UNIT – III

Road Signs and Traffic Signals: Classification, Location of Signs, measures of sign effectiveness, Types of visual perception,
sign regulations, sign visibility, sign variables, Text versus symbols. Road Marking: Role of Road markings, Classification,
visibility. Traffic Signals: Need, Signal face. Illumination and location of Signals, Factors affecting signal design, pedestrians‟
safety, fixed and vehicle actuated signals. Design of signa1s, Area Traffic control. Delineators, Traffic Impact Attenuators, Road
side rest areas, Safety Barriers, Traffic Aid Posts.

Road signs and traffic signals

Road Signs:
Road signs are signs erected at the side of or above roads to give instructions or provide
information to road users. They are also called traffic signs. Various international conventions
have helped to achieve a degree of uniformity in road signs in various countries. Traffic signs
can be grouped into several types. According to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and
Signals (1968), eight categories of signs have been defined which are listed below:
Section A: Danger warning signs;
Section B: Priority signs;
Section C: Prohibitory or restrictive signs;
Section D: Mandatory signs;
Section E: Special regulation signs;
Section F: Information, facilities or service signs;
Section G: Direction, position or indication signs;
Section H: Additional panels;

Danger warning signs

A warning sign is a type of sign which indicates a potential hazard, obstacle, or condition
requiring special attention. Some are traffic signs that indicate hazards on roads that may not be
readily apparent to a driver. They are normally indicated by an equilateral triangle with a white
background and thick red border. Warning signs in some countries have a diamond shape in
place of the standard triangular shape. The warning signs usually contain a symbol. Complex
signage systems emerged with the appearance of motorcars. Initially, the use of four pictorial
symbols, indicating bump, curve, intersection, and railroad crossing was agreed upon. Modern
traffic warning signals can indicate any potential hazard, obstacle or condition requiring special
attention.

The following are the most common warning signs:

General caution
General warning signs are used in places where a particular hazard or condition is not covered
by a standard sign. It is normally used to alert the driver regarding a potentially dangerous
condition. It is normally indicated by an exclamation mark on a standard triangular sign

- Obstacles: Warning signs can be placed next to a specific obstacle

- Animals crossing the roadway

These signs warn of wild animals that may stray on to the road.

-Unusual vehicles in roadway

These signs are found where road users could encounter slow, large or non-typical vehicles.
They are common around quarries, airports, industrial zones and rural areas

-Road work or construction

These signs are temporary in nature and road work, poor roads or temporary conditions on the
road (flag men, survey crew, single-lane, detour, utility crew, blasting area, bump, dip, flooding,
uneven pavement, freshly oiled road, loose gravel, smoke on road, trucks entering, etc.,

-Curves and corners

Such signs indicate dangerous or unexpected bends on the road. Such signs indicate if curves are
to the left or the right. They also indicate the angle of the curve and if it is a single curve or a
series of curves.

-Chevrons and arrows

Chevron shaped symbols or arrows are placed at the actual location of the bend or curve to assist
in negotiation of the curve.

-Tunnels
As the name suggests, these sign are used to indicate the presence of a tunnel ahead and may
require the usage of headlights along with a change in light level. It naturally implies the
presence of low ceiling clearance.
-Bridges
Traffic signs indicating the presence of a bridge might restrict trucks with a load limit for safety
reasons

-Traffic signals
These signals indicate the presence of traffic lights ahead and warn the driver to prepare to slow
down. They may be supplemented with a flashing light.

-Warning signs for regulatory signs

Sometimes, especially in dense areas where a sign has been added recently, some signs may be
introduced for additional warning or reminder
-Intersections
These signs warn of road crossings.

-Lane starts and ends

These signs indicate when a multi-lane is being narrowed, or when a passing lane is ending, or
where the road is widening or a passing lane is starting. Warning signs may also warn where a
highway ends or where the road changes class or type
-Roads with one entry point
Such roads have only one entry or exit point. Such streets have a dead end or no outlet

-End of roadway
Such signs indicate the end of a roadway

-Pedestrian crossings

These signs are used to warn drivers of people walking in the street.

-Schools
These signs mark school zones.
-Bicycle
these signs warn that bicycles will cross at that location
-Fire stations
These signs warn of firefighters enter the road with fire engines or other emergency apparatus. It
is at these locations that other drivers will have to stop and let fire engines pass in case of an
emergency

-Oncoming traffic
These signs are used to warn people of oncoming traffic when a road becomes a dual
carriageway without a central median.

-Level crossing (railway crossing)

Such signs warn of level crossings ahead. A red coloured warning sign with various pictograms
is commonly used.

-Falling rocks
These signs are used to indicate the hazards of fallen or falling rocks on the road ahead

-Road conditions
Such signs are used to indicate the state of the road ahead. For example - "slippery when wet",
"grooved pavement", "open joints on bridge", "bump or dip ahead", etc.
B. Priority signs

Priority traffic signs indicate the order in which vehicles should pass intersection points.

Traffic Signals
Traffic lights, traffic signals, stoplights or robots are signalling devices positioned at road
intersections, pedestrian crossings, and other locations to control flows of traffic.

Traffic lights follow a universal colour code which alternates the right of way accorded to users
with a sequence of illuminating lamps or LEDs of three standard colours:

 Green light

Allows traffic to proceed in the direction denoted, if it is safe to do so and there is room on the
other side of the intersection.
 Red light

Prohibits any traffic from proceeding. A flashing red indication requires traffic to stop and then
proceed when safe (equivalent to a stop sign).

 Amber light (also known as 'yellow light') warns that the signal is about to change to
red, with some jurisdictions requiring drivers to stop if it is safe to do so, and others allowing
drivers to go through the intersection if safe to do so.

Before traffic lights, traffic police controlled the flow of traffic. An electric traffic light was
developed in 1912 by Lester Wire, a policeman in Salt Lake City, Utah.

Traffic lights (or traffic signals) are lights used to control the movement of traffic. They are
placed on roads at intersections and crossings. The different colors of lights tell drivers what to
do.
They help movement and help conduct an orderly flow by giving right of way to some cars and
not others. They not only make car traffic a lot safer but also pedestrian traffic.

They help reduce the number of accidents and make collisions at intersections a lot less frequent.
There are three main types of signal timing
1. fixed timing,
2. actuated timing, and
3. coordinated timing.
Fixed timing uses the same present time intervals that do not change in accordance to traffic
volume.

Actuated timing uses a detector that is able to adjust itself to different traffic volumes.

Coordinated timing helps minimize starting and stopping at random which helps traffic flow
and is less likely to create a traffic jam.

A traffic signal setup includes controller, traffic lights and detection. The controller works as the
„brain‟ of the entire setup and has the information that is required to make sure the lights work as
per the required sequences. Traffic signals can run under a variety of different modes which can
be dependent on location and time of day.

There are 6 types of signals, viz- Traffic Control Signals, Fixed time signals, Manually operated
signals, Traffic actuated (automatic) signals, Pedestrian signals, Special traffic signals.

Traffic signals should be placed so the signal heads are visible at a distance upstream of the
intersection and from all lanes on the approach. Approaches with poorly placed traffic
signals are likely to experience an increase of rear-end conflicts and collisions.

Classification of road signs

Traffic signs are means for exercising control on or passing information to the road users. They
may be regulatory, warning, or informative.

They can be classified into three main categories.

 Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of
other road users.
 Warning signs: These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the
drivers to obey these signs.
 Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities
available ahead, and the route and distance to reach the specific destinations

Special types of traffic signs namely work zone signs are used to give warning to the road users
when some construction work is going on the road. They are placed only for short duration and
are removed soon after the work is over and when the road is brought back to its normal
condition.
Regulatory signs
These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must obey
these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal action
against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These signs
have generally black legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red borders.
The regulatory signs can be further classified into:
1. Right of way series: These include two unique signs that assign the right of way
to the selected approaches of an intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY
sign For example, when one minor road and major road meets at an intersection,
preference should be given to the vehicles passing through the major road. Hence the
give way sign board will be placed on the minor road to inform the driver on the minor
road that he should give way for the vehicles on the major road. In case two major roads
are meeting, then the traffic engineer decides based on the traffic on which approach the
sign board has to be placed. Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that comes
in right of way series which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.
2. Speed series: Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the
vehicle on the road. They include typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed
signs etc. Speed limit signs are placed to limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular
speed for many reasons. Separate truck speed limits are applied on high speed roadways
where heavy commercial vehicles must be limited to slower speeds than passenger cars
for safety reasons. Minimum speed limits are applied on high speed roads like
expressways, freeways etc. where safety is again a predominant reason. Very slow
vehicles may present hazard to themselves and other vehicles also.
3. Movement series: They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle
maneuvers. These include turn signs, alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc.
Turn signs include turn prohibitions and lane use control signs. Lane use signs make use
of arrows to specify the movements which all vehicles in the lane must take. Turn signs
are used to safely accommodate turns in unsignalized intersections.
4. Parking series: They include parking signs which indicate not only parking
prohibitions or restrictions, but also indicate places where parking is permitted, the type
of vehicle to be parked, duration for parking etc.
5. Pedestrian series: They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are
meant for the safety of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads,
pedestrian crossing sites etc.
6. Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are:
a "KEEP OF MEDIAN" sign, signs indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles
carrying hazardous cargo or substances, signs indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.

