our homes, the cars we drive, and even the way we present

ourselves online. It is influenced by a variety of factors, including cultural, social, economic,

and technological changes.

The term fashion is very often used in the sense of evaluating certain things or their

properties. According to the general definition of vocabulary is fashion: a general term for the

transitional domination of specific external manifestations of individuals and communities in

all areas of personal and public life. (Godart, 2012) It creates temporary value measures and

includes the way of life, clothing, speech, behavior, social intercourse, the way of walking,

posture, the art of past styles, trends, artistic personalities, which can, in turn, influence

contemporary manifestations such as clothing. Fashion and its variability is conditioned by

time and is one of the most severe social phenomena. Political, moral, and cultural meanings

are permanently linked to fashion. In this work, I will pursue fashion exclusively in the sense

of clothing.

Fashion is dynamic and constantly evolving. It is driven by designers, fashion houses,

celebrities, influencers, and the media, who play a significant role in setting trends and shaping

the industry. Fashion shows, magazines, websites, and social media platforms are common

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avenues for showcasing new collections and styles and while fashion can be seen as a means

of expressing one's individuality, it is also influenced by larger societal trends and values. It

reflects the cultural and social context in which it exists, and it can be used to convey messages,

challenge norms, or make political and social statements.

The fashion industry is a multi-billion-dollar industry with a global impact on the

economy, environment, and labor practices. It is a creative and ever-changing form of

expression that allows individuals to experiment with different styles, adapt to current trends,

and express their identity through the clothes they wear and the way they present themselves.

1.2 THE FASHION INDUSTRY

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, “the fashion industry is a multi-billion-

dollar global enterprise devoted to the business of making and selling clothes. Some observers

distinguish between the fashion industry (which makes ‘high fashion’) and the apparel industry

(which makes ordinary clothes or ‘mass fashion’), but by the 1970s the boundaries between

them had blurred. Fashion is best defined simply as the style or styles of clothing and

accessories worn at any given time by groups of people.” (Steel and Major). It is evident today

that the fashion industry plays a large role in society.

People use fashion as a means of expression and a source of self-identity. There may

seem to be a substantial gap between the expensive, exclusive high fashion of New York and

Paris and the mass-produced casual wear sold in shopping centers of suburbia. However, all

spectrums of the fashion industry incorporate the same concepts of “design, manufacturing,

distribution, marketing, retailing, advertising, and promotion of all types of apparel (men’s,

women’s, and children’s) from the most rarefied and expensive haute couture (literally, ‘high

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sewing’) and designer fashions to ordinary everyday clothing— from couture ball gowns to

Juicy Couture-brand sweatpants” (Steel and Major).

To demonstrate the weight the fashion industry holds in today’s realm, in 2010, the

world clothing and textile industry reached almost $2,560 trillion and the women’s wear sector

alone is expected to pass $621 billion by 2014 (Breyer). In solely one year, the United States

spent $250 Billion on fashion consumption (Fashion Industry 14 Statistics). These massive

dollar amounts express how big of a role the fashion industry plays into the consumption

patterns of people around the world. If thinking logically, it only makes sense to assume the

fashion industry will always exist.

There are over seven (7) billion people in the world and clothing- whether considered

fashionable or not- will always be a necessity, therefore some demand will always exist. Many

might argue that fashion is a luxury and critics wonder why it’s even significant, being as the

majority of the world cannot even afford authentic couture. But overall, the industry will

forever remain on the high pace and innovations.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORY OF FASHION

2.1.1 Early beginnings

Anthropologists embraced the idea that humans first started wearing clothing made

from animal skins and vegetation to protect themselves from the outside weather conditions

(http://www.historyofclothing.com/). It is unknown precisely when humans first started

wearing clothing; however, some evidence indicates somewhere between 100,000 and 500,000

years ago (Bellis 2020). The earliest piece of evidence is the discovery of 36,000-year-old

clothing made from dyed flax found in the cave of the Republic of Georgia

(http://www.historyofclothing.com/). To make clothes, humans needed to develop tools and

techniques such as spinning, weaving, and knitting (Bellis 2020).

Primitive needles made from bones and other materials were the first tools for making

clothes, dating as far back as 40,000 years ago. Except for needles, significant inventions which

made clothing-making possible include the spinning wheel and various types of looms.

Weaving is the most universal method for making clothes (Wilson 2021). It occurred sometime

before 6000 BC (Wilson 2021). Other methods for making clothes, such as Nalebinding, a type

of knitting, occurred around 6500 BC.

The spinning wheel is one of the most important inventions. It transforms animal or

plant fibers into thread or yarn, which is then woven into clothes using looms (Bellis 2021).

Before the invention of the spinning wheel, yarn was spun using a spindle, a very simple hand

tool, which dates back as far as 5000 BC (Bellis 2020). It is unknown exactly when and where

the first spinning wheel was invented, as various evidence indicates different places, such as

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China, Egypt, and India (Bellis 2021). However, some historical evidence suggests that its

origin is from India sometime between 500 and 1000 A.D. (Bellis 2021). Other theories indicate

that this technology is originally from China and that it migrated from China to Iran, later to

India, and finally to Europe during the late Middle Ages (Bellis 2021). Another essential

invention was the loom, a machine for weaving threads into clothes. It dates as far back as the

5th millennium B.C. (Britannica 2013).

Spinning wheel Spindle

(Wilson 2021) (https://www.pinterest.com/pin/465489311468624215/)

Loom (Wilson 2021)

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 People used natural fibers to make clothes. The most common materials were flax, silk,

cotton, and wool. These materials were also associated with great civilizations – such as Egypt

with flax, China with silk, India, and Peru with cotton, and Mesopotamia with wool (Wilson

2021). Flax might be the first known plant for making clothes (Wilson 2021). Its cultivation

started about 8000 BC in the Near East.

Ancient Egyptians wore linen clothes from the Neolithic period. They developed

different techniques for spinning flax and tools for making linen clothes. Evidence for the

production and utilization of silk in China dates back sometime between 5000 and 3000 BC

(http://www.historyofclothing.com/). Apart from flax, cotton is also one of the oldest

discovered plants for clothing production. The archaeological evidence suggests it was

cultivated in India around 3500 BC and Peru around 3000 BC (Wilson 2021).

In India, cotton was utilized from the 5th millennium B.C.

(http://www.historyofclothing.com/). Regarding wool, since shears were not discovered until

the Iron age, sometime about 1000 BC, it is supposed that this was the last fiber spun into

clothes (Wilson 2021). Domestication of sheep first occurred in Mesopotamia, and it became

the land of wool (Wilson 2021).

Discovery of plant and animal fibers, techniques, and tools such as loom and spinning

wheel made clothing production possible. However, making clothes did not radically change

throughout a long period of history. It was handmade, using the same technology for spinning

and weaving as thousands of years ago. That was until the Industrial Revolution. Significant

inventions and industrialization transformed the apparel industry like never before. This was

the catalyst for later globalization and the emergence of fast fashion.

