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Energy
EnergyProcedia 158
Procedia 00(2019)
(2017)3937–3943
000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
10th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2018), 22-25 August 2018, Hong Kong,
10th International Conference on Applied Energy
China(ICAE2018), 22-25 August 2018, Hong Kong,
China
Life-cycle analysis of energy consumption and GHG emissions of
Life-cycle The
analysis of energy
15th International consumption
Symposium on District andHeating GHG emissions of
and Cooling
aluminium production in China
aluminium production in China
Assessing the
Tianduo Penga,b
feasibility of using the heat demand-outdoor
, Xunmin Oua,a,*, Xiaoyu Yanb,b,*, Gehua Wangaa
temperature
Tianduofunction
Peng , for
a,b
Xunmina long-term
Ou *, Xiaoyu district
Yan *,heat Gehua demand
Wang forecast
Institute of Energy, Environment and Economy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
a
b
Environment
a and Sustainability
Institute Institute, University
of Energy, Environment of Exeter
and Economy, PenrynUniversity,
Tsinghua Campus, Penryn, CornwallChina
Beijing 100084, TR10 9FE, UK
a,b,c
I. Andrić
b
*, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Correc
a a b c
Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9FE, UK

a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Abstract b
Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France
c
Abstract Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France
China is the largest producer of aluminium globally. The energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by
China
primaryis aluminium
the largest and producer
recycledof aluminium
aluminiumglobally.
productionTheinenergy
Chinaconsumption
have arousedand greenhouse
widespread gas (GHG)
concern. In this emissions caused
paper, the by
energy
primary aluminium
consumption and GHG andemissions
recycled caused
aluminium production
by primary in China
aluminium andhave aroused
recycled widespread
aluminium concern.
production fromIn athis paper, perspective
life-cycle the energy
Abstract
consumption
are estimated,and andGHG emissions caused
the comparative analysisby between
primary aluminium
China and the andU.S.
recycled aluminium The
are conducted. production from a life-cycle
results indicate perspective
that life-cycle fossil
are estimated,
energy and theand
consumption comparative
GHG emissions analysis ofbetween
primary China and the
aluminium areU.S. are conducted.
144612 The results
MJ/t and 14772.72 kg indicate
CO2-eq/t that life-cyclewhich
respectively, fossil
District
energy
are about heating
twice asnetworks
consumption much as are
and GHG commonly
thatemissions
of the U.S. ofaddressed
primary in the literature
aluminium
This is attributed toare as one
the144612
high of the
MJ/t
energy andmost
and effective
14772.72
GHG kg CO
emissionssolutions for decreasing
/t respectively,
intensities
2-eq
the
which
of electricity
greenhouse
are about twice
production gasas
which emissions
ismuch asfrom
dominated thatbythe
ofcoalbuilding
the sector.
U.S. This
generated is These systems
attributed
electricity. therequire
Thetolife-cycle high investments
high energy and GHG which
consumption and are
emissions
GHG returned
intensities
emissionsthrough the heat
ofofelectricity
recycled
sales. Duewhich
production
aluminium to theis changed
production is onlyclimate
dominated by coalconditions
6.37% and 4.45%and
generated of building
electricity. Therenovation
the primary life-cycle policies,
energy
aluminium. heat demand
consumption
Recycled andinGHG
aluminium the future
emissions
industry could
and decrease,
of recycled
low-carbon
prolonging
aluminium
electricity usedthe investment
production
for aluminium return period.
is onlyelectrolysis
6.37% andare 4.45%
worthyof tothebeprimary
supported aluminium.
since they Recycled aluminium
are beneficial for the industry
life-cycleand low-carbon
performance of
The mainused
electricity
aluminium. scopeforofaluminium
this paper is to assess the
electrolysis arefeasibility
worthy to of beusing the heat
supported demand
since – outdoor
they are temperature
beneficial function performance
for the life-cycle for heat demandof
forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665
aluminium.
buildings ©that
Copyright 2018vary in both
Elsevier Ltd.construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
All rights reserved.
©renovation
2019 The Authors.
scenarios Published
were by Elsevier
developed Ltd. intermediate, deep). To estimate the error,
(shallow, obtained heat demand values were
Copyright and
Selection © 2018 Elsevier Ltd.
peer-review underAllresponsibility
rights reserved.of the scientific committee of the 10th International Conference on Applied
This is an open
compared with access
results article
from aunder
dynamicthe CC
heatBY-NC-ND
demand license
model, (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
previously developed and validated by the authors.
Selection
Energy and
(ICAE2018).
Peer-review peer-review
under underofresponsibility
responsibility the scientific of the scientific
committee of ICAE2018committee
– Theofof theInternational
10th 10 International
th Conference
Conference onsome on Applied
Applied Energy.
The results showed
Energy (ICAE2018). that when only weather change is considered, the margin error could be acceptable for applications
(the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered).
Keywords: life-cycle analysis; primary aluminium; recycled aluminium; energy consumption; greenhouse gas emissions However, after introducing renovation
scenarios,life-cycle
Keywords: the error value primary
analysis; increased up to 59.5%
aluminium; (depending
recycled aluminium;on the weather
energy and renovation
consumption; greenhouse gasscenarios
emissionscombination considered).
The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the
1.decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and
Introduction
1.renovation
Introductionscenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the
coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and
Chinathe
improve is accuracy
the largest producer
of heat demandofestimations.
aluminium globally with 31.52 million tonnes of primary aluminium and 5.78
China is the largest producer of aluminium globally with 31.52 million tonnes of primary aluminium and 5.78
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
Cooling.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 6277 2758; fax: +86 10 6279 6166.
E-mail address:author.
* Corresponding ouxm@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn
Tel.: +86 10 6277 2758; (Xunmin
fax: +86Ou); Xiaoyu.Yan@exeter.ac.uk
10 6279 6166. (Xiaoyu Yan).
Keywords: Heat demand;
E-mail address: Forecast; Climate change
ouxm@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (Xunmin Ou); Xiaoyu.Yan@exeter.ac.uk (Xiaoyu Yan).
1876-6102 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and
1876-6102 peer-review
Copyright under
© 2018 responsibility
Elsevier Ltd. All of the scientific
rights reserved. committee of the 10th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2018).
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 10th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2018).
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of ICAE2018 – The 10th International Conference on Applied Energy.
10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.849
3938 Tianduo Peng et al. / Energy Procedia 158 (2019) 3937–3943
2 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

