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 2015 Aluminum Design Manual
Table of Contents

Part Title
Foreword

Specification for Aluminum Structures

Commentary on the Specification for Aluminum Structures

Design Guide

Material Properties

Section Properties

Design Aids

Illustrative Examples

Guidelines for Aluminum Sheet Metal Work in Building Construction

SI Guide

Index

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 FOREWORD

The Aluminum Design Manual includes an aluminum structural design specification and accompanying commentary, a
supplemental design guide, material properties, properties of common shapes, design aid tables, illustrative design examples,
and guidelines for aluminum sheet metal used in construction.

This edition of the Aluminum Design Manual is the product of the efforts of the Aluminum Association Engineering and
Design Task Force, whose members are listed below.

The Aluminum Association Engineering and Design Task Force

Steve Sunday, Alcoa Inc., Chair

Tony Anderson, ITW Welding North America
Frank Armao, Lincoln Electric Co.
Tanya Dolby, Kawneer Company, Inc.
Randy Kissell, The TGB Partnership
George Olive, Enclos Corporation
Gerald Orrison, CST Covers
Teoman Peköz, Cornell University
Frank Shoup, Alcoa Inc.
Robert W. Walton, Consultant
Ronald D. Ziemian, Bucknell University
John Weritz, The Aluminum Association, Inc.

The Aluminum Design Manual is offered as a guideline only and The Aluminum Association, Aluminum Association’s
Engineering and Design Task Force and members thereof assume no responsibility or liability whatsoever for any information
contained herein and make no representation, warranty expressed or implied, or guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy
of the information or the applicability of such information with respect to the design, engineering or construction of any
structure. The use of this Manual by members and non-members of The Aluminum Association is voluntary and the issuance
or existence of this Manual does not in any respect prevent or restrict any member or non-member from manufacturing,
designing, supplying, constructing, or using products not in conformance with this Manual.

Please check www.aluminum.org for postings of 2015 Aluminum Design Manual errata.

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 Aluminum Design Manual

PART I

Specification for Aluminum Structures

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 I
Specification for Aluminum Structures

FOREWORD

The first edition of the Specification for Aluminum Structures was published in November, 1967, followed by subsequent
editions in 1971, 1976, 1982, 1986, 1994, 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015. This 10th edition of the Specification, developed as a
consensus document, includes new or revised provisions concerning

• material specifications (A.3.1)

• modulus of elasticity, compressive yield strength and shear ultimate strength (A.3.1)
• cast alloy strengths (A.3.3)
• effective net area (D.3.2)
• axial compression member buckling strength (E.2)
• alternative methods for determining column and beam elastic strengths (E.2, F.2.1.4)
• flexural strength (F.1, F.2, F.3, F.4)
• shear in webs supported on one edge (G.3)
• shear strengths of rods (G.5)
• shear and torsional strengths (G.1, H.2)
• welded connections (J.2)
• slip-critical connections (J.3.7)
• pins (J.6)
• fabrication of edges (M.2, M.4)
• contact with dissimilar materials (M.7)
• quality control and quality assurance (Chapter N)
• testing (Appendix 1)
• fatigue (Appendix 3)

The Aluminum Association gratefully acknowledges the efforts of the Engineering Advisory Committee in developing
the Specification.

THE ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION ENGINEERING ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Steve Sunday, Alcoa Inc., Chair Robert E. Abendroth, Iowa State University
Tony Anderson, ITW Welding North America Joseph Bowman, Hapco American Flag
Frank Armao, Lincoln Electric Co. Terence Cavanagh, TJC and Associates, Inc.
Tanya Dolby, Kawneer Company, Inc. Karen C. Chou, Northwestern University
Randy Kissell, The TGB Partnership Cynthia Ebert, Larson Engineering, Inc.
George Olive, Enclos Corp. Michael Feldberg, Valmont Industries, Inc.
Gerald Orrison, CST Covers Andrew J. Hinkle, Wyle
Teoman Peköz, Cornell University James LaBelle, Computerized Structural Design
Frank Shoup, Alcoa Inc. LeRoy Lutz, Computerized Structural Design
Robert W. Walton, Consultant Ken Walerius, Permasteelisa North America
Ronald D. Ziemian, Bucknell University
John Weritz, The Aluminum Association, Inc.