2.1.2 Industrial Revolution and transformation of the apparel industry

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 Since man first discovered tools and techniques, clothes production did not change

much until the Industrial Revolution. This period brought great inventions which shaped and

set a pathway toward mechanization and industrialization of clothing production. Back,

throughout history, for thousands of years making clothes was pretty much the same. It was a

labor-intense and time-consuming process, as it was handmade using simple hand tools. Before

industrialization, by the second half of the 19th century (Solinger 2017) all clothes were

manufactured by tailors or skilled family members in households or home workshops called

cottage industries (Monet 2022).

Important inventions such as the sewing machine shifted textile production from

households and tailors to a factory-like setting environment for mass-production (Nayak and

Padhye 2015). Previously, each garment was made individually, sewing was viewed as art

done by experienced hands as thousands of years before until the invention of the sewing

machine in the 19th century (Nayak and Padhye 2015). The first sewing machine was invented

by Thomas Saint in 1790 (Nayak and Padhye 2015), yet it didn’t have a major success.

In 1829, also a French tailor Barthélemy Thimonnier patented the first functional

sewing machine, which the French government granted in 1830 (Nayak and Padhye 2015;

Hilger 2008). Ordered by the French government, he opened the first factory for clothes

manufacturing to produce uniforms for the French army (Hilger 2008). However, a mob of

tailors who feared that they would lose jobs over the machines broke into the factory and

burned it (Nayak and Padhye 2015). Even though many inventors patented the sewing

machine, it hadn't had a significant breakthrough and success until Elias Howe's sewing

machine; invented in 1846 (Monet 2022). His sewing machine set a pathway towards great

changes in the clothing industry. However, it didn’t go to mass production until Isaac Singer

added modifications, perfected it, and commercialized it in the 1850s (Bellis 2020).

With sewing machines, workers could quickly put together pieces of clothing.

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However, the first hand-powered sewing machines from the 19th century could sew only

20 stitches per minute (Solinger 2017). As sewing machines continued to be improved, by the

turn of the century, electrically powered machines could sew 200 stitches, and by the mid-20th

century, the speed had risen to 4.500 stitches, and finally by 1970, machines were sewing up

to 7.000-8.000 stitches per minute (Solinger 2017).

Elias Howe's sewing machine

Apart from sewing machines, other essential inventions led to the mechanization of

clothes production and shifted it to factories. This revolutionized the garment industry as faster

and larger- scale production led to a drop in clothing prices, making it affordable for everyone.

Another significant invention was the roller spinning machine for spinning cotton into thread,

invented by Lewis Paul and John Wyatt in 1738 (Monet 2022).

In 1764 James Hargreaves invented spinning jenny, a multiple spinning hand-powered

machine which significantly reduced the time needed for spinning as it became industrialized

for the first time (Bellis 2021). This was the first machine which was an improvement of the

spinning wheel, used for thousands of years prior (Bellis 2021). In 1770 Richard Arkwright

invented the water frame, which produced stronger threads and significantly contributed to the

shift of textile production from cottages to factory-like environments (Monet 2022). In 1779

Samuel Crompton invented a spinning mule, a machine which combined the technology of
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both the water frame and the spinning jenny (Bellis 2020). It spins fibers into yarn and it is

even today an essential part of the textile industry (Bellis 2020). The spinning mule produced

a finer thread of much higher quality (Bellis 2020). It transformed yarn manufacturing, making

it faster and more profitable (Bellis 2020).

Spinning jenny Water frame

Spinning mule

Looms have been used for thousands of years for weaving fabrics into clothes.

However, they were manually operated, making clothes production a very slow process. That

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changed with the power loom, the first mechanical loom, another paramount invention,

patented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 (Bellis 2020). Later, improved by William Hordocks

and Francis Cabot Lowell, it was commercialized in the 1820s (Bellis 2020). Further, James

Bullough and William Kenworthy developed a fully automated loom in 1842, which have

become a standard for the clothing industry in the next century (Bellis 2020).

Eli Whitney’s cotton gin was one of the most influential inventions of the American

Industrial Revolution, as it revolutionized cotton production (Longley 2021). It’s a machine

which separates seeds from cotton fibers, a time- consuming and laborious process done by

hand before Eli Whitney’s invention in 1792 (Bellis 2020). Thanks to the cotton gin, cotton

soon became the main export commodity, which boostered the US economy, as cotton exports

have risen from 500.000 pounds in 1793 to 93 million pounds in 1810 (Longley 2021).

Power loom Eli Whitney’s cotton gin (Podushak 2014)

Except for inventions and technological progress, a crucial impact on large-scale and

mass clothing productions had also standardization of man's and women's measurements. In

the US, women's measurements were taken from July 1939 until June 1940 in order to

determine average sizing (Monet 2022). For men, the Civil War in the US created a demand for

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ready-made uniforms, which led to earlier standardized sizes (Earl and Schondelmeyer 2022).

Another crucial invention that significantly altered the apparel industry were synthetic

fibers such as rayon, spandex, nylon, and polyester. A French chemist Hilaire de Chardonnet

was the first who invented and manufactured artificial silk or rayon, known as Chardonnet silk

(Britannica 2022). In 1891 he opened the first factory for its production (Lazić and Popović

2009). Wallace Hume Carothers was another relevant chemist who largely contributed to the

development of synthetic fibers, and in 1938 discovered nylon, the first synthetic fiber

produced for commercial purposes (Britannica 2022).

By the end of 1930, huge progress had been made in the field of synthetic fiber

production thanks to Carothers's discovery of polymer synthesis by condensation (Lazić and

Popović 2009). Polyester was discovered in 1941, and since then, it has become a paramount

synthetic fiber in the clothing industry (Twombly 2016). Apart from synthetic fibers, the

invention of synthetic dyes revolutionized dyeing processes and the clothing industry. Before

that, natural dyes extracted from nature were used for dyeing clothes. They were of plant and

animal origin. Natural dyes did not fix to the fabrics and were easily washed out. Synthetic

dyes were the major breakthrough, discovered in the middle of the 19th century (Lazić and

Popović 2009).

William Perkin was the first who synthesized the first commercialized synthetic dye

mauve in 1856 (Lazić and Popović 2009). This discovery altered the chemical industry, as

later, thousands of synthetic dyes were synthesized and commercialized (Lazić and Popović

2009).

Development of agroindustry with discovery of pesticides and artificial fertilizers

enabled improvement in cultivation of natural fibers such as cotton (Lazić and Popović 2009).

The Industrial Revolution brought machines for spinning, weaving, and sewing, which

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replaced the hard and time-consuming process of clothes production with faster large-scale

production. Innovations and improvements in chemistry, mechanical engineering, and

technology shaped the apparel industry. Quick and mass production of clothing became a

reality, clothes prices dropped, and soon enough, everyone could afford to buy them. The next

step was globalization, which further remodeled the apparel industry and opened a door for the

emergence of fast fashion, a new business model.

