won execerie current prom nigh potentat to tow porentiat ‘Theamount of electric charge passing through a given point of the conductor in one second gives the magnitude of electric current. Electric current is quantifiable which is defined as the rate at which charge flows across a point on the circuit. Itcan be determined by measuring the quantity of charge that flows past a cross-sectional area of a wire on the circuit. As a rate quantity, current (1) is expressed by the following equation. Charge (Q) Current (J) = ——— Where, Time (1) T= magnitude of current Q=amount of electric charge t=time Current is a scalar quantity. Its $.I. unit is ampere which is denoted by letter A. 5, i > More to Know... Blectri i ly produced by batteries. In nature, lightning bolt produces enormous electric areata eT Ee ENne very high potential difference is created between the clouds and the ground, so charges flow between clouds and ground. TAmpere: It is the $1, unit of current, Ifone coulomb of charge flows through a conductor per second, current 'Ssaid tobe one ampere. 1 Coulomb 1 ampere = 1 Second or 1Cs" 3 1 milli-ampere = 1 mA = 10° A 6 1 micro-ampere = 114 = 10 “cones pur a Hlectric Potential (or potential) ata point in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a unit P. charge from infinity to that point, without am fa '’ acceleration. This is because a charged particle in an electi¢ Potential energy = (charge of the Particle) x (electric potential) U =qxv U =qv; ; Derivation of the Electric Potential Formula. U = Potential energy of the object in unit Joules (J) 4 = Charge of the point particle in unit coulombs (C). V = Electric potential in units Volts equal to Joules per coulomb (V = J/C) Explanation: Electric potential is similar to flow of water from one end of a tube connected to a tank at a higher evel to another tank at the other end of the tube at a lower level. Electric charge flows from a point of higher potential to a point of lower potential. In the same way, as an object is lifted against gravity, it gains gravitational potential energy which is proportional to the work done to raise the object against gravitational pull. Similarly, an object gains some electric potential energy as it is moved against the electric field. This energy is proportional to the amount of work done in moving the object from one point to another against the electric field. The electric potential is taken as zero at infinity. Potential Difference: The potential difference between two points in an electric field may be defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another. . Work Done Potential Difference = —————. Charge moved w Potential Difference = — V = Potential difference W = Work done Q= Quantity of charge moved The S.J. unit of potential difference is Volt Voltmeter Potential difference is a scalar quantity. It is measured with the help of an instrument called ® Voltmeter. It should be noted that in order to measure the potential difference of a conductor, the voltmeter is connected in parallel circuit with the two ends of the conductor as shown in figure. Voltis the unit of potential difference between two . 5 Points. If 1 joule work is done to move 1 coulomb Plug Key Positive charge from one point to another, then FIB112:Volimeter ig. 1.13: Voltmeter connected in parallel : ne across a bulb, It will measure the potent the potential difference between the points is Egieens bebe potas Aes 1 volt. 1 Joule 1 Volt = ———— 1 Coulomb One volt is also defined as the potential difference across a resistance of 1 Ohm when 1 ampere of current flows through it. Relation between work (W), charge (Q) and potential difference (V): The work required to be done (W) to ™Move a positive charge (Q), between two points in a circuit having potential difference V is QV. aden,Peer me ree casccccccvcevccc cee cccesesscesesceseees Fig. 1.20: An electric circuit to verify ohm's lawFactors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor ‘The various factors that affect the resistance of conductor are: 1. Length of the Conductor: The resistance of a conductor is conductor i.e. directly proportional to the length of the4. Therefore, the resistance of a conductor becomes double if the length of a conductor is doubled, and the resistance of a conductor becomes half if the length of a conductor is halved. . Area of Cross Section of the Conductor: The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to area of cross-section of the conductor i.e. 1 Ra— A Therefore, the resistance of the conductor becomes half ‘when the area of cross-section of a wire is: doubled, and the resistance of the conductor becomes double when the area of cross-section of wire is halved. This means that a thick wire has less resistance than a thin wire. Nature of Material of the Conductor: Resistance of a conductor depends on the nature of the material of which it is made. Effect of Temperature : The value resistance of a conductor increases on raising the temperature and decreases on lowering the temperature.Specific Resistance or Resistivity We know that the resistance of a conductor is: 1. Directly proportional to the length of conductor Re] 2. Inversely proportional to the area of TOSS~section of conduct ctor 1 Ro ACombining the two relations, we have oe p-2t x A ‘Where p is constant of proportionality and called resistivity. IfA=Im’ and!