Warning signs
Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advise the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety of
drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color convention used for this
type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a white background. The shape used is
upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders. Some of the examples for this type of
signs are shown below:

Informative signs
Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach their desired
destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place. The
guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.
Some of the examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs, mile
posts, service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc. Route markers
are used to identify numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive and unique. They
are written black letters on yellow background. Destination signs are used to indicate the
direction to the critical destination points, and to mark important intersections. Distance in
kilometers are sometimes marked to the right side of the destination. They are, in general,
rectangular with the long dimension in the horizontal direction. They are color coded as white
letters with green background.
Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his
destination. Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various services such
as food, fuel, medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue background.
Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area is given on white letters with brown
background.

LOCATION OF SIGNS
Driving safely is affected by the locations where traffic signs are placed. The following points
provide guidance on the sites where traffic signs should be placed.

 Traffic signals are normally placed at intersections and crossings

 In some countries, these signals are placed ahead of the actual signal causing the traffic
to stop well in advance of the intersection thereby enhancing the purpose of the signals (prevent
accidents)

 Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of or above roads to give
instructions or provide information to road users

MEASURES OF SIGN EFFECTIVENESS

 Traffic signs are constantly evaluated for their effectiveness in preventing accidents with
other vehicles, pedestrians and infrastructure (Government or private property).
 Evaluations are done based on field observation of pedestrian and driver behaviour
before and after installation of countermeasures at specific locations selected on the basis
of frequency of accidents observed.
 A statistically significant improvement has been reported in case of driver behaviour and
pedestrian habits at locations wherever such countermeasures were adopted.
 Signs and markings are used to control and guide traffic and to promote road safety.
 The quality of its traffic signs and markings make a significant contribution to road
safety.
 To be effective, signs and markings must be designed and implemented in a way that the
messages they convey are clear, unambiguous, visible and legible.
 At the same time these should give warning to drivers and road users with sufficient time
to respond safely.
 Maintenance of signs and markings is important.
 Distraction can also be caused by looking for a sign that may be missing. Therefore,
continuity of directional signing is important. Young (age 17-21) drivers are particularly
prone to external-to-vehicle driver distraction caused by signs.
  New generations of traffic signs based on electronic displays can also change their text
(or symbols) to provide for "intelligent control" linked to automated traffic sensors
 Real-time Traffic Message Channel incident warnings are conveyed directly to vehicle
navigation systems using signals carried via FM radio, 3G cellular data and satellite
broadcasts
 Confusion of drivers, misunderstanding or lack of familiarity with traffic control devices
can lead to accidents
 It has been demonstrated that supplemental 'text' information along with a symbol has
shown a marked improvement over usage of only symbols
 Replacement of existing signs with signs that are easier to understand improves the
effectiveness of signs. This is done by evaluating the drivers response to an accident
prone area with a particular sign.
 Driver education and driver improvement programs are positive predictors of knowledge
of traffic controls.
 Effectiveness of traffic signs should be directed towards the driving public by making
use of public service announcements and educational campaigns.
 The effectiveness of a traffic control to a large extent depends on conspicuous as
determined by brightness contrast, primarily the similarity of the control device relative
to its surroundings.
 The probability of seeing a traffic sign or pavement marking is lessened with increased
experience in driving, and each type of sign has a specific rate of decline.
 Signal value is determined by the probability of punishment for disobedience of the
traffic control.
 Speed limit signs have been found to have a high signal value, which is a result of the
motorist's awareness of constant enforcement efforts.
 Other signs which are less frequently enforced would be expected to have a lower signal
value, in spite of the fact that violation of these signs may prove more hazardous.
 Level of exposure refers to the number of times the driver has read the communication
before.
 Length of exposure refers to the viewing time of the recipient.
 Both level and length of exposure are salient variables affecting the motorist‟s
information processing capability.
 In daily situations, many motorists simply "ride with the tide" of traffic or stay in the
traffic flow, unable to independently navigate the roadway.
 Education regarding traffic controls, in the form of driver education, defensive driving,
and informal education, has a direct effect on correct identification of traffic signs.
 Understanding of specific signs has been found to be a function of education level,
driving experience, driver education, age, and several other factors
o It has been proved by field studies that drivers with the highest level of
understanding had taken a driver education course
 The STOP sign is not as widely recognized as would be expected by its unique shape and
colour. The word 'stop' must be visible on the sign to be identified by the driving
population
 Similarly, was the case for "YIELD" and "DO NOT ENTER" signs. Hence, it is
imperative to write TEXT along with the symbol.

TYPES OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Visual perception is defined as the way one thinks about or understands something using ones
senses. It refers to the ability to notice or understand something.
It is an active process of locating and extracting information from the environment aided by
visible light. The physiological components involved in visual perception are called as
the VISUAL SYSTEM consisting of knowledge from the fields of psychology, cognitive
science, neuroscience and molecular biology.
Visual perceptual skills involve the ability to organize and interpret information that is seen and
give it meaning
The goal behind designing road signs is to effectively warn road users. The signs should be
designed to fulfil the requirements for safety in a given road environment and be visible from a
long distance. This depends on:
 Driving speed
 Required viewing time
 Point of disappearance (PoD)
 Number of information elements
 Driver's eyesight (Minute of Arc [MoA])
Minute of Arc is the minimum size of any detail of the provided road sign. It depends on the
driver's eye sight.
Other important issues involving visual perception are
 Colour and contrast
 Degree of comprehension of the meaning of designed information
 Conspicuous of the design in the physical environment determined by (Conspicuous
Index)
The various types of visual perception are
 Peripheral visual field
 Depth perception
 Colour sensitivity
 Static visual acuity
 Dynamic visual acuity and
 Figure ground discrimination
The above listed types of visual perception find applications in the below mentioned visual
below mentioned visual perceptual skills. All of these skills essentially find application in the
context of road safety.
Visual Memory allows a person to record, store and retrieve information. It allows learning and
recalling later.
Visual Sequential Memory is similar to visual memory as it allows a person to store and
retrieve information when necessary.
Visual Form Constancy is a visual skill that allows a person to distinguish one object from
another similar object. For example, being able to tell the difference between the letter “b” and
“d” or “3” and “8”. It is the ability to see and distinguish these differences is form constancy.
Visual Figure Ground is the visual skill that allows us to distinguish, segregate, isolate or find
an object or stimuli in varying environments.
Visual Spatial Relations is the visual skill that allows people to process the visual environment
around them and the location of objects in respect to each other.
Visual Closure is the visual skill that allows people to detect, differentiate, select, draw
conclusions and understand information when they are only given certain pieces of information,
rather than the entire account, story or explanation.
Visual Discrimination – The above six skills require some degree of visual discrimination.
Visual Discrimination is the ability to identify detail, seeing similarities and differences items in
shape, colour, position and orientation.

SIGN REGULATIONS
 Sign regulations in India are similar to those used in the UK
 Urban roads and state highways have signs in the State language and English. National
highways have signs in the State language, Hindi and English
 The three main categories of road signs are:
o Regulatory Signs- depicted in Circles and these sign shows Rules and regulations
o Warnings-depicted in Triangle and
o Information-depicted in Rectangle
 Other sign boards which are Give Way (Shape is inverted triangle) and Stop (Shape is
Octagon).
 Circle with cross shows Prohibition and Circles without cross shows Rules.
 Triangles are pointy and considered as risk.
 Blue circles shows Positive Instructions and these signs are there for a particular class of
vehicle. Otherwise, Regular colour of sign board is Red and White.

Mandatory/Regulatory Signs
 Cautionary Road Signs

Informatory Road Signs

SIGN VISIBILITY
 Sign visibility refers to the likelihood of a sign being found in the driving environment
and is integrally associated with sign conspicuous.
  Sign conspicuous is a function of a sign‟s capacity to attract a driver‟s attention that
depends on sign, environmental, and driver variables Sign legibility describes the ease
with which a sign‟s textual or symbolic content can be read.
 Sign legibility differs from sign recognisability in that the former refers to reading
unfamiliar messages while the latter refers to identifying familiar sign copy.
 Sign legibility and recognisability in turn differ from sign comprehensibility in that the
latter term implies understanding the message while the former merely involve the ability
to discern critical visual elements.
 Other measures of sign visibility include blur tolerance and comprehension speed
 Sign visibility is most often assessed by determining threshold distance. 'T'
 The two thresholds used are
o Detection distance (the distance at which an observer can find a sign in the
driving environment) and
o Legibility distance (the distance at which an observer can read a sign‟s message).
 The intent of a sign designer is to provide the sign‟s observer with the maximum time to
read the sign, and to do that the observer must find it before its maximum reading
distance.
 Legibility index (LI) refers to the legibility distance of a sign as a function of its text size

SIGN VARIABLES or VARIABLE MESSAGE SIGNS

Variable Message Signs (VMS) are used to inform and direct motorists of variable situations in a
consistent and orderly manner. The messages are meant for:
 Traffic control
 Management and
 Timely traveller information
Critical aspects of these traffic control devices are:
 Legibility
 Reliability and
 Credibility

Signs are the primary means of communicating with the motorists. The information is displayed
real-time and can be controlled on-site or from a remote centralized location.
 The signs are designed to modify motorist behaviour to improve traffic flow and
operations.
 Information for travellers is displayed due to a planned or unplanned event which is
scheduled by operations personnel.
 They are commonly installed on full span overhead sign bridges, post-mounted roadway
on shoulders, overhead cantilever structures and portable types mounted on
trailers/prime-mover.
 Below are a few examples on information provided through VMS
o Travel time between known destinations
o Congestion conditions along a high-speed corridor
o Construction site warnings / Information notices
o Special event notice and motorist instructions
o Maintenance operations schedule
o Severe weather announcement
o Incident or accident information
 For all information displayed, the goal is to have a positive impact on the motorist's
travel time
  The system comprises of continuous and discontinuous signs
 Variable Message Signs (VMS) used for dynamic traffic management are of
discontinuous type and make use of light emitting techniques (Ex: Fibre optic or LED
signs)
 VMS for a part of Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS) which is one of the
major components of ITS (Intelligent Transport System)
 The integrated ATMS software receives online data from Automatic Traffic Counter and
Classifier (ATCC), meteorological sensors, Traffic Control System, CCTV, Video
Incident Detection System (VIDS), Emergency Call Boxes (EBC), etc.
 This data is processed and analysed. The information is then shared with road users
through VMS, SMS, FM, radio, etc.