million tonnes recycled aluminium produced in 2015, holding more than one third of the total share of aluminium
output in the world [1]. Aluminium industry is one of the largest energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions part of China's non-ferrous metal industry. An analysis of energy consumption and GHG emissions of
aluminium industry should be conducted from a life-cycle perspective to inform the policy decision-makers on
technology strategies and relevant policies. The life-cycle analysis of energy use and GHG emissions of aluminium
industry has been studied by domestic and foreign scholars. International Aluminium Institute (IAI) estimated the
life-cycle energy input and impact on global warming of aluminium production in major aluminium producing
countries and regions worldwide [2], Argonne National Laboratory calculated the life-cycle energy, water and GHG
emissions of primary and recycled aluminium in detail based on the situation in the U.S. [3]. Several publications
have conducted life-cycle analysis of China’s aluminium industry [4, 5]. However, according to the latest
information and technology of China’s aluminium industry, key data and assumptions need to be updated
periodically. This paper updates the data of energy input and material flow, and estimates the life-cycle primary
fossil energy consumption and GHG emissions caused by primary aluminium and recycled aluminium production in
China. In addition, a comparative analysis with the U.S. was conducted in order to reveal the difference between
China and international advanced level.

2. Research methodology

2.1. System boundary and function units

Fig 1. shows the system boundary and material flow of this study. The system boundary of primary aluminium
includes bauxite mining, bauxite transport, alumina production, anode production, fluoride salt production,
aluminium electrolysis and ingot casting account. The production of intermediate materials covers material
transportation and production and the system of recycled aluminium comprises aluminium scrap
collection/transportation, scrap pre-treatment, recycled aluminium smelting and ingot casting. Due to the limitation
of data, the production and maintenance of facilities construction, maintenance and smelting furnace are not
included in the system scope. The energy consumed in all these stages has been sourced in the form of three main
types of primary fossil energy: raw coal, raw natural gas (NG) and petroleum. Three key types of GHGs, including
CO2, CH4 and N2O for all the stages, as well as the perfluorocarbons emitted from the anodic effect in the
electrolysis process are taken into consideration, and they are measured in CO2 equivalents (CO2-eq) according to the
global warming potential factor for each type of GHG. The functional units for the life cycle fossil energy
consumption and the GHG emissions of per tonne of aluminium is defined as the total primary fossil energy
consumption (MJ) required and GHG emissions (kg CO2-eq) emitted to obtain 1 ton of aluminium ingot.