=1mthenp=R ‘Thus, the specific resistance or resistivity of a conductor is resistance of a conductor which is 1 metre long and | square metre in cross section. SI unit of specific resistance or resistivity is Qm.Example 1 : How much current will an electric bulb draw from a 220 V source, if the resistance of the bulb filament is 1200 0? Solution : Here, we have V=220V; 1200 2. By Ohmis Law, we have 1oV = 20 4 cosa. R_ 1200 Example 2 : Study the V-I graph for a resistor as shown in the figure and prepare a table showing the values of I (in amperes) corresponding to four different values of V (in volts). Find the value of current for V = 10 volts. How can we determine the resistance of the resistor from this graph? Solution table: Potential Difference (in Volts) 4 i++ Current (in Ampere) | 1 | 2 (Ampere) —> When V = 10 volt from the graph Value of current for V = 10 volts Change inV_ 6-4 —— 2=20, ChangeinI 3-2 Resistance of the circuitTable 1.4: Differences between resistance and resistivity Basis for Comparison | Resistance Resistivity : Itis the property of substance due to | jt is defined as the resistance of Definition which it opposes the flow of electrons. | material having specific dimensions. 1 Formula Rep ee I S.L. Unit Obms Ohms-meter Symbol R ® Length, cross-section area of Dependence conductor and temperature Temperature = oeResistors in Series ; ears ‘Asseries circuit connects the resistors one after the other to form a single tee 7 : ee ae alate are connected end to end so that the circuit has only one loop through which — wt can pass he eats interrupted at any point in the loop, no current can pass through — an es connected in the circuit will work. Series circuits are commonly used in a sucl ig Rk wv} a the resistors tL wr Fig. 1.24: Thre resistors in series Equivalent resistance (R,) has the same current ‘Thus, if resistors are connected end to end so that the same current passes through each of them, then they are said to be connected in series. Consider three resistances R,, R, and R, be connected in series (see figure). Let the current flowing through them be I. According to Ohms Law, the potential differences Vp V, and V, across R,, R, and R, respectively are given by: V,=IR, V,=IR, V,=IR, ‘The sum of the potential differences across the ends of each resistor is given by: V=V+V,4V, Using the above equations, we get V=IR, +IR, +IR, 0)The effective resistor is a single resistor which current through the electric circuit. Let, R,. Then, can replace the resistors effectively, so as to allow the same the effective resistance of the series-combination of the resistors be V=IR, (2) Combining equations (1) and (2), we get, IR, = IR, +1R, +IR, Ry=R,+R,+R, Thus, we can understand that when a number of resistors are connected in series, their equivalent resistance or effective resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. When ‘n’ resistors of equal resistance R are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is ‘nR’. Ry=nR ‘The equivalent resistance in a series combination is greater than the highest of the individual resistances. ‘The important points related to it are: 1. Current through each resistance is same. s 2. Total potential drop = Sum of the potential drops across the individual resistances. 3. Individual potential drops are directly proportional to individual resistances. 4. Equivalent resistance = Sum of the individual resistances. 5. Equivalent resistance is larger than the largest individual resistance.Resistors in Parallel If2 number of resistors are connected in between two common points/ terminals so that each of them provide“ a separate path for current, then they are said to be connected in parallel. A parallel circuit has two or mozl loops through which current can pass. If the circuit is disconnected in one of the loops, the current can sd pass through the other loop(s). The wiring in a house consists of parallel circuits. 1 1 a A — FP ve wS mS RSy 7 } T B — Fig. 1.25; Three resistors in parallel Tig, 1.26: Equivalent resistance (R,) has the same current Consider that three resistors Ry, R, and R, are connected across two common points A and B. The potent difference across each resistance is the same and equal to the Potential difference betwe A dB. This measured using the olmeter, The curent | arriving at A divides inne three by ee na, oasil through R,, R, and R,, respectively, ranches I,, I, and I, passi% 28 an.According to the Ohm’s law, we have Pi< f Fi< Fis sy ‘The total current through the circuit is given by I=1,+h+], la RRR ww(l) Let the effective resistance of the parallel combination of resistors be R, Then: on(2) > —=a+ Rp R, Ry Rs ‘Thus, if a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances is equal to the reciprocal of the effective or equivalent resistance. When “W resistors of equal resistances R are i R connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is ae ‘The important points to remember are: 1. Potential drop across each resistance is same. 2. Total current = Sum of the currents through individual resistances. 