Text versus Symbols

To evaluate the benefits of text and symbolic displays in highway signs relative to their
familiarity on their comprehension speed and accuracy, drivers were presented with 30 traffic
signs varying in their level of familiarity in three display conditions:
 standard symbol-only
 text-only and
 symbol + text.
Speed and accuracy of comprehension were recorded. Display condition and familiarity
significantly affected both correctness of the answers and reaction time. Correctness
improved when the symbol was shown with text, especially when the sign was less familiar.

This reinforces the belief that adding text improves the comprehension and reduces the time it
takes to comprehend the sign, especially of unfamiliar signs.

Adding text could be a simple solution to making (unfamiliar) signs more understandable to a
greater segment of the driving population without compromising comprehension time, thereby
increasing traffic safety.

Symbolic images used for highway traffic signs are not always appropriate. Familiarity,
standardization, and compatibility improve comprehension. Violations of these ergonomic
principles of design reduce comprehension. In such cases a text improves sign comprehension
and reduces comprehension time.

Hence, it can be concluded that influence of ergonomic principles –

 familiarity
 standardization and
 symbol-concept compatibility – on traffic sign comprehension showed that
comprehension is highly correlated with the compliance with these ergonomic design
principles

ROAD MARKINGS
Definition
Road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices set into or attached to the
carriageway or kerbs for controlling, warning, guiding and informing users. Road surface
marking is any kind of device or material that is used on a road surface in order to convey
official information. The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices,
except signs, set into applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or
adjacent to the carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users. Road
markings have been found to influence driver behaviour. They prevent meandering tendencies of
drivers and enable the traffic to flow in a regular and predictable way in addition to avoiding
accidents. The presence of enhanced road markings significantly increased driver comfort.
Traffic paints are commonly used for road markings. Other materials such as road studs, cats
eyes and thermoplastic strips also find their application in road markings. Road markings -
 supplement the function of traffic signs.
 act as a psychological barrier and signify the delineation of traffic path and its
lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe movement of traffic.
 are essential to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious flow of traffic.
Role of Road markings
Bare roads will lead to complete vehicular confusion. Hence markings are painted on the road to
direct, guide and regulate the road user. Road markings include all lines patterns, words and
colours applied on or attached to assist the road users. Road markings promote road safety and
ensure smooth flow of traffic. Sometimes, road markings are used to supplement the message of
road signs and other devices.
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway. They
supplement the function of traffic signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and
signify the delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe
movement of traffic. Hence they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious
flow of traffic. Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings, transverse markings,
object markings and special markings to warn the driver about the hazardous locations in the
road etc.
The Colours of road markings imply specific instructions as described below:
 WHITE is used for carriageway (road) markings except those indicating restrictions
 YELLOW markings are used to signify RESTRICTIONS.
 WHITE or YELLOW together with BLACK are used for kerb and object marking.
 Different Types of Road Markings are listed below
 CENTER LINES On undivided two-way roads, the centre line separates the opposing
streams of traffic and facilitates their movements.
 The centre line can be a single broken line, a single continuous solid line (barrier line) , a
double solid line or a combination of solid line and broken line.
The Divided Lines are called Lane Lines.
 Single and double solid lines, whether white or yellow, must not be crossed or even
straddled.
 They should be treated as a wall on the road.
 Double Continuous lines are also used where visibility is restricted in both directions.
Neither stream of traffic is allowed to cross the lines.
 The Double Continuous Lines can be both in WHITE or YELLOW
 Combination Lines On a road with two centre lines, of which one is solid and the other
broken, the solid line has significance only it it is on the left side of the combination as
viewed by the driver. In such a case, the driver must be careful not to cross or straddle
the centre line. If the line on your side is broken, you may cross or straddle
it. Overtake - but only if it is safe to do so. If the line on your side is continuous you
must not cross or straddle it.
 Stop Line. A stop line is a single solid transverse line painted before the intersecting
edge of the road junction/ intersection. This line indicates where you are required to stop
when directed by traffic officer, traffic light of stop sign.
  Where a pedestrian crossing is provided, the stop line is marked before the pedestrian
crossing.
 Give Way Line is usually a double dotted line marked transversely at junctions.
 These lines are generally supplemented by a reverse triangle give way sign painted on
the road surface before the dotted lines or by a road sign installed besides the marking
"Give way to traffic on the main approaching road".
 Border Edge Lines are continuous lines at the edge of the carriageway and mark
the limits of the main carriageway upto which a driver can safely venture.
 Parking Prohibited Lines A solid continuous yellow line painted on the kerb or edge
of the carriageway along with a No-parking sign indicates the extent of no-parking
area.
 YELLOW BOX JUNCTION These are yellow crossed diagonal lines within the box.
The vehicles should cross it only if they have a clear space available ahead of the
yellow box. In this marked area vehicles must not stop even briefly.
 Pedestrian Crossing These are alternate black and white stripes painted parallel to the
road generally known as zebra crossing. Pedestrians must cross only at the point where
these lines are provided and when the signal is in their favour at controlled crossings.
You must stop and give way to pedestrians at these crossings. Pedestrian crossings are
marked to facilitate and give the right of way to pedestrians.
Classification
The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set into
applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users.
The road markings are classified as
 longitudinal markings
 transverse markings
 object markings
 word messages
 marking for parking
 marking at hazardous locations etc.
Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic on the roadway surface, for the
purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway.
Some of the guiding principles in longitudinal markings are:
 Longitudinal markings are provided for separating traffic flow in the same direction and
the predominant colour used is white.
 Yellow colour is used to separate the traffic flow in opposite direction and also to
separate the pavement edges.
 The lines can be either broken, solid or double solid.
 Broken lines are permissive in character and allows crossing with discretion, if traffic
situation permits.
 Solid lines are restrictive in character and does not allow crossing except for entry or exit
from a side road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction.
 Double solid lines indicate severity in restrictions and should not be crossed except in
case of emergency.
 There can also be a combination of solid and broken lines. In such a case, a solid line
may be crossed with discretion, if the broken line of the combination is nearer to the
direction of travel.
 Vehicles from the opposite directions are not permitted to cross the line.
Different types of longitudinal markings are
  Centre line
 Traffic lanes
 No passing zone
 Warning lines
 Border or edge lines
 Bus lane markings
 Cycle lane markings.
Centre line
Centre line separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their movements. Usually no
centre line is provided for roads having width less than 5 m and for roads having more than four
lanes. The centre line may be marked with single broken line, single solid line, double broken
line, or double solid line depending upon the road and traffic requirements. On urban roads with
less than four lanes, the centre line may be single broken line segments of 3 m long and 150 mm
wide. The broken lines are placed with 4.5 m gaps as shown in the figure

On curves and near intersections, gap shall be reduced to 3 metres. On undivided urban roads
with at least two traffic lanes in each direction, the centre line marking may be a single solid line
of 150 mm wide as in figure

A double solid line of 100 mm wide separated by a space of 100 mm is shown in figure below
The centre barrier line marking for four lane road is shown in figure below

Traffic lane lines

 The subdivision of wide carriageways into separate lanes on either side of the carriage
way enables the driver to go straight and curbs the meandering tendency of the driver.
 Traffic lane lines eliminate confusion and facilitate turning movements.
 Traffic lane markings help in increasing the capacity of the road in addition to ensuring
safety.
 The traffic lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100 mm width as shown.

No passing zones
No passing zones are established on summit curves, horizontal curves, and on two lane and three
lane highways where overtaking manoeuvres are prohibited because of low sight distance. It
may be marked by a solid yellow line along the centre or a double yellow line. In the case of a
double yellow line, the left hand element may be a solid barrier line, the right hand may be a
either a broken line or a solid line. These solid lines are also called barrier lines. When a solid
line is to the right of the broken line, the passing restriction shall apply only to the opposing
traffic. Images for barrier lines are shown below.
Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are marked on horizontal
and vertical curves where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specified for no
overtaking zones. They are broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven line
segments should be provided.