Fig. 1. System boundary and material flow of primary and recycled aluminium production
 Tianduo Peng et al. / Energy Procedia 158 (2019) 3937–3943 3939
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 3

2.2. Key calculation equations

The total direct energy input per ton of aluminium can be calculated using Equation (1):
EN direct = EN direct ,i , j  M i
i j
(1)
Where ENdirect denotes the total direct energy input per tonne of aluminium, ENdirect,i,j represents the end-use
energy type j input per ton of intermediate material i, Mi is the intermediate material i needed per ton of aluminium.
The life-cycle energy consumption can be calculated by Equation (2):
EN LC = EN LC ,i , j  M i  EN j
i j
(2)
Where ENLC represents the life-cycle energy consumption per ton of aluminium, ENj is the life-cycle fossil
energy intensity of end-use energy type j.
The life-cycle of GHG emissions of aluminium are generated from two parts: the fuel consumption and the
intermediate materials decomposition. The total life-cycle GHG emissions per ton aluminium is calculated by
Equation (3) and the two parts of emissions is estimated as Equation (4) and (5):

EM LC EM LC,En  EM LC,Mat
 (3)

EM LC,En
  EN
i j
LC ,i , j  M i  EM j
(4)

EM
LC,Mat  EF  M
i
i i (5)

Where EMLC represents the life-cycle GHG emissions per ton of aluminium, EMLC,En and EMLC,Mat represent the
GHG emissions associated with fuel consumption and intermediate materials decomposition, EMj is the life-cycle
GHG emissions intensity of end-use energy type j, EFi is the GHG emission coefficient of intermediate material i. In
our study, three parts of GHG emissions associated with intermediate materials decomposition are taken into
consideration: (1) CO2 emissions generated from carbon anode consumption; (2) CO2 emissions from the calcination
of limestone; (3) Perfluorocarbons from the anodic effect in the electrolysis process.

3. Main data and assumption

Inventories of energy input and material flow are collected from updated yearbooks, published papers, official
reports and databases. The details of the inventory are presented as Table 1. It should be noted that the data for the
material transportation assumptions are based on relevant studies, which may be slightly different from the actual
situation. The life-cycle intensities of each end-use energy type are based on the results of our previous studies [6].

Table 1. Energy input for life-cycle analysis of main materials and processes [1,5,7-10]
Item Description
(1) Bauxite
Bauxite import proportion 51.7% (2015)
Fuel consumption for bauxite Total: 123.36 MJ/t; Fuel mix: clean coal (26%), refined NG (34%), diesel (12%), gasoline (1%),
mining electricity (27%)
Bauxite transportation Ocean shipping: 51.7% (11,906 km); road: 100% (500 km)
(2) Alumina
Alumina import proportion 7.3% (2015)
Total: 11230.81 MJ/t; Fuel mix: raw coal (72%), refined NG (13%), residual oil (5%), electricity (9%),
Fuel consumption for smelting
coke (1%)
Alumina transportation Ocean shipping: 7.3% (8600 km); road: 7.3% (250 km)
(3) Anode
Fuel consumption for anode
Total: 4706.45 MJ/t; Fuel mix: refined NG (79%), electricity (21%)
production
Anode transportation Road: 100% (50 km)
(4) Aluminium electrolysis
3940 Tianduo Peng et al. / Energy Procedia 158 (2019) 3937–3943
4 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