2.2 TYPES OF FASHION

There are five primary types of fashion design:

Haute Couture

Luxury Fashion

Ready-to-wear Fashion

Economy Fashion

Fast Fashion

2.2.1 Haute Couture

Haute-couture in fashion serves high-end and unique clothing designs. It implicates the creation

of art in the form of limited-edition apparel and accessories, and applies to custom-made

clothing for individual clients.

When designing clothes for your clients, you’ll ensure they are hand-crafted and the fabrics

used are of the finest quality.

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2.2.2 Luxury Fashion

You might have seen luxury fashion being used interchangeably with Haute Couture, but make

sure not to make the same mistake. While luxury fashion also serves a high-end clientele, its

high-quality garments aren’t as restricted.

However, the fact remains that the fabrics and designs serve one-of-a-kind customers, and

hence are restricted in their availability on these factors:

Pricey materials

Intricate designs

High-quality garments

Slow-production

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While luxury fashion is limited in its access, its demand is ever-growing. Making exclusive

designs will surely pique your interest and get your brain cells working.

2.2.3 Ready-to-wear

This type of fashion designer is also known as prêt-à-porter and is responsible for mass-

producing designs in standardized sizes. The quality of the material used is considerate of the

customers and keeps in mind their general requirements.

An in-depth classification of types of design creates a distinction between prêt-à-porter and

massmarket designs. You can see a distinction between them in the following manner:

Mass market designs are available for a larger audience as compared to ready-to-wear designs.

Mass market designs are rarely set up as limited editions.

The body sizes accommodated by mass-market designs are more varied as compared to prêt-

à-porter designs.

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One impressive characteristic of prêt-à-porter designs is that, unlike haute couture, the designs

aren’t personalized and excessively labor-intensive. Hence, the designs can be mass-produced.

2.2.4 Economy Fashion

The best way to remember the characteristics of economic fashion is to understand how it needs

to be economical. In this type of design, garments are mass-produced – efficiently and

inexpensively. The cheapest available labor and material is used to make increasing profits.

It’s the economy fashion you see whenever we go to the mall during an end-of-season sale.

Economy Fashion can be seen as the most useful because most people don’t keep a high budget

to spend on clothing.

However, this form of fashion is the least environmentally friendly. They are low-quality

standard garments and are in use for a shorter period.

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2.2.5 Fast Fashion

The clothes under this type of fashion design are usually mass-produced and have quick

rotation styles.

Fast fashion follows high-end designing styles – only the designs are tweaked and

manufactured for a larger audience. The pandemic opened up avenues of discussions around

fast fashion since people no longer had anywhere to go, quick-paced designs were neither

required nor manufactured. The fast fashion industry has, however, quickly recovered, and is

booming as ever.

Other types of fashion designs include:

Footwear: includes design of shoes, sneakers, athletics, flats, high heels etc. Accessories:

includes design of handbags, earrings, necklaces, bracelets, and other accessories.

Sportswear: designs ensure the form and function of the materials used is suitable for sports.

Childrenswear: designs include clothing suitable for children of all ages.

Evening wear: designs include either formal or casual party appropriate clothing like ball

gowns, tuxedos, etc.

Sustainable fashion: keeps in mind apparel which is not only eco-friendly but also ethical in

its material sourcing

2.3 FUNCTIONS OF FASHION

Fashion serves multiple functions in society, going beyond its superficial perception

as a mere means of dressing or following trends. It plays a significant role in self-expression,

cultural identity, social cohesion, and economic growth. Here are some of the key functions of

fashion:

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Self-expression

Fashion allows individuals to express their unique personalities, preferences, and values. It

serves as a visual language through which people can communicate and showcase their

individuality. Clothing choices, accessories, hairstyles, and makeup can all be used as tools for

self-expression and to convey a particular message or identity.

Cultural identity

Fashion is deeply intertwined with culture and serves as a vehicle for cultural expression and

identity. Different cultures have their distinct fashion styles, traditional garments, and symbolic

elements that reflect their heritage, beliefs, and customs. Fashion can act as a powerful tool to

preserve and celebrate cultural diversity.

Social status and hierarchy

Fashion often plays a role in signaling social status and establishing hierarchies within society.

Certain brands, luxury items, or exclusive designs are associated with wealth, prestige, and

high social standing. People may use fashion to convey their social status, aspirations, and

affiliation with certain groups or communities.

Trendsetting and innovation

Fashion sets trends and drives innovation in the design and manufacturing industries. Fashion

designers constantly experiment with new styles, fabrics, techniques, and aesthetics,

influencing and inspiring other creative fields. The cyclical nature of fashion trends ensures

continuous evolution and keeps the industry dynamic.

Identity formation and self-confidence

Fashion can shape and influence one’s sense of identity and self-confidence. By wearing

certain clothes or styles, individuals can align themselves with particular subcultures, lifestyles,

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or ideologies, fostering a sense of belonging and self-assurance. The right outfit or accessory

can boost self-esteem and empower individuals to express themselves authentically.

Economic impact

The fashion industry is a significant contributor to the global economy, encompassing various

sectors such as design, manufacturing, retail, advertising, and media. It generates employment

opportunities, stimulates consumer spending, and drives economic growth. Fashion weeks,

trade shows, and retail events bring together industry professionals, buyers, and consumers,

fostering economic transactions and collaborations.

Social cohesion and identity markers

Fashion often acts as a unifying force within social groups, communities, or movements.

Uniforms, dress codes, or specific garments can create a sense of belonging and foster

solidarity among members of an organization, team, or cultural group. Additionally, fashion

choices can serve as markers of identity, enabling individuals to recognize and connect with

like-minded people.

Creative expression and artistic platform

Fashion is a form of art that allows designers and creators to express their imagination,

creativity, and aesthetic vision. Garments and accessories can be seen as wearable sculptures,

showcasing the mastery of craftsmanship, innovation, and artistic sensibility. Fashion shows,

exhibitions, and museums display the artistic side of fashion, elevating it to the realm of cultural

and artistic expression.

2.4 CLOTH PRODUCTION

Clothes industry links several industries, from agriculture (for production of natural

fibers) and petrochemicals (for production of synthetic fibers) to manufacturing, logistics, and
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retail (Niinimäki et al. 2020). It transforms fibers into yarn, yarn into fabrics, dyes and finishes

these materials through various processes to finally assemble clothes (Madhav et al. 2018).

However, clothes production starts with raw material extraction, such as growing natural fibers

like cotton or extraction of synthetic fibers in the petrochemical industry from crude oil. As

shown, further stages of clothes production include yarn formation, fabric formation, fabric

processing (wet processing), and textile fabrication (Madhav et al. 2018).