Edge lines
 Edge lines indicate edges of rural roads which have no kerbs to delineate the limits upto
which the driver can safely venture.
 They should be at least 150 mm from the actual edge of the pavement. They are painted
in yellow or white.
 All the lines should be preferably light reflective, so that they will be visible during night
also.
 Improved night visibility may also be obtained by the use of minute glass beads
embedded in the pavement marking materials to produce a retro-reflective surface.
Transverse markings
 Transverse markings are marked across the direction of traffic.
 They are marked at intersections etc.
 The site conditions play a very important role.
 The type of road marking for a particular intersection depends on several variables such
as speed characteristics of traffic, availability of space etc.
 Stop line markings, markings for pedestrian crossing, direction arrows, etc. are some of
the markings on approaches to intersections.
Stop line
 Stop line indicates the position beyond which the vehicles should not proceed when
required stopping by control devices like signals or by traffic police.
 They should be placed either parallel to the intersecting roadway or at right angles to the
direction of approaching vehicles.
 A figure showing the stop line is shown below

Pedestrian crossing
 Pedestrian crossings are provided at places where the conflict between vehicular and
pedestrian traffic is severe.
 The site should be selected that there is less inconvenience to the pedestrians and also the
vehicles are not interrupted too much.
  At intersections, the pedestrian crossings should be preceded by a stop line at a distance
of 2 to 3m for un-signalized intersections and at a distance of one metre for signalized
intersections.
 Most commonly used pattern for pedestrian crossing is Zebra crossing consisting of
equally spaced white strips of 500 mm wide.
A typical example of an intersection illustrating pedestrian crossings is shown below

Visibility of road markings

 Road markings are used as a means of controlling and guiding traffic
 Road markings are classified into carriage way markings and object markings
 Carriageway markings are applied to carriageways
 Object markings are applied to traffic islands, culvert headwalls, piers, abutments, etc
 Carriageway markings are of the following types
o Objects within the carriageway
 The obstructions within the carriageway such as traffic islands, raised
medians, etc. may be marked by not less than five alternate black and
yellow stripes. The stripes should slope forward at an angle of 45º with
respect to the direction of traffic. These stripes shall be uniform and
should not be less than 100 m wide so as to provide sufficient visibility.
o Objects adjacent to the carriageway
 Objects adjacent to the carriageway may pose some obstructions to the
flow of traffic. Objects such as subway piers and abutments, culvert head
 walls etc. are some examples for such obstructions. They should be
marked with alternate black and white stripes at a forward angle of 45º
with respect to the direction of traffic. Poles close to the carriageway
should be painted in alternate black and white up to a height of 1.25 m
above the road level. Other objects such as guard stones, drums, guard
rails etc. where chances of vehicles hitting them are only when vehicle
runs off the carriageway should be painted in solid white. Kerbs of all
islands located in the line of traffic flow shall be painted with either
alternating black and white stripes of 500 mm wide or chequered black
and white stripes of same width.
 Word messages
o Information to guide, regulates, or warns the road user may also be conveyed by
inscription of word message on road surface. Characters for word messages are
usually capital letters. The legends should be as brief as possible and shall not
consist of more than three words for any message. Word messages require more
and important time to read and comprehend than other road markings.
o Examples of word messages are STOP, SLOW, SCHOOL, RIGHT TUN ONLY
o Typical dimension of the letter 'T' is shown below

Parking
 The marking of the parking space limits on urban roads promotes more efficient use of
the parking spaces and tends to prevent encroachment on places like bus stops, fire
hydrant zones etc. where parking is undesirable.
 Parking space limitations should be indicated with markings that are solid white lines
100 mm wide. Words TAXI, CARS, SCOOTERS etc. may also be written if the parking
area is specific for any particular type of vehicle.
 To indicate parking restriction, kerb or carriage way marking of continuous yellow line
100 mm wide covering the top of kerb or carriageway close to it may be used.
Hazardous location
 Wherever there is a change in the width of the road, or any hazardous location in the
road, the driver should be warned about this situation with the help of suitable road
markings.
  Road markings showing the width transition in the carriageway should be of 100 mm
width.
 Converging lines shall be 150 mm wide and shall have a taper length of not less than
twenty times the off-set distance.
 Typical carriageway markings showing transition from wider to narrower sections and
vice-versa is shown in figure below

Road markings are aids to control traffic by exercising psychological control over the road users.
They are made use of in delineating the carriage way as well as marking obstructions, to ensure
safe driving. They also assist safe pedestrian crossing. Longitudinal markings which are
provided along the length of the road and its various classifications were discussed. Transverse
markings are provided along the width of the road. Road markings also contain word messages,
but since it is time consuming to understand compared to other markings there are only very few
of them. Markings are also used to warn the driver about the hazardous locations ahead. Thus
road markings ensure smooth flow of traffic providing safety also to the road users.
The standard to be followed with regard to paint arrows as road markings with dimensions is
shown in the figure below:
VISIBILITY OF ROAD MARKINGS
Road Marking is defined as lines, patterns, words except road signs which are applied or
attached to the carriageway carriage way or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway for Controlling, Warning, Guiding and Informing the road users.
 Road markings are essential as "bare roads" lead to total confusion
 Marking helps on the road to Direct, Guide and Regulate the road user
 Road Markings include all lines patterns, words & colour applied on or attached to the
road surface or kerb.
 Road Marking are used to supplement message of road signs & other devices
 ƒ Marking promote road safety & ensure smooth flow of traffic
 Road markings
o Guides & Controls traffic on a highway
o Delineation of Traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic hazards
facilitating safe movement ƒ
o Channelize the pedestrians & cyclists movement into safe location
o Road markings normally include longitudinal markings, transverse markings, text
and symbols etc. on the road surfaces
o Applicable to all categories of roads even on Rural roads as well
 Traffic paints are commonly used for road markings. Other materials such as road studs,
cats eyes and thermoplastic strips also find their application in road markings.
 The Colours of road markings imply specific instructions as described below:
o WHITE is used for carriageway (road) markings except those indicating
restrictions
o YELLOW markings are used to signify RESTRICTIONS.
o WHITE or YELLOW together with BLACK are used for kerb and object
marking.
 Different Types of Road Markings are listed below
 CENTER LINES On undivided two-way roads, the centre line
separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their
movements.
 The centre line can be a single broken line, a single continuous
solid line (barrier line) , a double solid line or a combination
of solid line and broken line.
In order to improve visibility of road markings during poor lighting conditions or at night,
different types of reflective surfaces are used.
 Diffuse reflection
 Retro reflection and
 Mirror reflection
Diffuse reflection occurs when incident light beam falls on microscopically rough surface
Retro reflection is of two types and occurs when incident light beam falls on glass beads and
cube corners
Mirror reflection occurs when incident light beam falls on microscopically smooth surface. In
such cases, the angle of incident light beam is equal to the angle of reflected light beam
The pattern of retro reflected light from a vehicle headlight is in a cone shaped pattern
Poor night visibility of road markings is responsible for accidents at critical spots on a road.
Road markings must be visible clearly during the day or night.
As a general requirement, drivers should be able to detect road markings at a distance equivalent
to a minimum of two seconds of travel time.
The visibility distance of road markings is enhanced when the when the line thickness is wider
along with a higher mark to gap ratio and higher coefficient of retro-reflective luminance. This
implies that larger pavement marking widths combined with higher coefficients of retro-
reflectivity are used by drivers to detect the lines according to design speed of roadway
Retro-reflectivity is accomplished in pavement-marking through the use of glass beads that are
partially embedded on the surface of the marking as binding material and also spread externally
during application time.
The quality of glass beads plays an important role in retro-reflectivity of pavement marking as
the glass bead returns light from a vehicle headlight to the driver
Visibility distance is adversely affected by the glare coming from on-coming vehicles, dirty head
lamps or windscreen (especially during rains). Moreover, the size of a glass bead can affect
retro-reflectivity especially during wet conditions.
Larger glass beads have higher retro-reflectivity in dry conditions. In wet conditions, the light is
scattered due to water on the beads rendering them useless. Beads of at-least 1mm thickness
effective when roads are wet.

NEED FOR TRAFFIC SIGNALS

 Traffic signs provide valuable information to drivers and other road users.
 They represent rules that are essential for the safety of the population.
 Traffic signals help to communicate messages to drivers and pedestrians so that they can
maintain order and reduce accidents.
 Neglecting traffic signals can be dangerous or sometimes even fatal
 Most signs make use of pictures, rather than words, thus they are easy to understand and
can be interpreted by people who speak a variety of languages.
 Therefore it is important that drivers are familiar with each sign regarding what it
represents
 Traffic signals are used to inform the other road users regarding the rules of driving.
 Failing to obey traffic signals could result in a serious accident or a fine.