Fuel consumption for anode

Total: 48823.2 MJ/t; Fuel mix: electricity (100%)
production
Electricity source Purchased from grid (100%)
(5) Aluminium ingot casting
Fuel consumption for ingot casting Total: 1091.51 MJ/t; Fuel mix: refined NG (76%), diesel (2%), resident oil (5%), electricity (17%)
(6) Caustic soda
Fuel consumption for caustic soda
Total: 10312.8 MJ/t; Fuel mix: raw coal (20%), electricity (80%)
production
Caustic soda transportation Road: 100% (50 km)
(7) Calcined lime
Fuel consumption for calcined lime
Total: 24.75 MJ/t; Fuel mix: diesel (53%), electricity (47%)
production
Calcined lime transportation Road: 100% (100 km)
(8) Aluminium fluoride
Total: 10889.57MJ/t; Fuel mix: raw coal (1%), raw NG (1%), crude oil (24%), clean coal (73%),
Fuel consumption for production
refined NG (1%)
AlF3 transportation Road: 100% (50 km)
(9) Petrol coke*
Fuel consumption for petrol coke Total: 2900 MJ/t; Fuel mix: crude oil (79%), raw coal (6%), electricity (6%), refined NG (4%), clean
production coal (3%), residual oil (2%)
Petrol coke transportation Road: 100% (50 km)
(10) Coal tar pitch*
Fuel consumption for coal tar pitch Total: 2790.62 MJ/t; Fuel mix: raw coal (73%), electricity (15%), clean coal (8%), diesel (3%) and
production refined NG (1%)
Coal tar pitch transportation Road: 100% (50 km)
(11) Grid power
Coal power (65.2%), oil power (0.1%), gas power (3.1%), hydro power (19.7%), nuclear power (3.6%),
Generation mix biomass power (1.1%), other (7.2%)
(12) Aluminium scrap
Collection/transportation Ocean shipping: 30% (8033 km); road: 100% (500 km)
Fuel consumption for scrap
pretreatment and recycled Total: 5041.5 MJ/t; Fuel mix: refined NG (77%), electricity (23%)
aluminium smelting
(13) Transportation energy
intensity
Ocean shipping 0.07 MJ/tkm; Fuel mix: resident oil (100%)
Road 0.53 MJ/tkm; Fuel mix: diesel (100%)

Note: * The fuel mix of petrol coke production refers to the data of oil refinery. There are few studies on the energy
consumption and GHG emissions of coal tar pitch. In this case we assumed that the fuel mix is the same with
coal exploitation and processing, and the direct energy input refers to petroleum asphalt.

4. Results

4.1. Life-cycle fossil energy consumption and GHG emissions of aluminium production in China

Fig. 2 Direct energy input and life-cycle fossil energy consumption per ton of primary aluminium in China (a) and breakdown of the process (b)
 Tianduo Peng et al. / Energy Procedia 158 (2019) 3937–3943 3941
Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000 5

Fig. 2 shows the breakdown of life-cycle fossil energy consumption of per ton of primary aluminium. Life-cycle
energy consumption of per ton of primary aluminium is 144612 MJ in total. The life-cycle fossil energy
consumption of bauxite mining, bauxite transport, alumina production, anode production, fluoride salt production,
aluminium electrolysis and ingot casting account for 0.56%, 1.93%, 20.17%, 2.84%, 0.16%, 73.33% and 1.00% of
the total, respectively. Coal contributes the most in China’s primary aluminium production and 88.28% of the total
life-cycle fossil energy consumption was generated by coal, while NG and petroleum account for only 7.45% and
4.27% separately. The life-cycle fossil energy consumption of transportation of imported bauxite has a proportion of
85.83% in the whole transportation stage due to that China’s massive dependence on imported bauxite (51.7% of the
bauxite are imported from abroad).

Fig.3 Life-cycle GHG emissions for the production of 1 tonne primary aluminium in different stage (a); Proportion of different GHG emissions in
alumina production (b) and aluminium electrolysis (c)