Yarn is manufactured through process called spinning, in which fibers are twisted into

thread or yarn (fig. 52). Yarns are further used for fabric production through knitting or

weaving (fig. 53). Spinning, knitting, and weaving are energy-intensive processes (Munasinghe

et al. 2021). Wet processing includes steps such as desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing,

dyeing, printing, and finishing (Madhav et al. 2018). As water is used as a medium, this stage

of clothes production utilizes a great amount of water and also chemicals.

Stages of clothes production (Madhav et al. 2018)

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2.5 CLOTHING MATERIALS

Fibers
According to their origin, textile fibers can be classified into two main groups: natural and

manufactured (Muthu et al. 2012; Claudio 2007). Natural fibers include vegetable and animal

fibers, while manufactured could be divided into synthetic, regenerated cellulosic, inorganic,

and recycled fibers. While synthetic fibers were first discovered in the late 19th and the

beginning of the 20th century, natural fibers were used for thousands of years. Unlike synthetic

fibers, natural fibers are biodegradable. However, the advantage of synthetic fibers is that they

do not require a significant amount of water as natural fibers such as cotton, but they have a

higher carbon footprint.

Classification of textile fibers (Muthu et al. 2012; Claudio 2007)

Cotton
Cotton is a white and soft fibrous material which grows around seeds in a protective

capsule of the cotton plant (Jabbar and Shaker 2016) (fig. 60). Cotton plant includes a variety

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of plants which belong to the genus Gossypium of the Malvaceae family (El Nemr 2012). It

belongs to the group of seed fibers. Like all vegetable fibers, cotton is composed of cellulose.

It is almost pure cellulose as it accounts for 95% (El Nemr 2012). Cotton is one of the oldest

fibers used and known to man for clothes production. Its utilization originates from India as far

back as 3000 BC (Jabbar and Shaker 2016). From India, growing and utilization of cotton

transferred to Egypt, China, and the South Pacific (Jabbar and Shaker 2016). In North America,

cotton became a relevant fiber with the invention of the cotton gin, which caused the expansion

of cotton production. Today, cotton is essential and the most widely used natural fiber in the

clothing industry. Since the 1940s, the world's cotton consumption had an annual growth rate

of about 2% (El Nemr 2012). China, the United States, India, and Pakistan accounted for more

than 55% of the global cotton consumption for the period 1980-2008 (El Nemr 2012). Of

around 50 species of cotton, only four are cultivated for fiber production.

Cotton plant

Flax
Flax belongs to the group of bast fibers, and it is one of the most important fibers in

this group. Bast is natural fiber obtained from a bast which surrounds the stem of the plant (El

Nemr 2012). Flax is collected from the steam of the plant Linum usitatissimum (Jabbar and

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Shaker 2016). It is probably the oldest plant known to man for making clothes. Flax cultivation

dates far back as 8000 BC (El Nemr 2012).

Flax plant

Wool
Wool is an animal fiber obtained from sheep (Jabbar and Shaker 2016). It is protein based, as

protein keratin, naturally present in hair, nails, skin hooves, and feathers, is the main

constructive component (El Nemr 2012). Other fibers from this group also include cashmere

and mohair from goats, fibers from alpaca and other animals in the camel family, and angora

from rabbits (Nayak et al. 2012). Cashmere is a very soft and luxurious fiber. The goat fibers

are considered as cashmere if the diameter is under 18.5 µm and are at least 3.175 cm long (El

Nemr 2012).

Wool fibers Sheep shearing

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 FASHION INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA

Nigerian Fashion and Culture

Nigerian fashion and culture is reflected well in its clothing and fashion industry. There are

several types of clothing as there are for different groups of people in Nigeria and the most

common attribute in these dressing style in the conservativeness, uniqueness and

attractiveness.

Some of materials used to prepare dresses in Nigeria are:

•Adire

•Lace

•Dry lace

•French lace

•Jacquard

•Ankara

•Kente

•Guinea

•Aso Eko

•Tie dye

3.1.1 The Yoruba People

that is very proud of its history and traditions, and fabrics take a special place in their legacy.

It is not surprising that they have their own historically significant fabric called traditional

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fabrics which are Aso Oke, Adire and Batik. These fabrics has been traditionally produced

from cotton, silk, bark of wood, wool, etc, used in weaving and had a very complex production

process.

According to Olutayo, Olayinka and Fadina (2011) the growing popularity of this

traditional Yoruba fabric shows that the fabric differs in their age and origin, but at the same

time the people are united by the love they have for the classic materials. Available written

records by Ojo (2006) and Akintayo (2016) show that from the pre-independent Nigeria up to

1976 (the time of oil boom) locally produced fabrics of AsoOke and Adire served the cottage

industries and contributed to the growth and positively improved the nation's economy.

Adire for instance is a resist-dyed traditional fabric produced and worn by the Yoruba

people of Southwestern Nigeria. Adire fabric production was expanded to include a variety of

hand-dyed textiles using wax resist batik methods to produce patterned cloth in a dazzling array

of dye tints and hues. As observed by Akintayo, and Agboola, (2007) the traditional production

of indigo-dyed adire involves the input of two female specialists-dyers (alaro), who control

production and marketing of adire, and decorators (aladire), who create the resist patterns.

Adire material can be easily spotted thanks to its color scheme, which includes various shades

of indigo blue and the unique tiedye colouring.

Aso-Oke on the other hand is a locally woven fabric commonly found in South-West

Nigeria. Aso Oke is used at traditional occasions such as weddings, engagements, funerals and

other festivals. Aso-oke is also used as aso-ebi (commemorative cloth) among the Yoruba

people of Southwestern Nigeria. Aso-ebi connotes the wearing of a chosen or commissioned

cloth as a uniform dress to commemorate or celebrate an event or occasion. Asakitikpi (2007)

and Akintayo (2016) explain that aso ebi is seen as strong expression of communal, solidarity

and love. It can be used to make bedspreads, oven pads or inner mattress covers. LeBlanc and

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Van Lowe (2000) states that Aso-oke, has three main designs: etu, a dark blue indigo dyed

cloth (a verse from an Ifa divination text describes it as the “father of all cloths”) sanyan, a

brown cloth woven from the beige silk of the Anaphe moth; and alaari, woven from silk.

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3.1.2 The Hausa People
Hausa has a strict dress code associated with their religious beliefs. The men are easily

distinguished because of their well-made costumes, a large flowing gown is known as a Babban

Riga, and a gown called a Jalabia and Juanni. These large flowing gowns usually have some

intricate embroidered designs around the neck.

The men also wear colorful embroidered caps called hula. Depending on their location

and occupation, they may wear a Tuareg-style turban around the perimeter to cover the face

(called an Alasho).