TRAFFIC SIGNAL FACE

Signal face is defined as defined as that part of a signal head provided for controlling traffic in a
single direction. Turning indications may be included in a signal face. A signal face is one
cluster of signal sections facing one traffic movement. A signal face has one set of red, yellow
and green lamps. The signal face which is nearest to and facing the incoming traffic is called the
primary signal face. A signal faces showing the same indications as on a primary signal face,
usually further away from the incoming traffic and on its off-side (Right) is known as secondary
signal face.
 Traffic signals are control devices that alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at
an intersection using red and green lights alternatively.
 The main requirements of traffic signals are
o to draw attention
o provide meaning and time to respond and\
o minimise wastage of time
 Traffic signals are required to
o Reduce delay
o Improve safety
o Help low volume roads
o Ensure orderly flow of traffic and
o Reduce the frequency of accidents
  Conflicting traffic movements make roadway intersections unsafe for vehicles and
pedestrians
 Intersections are a major source of crashes and vehicle delay
 Traffic volumes and crash frequency/severity require installation of traffic signals
ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
 Traffic signals ensure orderly movement of traffic in all directions
 Traffic signals provide a progressive flow of traffic in a signal-system corridor
 By virtue of traffic signals, side-street vehicles can safely enter the traffic stream
 Traffic signals enable pedestrians to cross the street safely
 Traffic signals have the potential to reduce accidents and ensure safety of all road users
 Traffic signals also ensure reduction in delays
DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
 Delays due to large stop time
 Complex signal design problem
 Effects due to poorly-timed traffic signals
o Increased vehicle delay
o Increased rear-end vehicle crashes
o Disruption to traffic progression

ILLUMINATION AND LOCATION OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

A traffic signal is used as an instructing device that indicates the road user to act according to the
displayed sign. Following the traffic signal ensures road safety and to make things simple to
understand, these signals have been using a universal colour code.
 Red is generally the sign of danger or warning and on traffic lights, it signals potential
hazard ahead and hence, is an indicator for the motorists to stop.
 A flashing red light indicates the same as the stop light, which is, basically, top stop.
Once you have stopped, you can proceed ahead after making sure there‟s no obstacle in
your path.
 A yellow traffic light is a warning signal that lets you know that the red signal is about to
be displayed. Hence, when you see the yellow light, you should start slowing down to
come to a stop in anticipation of red light.
 A flashing yellow light is basically a warning signal to make the road users alert and
slow down if needed.
 The green light signals safety and the word GO.
 A traffic signal setup includes controller, traffic lights and detection. The controller
works as the „brain‟ of the entire setup and has the information that is required to make
sure the lights work as per the required sequences. Traffic signals can run under a variety
of different modes which can be dependent on location and time of day.
 Traffic Signal power supplies supply power to traffic signal cabinets
 The traffic signal power supply is an electrical device in the control cabinet that converts
AC to correct DC voltages for various devices in the traffic signal cabinet. The nominal
voltage of the power supply is 24VDC
 One of the effective options used by traffic management teams is the use of LED or light-
emitting diode lamps to be able to consume less power during operations. This will also
make it easier to provide backup power, such as the use of uninterruptible power
supply (UPS).
 The first illuminated traffic signal was installed in London, England, in 1868.
 The first electric traffic signal was installed in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1914.
  The first signal to use the familiar green, yellow, and red lights was installed in New
York City in 1918. It was operated manually from an elevated observation post in the
middle of the street
 A modern traffic signal system consists of three basic subsystems: the signal lights in
their housing, the supporting arms or poles, and the electric controller. The signal lights
and housing are known as the signal light stack.
 A single stack usually consists of three lights: a green light on the bottom to indicate the
traffic may proceed, a yellow light in the middle to warn traffic to slow and prepare to
stop, and a red light on the top to indicate the traffic must stop.
Each light has a Fresnel lens which may be surrounded or hooded by a visor to make it
easier to see the light in bright sunlight.
 A Fresnel lens consists of a series of concentric angled ridges on the outer surface of the
lens which bend the light to focus it in a parallel beam.
 The light stack may have a dark-coloured backing plate to make the signals more
distinguishable by blocking out surrounding lights from buildings and signs.
The electric controller is usually mounted in a weather-proof box on one of the corners of
the intersection.
 More elaborate traffic signals may also have electromagnetic sensors buried in the
roadway to detect the flow of traffic at various points.
The lens for each light is made of tinted glass or plastic.
 The bulb, known as the lamp, is designed for long life.
 The bulb is partially surrounded by a polished metal reflector to direct the light forward.
 The hood or visor is made from aluminium or moulded plastic.
 The supporting arms or poles are usually made of galvanized steel for strength and
corrosion-resistance. They may also be made of fiberglass.
 The controller is housed in a steel or aluminium enclosure.
 The electrical components within the controller consist of switches, relays, and timers
 The wiring between the components is copper with a heavy neoprene rubber or plastic
insulation.
 Each signal lens shall be illuminated independently and should be clearly visible from a
distance of at least 400 m under normal atmospheric conditions.
Location of signals
 The Indian Road Congress (IRC) defines a road traffic signal as any power operated by
which traffic is regulated, warned or directed to take some specific action.
 The primary consideration in placement of signals is visibility
 Drivers approaching a signalised intersection should be given a clear indication of their
right-of-way assignment
 The lateral and vertical angles of sight towards a signal face determined by typical driver
eye position, vehicle design and the vertical longitudinal and lateral position of the signal
face are the critical elements to be considered while determining the location of signals
 The geometry of each intersection to be signalised along with the vertical grades and
horizontal curves should be considered in signal face placement.
FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
The IRC method for designing traffic signs implies the following factors affect the design of
traffic signals
 Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided
 Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one
full cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of of green for
one approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
 Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals -
o change interval and
o clearance interval.
 Change interval is also called the yellow time indicates the interval
between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
 Clearance interval is also called all red is included after each yellow
interval indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is
used for clearing off the vehicles in the intersection.

 Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
and is denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is lit.

 Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is
denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is lit.

 Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it.
Thus, during green interval, non-conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It
allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set
of movements start.
  Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized for
any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green,
the driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue will take some time to perceive
the signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost here before he
moves.

TRAFFIC SIGNALS AFFECTING PEDESTRIAN SAFETY

It has been observed that most pedestrian accidents in built-up areas occur at intersections. The
"Traffic Conflicts Technique" is used to examine risk to pedestrians at intersections.
 It has been observed that reduction in speed reduces the pedestrian's risk
 A "zebra crossing" located less than 2m from the intersection increases the pedestrian
safety
 The collected data must distinguish between accidents occurring during pedestrians
walking against red light and green light
 An exclusive pedestrian signal phase was found to be extremely safety-beneficial.
However, such traffic signals meant exclusively for pedestrians are possible only in small
towns with a very low population
 Pedestrians crossing a road running with heavy traffic is influenced heavily by size of the
town and traffic volume
 Short waiting times and police enforcement are the most efficient measures to reduce
frequency of red-walking

Fixed and vehicle actuated signals

 Fixed time signals are normally installed at the intersection of two major roads.
 The signals will change even if no cars or pedestrians are present.
 Fixed time signals are less efficient when traffic varies quite a bit through the day, but
they are cost-effective because detectors are not required.
 Fixed-time signals are the rule in urban areas for reasons of regularity, network
organization, predictability, and reducing unnecessary delay.

 Vehicle-Actuated Signals require actuation by a vehicle on one or more approaches in

order for certain phases or traffic movements to be serviced.
 They are equipped with detectors and the necessary control logic to respond to the
demands placed on them.
 Vehicle-actuated control uses information on current demands and operations, obtained
from detectors within the intersection, to alter one or more aspects of the signal
timing on a cycle-by-cycle basis.
 Timing of the signals is controlled by traffic demand.
 Variability allows the signal to allocate green time based on current demands and
operations.
 A proper clearance interval between the green & the red phases is also ensured.
The various advantages of actuated signals are stated below:
 They can reduce delay (if properly timed).
 They are adaptable to short-term fluctuations in traffic flow.
 Usually increase capacity (by continually reapportioning green time).
 Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions.
 Especially effective at multiple phase intersections.
The main disadvantages are as following:
  If traffic demand pattern is very regular, the extra benefit of adding local actuation is
minimal, perhaps non-existent.
 Installation cost is two to three times the cost of a pre-timed signal installation.
 Actuated controllers are much more complicated than pre-timed
controllers, increasing maintenance costs.
 They require careful inspection & maintenance to ensure proper operation.
There are three basic types of actuated control, each using signal controllers that are somewhat
different in their design:
1. Semi-Actuated Control
2. Full-Actuated Control
3. Volume-Density Control
The various types of detectors used for detection of vehicles are as following:
 Inductive loop detectors
 Magnetometer detectors
 Magnetic detectors
 Pressure-sensitive detectors
 Radar detectors
 Sonic detectors
 Microloop detectors etc.
In certain, less-trafficked areas, actuated signals (push buttons, loop detectors) may be
appropriate; however, these must be programmed to minimize delay, which will increase
compliance.
Fixed-time signals incur lower initial and on-going maintenance costs than actuated signals.
Actuated signals in general are not preferable because of the maintenance requirements and
upkeep of the detection on the street.
Drivers at unsignalized intersections benefit from a series of fixed-time signals, as they
produce routine gaps in traffic that may be used to turn onto or cross the street. Fixed-time
signals help make pedestrians an equal part of the traffic signal system by providing them with
regular and consistent intervals at which to cross
Fixed-time signals incur lower initial and on-going maintenance costs than actuated signals.
Actuated signals prioritize movement along the primary corridor and can present obstacles to
cross traffic and pedestrians if timed to prioritize vehicle movements only.
Actuated signals should be timed to be as responsive to activation as possible, with delay kept
to a minimum.

Many existing traffic signal controllers have the capacity to reduce delay, but remain
in coordination rather than a free setting. Coordination, paired with long signal cycles, can
result in delays of 80 seconds or more, reducing pedestrian compliance, increasing risk-taking
behaviour, and creating the impression that a push button is either non-
responsive or malfunctioning.