January 2015 I-3

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 I
Specification for Aluminum Structures

GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF TECHNICAL INQUIRIES

ON THE SPECIFICATION FOR ALUMINUM STRUCTURES

Technical inquiries to obtain an interpretation or request a revision to the should be

directed to:

Vice President, Standards and Technology

jweritz@aluminum.org
The Aluminum Association
1525 Wilson Blvd, Suite 600
Arlington, VA 22209
www.aluminum.org

Comments on other parts of the Aluminum Design Manual are also welcome.

liation, and address. Each inquiry should address a single section of the
unless the inquiry involves two or more interrelated sections. The section and edition of the should
ed.

Requests for interpretations should be phrased, where possible, to permit a "yes" or "no" answer and include the necessary
gures where appropriate.

cation.

rst meeting of the Aluminum Association Engineering and Design Task Force following
receipt of the inquiry.

I-4 January 2015

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 I
Specification for Aluminum Structures

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Chapter A General Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

A.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
A.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
A.3 MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A.3.1 General Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A.3.1.1 Properties at Elevated Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A.3.1.2 Temperature Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
A.3.2 Wrought Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
A.3.3 Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
A.3.4 Filler Metal for Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
A.3.5 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
A.3.6 Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
A.3.7 Screws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Chapter B Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

B.1 SECTION PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.2 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.2.1 Building-Type Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.2.2 Bridge-Type Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.2.3 Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.3 DESIGN BASIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.3.1 Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.3.2 Required Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.3.2.1 Design for Strength Using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.3.2.2 Design for Strength Using Allowable Strength Design (ASD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
B.3.3 Design for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
B.3.4 Design for Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
B.3.5 Design for Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
B.3.6 Design for Fire Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
B.3.7 Design of Braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
B.4 BUCKLING CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
B.5 ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
B.5.1 Width of Flat Elements and Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
B.5.2 Radius of Curved Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
B.5.3 Thickness of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
B.5.4 Strength of Elements in Uniform Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
B.5.4.1 Flat Elements Supported on One Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
B.5.4.2 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
B.5.4.3 Flat Elements Supported on One Edge and with a Stiffener on the Other Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
B.5.4.4 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges and with an Intermediate Stiffener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
B.5.4.5 Round Hollow Elements and Curved Elements Supported on Both Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
B.5.4.6 Direct Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
B.5.5 Strength of Elements in Flexural Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
B.5.5.1 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
B.5.5.2 Flat Elements Supported on Tension Edge, Compression Edge Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
B.5.5.3 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges and with a Longitudinal Stiffener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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 B.5.5.4 Pipes and Round Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
B.5.5.5 Direct Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
B.5.6 Elastic Buckling Stress of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
B.6 FABRICATION AND ERECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
B.7 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
B.8 EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Chapter C Design for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

C.1 GENERAL STABILITY REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
C.2 CALCULATION OF REQUIRED STRENGTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
C.3 CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE STRENGTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Chapter D Design of Members for Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

D.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
D.2 TENSILE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
D.3 AREA DETERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
D.3.1 Net Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
D.3.2 Effective Net Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Chapter E Design of Members for Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

E.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
E.2 MEMBER BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
E.2.1 Flexural Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
E.2.2 Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
E.3 LOCAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
E.3.1 Weighted Average Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
E.3.2 Direct Strength Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
E.4 INTERACTION BETWEEN MEMBER BUCKLING AND LOCAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter F Design of Members for Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