Life-cycle GHG emissions for one ton of primary aluminium is about 14772.72 kg CO2-eq with the largest
proportion attributed to aluminium electrolysis stage at 77.17%. According to official guidelines, the GHG emission
factor for carbon anode consumption is recommended to be 0.42 t CO2-eq per ton of aluminium, which accounts for
13% of the aluminium electrolysis process. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) can be produced in the primary aluminium
reduction process, which is referred to as anode effects. The emission of PFCs containing the tetrafluoromethane
(CF4) and hexafluoroethane (C2F6) are converted into CO2-eq. according to their global warming potential which is
estimated to be 0.253 t CO2-eq per ton of aluminium, accounting for 2% in the aluminium electrolysis stage. GHG
emissions from alumina production is next only to aluminium electrolysis stage, with a proportion of 18% of the
total. GHG emission from calcium carbonate decomposition is estimated to be 0.11 t CO2-eq per ton of aluminium,
accounting for only 4% of the alumina production stage. GHG emissions from bauxite mining, bauxite
transportation, anode production, fluoride salt production and ingot casting are 65.72, 210.63, 312.93, 20.45 and
101.57 kg CO2-eq per ton of aluminium, respectively.
Life-cycle fossil energy consumption of per ton of recycled aluminium is about 9207 MJ in total which is only
6.37% that of per ton of primary aluminium. Life-cycle fossil energy consumption of scrap collection/transportation,
scrap pretreatment, aluminium smelting and ingot casting, account for 9.08%，17.36%，58.12%，15.44% of the
total, respectively. Up to 30% of the scrap aluminium is imported from abroad, most of which comes from the U.S.,
Europe and Australia. The life-cycle fossil energy consumption of imported scrap aluminium transport has a share
of 39.27% in the transport stage. China should further improve its domestic scrap aluminium recycling system and
make sure the stable growth of domestic waste aluminium can be recycled. NG contributes the most in China’s
recycled aluminium production and 55.79% of the total life-cycle fossil energy consumption was contributed by NG
in China, which is apparently higher than that of primary aluminium production. Coal-based energy accounts for
32.45% which is lower than that of primary aluminium industry. The petrol-based energy has a share of 11.76% in
the total fossil energy consumed. Recycled aluminium industry is dominated by more low-carbon and clean energy
when compared to primary aluminium industry. This is mainly due to the fact that China’s recycled aluminium
industry started off late and because the development of advanced clean production technology has been well
3942 Tianduo Peng et al. / Energy Procedia 158 (2019) 3937–3943
6 Author name / Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000

promoted by the governments and enterprises. Life-cycle GHG emissions for one ton of recycled aluminium is
657.91 kg CO2-eq, and it is similar to the breakdown shown for energy consumption.

4.2. Comparative analysis with the U.S.

We conducted comparative analysis with the U.S. [3] and found that the life-cycle energy consumption and GHG
emissions of primary aluminium production have a significantly difference between them. In China, the overall
electrolysis power consumption index of electrolytic aluminium production has reached the advanced level of the
world due to the continuous technological improvement in the past decades, which is about 159 kWh (per ton of
molten aluminium) less than that in the U.S. The direct energy input of per ton of primary aluminium in China is
only 8.85% higher than that in the U.S., however, the life-cycle fossil energy consumption and GHG emissions in
China are about two time as much as that in the U.S., this is mainly attributed to two reasons. The first reason is that
in terms of energy structure of primary aluminium production, besides electric energy, the fuels consumed in the
U.S. are mainly contributed by fuel oil and natural gas, while in China, that is dominated by coal. The second reason
is that coal-based electricity accounts for more than 65% of China’s electricity mix while in the U.S., coal-based
electricity only has a proportion of 30.4% in the electricity mix. Therefore, in China, the energy consumption and
GHG emissions intensities of the electricity purchased from power grid are higher than that in the U.S. [3]. In China,
most of the electricity consumed in the aluminium electrolysis stage is self-generated by the primary aluminium
manufactures, for which coal consumption rate in power generation is considerably higher than the power grid [9].
In this paper, the electricity consumed in the process of aluminium electrolysis is assumed to be purchased from
electricity grid. Assuming that 80% of the electricity is self-generated by the aluminium manufacture and 20% is
purchased from the power grid which represents the nationwide average level in China, it is found that the life-cycle
energy consumption and GHG emissions can show a remarkable increase of 21.49% and 19.92% than before.

5. Conclusions

Based on the life-cycle analysis method and up-to-date data, this paper estimated the life-cycle analysis of energy
consumption and GHG emissions of primary aluminium and recycled aluminium in China, and it conducted
comparative analysis which reveals the difference between China and the international advanced level. The
following specific conclusions may be drawn: (1) Huge energy consumption and GHG emissions are caused by
primary aluminium production in which electricity consumption is the major contributor; (2) Life-cycle energy
consumption and GHG emissions of per ton of recycled aluminium are only 6.37% and 4.45% that of per ton of
primary aluminium; (3) Compared with the U.S. level, primary aluminium production in China shows poorer
performance in energy consumption and GHG emissions (twice as much as that of the U.S.) attributed to higher
energy and GHG intensities of electricity production.

Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the support of International Science & Technology Cooperation Program of China
(2016YFE0102200) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (71774095 and 71690244). The authors
thank Mr. Victor Kouloumpis of the Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter Penryn Campus
for his linguistic assistance during the preparation of this paper.

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