At crossings where the signal is uncoordinated with adjacent traffic signals (free setting),
designers can further reduce pedestrian delay by reducing the minimum green time.
At coordinated signal locations, designers have multiple options to decrease delay, including
increasing the permissive window, adjusting signal timing for responsiveness at certain times
of day, and setting the signal to recall on the pedestrian phase.

In coordination with traffic signal timing, designers must consider spacing between traffic
signals, looking at desirable crossing intervals to achieve a pedestrian-friendly environment.
 Fixed-time signals are recommended in all downtown areas, commercial centers, and urban
areas in which pedestrians are anticipated or desired and speeds are intended to be low.

Use of semi- or fully-actuated signal operations should mainly be restricted to suburban

arterials and rural roads.

In areas with lower pedestrian traffic, actuation may be used along priority rapid transit
corridors to increase the schedule reliability of transit service and avoid unnecessary delays.

The responsiveness of an actuated signal should be prompt (as low as 5 seconds) based on
the necessary transition time for approaching motorists to come safely to a stop.

Wherever pedestrian movement crosses a high capacity transit line, major bicycle facility, or
critical freight route, longer delays are acceptable.

For major bicycle routes, use upstream passive detection as opposed to push-button activation to
minimize the time lag between detection and crossing.

Basic concepts and formulae regarding design of traffic signals

The conflicts arising from movements of traffic in different directions are addressed by time
sharing principle. The design principles of traffic signal are:
 phase design
 cycle length design and
 green splitting.

In this regard, the concepts of saturation flow, capacity, and lost times are important.
Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full cycle
of indications. It is denoted by C.

Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of intervals
- change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow
time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an
approach. Clearance interval is also called all red and is provided after each yellow interval
indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing off the
vehicles in the intersection.

Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is
denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned on.

Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is
denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.

Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it.
Thus, during green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It allows
a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of
movements start.
Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized for
any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green, the
driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue, will take some time to perceive the
signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost before vehicle actually moves
and gains speed.
The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They are:
 phase design
 determination of amber time and clearance time
 determination of cycle length
 apportioning of green time
 pedestrian crossing requirements and
 performance evaluation of the design
There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. It is often guided by:
 the geometry of the intersection
 the flow pattern especially the turning movements and
 the relative magnitudes of flow.
A trial and error procedure is often adopted. The first issue is to decide how many phases are
required. It is possible to have two, three, four or even more number of phases.
Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations. i.e. one
complete rotation through all signal indications. It is denoted by C.
As the signal is initiated, the time interval between two vehicles, referred as headway, crossing
the curb line is noted. The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of the
green signal and the instant vehicle crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time
interval between the first and the second vehicle crossing the curb line.
The first headway will be relatively longer since it includes the reaction time of the driver and
the time necessary to accelerate. The second headway will be comparatively lower because the
second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with that of the first driver‟s. After few vehicles,
the headway will become constant. This constant headway which characterizes all headways
beginning with the fourth or fifth vehicle, is defined as the saturation headway, and is denoted as
h.
The saturation flow rate s= 3600/h
Start-up lost time (L)
Green time (T) to clear N vehicles
Effective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection. It is the
sum of actual green time (Gi) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times.
The ratio of effective green time to the cycle length (gi/C) is defined as green ratio.

Capacity at signalized intersections is based upon the concept of saturation flow and saturation
flow rate. Saturation flow rate is given the symbol s and is expressed in units of vehicles per
hour of effective green time (vphg) for a given lane group.
The flow ratio for a given lane group is defined as the ratio of the actual or projected demand
flow rate for the lane group (vi) to the saturation flow rate (si). The flow ratio is given the
symbol (v/s)i (for lane group i).
The capacity of a given lane group may be stated as
ci=si(gi/C)
where;
ci = capacity of lane group i, vph,
si = saturation flow rate for lane group i, vphg,
gi/C = effective green ratio for lane group i.
Saturation flow rate is defined as the flow rate per lane at which vehicles can pass through a
signalized intersection in such a stable moving queue. By definition, it is computed as
s = 3,600/h
where;
s = saturation flow rate (vphgpl),
h = saturation headway (sec),
3,600 = number of seconds per hour.

The flowchart depicting the various stages in the design of a traffic signal is shown below
 PROBLEMS ON THE DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

1. Given:

 Cycle time at an intersection = 60 s

 Green time for a phase = 27 s
 Yellow time = 4 s
 Saturation headway = 2.4 s/vehicle
 Start-up time lost = 2 s/phase
 Clearance lost time = 1 s/phase
Calculate the capacity of movement per lane

2. In a right angled intersection of two roads, one road has four lanes with a total width of 12
m. The other road has two lanes with a total width of 6.6 m. The traffic volume of two
approaching roads is 900 and 743 PCU per hour. Design the signal timing as per IRC guidelines

3. The average speed on a roadway is 80 kmph. Under stopped conditions, the average spacing
between vehicles is 6.9m. Determine the maximum flow of vehicles (road capacity)

4. Fifteen minute traffic count on cross roads A and B during peak hour are observed as 178
and 142 vehicles per lane respectively approaching the intersection in the observed direction of
heavier traffic flow. If the amber times required are 3 and 2 seconds respectively for two loads
based on approach speeds, design the signal timings by trial cycle method assuming an average
headway time of 2.5 seconds during green phase.

5. The average normal flow of traffic on cross-roads A and B during design period are 400 and
250 PCU per hour. The saturation flow values on these roads are 1250 and 1000 PCU
respectively. The all-red time required for pedestrian crossing is 12 seconds. Design the traffic
signal by webster's method

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS ON DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

1. Given:
Cycle time at an intersection = 60 s
Green time for a phase = 27 s
Yellow time = 4 s
Saturation headway = 2.4 s/vehicle
Start-up time lost = 2 s/phase
Clearance lost time = 1 s/phase
Calculate the capacity of movement per lane
Solution:
Total time lost = tL = 2 + 1 = 3 seconds
Effective green time = gi= 27 + 4 - 3 = 28 seconds
As per the equation for saturation flow rate = Si = 3600 / h = 3600/2.4
= 1500 vehicles / hour
Capacity of the given phase is found by the equation Ci = 1500 * (28/60)
= 700 vehicles/hour/lane
====================================================
2. In a right angled intersection of two roads, one road has four lanes with a total width of 12
m. The other road has two lanes with a total width of 6.6 m. The traffic volume of two
approaching roads is 900 and 743 PCU per hour. on the two approaches of road-1 and 278 and
189 PCU/hour on the two approaches of road-1 and 278 and 180 PCU.hour on the two
approaches of road-2. Design the signal timing as per IRC guidelines
Solution
Width of road-1 = 12.0m, 4 lanes = 2 lanes in each direction
Width of road-2 = 6.6m, 2 lanes = 1 lane in each direction
Approach volume on road-1 = 90 & 743 PCU/hr
Approach volume on road-2 = 278 & 180 PCU/hr
Pedestrian walking speed = 1.2m/s
Design traffic on road-1 = higher of the two approach volume per lane
= 900/2 = 450PCU/hr
Design traffic on road-2 = 278 PCU/hr
STEP-1
Pedestrian crossing time
Pedestrian green time for road-1 = (12/1.2) + 7.0 = 17 seconds
Pedestrian green time for road-2 = (6.6/1.2) + 7.0 = 12.5 seconds
STEP-2
Minimum green time for traffic
Minimum green time for vehicles on road-1 = G(i) = 17 seconds
Minimum green time for vehicle on road-1 = G1 = 17 * (450/278) = 27.5 seconds
STEP 3
Revised green time for traffic signals
Adding 2.0 seconds each towards clearance amber and inter-green period for each phase, total
cycle time required = (2 + 17 + 2) +(2 + 27.5 + 2) = 52.5 seconds
Approximating this to the next multiple of 5, cycle time = 55 seconds
Signal time is set conveniently in multiples of 5
The extra time of (55 - 52.5) may be apportioned to green times of road-1 and road-2 as 1.5 and
1 seconds respectively. Adopting G1 = 27.5 + 1.5 = 29.0 seconds and G2 = 17.0 + 1.0 = 18
seconds
STEP 4
Checking for clearing the vehicles during the green phase
Vehicle arrival per lane per cycle on road-1 = (450/55) = 8.2 PCU/cycle
Minimum green time required per cycle to vehicles on road-1 =
= 6 + (8.2 - 1.0) * 2 = 20.4 seconds (This is less than 29 seconds, hence accepted)
Vehicle arrival per lane per cycle on road-2 = (278/55) = 5.1 PCU/cycle
Minimum green time required per cycle to vehicles on road-2 =
= 6 + (5.1 - 1.0) * 2 = 14.2 seconds (This is less than 18 seconds, hence acceptable)
Since the green time provided by the road by pedestrian crossing criteria is higher than the
values calculated, the design values are correct
STEP 5
Check for optimum signal cycle by webster's equation
Lost time per cycle = (amber time + inter-green period + time lost for initial delay of first
vehicle) for two phases. = (2 + 2 + 4) *2 = 16 seconds
Saturation flow for road-1 of width 6 m = 525 * 6 = 3150 PCU/hour
Saturation flow for road-2 of width 3.3 m = 180 PCU 3.0 wide road + (40 * 3/5)
= 1874 PCU/hour
y1 = 900 / 3150 = 0.286 & y2 = 278/1874 = 0.148
Optimum cycle time C0 = (1.5L + 5)/(1 - y) = 51.2 seconds
Hence, cycle time of 55 seconds as designed earlier is acceptable. The details of signal timing
are tabulated as follows.