F.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
F.2 YIELDING AND RUPTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
F.3 LOCAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
F.3.1 Weighted Average Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
F.3.2 Direct Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
F.3.3 Limiting Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
F.4 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
F.4.1 Bending Coefficient Cb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
F.4.1.1 Doubly Symmetric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
F.4.1.2 Singly Symmetric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
F.4.2 Slenderness for Lateral-Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
F.4.2.1 Shapes Symmetric About the Bending Axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
F.4.2.2 Singly Symmetric Open Shapes Unsymmetric About the Bending Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
F.4.2.3 Closed Shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
F.4.2.4 Rectangular Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
F.4.2.5 Any Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
F.4.3 Interaction Between Local Buckling and Lateral-Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
F.5 SINGLE ANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
F.5.1 Bending About Geometric Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
F.5.2 Bending About Principal Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Chapter G Design of Members for Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

G.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
G.2 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS SUPPORTED ON BOTH EDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

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 G.3 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS SUPPORTED ON ONE EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
G.4 PIPES AND ROUND OR OVAL TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
G.5 RODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Chapter H Design of Members for Combined Forces and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

H.1 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO FLEXURE AND AXIAL FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
H.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
H.2.1 Pipes and Round or Oval Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
H.2.2 Rectangular Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
H.2.3 Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
H.2.4 Open Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
H.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION, FLEXURE, SHEAR, AND/OR AXIAL COMPRESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
H.3.1 Flat Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
H.3.2 Curved Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter I Reserved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter J Design of Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

J.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.1.1 Design Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.1.2 Fasteners in Combination with Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.1.3 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2 WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2.1 Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2.1.1 Complete Joint Penetration and Partial Joint Penetration Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2.1.2 Groove Weld Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2.1.3 Groove Weld Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2.2 Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2.2.1 Fillet Weld Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J.2.2.2 Fillet Weld Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
J.2.3 Plug and Slot Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
J.2.4 Stud Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
J.2.5 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
J.2.6 Combination of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
J.2.7 Post-Weld Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3 BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.1 Holes and Slots for Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.2 Minimum Spacing of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.4 Bolt Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.5 Bolt Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.6 Bolt Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.7 Slip-Critical Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
J.3.7.2 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.3.7.3 Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.3.7.4 Bolt Tension and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.3.7.5 Slip Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.3.7.6 Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.3.8 Lockbolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.4 RIVETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.4.1 Holes for Cold-Driven Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.4.2 Minimum Spacing of Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.4.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.4.4 Rivet Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

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 J.4.5 Rivet Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
J.4.6 Rivet Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
J.4.7 Blind Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
J.4.8 Hollow-End (Semi-Tubular) Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
J.5 TAPPING SCREWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
J.5.1 Holes for Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
J.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
J.5.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
J.5.4 Screwed Connection Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
J.5.4.1 Pull-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
J.5.4.1.1 Screws in Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
J.5.4.1.2 Screws in Screw Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
J.5.4.2 Pull-Over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
J.5.4.3 Screw Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
J.5.5 Screwed Connection Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
J.5.5.1 Screw Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.5.5.2 Screw Tilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.5.5.3 Screw Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.6 PINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.6.1 Holes for Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.6.2 Minimum Edge Distance of Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.6.3 Pin Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.6.4 Pin Shear and Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
J.6.5 Pin Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
J.7 AFFECTED ELEMENTS OF MEMBERS AND CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
J.7.1 Strength of Connectors in Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
J.7.2 Strength of Connectors in Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
J.7.3 Block Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
J.7.4 Strength of Connectors in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
J.8 BEARING STRENGTH OF FLAT SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
J.9 FLANGES AND WEBS WITH CONCENTRATED FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
J.9.1 Crippling of Flat Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
J.9.2 Bearing Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
J.9.3 Combined Crippling and Flexure of Flat Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
J.10 ROOFING AND SIDING CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
J.10.1 Endlaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
J.10.2 Sidelaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
J.10.3 Fasteners in Laps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter K Reserved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter L Design for Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