Their women can be identified by the wrapper called Zani, which is made of colored

cloth Atampa with a matching shirt, head tie, and shawl and is called a cover. They prefer to

use jewelry and ornaments and are also known to engage in body painting using Lalli and henna

painting themselves. Hausa clothing is hand-woven or sewn in intricate designs associated with

26
tradition and has a strong cultural interpretation. Hausa are well known throughout the Middle

Ages; they often characterized by their indigo blue dressings and badges

27
3.1.3 The Igbo people
The Igbo traditional attire consisted of little clothing, as the purpose of clothing

originally was simply to conceal private parts, although elders were fully clothed. Children

were usually nude from birth till their adolescence (the time when they were considered to have

something to hide), but sometimes ornaments such as beads were worn around the waist for

spiritual reasons.

There are many facts that are interesting and unique about Igbo men's traditional attire.

The most important are: The attire of the royal household, titled holders and chiefs is different

from that of the untitled men. The walking stick is a necessary part of the men attire and no

traditional Igbo outfit is complete without it. Both men and women wore wrappers. Men would

wear loin cloths that wrapped round their waist and between their legs to be fastened at their

28
back, the type of clothing appropriate for the intense heat as well as jobs such as farming. Men

could also tie a wrapper over their loin cloth.

For public occasions such as traditional weddings, men tie such materials like gorge,

which is considered to be expensive, and this usually goes with 'Isiagu' popular for wealthy and

traditional title holders. Maidens usually wore a short wrapper with beads around their waist

with other ornaments such as necklaces and beads.

Examples of Igbo attires are as follows:

Okpu agụ/ 'okpu Ishi-agu' - “leopard hat” (a sign of bravery/warriors). Woven with white,

and red stripes.

Okpu mme – ‘red cap’ the fez caps come from Europe, however, the use of okpu mme is so

specific to communities with Nze na Ọzọ associated members. It’s spiritually symbolic, and

it’s also known as okpu Ozo / Nze.

Isiagụ - also called Chieftaincy, is a, usually, red short-sleeved, knee-length tunic bearing

imprints of a tiger’s head. Isiagụ is a mark of achievement. It is usually worn on special events,

such as weddings and chieftaincy titles, among others.

Mgba aka, mgba olu, and mgba ụkwụ are beads and bands worn as a wrist or arm band,

bracelet, necklace, and ankle lace. Men and women wear mgba aka and others, though the

nature and style of the jewelry may be gender-specific. These jewelries include olaedo,

cowries, coral beads, ivory (ọdụ).

Mgbájị is a set of waist ornaments, usually coloured beads or pearls. Maidens would wear

beads around their necks, wrist and ankles to showcase their beauty. Multiple rings of mgbájị

encircle the lower abdomen down to the upper hips.

29
Mkpọ - is a carved designer walking stick, used by men. The walking stick is a necessary part

of the men attire and no traditional Igbo outfit is complete without it. The mkpọ is made of the

finest wood, delicately carved and glossed with a layer of varnish.

Uwe-olu - is a male shawl.

Akpa-ụkwụ - is a footwear.

Uli - body art was used to decorate both men and women in the form of lines forming patterns

and shapes on the body.

Uwe - designates any garment, in particular a cloth worn over the torso of both genders. Uwe

refers to a shirt, specifically.

Ọgọdọ - is the generic term for a wrapper tied around the waist, typically reaching the ankles,

though it can be shorter.

With colonialism and the Westernization of Igbo culture, Western styled clothes such as shirts

and trousers over took traditional clothing.

30
3.2 FASHION INDUSTRY IN EUROPE

Europe is home to some of the most lucrative markets for apparel and clothing

worldwide, as well as some of the largest apparel companies. In 2021, the United Kingdom

31
had the fifth highest revenue of apparel markets worldwide, at a value of over 73 billion U.S.

dollars. This made it the highest earning clothing market in Europe, followed closely by

Germany. Women’s and girl’s apparel is responsible for the largest share of the European

apparel market revenue overall, making up well over half of the market.

Europe is a strong apparel market and has some of the world’s biggest and most famous

apparel companies. Europe’s apparel import market was valued at €144.5 billion in 2021, up

from 127.7 billion in 2020. This big increase of 13.1% was the result of the recovery from the

COVID-19 pandemic. From 2016 to 2020, the market grew on average by 3.3%. The biggest

European markets include Germany, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Italy and Poland.

Together these countries make up nearly 73% of all EU apparel imports worldwide and 67%

of all Intra-EU imports. Poland is a market to watch due to its high import growth and an

already sizeable market.

32
3.3 INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON FASHION

The fashion industry dates back to over a hundred thousand years, right from the

availability and use of textiles by mankind (Botti, 2019). The industry, over time, has added

economic and material value to humanity, evolving with society, making it a very relevant

aspect of human life and also a common area of research, particularly in this technology-driven

world (Bruce and Daly, 2006; Botti, 2019; Kilduff, 2005; Xue et al., 2019). Globally, the

fashion industry contributes about US$3000 billion, an estimated 2% of the world’s gross

domestic product (GDP) (Botti, 2019). Today, technological revolution and the Internet have

enabled the establishment of online fashion retail systems to displace aspects of the traditional

33
store patronage (Johnstone et al., 2013; Kautish and Sharma, 2018; Pantano and Viassone,

2015).

The term “fashion” is a concept that is widely accepted by committees, class or groups

of people and is directly affected by marketing factors, such as low predictability, high impulse

purchase, short-life cycle and the high volatility of market demand (Fernie and Sparks, 1998;

Bhardwaj and Fairhurst, 2010).

Digital retailing in the fashion industry has gained prominence, providing ample

opportunities for marketers to reach out to different generational cohorts (i.e., generations X,

Y and Z) (Pentecost and Andrews, 2010). To contextualise the distribution of consumers in the

fashion market, this classification must be well understood.

Retail digitisation has changed the process of shopping for consumers and the process

of selling for organisations in the fashion industry by providing convenient and affordable

services (Hagberg et al., 2016; Kautish and Sharma, 2018; Renko and Druzijanic, 2014).

Consumers’ desire to shop for clothing online has, however, been hindered by challenges of

“fit” and “size” of cloths (Miell et al., 2018). There have been several studies (e.g. Loker et al.,

2004, 2008; Song and Ashdown, 2012; Kim and LaBat, 2013; Beck and Crie, 2018) that

focused on providing solutions to the challenges that can impede the benefits of online fashion

retailing for businesses, shoppers, and generally hinder the growth of the industry.

These challenges have negatively influenced consumers’ perception of online

purchases in the fashion industry, especially with clothing purchase. Digital “fit” and “sizing”

technologies have been introduced to address this challenge and give customers the needed

satisfaction in their online fashion purchases in developed nations (Miell et al., 2018). Online

purchase is gaining prominence in Nigeria (Aminu, 2013; Usman and Kumar, 2020), but the

rate and pace of online fashion (apparel) purchase have been low despite having a large

34
population of Internet users (Falode et al., 2016). Falode et al., investigated online and offline

shopping motivation of apparel consumers in Ibadan, Nigeria and found that consumers prefer

offline purchase of apparel to online. This is quite worrying as Nigeria has an active online

population which offers fashion organisations enormous opportunities (Falode et al., 2016).