Road Green phase Amber time Red phase Cycle time

Road-1 29 s 2s (22 + 2) 55
Road-2 18 s 2s (33 + 2) 55
==================================================
3. Average speed on a roadway = 80 kmph
Average spacing between vehicles (under stopped conditions) = 6.9m
Maximum flow of vehicles (C) = 100 * Average Velocity / Stopping distance
= 100 * (80/6.9)
= 1159.42 vehicles/hour
==================================================
4. 15-minute traffic counts n1= 178 and n2= 142
A1= 3 sec, A2= 2 sec, Ht= 2.5 sec
Trial (i) Assume a trial cycle C1= 50 sec
Number of cycles in 15 min = 15 * 60/50 = 18 sec
Green time for Road-1, allowing average time headway of 2.5 sec
per vehicle,G1= 178×2.518= 24.7 sec
Similarly for Road-2, G2= 142×2.518= 19.7 sec
Amber times A1 and A2 are 3 and 2 sec (given)
Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)= 24.7 + 19.7 + 3.0 + 2.0
= 49.4 sec
As this is lower than the assumed trial cycle of 50 sec, another lower cycle length may be tried.
Trial (ii)
Assume a trial cycle C2= 40 sec
Number of cycles in 15 min = 15 * 60/40 = 22.5sec
Green time for Road-1, allowing average time headway of 2.5 sec per
vehicle, G1= 178×2.522.5= 19.8 sec
Similarly for Road-2, G2= 142×2.522.5= 15.8 sec
Amber times A1and A2are 3 and 2 sec (given)
Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)= 19.8 + 15.8 + 3.0 + 2.0= 40.6 sec
As this is lower than the assumed trial cycle of 50 sec, another higher cycle length may be tried.
Trial (iii)Assume a trial cycle C3= 45 sec
Number of cycles in 15 min = 15*60 / 45= 20sec
Green time for Road-1, allowing average time headway of 2.5 sec per vehicle,G1= 178×2.5/20=
22.25 sec
Similarly for Road-2, G2= 142×2.5/20= 17.75 sec
Amber times A1and A2are 3 and 2 sec (given)
Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)

= 22.25+17.75+3.0+2.0= 45.0 sec

Therefore, the trial cycle of 45 sec may be adopted with the following signal phases:
G1= 22.25, say adopt G1= 22 sec
G2= 17.75, say adopt G2= 18 sec
Adopt A1= 3 sec, A2= 2 sec
Total cycle length, C = (G1+ G2+ A1+ A2)= 22.0 + 18.0 + 3.0 + 2.0= 45.0 sec
Since this is greater than the assumed cycle of 40 seconds, the value of 45 seconds of cycle time
is adopted.
================================================
5. Flow of traffic on road A = 400 PCU/hour
Flow of traffic on road B = 250 PCU/hour
Saturation flow value on road A =1250 PCU/hour
Saturation flow value on road B =1000 PCU/hour
Pedestrian crossing time = 12 seconds
Using WEBSTERs method to design traffic signal
Normal flow on roads A & B in PCU/hr
Saturation flow
All – red time, R=12 sec
Number of phase, n = 2
Total lost time in sec
Optimum cycle time say (~ 67.5 sec)
Providing an all-red time, R for pedestrian crossing = 12 sec
Providing Amber times of 2.0 sec each for clearance
Total cycle time = 29 + 22.5 + 12 + 2 + 2 = 67.5 sec.
Width of road – 1 = 12.0 m or total 4 lanes, with 2 lanes in each direction; Width of road - 2 =
6.6 m or total 2 lanes, with one lane in each direction. Approach volumes on road – 1 = 900 &
743 PCU/hr On road - 2 = 278 & 180 PCU/hr Pedestrian walking speed = 1.2 m/sec. Design
traffic on road - 1= higher of the two approach volume per lane = 900/2 = 450 PCU/hr Design
traffic on road – 2 = 278 PCU/hr Step – 1. Pedestrian crossing time Pedestrian green time for
road – 1 = sec Pedestrian green time for road – 2 = sec Step – 2, Minimum green time for traffic
Minimum green time for vehicles on Road – 1, G (1) = 17 sec Minimum green time for Road –
1, sec =
revised green time for traffic signals Adding 2.0 sec each towards clearance amber and 2.0 sec
inter-green period for each phase, total cycle time required = (2 + 17 + 2) + (2 + 27.5 + 2) = 52.5
sec. Signal cycle time may be conveniently set in multiples of five sec and so the cycle time = 55
sec. The extra time of 55.0 – 52.5 = 2.5 sec per cycle may be apportioned to the green times of
Road – 1 and Road – 2, as 1.5 and 1.0 sec respectively. Therefore adopt sec and sec Step – 4,
check for clearing the vehicles arrived during the green phase Vehicle arrivals per lane per cycle
on Road – 1 = 450/55=8.2 PCU/cycle Minimum green time required per cycle to clear vehicles
on Road – 1 = 6 + (8.2 – 1.0)2 = 20.4 sec (less than 29.0 sec and therefore accepted) Vehicle
arrivals per lane per cycle on Road – 2 = 278/55 = 5.1 PCU/cycle Minimum green time for
clearing vehicles on Road – 2 = 6 + (5.1 - 1.0) 2 = 14.2 sec(less than 18.0 sec) As the green time
already provided for the two roads by pedestrian crossing criteria in Step (2) above are higher
than these values (29.0 and 18.0 sec), the above design values are alright.
check for optimum signal cycle by Webster‟s equation Lost time per cycle = (amber time + inter
– green time + time lost for initial delay of first vehicle) for two phases = (2 + 2 + 4) x 2 = 16
sec. Saturation flow for Road – 1 of width 6 m = 525 x 6 = 3150 PCU/hr Saturation flow for
Road – 2 of width 3.3 m =1850 PCU for 3.0 m wide road + ( 40 * 3/5) = 1874 PCU/hr Y = 0.286
+ 0.148 = 0.434 Optimum signal cycle time, sec Therefore the cycle time of 55 sec designed
earlier is acceptable. The details of the signal timings are given below. These may also be shown
in the form of phase diagram as in Fig. 5.30. Road Green phase, G sec Amber time, sec Red
phase, R sec Cycle time, C sec Road 1 29 2 (22 + 2) 55 Road 2 18 2 (33 + 2) 55

APPROXIMATE METHOD BASED ON PEDESTRIAN CROSSING REQUIREMENT

The following design procedure is suggested for the approximate design of a two phase traffic
signal unit at cross roads, along with pedestrian signals:
Based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m per second and the roadway width of each approach
road, the minimum time for the pedestrian to cross each road is also calculated
Total pedestrian crossing time is taken as minimum pedestrian crossing time plus initial interval
for pedestrians to start crossing, which should not be less than 7 sec and during this period when
the pedestrian will be crossing the road, the traffic signal shall indicate red or „stop‟.
The red signal time is also equal to the minimum green time plus amber time for the traffic of
the cross road.
The actual green time needed for the road with higher traffic is then increased in proportion to
the ratio of approach volumes of the two roads in vehicles per hour per lane.
Based on approach speeds of the vehicles, the suitable clearance interval between green and red
period i.e., clearance amber periods are selected.
The amber periods may be taken as 2, 3 or 4 seconds for low, medium and fast approach speeds
The cycle length so obtained is adjusted for the next higher 5 – sec interval; the extra time is
then distributed to green timings in proportion to the traffic volumes The timings so obtained are
installed in the controller and the operations are then observed at the site during peak traffic
hours; modification in signal timings are carried out if needed
The design of a simple two-phase signal is given below.
1. Example - 4 An isolated traffic signal with pedestrian indication is to be installed on a
right angled intersection with road A, 18 m wide and road B, 12 m wide. During the peak
our, traffic volume per hour per lane of road A and road B are 275 and 225 respectively.
The approach speeds are 55 and 40 kmph, on roads A and road B respectively. Assume
pedestrian crossing speed as 1.2 m per sec. Design the timings two-phase traffic and
pedestrian by the approximate method. Solution Given: Widths of road A = 18 m and of
road B = 12 m Traffic volumes on road A = 275 and on road B = 225 vehicles/lane/hour
Approach speeds on road A = 55 and on road B = 40 kmph Pedestrian crossing speed =
1.2 m/sec Design of two-phase traffic control signals Pedestrian crossing/clearance time
for Road A = 18/1.2 =15 sec Pedestrian crossing/clearance time for Road B = 12/1.2 = 10
sec Adding 7 sec initial walk period, minimum red time for traffic of road A, is (15 + 7)
= 22 sec and that for road B is (10 + 7) = 17 sec. Minimum green time, for traffic of road
B, based on pedestrian crossing requirement = 22-3 = 19 sec. Minimum green time, for
traffic of road A, based on pedestrian crossing requirement = 17- 4= 13 sec.
2. The minimum green time calculated for road A is with respect to pedestrian crossing
time required for the narrower road B. As road A has higher traffic volume per lane than
road B, the green time of road A has to be higher than that of road B; the increase may
be proportion to the approach volume of road A with respect to that of road B. Let and be
the green times and be the approach volume per lane Using the relation, Green time for
traffic is taken as the minimum value = 19 sec as obtained from pedestrian crossing
criterion for the wider road A. Green time for traffic of road A may be increased in
proportion to higher traffic volume Using relation sec Based on the approach speed of 55
kmph for road A, amber period, sec For road B with 40 kmph, amber period, sec Total
cycle length Therefore adopt signal cycle length of 50 sec. The additional period of 50 –
49.2 = 0.8 sec is distributed to green timings in proportion to the approach traffic
volume. Therefore the revised signal phase are: sec, adopt 23.5 sec sec, adopt 19.5 sec
Therefore cycle time, C = 23.5 + 19.5 + 4 + 3 = 50 sec
3. Design of pedestrian signals: Do not Walk (DW) period of pedestrian signal at road A (is
red period of traffic signal at B). Pedestrian clearance intervals (CI) are of 15 and 10 sec
respectively, for roads A and B for crossing. The walk time (W) is calculated from total
cycle length.
Design of traffic signal problem
Design a traffic signal for the following right angled intersection
 Major street = 12 m (4 lanes)
 Minor street = 6 m (2 lanes)
 The peak hour volumes in each direction are indicated accordingly