L.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
L.2 CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
L.3 DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
L.4 VIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
L.5 WIND-INDUCED MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
L.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
L.7 CONNECTION SLIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter M Fabrication and Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

M.1 LAYOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.2 CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.2.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

I-8 January 2015

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 M.2.2 Edge Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.2.3 Re-entrant Corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.3 HEATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.4 HOLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.4.1 Fabrication Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.4.2 Hole Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.5 BENDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.6 FINISHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.6.1 Where Protective Coating Is Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.6.2 Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.6.3 Abrasion Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.7 CONTACT WITH DISSIMILAR MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.7.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.7.2 Wood, Fiberboard, or Other Porous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
M.7.3 Concrete or Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
M.8 FABRICATION TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
M.9 WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
M.10 BOLT INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
M.11 RIVET INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
M.11.1 Driven Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
M.11.2 Hole Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
M.11.3 Defective Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
M.12 ERECTION TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Chapter N Quality Control and Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

N.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
N.2 FABRICATOR QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
N.3 ERECTOR QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
N.4 INSPECTION AND NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
N.5 INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
N.6 NONCONFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Appendix 1 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

1.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.2 TEST CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.3 DESIGN BASED ON TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.3.1 Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.3.2 Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.4 TESTING ROOFING AND SIDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.4.1 Test Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.4.2 Different Thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.4.3 Available Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.4.4 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Appendix 2 Reserved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 3 Design for Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2 CONSTANT AMPLITUDE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3 VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.4 FABRICATION AND ERECTION REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Appendix 4 Design for Fire Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

January 2015 I-9

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 4.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.2 Performance Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.1.3 Load Combinations and Required Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 DESIGN FOR FIRE CONDITIONS BY ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.1 Design-Basis Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.1.1 Localized Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1.2 Post-Flashover Compartment Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1.3 Exterior Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1.4 Fire Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1.5 Active Fire Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.2 Temperatures in Structural Systems under Fire Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.3 Material Properties at Elevated Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.3.1 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.3.2 Thermal Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.3.3 Specific Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.4 Structural Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.4.1 General Structural Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.4.2 Strength Requirements and Deformation Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.4.3 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.4.3.1 Advanced Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.4.3.2 Simple Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.4.4 Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3 DESIGN BY QUALIFICATION TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.1 Qualification Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.2 Restrained Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Appendix 5 Evaluation of Existing Strucures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86

5.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.1 Wrought and Cast Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.2 Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.2.3 Bolts and Rivets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3 EVALUATION BY STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3.2 Strength Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3.3 Serviceability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4 EVALUATION BY LOAD TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5 EVALUATION REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Appendix 6 Design of Braces for Columns and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