Hence, understanding the factors that will engender the consumer’s online purchase in the

fashion industry is sacrosanct to the sustainability of the online fashion space in Nigeria.

Generally, countries in Africa are known for their distinct socio-cultural values, which

influence their fashion behaviour (Aminu, 2013; Falode et al., 2016). The role of socio-cultural

values on consumer purchase behaviour has also been explored (see Agnihotri and

Bhattacharya, 2019; Ansari, 2018; Craig and Douglas, 2006; Kacen and Lee, 2002; Koon et

al., 2020; Nwankwo et al., 2014; Pepper et al., 2009; Tendai and Crispen, 2009); however,

there is a dearth of studies on consumer online purchase behaviour, in the fashion industry,

with reference to sub-Saharan Africa. A key country in this region is Nigeria, known for its

multiethnicity and large population. The country’s median age is 18.4 years, which indicates

the propensity of a technology-driven youthful population (Varrella, 2020).

3.4 SOCIAL MEDIA AND FASHION

Fashion is a general term for a popular style or practice, especially in clothing,

footwear, accessories, makeup, body piercing or furniture. Fashion refers to a distinctive and

often habitual trend in the style with which a person dresses, as well as to prevailing styles in

behaviour. Fashion is an industry which has a very short product life cycle and is totally

depends on changing trends and this trend refers to the newest creations of the textile designers

(Di Mauro, 2011). Young people all over the world are becoming more and more fashion

conscious. They try to look smart and beautiful by wearing dresses of the latest designs. It is

35
the application of fashion marketing through advertisement that plays a crucial role in

managing this growth and change among the youth.

Fashion marketing is the end-to-end process of selling clothing, accessories, footwear

and other fashions. According to Mike, (2009) fashion marketing begins and ends with the

consumer and it involves everyone in the fashion industry and occurs throughout the entire

channel of distribution. With extensive technology, traditional concept of marketing has

fabricated with a digital mode which has brought the whole world to the customer’s doorstep

in one click. This rising penetration nature of the social media channels and their connectivity

with marketers has made consumers more informative and knowledgeable regarding the value

they expected from fashion brand.

Media is a collective outlet that is used to store and deliver information. The media

plays a significant role when it comes to fashion. For instance, an important part of fashion is

fashion journalism. Editorial critique, guidelines, and commentary can be found on television

and in magazines, newspapers, fashion websites, social network, and fashion blogs. Angella

and Eunju (2010) opine that in recent time, fashion blogging and YouTube videos have become

a major outlet for spreading trends and fashion tips through which readers and viewers can

learn about fashion, making it very accessible.

Social media denotes the means of communications among people in which they

create, share, and exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks

(Husnain, and Toor, 2017)). In recent time, there is a perfect connection between social media

and Fashion in that social media depends on mobile and web-based technologies to create

highly interactive platforms for fashion consumers through which individual consumers share,

co-create, discuss, and modify user generated content (Bilal, Ahmed, and Shehzad, 2014). In

the view of Kaplan, and Haenlein, (2010) “Style does not have to just come from Vogue

36
anymore”, the democratization of style is being played out on the social web and there is

profound acknowledgement that bloggers and taste-makers actually know what they’re doing

and can influence consumers’ decisions. Fashion firms have been spending on mass

advertising in order to create demand. The ultimate aim of any firm behind advertising is to

create a “brand” that is preferred over other brands. Fashion brands in the recent times, connect

with their target market through social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and

YouTube.

According to Meenakshi, and Arpita, (2013) until recently, the traditional fabric

industry practitioners has been fashionably late to the social media party, refusing to adopt it

at all because they were not fashion conscious. Fashion consciousness is the knowledge about

the latest fashion, knowledge about what is in the trend and following the fashion. A person

who is fashion conscious knows the details of the trends, its evolution and changes

himself/herself as the fashion dissolves (Bakewell, Mitchell and Rothwell, 2006; D’aveni,

2010).

3.5 FIGURE TYPES AND CHALLENGES OF MAKING GARMENT

Figure refers to the shape of an individual human body particularly with regard to its

slimness or attractiveness.

Many women in most cases like to possess a variety of clothes such as blouses, shirts,

skirts, coats, dresses, jackets etc. But those women that really appear fashionable endeavour to

select only clothes that match their figure. Robertson (2008) in her ‘How to Match Prom

Dresses to Figure Types’ insisted that every girl’s body has its own unique shape, and this

probably accounts for a myriad of styles, lengths, and shapes of prom dresses available in the

market.

37
 Weber (1990) explained that figure types are size categories determined by height and

body proportions. Tootal Sewing Products (1984) posited that all figure types are based on the

two measurements of height and back neck-to-waist length. Hence, adult figure types are

grouped according to height and proportion.

Appraising her figure and style of dressing, Spenser (1998) declared that: lower

necklines would make my neck look longer and slimmer; shoulder pads would make my hips

look smaller, wide belts would not suit me because I’m short-waisted, and long, full skirts were

the biggest disaster for my particular shape and height.

Spenser (1998) went further to emphasize that it is the shape of the body and not the

size that is the crucial factor in deciding the figure and clothes that may be the most flattering.

In her conceptualization, figure types can be categorized into three - Straight, Tapered and

Curved. The descriptions given by Spenser (1998) are as follows:

Figure Shape 1 – Straight: Straight/wide rib-cage; little/no waistline; Flat hips/thighs

Figure Shape 2 – Tapered: Short rib-cage and/or low bust; visible waistline; Rounded

hips/thighs

Figure Shape 3 – Curved: Long and/or tapered rib-cage; Obvious waistline; Flared

hips/thighs

Olaitan and Mbah (1991) analyzed figure types into four categories as follows: short

and plump, short and slender, tall and slender, and tall and plump. This categorization agrees

with Vulker and Cooper (1987) who preferred the terms: ‘tall and thin’, ‘short and fat’, ‘top

heavy and bottom heavy’. But a more comprehensive categorization was later provided by

Anyakoha and Eluwa (1999) who identified seven types of figures that are easily recognizable

among women, and also recommended the corresponding styles to choose and to avoid. The

38
figure types according to Anyakoha and Eluwa (1999) are Tall and Slender, Short and

Plump/Stout, Flat chest, Large bust, Short neck, Long neck, and Large hips.

Based on the exaggeration of the various figure types, figure problems could be

identified in individuals and the problem could be of critical concern to women in particular.

Quite a good number of Nigerian men move about with embarrassing absurdities that are

associated with their figures. The abnormal body proportions of men include pot belly, large

arms, heavy waist, bow legs and other indicators of lack of symmetry in body shape. Some of

these abnormalities may be natural or hereditary while some are as a result of accident or

disease. But in many men, lack of dietary control and lack of exercise often result in obesity

that is manifested in abnormally plump and heavy body proportions. Nevertheless, men do not

seem to be as preoccupied with their appearance as much as women, hence the issue of figure

faults constitute obvious problems to women.