Solution: Assuming that the average pedestrian speed = 1.2 m/s

Pedestrian clear time along the major road = 12 / 1.2 = 10 seconds
Peak green time = 10 + 7 = 17 seconds
Pedestrian reaction time = 17 seconds
Therefore, minimum green time for vehicle on minor street = 17 seconds
Pedestrian clearance time for minor street = 6 / 1.2 = 5 seconds
Pedestrian green time for vehicle on major street approach = 12 seconds
Critical lane volume on major street = 660 / 2 = 330 vehicles/hour/lane
Critical lane volume on minor street = 180 / 1 = 180 vehicles/hour/lane
Green time on major street approach = (330/180)*17 = 31.16 seconds
~ 32 seconds
Adding initial amber and clearance amber of 2 seconds each
Minimum cycle length = (2 + 17 + 2) + (2 + 32 + 2) = 57 seconds
Adopting the next multiple of 5 we have the maximum cycle length as 60 seconds
Add 3 seconds (2 seconds for major street approach and 1 second for minor street approach =
ratio of volume of traffic on major street to volume of traffic on minor street)
The results for the signal timing (in seconds) are tabulated below:
Signal Initial Green Clearance Red Cycle
timing Amber Amber length
Major street 2 34 2 22 60
Minor street 2 18 2 38 60

AREA TRAFFIC CONTROLS

An Area Traffic Control (ATC) System involves coordination of traffic signals over a complete
network of signals covering an area that might be considered homogeneous from the point of
view of traffic operation. Such a system is computer aided as the problem is extremely complex
because of crossing of several routes at common intersections.
 ATC systems are intelligent, real-time, dynamic traffic control systems which are
designed to effectively respond to rapid variations in dynamic traffic conditions.
 It is an advanced process to control the traffic. It is a traffic responsive system that use
data from vehicle detectors and optimize traffic signal time in real time.
 The timing plan of traffic controllers changes automatically. The technique employs
digital computers for achieving the desired objective.
TRAFFIC DELINEATORS

 Traffic delineators are devices which are used for guiding traffic through potentially
hazardous road conditions or when there are confusing construction situations in effect at a given
location.
 Delineators provide highly visible boundaries which help to identify changes in traffic
flow that alert drivers to upcoming road conditions like curves, on and off ramps, and other road
changes up ahead.
 Traffic delineators include everything from cones to barrels, however the term delineator
is used on those traffic control devices which are tall (height) and have a comparatively short
diameter.
 One of the most important requirements of a delineator is that it should be visible over a
long distance under normal conditions.
 Delineators should be able to withstand impact and hence they are made of rugged plastic
 They are often coated with retro-reflective sheet for increased visibility at night.
 There are different types of delineators. But the most common ones are:
o Open-top delineators
o Flat-panel delineators and
o Delineators with handles
o All the above listed delineators may or may not have reflective sheeting on them.
 Traffic delineators are generally used for channeling motor vehicle traffic through
specific locations where it is necessary to guide motorists along a pathway that is different from
the normal flow of traffic
 Traffic delineators are more effective as they are highly visible and extremely effective at
establishing traffic flow around hazardous locations. They can also be effectively used for
temporarily establishing a traffic pattern
 They are frequently used at construction sites or accident sites. Around work zones
delineators are used to direct traffic safely around the work area in order to protect the drivers
and construction workers.
TRAFFIC IMPACT ATTENUATORS
 Traffic Impact Attenuators or Crash Impact Attenuators are impact absorbing devices
installed in highly hazardous locations so as to reduce kinetic energy of the irregularly
moving vehicle and to stop or redirect the vehicle away from the main hazard with least
damage to life and property

 A safety crash barrier is a system engineered to prevent fatal injuries by absorbing shock
energy and converting it into rotational energy. It functions by virtue of absorbing energy
from the impact and deflecting it into the barrier. This energy is converted into rotational
energy into the barrier.

 The attenuator acts as a protection cushion in the event of an accident. Impact attenuators
are designed to absorb the colliding vehicles kinetic energy and bring it to stop safely
 By safely dissipating the vehicle's kinetic energy, impact attenuators help prevent fatal
injuries.

 Impact attenuators can be categorized by the method used to dissipate kinetic energy:
o Momentum transfer. Many early models used successive rows of sand- or water-
filled barrels or modules. Momentum is transferred to the sand or water, reducing
the speed of the impacting vehicle.
o Material deformation. Many newer attenuators use crushable materials (like
various kinds of foam) that create a crumple zone, absorbing energy. Others
flatten a corrugated steel guard rail section, or split a steel box beam.
o Friction. Some attenuators work by forcing a steel cable or strap through an
angled slot or tube, converting kinetic energy into heat.

ROAD SIDE REST AREAS

In order to promote road safety and avoid accidents due to long and incessant driving on national
highways, the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH) has decided to develop
wayside amenities including rest area for drivers and road users. The rest area facilities are
proposed to be made available under Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode for which interest
has been invited by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI).
The general guidelines for establishing rest areas are listed below:
 The governing consideration for establishing road side rest areas is that it should ensure
free flow of traffic on the road and ensure minimum interference by vehicles using the
facility while ensuring safety of vehicles on the road
 Rest areas should have various amenities for users, e.g. places for parking, toilets,
restaurants, rest rooms, kiosks for selling sundry items, bathing facilities, repair facilities,
creche etc
 Location of the rest area should not interfere with future improvements of the highway
 Rest areas should be located where highway alignment and profile are favourable
 The proposed location should not interfere with placement and proper functioning of
highway signs, signals, lighting or other devices that affect traffic operation

SAFETY BARRIERS
 Safety barriers are designed to withstand the impact of vehicles of certain weights at
certain angle while traveling at the specified speed.
 They are expected to guide the vehicle back on the road while keeping the level of
damage to vehicle as well as to the barriers within acceptable limits.
  Ideally a crash barrier should present a continuous smooth face to an impacting vehicle,
so that the vehicle is redirected, without overturning, to a course that is nearly parallel to
the barrier face and with a lateral deceleration, which is tolerable to the motorist.
 To achieve these aims the vehicle must be redirected without rotation about both its
horizontal or vertical axis (that is, without „spinning out‟ or overturning), and the rate of
lateral deceleration must be such as to cause the minimum risk of injury to he passengers.
Objectives of safety barriers
 Reducing the likelihood of a vehicle crossing the central reserve and reaching the
opposite carriageway.

 Minimising the damage to a barrier and vehicle, following vehicle strike and also
reducing the risk to the workforce and work related congestion.
 Being maintenance-free and having a life of 25 to 50 years.
According to the IRC (6-2000) the crash barriers shall be provided at the following locations:
 For bridges without foot paths, concrete crash barriers shall be provided at the edge of
the carriageway.
 The type design for the crash barriers may be adopted as per IRC:5
 The design loading for the barriers shall be as per IRC:6.
 For bridges with foot paths, pedestrian railing shall be provided on the outer side of
footpath
 The railings of existing bridges shall be replaced by crash barriers
 In the urban environment traffic barriers are needed on urban motorways and primary
distributors, where speeds are high and dangerous.
 Traffic barriers should be erected on both sides of roads on embankments 6m high or
more and on the outer edge of the roads where the radius is 850m or less and the
embankment height 3m or more.
 It is important to provide suitable and treatment for such type of barrier in view of safety.
The ends of this barrier must either be embedded into ground by tapering down or these
must be embedded into the rigid parapet wall of a culvert or specially prepared rigid
parapet fit the purpose of embedding

TRAFFIC AID POSTS

Since full-fledged traffic stations require huge investments and personnel, they cannot be
established in several locations. This gave rise to small single-sized rooms that are located in
various parts of the town at a distance from the main traffic station. The function of these posts
is to maintain a smooth flow of traffic, issue traffic fine challans to offenders and attend to any
accidents by reporting to the main traffic station, clearing the road of debris and ensuring smooth
flow of traffic.
 Traffic aid posts should be established at regular intervals on all important highways.
 Highway patrols should be instituted on main highways and cranes should be available to
remove vehicles involved in accidents or stalled.

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