6.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.1.1 Bracing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.1.2 Bracing Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.2 COLUMN BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.2.1 Relative Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.2.2 Nodal Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3 BEAM BRACING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3.1 Lateral Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3.1.1 Relative Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3.1.2 Nodal Bracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3.2 Torsional Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3.2.1 Nodal Bracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3.2.2 Continuous Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.4 BEAM-COLUMN BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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Symbols
The section numbers in which the symbol appears is Cb = coefficient that accounts for moment gradient along
given in parentheses after the symbol. a beam’s length (F.4.1, F.4.1.1, F.4.1.2, F.4.2.1,
Ab = nominal cross-sectional area of the bolt (unthreaded F.4.2.3, F.4.2.4, F.4.2.5, F.4.3, F.5(c), F.5.1, F.5.2,
body area) (J.3.7.4) 6.3.2.1)
ABM = cross-sectional area of the base metal (J.2.5, Table Cbr = buckling constant intersection for flexural com-
J.2.2) pression in flat elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2,
Ae = effective net area (D.2, D.3.2, J.7.1) B.5.5.2, F.5)
Aewz = effective net area in the weld-affected zone (D.2) Cc = buckling constant intersection for member buck-
Af = area of the member farther than 2c/3 from the neutral ling (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.4, E.2, F.4)
axis, where c is the distance from the neutral axis Cd = brace coefficient (6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2)
to the extreme compression fiber (F.4) Cf = coefficient used to determine the allowable stress
Ag = gross cross-sectional area (B.5.4, D.2, E.2, E.2.2, range for fatigue (Table 3.2, 3.2, 3.3)
E.3.1, E.3.2, E.4, H.2, J.7.1, J.7.2) Cn = correction factor for the number of tests (1.3.2)
Agc = gross cross sectional area of the element in com- Cp = buckling constant intersection for uniform compres-
pression (B.5.5) sion in flat elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.1,
Agt = gross cross sectional area of the element in tension B.5.5.5, F.5)
(J.7.3) Cpov = coefficient for determining the pull-over strength of a
Agv = gross area in shear (J.7.3) screw (J.5.4.2)
Ai = area of element i (E.3.1) Cs = buckling constant intersection for shear in flat
AL = cross-sectional area of the longitudinal stiffener elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, G.2, G.3, G.4,
(B.5.5.3) H.2.1)
An = net area (D.3.1, D.3.2, G.2, G.3, G.4, G.5, J.7.1) Ct = buckling constant intersection for uniform com-
Ant = net area in tension (J.7.3) pression in curved elements (Table B.4.1, Table
Anv = net area in shear (J.7.2, J.7.3) B.4.2, B.5.4.5, B.5.5.4)
Apb = projected bearing area (J.8) Ctb = buckling constant intersection for flexural com-
Ar = root area of the screw (J.5.4.3, J.5.5.3) pression in curved elements (Table B.4.1, Table
As = area of the intermediate stiffener (B.5.4.4) B.4.2, B.5.5.4)
Asn = thread stripping area of internal thread per unit Cw = warping constant (E.2.2, F.4.2.1, F.4.2.5)
length of engagement (J.5.4.1.1) Cwa, Cwb, Cw1, Cw2, Cw3
Av = web area (G.1, G.2, G.3, G.4, G.5) = coefficients used to determine web crippling
Awe = effective area of a weld (J.2.3, J.2.5, Table J.2.2) strength (J.9.1)
Awz = cross-sectional area of the weld-affected zone, C1 = coefficient used to determine U (F.4.2.5)
which extends 1 in. (25 mm) to each side of the C2 = coefficient used to determine U (F.4.2.5)
centerline of a weld (B.5.4, D.2, E.2, F.4, G.1, G.2, D = nominal diameter of the fastener (Table J.2.2, J.3.1,
G.3, G.4, G.5, H.2) J.3.4, J.3.5, J.3.6, J.5, J.5.4.1.1, J.5.4.1.2, J.5.4.2,
Awzc = cross sectional area of the weld-affected zone in J.5.5.1, J.5.5.2, J.6.4, J.6.5)
compression (B.5.5) D = diameter of a rod (H.2.3, G.5)
Bbr = buckling constant intercept for flexural compression D = outside diameter of a tube (Table 3.1)
in flat elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.5.1, Dbr = buckling constant slope for flexural compression
B.5.5.2, B.5.5.3, F.5) in flat elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.5.1,
Bc = buckling constant intercept for member buckling B.5.5.2, B.5.5.3, F.5)
(Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.4, E.2) Dc = buckling constant slope for member buckling (Ta-
Bp = buckling constant intercept for uniform compression ble B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.4, E.2)
in flat elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.1, Dh = nominal diameter of the hole (J.4.5, J.4.6, Table J.5.1,
B.5.4.2, B.5.4.6, B.5.5.5, F.5) Table J.5.2, J.5.4.2)
Bs = buckling constant intercept for shear in flat elements Di = inside diameter of the pipe or tube (G.4)
(Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, G.2, G.3, G.4, H.2.1) Dn = nominal dead load (1.3.2, 4.1.3, 5.4)
Bt = buckling constant intercept for uniform compression Do = outside diameter of the pipe or tube (G.4)
in curved elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.5, Dp = buckling constant slope for uniform compression
B.5.5.4) in flat elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.1,
Btb = buckling constant intercept for flexural compression in B.5.4.2, B.5.4.6, B.5.5.5, F.5)
curved elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.5.4) DS = depth of a stiffener (B.5.4.3)
C = torsional shear constant (H.2.2) Ds = buckling constant slope for shear in flat elements
(Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, G.2, G.3, G.4, H.2.1)