Figure Problems in Women

From the standard body measurements of women’s clothes, it is obvious that any

significant deviation will imply figure fault. The most common figure problems are large bust,

small bust, low bust, flat chest, narrow chest, round shoulders, broad shoulders, narrow

shoulders, square shoulders, thick waist, hollow back (for skirts), large stomach and plump

upper arm (Tootal Sewing Products, 1984). The issue of figure problems becomes magnified

for individuals who cannot help themselves in terms of making the necessary adjustment to

dresses. From the list of over a dozen different figure faults, it is likely that individuals would

derive maximum satisfaction by making their own clothes since that will give them the

opportunity to adjust patterns to suit the figure problems.

39
Relationship between Figure Types and Garment Making

In textile arts, the selection of new clothes should be based on certain principles other

than just trying to be like others. These principles include figure and style, family budget,

colour, washability and texture of fabrics. To designers and dressmakers however, the most

important consideration is the figure type. As figures vary considerably so patterns for clothes

fall into certain categories which are available in catalogues. Perhaps the first strategy in

dealing with figure faults is to determine the grouping of sizes (not ages) into standard

measurements. Anikweze (2003) identified three major groups based on body somatotype.

Thus, endomorph stands for the largest category; mesomorph for the middle category and

ectomorph for slim lanky figures. Campbell (2004) advocated use of Flat pattern drafting which

is a combination of two methods of designing garments for better effects. Those effects are

summed up in clothing fit.

Tootal Sewing Products (1984) provided the body measurements required for sewing

clothes for women and girls, which consist of the height, the bust (fullest part), the waist, hips

(fullest part of figure, about 23cm below waist), back neck to waist, shoulder width, back width,

shoulder length from bodice, side bodice, chest, shoulder to elbow, sleeve length, wrist and

neck. On the basis of figure types and standard body measurements, Tootal Sewing Products

(1984) provided some guidelines for choosing patterns according to one’s figure, emphasizing

styles to avoid and styles to choose. The criteria for choice of fitting garments as shown in the

table below rely heavily on disguising figure problems and achieving an elegant appearance.

40
Table 3.1: Relationship between Figure and Clothing

Figure Styles to Avoid Styles to choose

Flat Chest Fitted bodice, too wide a Gathered and draped styles So that bodice

neckline has added fullness

Large Bust Very high neckline. Frills. Tailored top bodice. Fitted sleeves. Full

Draped and gathered sleeves Skirt trimmings. Long revers.

bodices.

Short neck Tie neck bands. High Plunging, long, square or V-shaped

polonecks. Mandarin necklines, with narrow shoulder-lines

necklines. Wide shoulder-

lines.

Plump, Wide necks, full sleeves, Fitted sleeves, gored skirts. Skirts,

Short gathered Princess lines. horizontal stripes and wide belts.

figure

Thin, tall Straight skirts, fitted Gathered or draped skirts with wide Belts.

figure bodices, Princess lines. Neck trimmings.

Large hips Fitted skirts, pockets at Shaped skirt from waist. Gathers can be

hips, too narrow a bodice. used if the waist is small. Use wide neck

and shoulder lines to avoid Triangular

shape.

Neck and Wide boat-shaped V-shaped necklines, tie collars, Or

shoulders necklines. mandarin standing collars.

thin

Source: Tootal Sewing Product (1984)

41
Colton (1979) and Robertson (2008) considered clothing fitness based on four main factors,

namely: appearance, comfort, design, and fabric.

• Appearance – To achieve elegant appearance, Robertson (2008) recommends different

clothing designs that complement different body shapes and figures. The following

instances are noteworthy:

• Hourglass shape - Women with hourglass shape (shoulders and hips equally wide with

a narrow waist) have coveted figures with nothing to hide or compensate for. They can

wear style of prom dress that is long, short, and sleeveless, with or without a jacket.

• Busty shape - Women with busty shape (shoulders wider than hips) should wear dresses

that de-emphasize the upper body, e.g. a gown that attracts the eye to the hemline or

waistline. A scarf or a jacket can also assist to disguise the figure fault.

• Triangle or Peer shape – Women in this category have hips wider than shoulders.

Because of their bottom-heavy figure, they should wear prom dresses with an aline or

full shirt to de-emphasize the hips. They can also have a fitted top to draw attention

more to the upper portion of the body

• Petite Figure – Women that are short and heavy should choose garments that give

illusions of height and draw attention to the face and hair, e.g. short skirts rather than

ankle-length skirts. For short and slim women, shirtwaist dresses and business suits are

recommended. Earrings, necklaces, and hairpieces can also be used to highlight the

face, neck and upper body.

• Square shape or Thick middle – Women in this category have shoulders, waist and hips

are equally wide; the waist is not clearly indented such that waist measurement is

similar to that of chest and hips. To appear elegant, choose unfitted, but not full,

garments such as over-blouses, empire lines, and tunic and log sweaters.

42
Clothing fit

Clothing fit is one of the factors generally considered by consumers in selecting dresses

from shops and even in accepting dresses sewn by tailors. Marshall et al (2000) described

clothing fit as the correspondence in outward appearance of a piece of clothing to one’s body

which agrees with Kefgen and Specht (1971) that proper fit gives the wearer of a dress a feeling

of physical comfort and self confidence. Kefgen and Specht (1971) further emphasized that

fitting clothes should not only look attractive on the wearer but should also be fit in motion as

well as offer comfort whether the wearer is standing, sitting, walking or bending. In addition,

care should be taken to ensure that the under-clothing equally fits correctly and is not exposed.

Kefgen and Specht (1971) equally provided some criteria for judging clothing fit on

an individual woman. These include the amount of ease offered by the clothes, the drape,

length, shoulder placement and closeness to the body. These criteria however, depend on the

style of the dress, the use and the preference of the wearer. For instance, some garments are

designed to be somewhat loose on the body, while some are designed to fit more tightly. Either

way, the appearance of the body is affected.

Igbo and Iloeje (2003) advocated the provision of overlap in sewing of skirt as a way

of covering up figure-faults in women. Generally, a loose fitting dress worn by a slender person

makes her appear thinner due to the contrast provided. On the other hand, a very plump woman

in loose fitting dress appears less heavy due to lack of contrast. Kefgen and Specht (1971)

summarized the areas to check for fit in a woman’s dress as follows:

1. Collar or neck edge lies flat and fits neckline for fit in a woman’s dress line snugly as

designed.

2. Shoulder length is correct for body and style

3. Horizontal grain is parallel to floor at bust and hip.

43
4. Length grain is perpendicular to floor at center and at side seams.