3, Individual currents are inversely proportional to the individual resistances. 4, Reciprocal of equivalent resistance = ‘Sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. 5. Equivalent resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance. Advantages of Parallel Connection ‘The following are some advantages of parallel connection: ppliance gets the full voltage. 1, In parallel combination each a 2. Ifone appliance is switched on/off, others are not affected. 3. The net resistance of circuit decreases. 4. The parallel circuit divides the current depending on its resistance. : : : In a parallel combination, it is very easy to connect or disconnect a new appliance without affecting the working of other appliances. through the appliances. Each appliance gets proper current a 790pooaeee vepeeaye Example 1 : In the circuit diagram given in figure, suppose the resistors RR, and R, have the values 5 Q, 100,300 respectively, which have been connected toa battery of 12 V. Calculate: (a) the current through each resistor, (b) the total current in the circuit, and (c) the total circuit resistance. Solution : Here, we have R,=59,R,=100, and R, = 300. Potential Difference, V = 12 V, As the resistors are connected in Parallel, potential difference across same, each resistor would be th By Ohmis Law, we have Similarly, Now, => 1=4A ‘The total resistance Ry is given by:Example 2 : Find the equivalent resistance of the following circuit and aA the current flowing through the circuit: 19 Solution : Resultant of 2 © and 2.Q parallel combination AA 20 eee ie i: S=-+==1 => R=12 1a Baas Resultant of 1 2 and 2 9 parallel combination - EEE eee —=-+=52 => R=052 te (} Ree Vv ‘The circuit can be reduced as: Ca VV Now, all the resistances are in series combination. 3918 R=32+30+19+050=752 Syq Current flowing through the circuit 1s aso4a oy Cy 75 Example 3 : Three resistances of 12, 15 and 20 ohms are connected first in series and then in parallel. What is the equivalent (or combined) resistance in each case? Solution: Series Combination: R,=R, +R, +R, R,=12+15+20=470 Teed Parallel Combination: aes to+a RR RR eee 1_10+8+4_ 24 tate ote se sees R 12 15 20 R 120 120 = R=4o-s0 24 Example 4 : What are the advantages of connecting electrical devices in parallel with the battery instead of connecting them in series? [NCERT Textbook question] Solution + The advantages of a parallel connection of an electrical device instead those connecting them in series are: a. There is no division of voltage among the appliances when connected in parallel. The potential difference across each appliance is equal to the supplied voltage. b. The total effective resistance of the circuit can be reduced by connecting electrical appliances in parallel. c. Other components will function even if one component breaks down; each has its own independent circuit. d. The current flowing through each component combines to form the current flow through the source.Example 6 : Show how you would connect three resistors, each of resistance 6 ©, so that the combination hy Solution aresistance of 1.9 Q, ii. 4.Q. [NCERT Textbook Question R, =R,=R,=6 R = Equivalent resistance R=R,+R,=3+6=92 Connecting the remaining two resistors in parallel will yield an equivalent resistance of 3 2. Hence, the first figure shows the configuration of resistors to get equivalent resistor of 9 Q. ii, Two resistors combined in series 6a 6a > R=40 Three 6 © resistors connected parallel give equivalent resistance 4 Q, 20Joule’s Law of Heating When a potential difference is applied across the ends of a x Rg ~ conductor, its free electrons get accelerated in the opposite direction of the applied field. The kinetic energy gained by the electrons during the intervals of free acceleration WW between collisions is transferred to the metal ions at the time of collision. The metal ions begin to vibrate about their mean positions more and more violently and gain kinetic K os energy. This increases the temperature of the conductor. The A ae til die : : : ig. 1.27: Applying potential difference electrical energy supplied by the source of emf is converted ras ds ae of alice into heat. The effect of electric current due to which heat is produced in a wire when current is passed through it, is called heating effect of current or Joule heating. I! 1841, Joule found that when current is passed through a conductor the heat produced across it is : 1. Directly proportional to the square of the current through the conductor He? 2. Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor HeR 3. Directly proportional to the time for which the current is passed Het ‘Combining the above three equations we have HoPRt ual ‘Where J is called Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat an has a value of J = 4.18 cal”. The above quivalent of heat and ha: lue of J ‘The above equation’Expression for Electric Energy When electricity is passed through a resistor by high resistance, it becomes very hot and electrically appears in the form of heat. It is called heating effect of electricity. ‘The heat energy produced is given by H=PRe or = H=VxIxt Derivation Potential Difference = ork Done _ sharge Moved > Work Done = Potential Difference x Charge Moved > W=VxQ But I > W=VxIxt But V=RI > W=PRt OR W Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current ‘The heating effect of electric current has important applications in our day to day life.Electric Power Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate of spending energy. Similarly, the electric power is defi, as the rate of consumption of electrical energy. It represents the rate at which the electrical energy is conver, into some other form of energy. Suppose a current ‘T flows through a conductor of resistance ‘R’ for a time ‘f, then the potential differen, across the two ends of the conductor is ‘V; The work done ‘W" to move the charge across the ends of conductor is given as follows: W=VxVxt Electric Power = ER@#8Y Time peoew as Again T But yew Q But W=VxIxt Putting value W=VQ P=VI Q=It P=PR W=VIt Unit of Electric Power ‘The SI unit of electric power is watt. When a current of 1 ampere passes across the ends of a conductor, which is at a potential difference of 1 volt, then the electric power ‘Thus, one watt is the power consumed when an electric device is operated at a potential difference of one vo! and it carries a current of one ampere. A larger unit of power, which is more commonly used is kilowatt.Cost of Electricity Consumed “The unit on the electricity bill for electrical energy used at home is kilowatt-hour or kWh. 1 kilowatt-hour represents the amount of energy consumed in 1 hour by an electrical appliance at the rate of 1 kilowatt. 1kWh =1kW x 1h = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3.6 x 106J Example 1 : Find the heat energy produced in a resistance of 10 0 when 5 A current flows through it for 5 minutes. : R=10Q,1=5A,t=5 minutes = 5 x 60s = 300s H =PRt=52x10x5x60J = 25 x 10x 300J = 25 x 3000 J = 75000 J (or) 75 kJ SolutionExample 3 : Solution Example 4 : ) Solution An electric iron consumes energy at a rate of 840 W when heating is at the maximum rate a 360 W when the heating is at the minimum. The voltage is 220 V. What are the current and t resistance in each case? ‘We know that the power inputis P= VI ‘Thus, the current ee 7 a. When heating is at the maximum rate ‘The resistance of the electric iron is R + I b. When heating is at the minimum rate “The resistance of the electric iron is R= I R= 229. 134.150 164 An electric refrigerator rated 400 W operates for 8 hour/day. What is the cost of the energy operate it for 30 days at € 3.00 per kWh? : The total energy consumed by the refrigerator in 30 days would be: E = 400 W x 8.0 hour/day x 30 days = 96000 Wh E=96 kWh ‘Thus, the cost of energy to operate the refrigerator for 30 days is 96 kWh x % 3.00 per kWh = & 288.00EVALUATE YOURSELF Questions : 1 to 5-1 Mark each Questions : 6 to 8 - 2 Marks each Questions : 9 to 11 - 3 Marks each Question: 12 - 5 Marks Time: 1 Hour Marks: 25 1. Which of the following terms does not represent electrical power in a circuit? aPR bIR «VI ave 2, The unit of electric current is avolt b. ampere c. ohm d. joule 3. Calculate the number of electrons constituting one coulomb of charge. 4, Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy rather than ofa pure metal? A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 10 minutes. Find the amount of electric charge that flows through the circuit. 6. Howareammeter and voltmeter connected in circuit? What are the ideal resistances for these components? 7. Why is the series arrangement not used for domestic circuits? iva 8, Differentiate between resistance and resistivity. & 9, In the circuit diagram given in figure, suppose the resistors R,, R, and R, have the values 5 Q, 10 , 302 respectively, § [—>-— Ly which have been connected to a battery of 12 V. Calculate: a, the current through each resistor, b. the total current in the circuit, and +a: | : «. the total circuit resistance. i iz 10. Showhowyou would connecttthree resistors, each ofresistance 6, s0 that the combination has a resistance of i. 9 O, ii. 4 1L. a. Write Joules law of heating. b. Two bulbs, one rated 100 W, 220 V, and the other 60 W, 220 V are connected in parallel to electric mains supply. Find the current drawn by two bulbs from the line ifthe supply voltage is 220 V. . Three resistors Ry, R, and R, are connected in parallel and the combination is connected to battery, ammeter, voltmeter and key. Draw suitable circuit diagram. Obtain an expression for the effective resistance of the combination of resistors in parallel. oooo05000