5. Darts point toward and end before the fullest part of curve, bump or bulge

6. Adequate sleeve width

7. Waisted dresses meet natural waistline

8. Pocket openings and pleats lie flat while standing.

9. Adequate seat room

10. No horizontal fold below waist back

11. No diagonal wrinkles unless part of design.

3.6 CRITERIA THAT AFFECT FASHION PURCHASE

The evaluative criteria used during a purchase decision vary in quantity and

importance from one product to another, and over time. In other words, many price,

aesthetics and quality are important considerations when buying decisions for clothing items

(Eckman et al., 1990; Lang and Crown, 1993). The criteria that have been found to influence

the evaluation and buying decision of apparel include; price, care requirements, brand, product

composition (i.e style and colour), store image, and advertising image.

Branding

This is has been for centuries to differentiate goods of one producer from those of

another. Brand can be seen from two perspectives one from companies point of view and other

from consumers. Ambler (1992) defines branding as the promise of the bundles of attributes

that someone buys and provides satisfaction. The attributes that make up a brand may be real

or deceptive, rational or emotional, tangible or invisible. However, fashion branding could be

broadly defined as a behavioral observable fact evidenced in a diversity of material and non-

44
material contexts. It could be generalized both as an object and as a behavioral process (Vieira,

2009). Brand name shows the source of the product and helps consumers to be aware and

differentiate a product from its competitors. The core base of naming a brand is that it is unique;

can be easily discriminated from other names; easy to remember and is eye-catching to

customers (Keller, 2004). The demand for brand name apparel products have risen steadily

over the past decade (Huddleston and Cassil, 1990).

Price

Price and quality have different and differential effects on perceived value for money.

Some consumers perceive value when the price is low. Others perceive value when there is a

balance between quality and price (Cravens et al and Monroe in Sweeney and Soutar, 2001).

There are typically five price zones in the apparel industry, namely; designer, bridge, better,

moderate and budget or mass (Burns and Bryant, 1997). Terblanche (1990) conducted a life-

style typification study of female students with specific reference to fashion awareness and

clothing orientation.

Researchers found out that once consumers perceive a price difference between local-

owned and foreign owned brands, price dissimilarities begin to affect their preference for local-

owned brands. Since price is one of the most important extrinsic cues that consumers use when

evaluating the product/brand (Hansen, 2005), we test the impact of price against consumer’s

ethnocentric tendencies to determine at what point they are willing to forsake preference for

local products for a greater price discount with foreign owned products

Style and Fit

Fashion according to the Fairchild Dictionary of Fashion (Perna, 1987), is the custom

or style of dressing that prevails among any group of persons. It is the style of the present,

which may last for a year or two or a number of years. A high fashion style is the look of the

45
moment. But if a look or trend persists for long becomes a classic. And, a classic style is a

look that is always available in some form that is appropriate for many occasions, and

acceptable to many consumer groups (Brannon, 2000). Some consumers make choices

concerning apparel on the basis of comfort and practicality. Therefore, a third style can be

identified, namely a comfortable fit. The relative importance of these three styles was examined

in this study.

Colour

Color is one of the primary purchasing considerations among consumers and is a very

important factor for product choice (Clarke and Honeycutt, 2000). Various studies suggest that

consumer color choice depends on demographic factors, such as age, gender, ethnicity and

socio-economic level. (Boyatzis and Varghese, 1994; Krishna, 1972; Choungourian, 1968).

Color response is learned and can be changed overtime (Adams and Osgood, 1973; Hupka et

al., 1997). In addition, color preferences can be affected by external factors such as geographic

location (urban vs. rural) and climate (Wagner, 1988).In general, color has the potential to

affect a consumer’s overall perception of a product and the persuasiveness of purchase

decisions (Sable and Akcay, 2010). Color has different meanings and perceptions in different

cultures (Aslam, 2006; Madden et al., 2000). The knowledge of consumers’ color choices

enables marketers to identify and offer the right product color. Color is also used to attract,

draw attention, create a purchase intention, and desired atmosphere in retail stores (Bellizi et

al., 1983; Kerfoot et al., 2003). The importance of color is a function of the average life and

price level of a product.

The perceived importance on fifteen clothing product attributes, including fit, comfort,

style, colour, workmanship, price, permeability, fabric softness, trendiness, durability, easy

care, brand, fiber content, warmness and fabric thickness of Chinese consumers were

46
investigated by using 3,534 Chinese samples in six cities of China (Beijing, Shanghai,

Guangzhou, Chengdu, Harbin and Xian ) Zhang et al. (2002). Results found that fit, comfort,

style, colour and workmanship were the most important attributes for Chinese consumers in

buying casual wears. Although many studies have investigated the clothing choice criteria,

investigation on the relationship between these criteria and consumer decision-making

behaviour is still lacking.

Daye et al. (2008), identified color as a critical element in developing a branding

strategy. They opined that a firm needs to be wise in considering what they called the

psychology of color when designing their marketing materials. They asserted that colors not

only enhance the appearance of the item, but they also influence customer behavior. The color

of your brand may make or mar your branding strategy while the effect of colors differs; from

one culture to another.

Adirika et al. (1997), recorded the outcome of a study on branding carried out on

Taiwanese manufacturers who produce a great amount of the worlds clothing, consumer

electronics and computers but not under Taiwanese brand names. The result of the study

showed that marketing power lies with the brand-name companies and not with actual

manufacturers. This is because brand name companies can replace their Taiwanese

manufacturing sources with cheaper sources in Malaysia and elsewhere and still retain their

market shares. This study portrays the fact that consumers are more susceptible to brand names

rather than quality.

Understanding exactly what consumers require or desire in fashion clothing poses a

challenge for many fashion designers and other fashion icons who have traditionally dictated

fashion trends. But, over the past ten years consumers have become more demanding and the

focus of marketing in the fashion industry has shifted to what the consumer wants (Brannon,

47
2000). Retailers therefore, need a better understanding of what consumer’s value when they

make purchase decisions. This understanding will lead to a more accurate merchandise mix.

48
 CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this thesis was to explore fashion in its totality. Fashion is a very broad topic

to explore and enough justice was done to it in this thesis. Fashion was defined, its types and

functions were researched. The process of clothing was explained in details and clothing

materials was also analysed.

There are distinct differences in the fashion style of different culture in Nigeria and its

distinction to the European style of fashion was also compared.

Technology also have impact on fashion. Same with social media and these issues were also

discussed extensively. Included are the criteria that affect fashion purchase and consumers’

attitude to fashion.

It could however be concluded that fashion exist everywhere and every culture have different

ways of exhibiting fashion as they most times work in synergy.

Even with the popularity of the western form of fashion overshadowing other culture’s style of

fashion, co-existence, import and export of fashion styles has been greatly embraced over the

years.

Fashion also keeps evolving and changing everyday and so are other aspects of life.

49
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2022): 505–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.05.009.

Abraham-Murali L, Littrell MA (1995). Consumers' conceptualization of apparel attributes.

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