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 Dss = screw slot inside diameter (Table J.5.3, J.5.4.1.2) FnBM = nominal stress of the base metal corresponding to
Dt = buckling constant slope for uniform compression in its welded ultimate strength from Table A.3.3 or
curved elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.5, Table A.3.3M (J.2.5)
B.5.5.4) Fnt = tensile strength of an A 325 bolt determined in
Dtb = buckling constant slope for flexural compression accordance with the Specification for Structural
in curved elements (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2, Steel Buildings(ANSI/AISC 360) (J.3.7.4)
B.5.5.4) Fnv = shear strength of an A 325 bolt determined in
Dws = larger of the nominal washer diameter and the screw accordance with the Specification for Structural
head diameter, but no greater than 5/8 in. (16 mm) Steel Buildings(ANSI/AISC 360) (J.3.7.4)
(J.5.4.2) Fnw = nominal stress of the weld metal corresponding to
E = modulus of elasticity (Table A.3.1, Table B.4.1, its ultimate strength from Table A.3.6 (J.2.5)
Table B.4.2, B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3, B.5.4.4, Fs = shear stress corresponding to the shear strength
B.5.4.5, B.5.4.6, B.5.5.1, B.5.5.2, B.5.5.3, B.5.5.4, (G.1, G.2, G.3, G.4, G.5, H.2, H.2.1, H.2.2, H.3.1,
B.5.5.5, B.5.6, E.2, E.2.2, E.4, F.4, F.4.2.5, F.4.3, H.3.2)
F.5, F.5.1, F.5.2, G.2, G.3, G.4, H.2.1, J.9.1, Table Fso = shear stress corresponding to the unwelded shear
4.1, 6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.2) strength (G.1, H.2)
Em = modulus of elasticity at elevated temperatures FST = stress corresponding to the uniform compressive
(4.2.3.1, Table 4.1) strength of an element supported on both edges
Fb = stress corresponding to the flexural strength (B.5.5, (B.5.4.3)
B.5.5.1, B.5.5.2, B.5.5.3, B.5.5.4, F.4.3, F.3.1, Fsu = shear ultimate strength (Table A.3.1, A.3.5, A.3.6,
F.3.2, H.3.1, H.3.2) G.2, G.3, G.4, G.5, H.2, J.3.5, J.4.5, J.5.5.3, J.6.4,
Fbo = stress corresponding to the flexural compressive J.7.2, J.7.3)
strength for an element if no part of the cross sec- Fsuw = shear ultimate strength of weld-affected zones
tion were weld-affected (B.5.5) (G.2, G.3, G.4, G.5, H.2)
Fbw = stress corresponding to the flexural compressive Fsw = shear stress corresponding to the welded shear
strength for an element if the entire cross section strength (G.1, H.2)
were weld-affected (B.5.5) Fsy = shear yield strength (Table A.3.1, Table B.4.1, Ta-
Fc = stress corresponding to the uniform compressive ble B.4.2, G.2, G.3, G.4, H.2.1, H.2.3, J.6.4, J.7.2,
strength (B.5.4, B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3, B.5.4.4, J.7.3)
B.5.4.5, B.5.4.6, E.2, E.3.2, E.4, F.3.1, H.3.1, Fsyw = shear yield strength of weld-affected zones (G.2,
H.3.2) H.2.3)
Fci = local buckling stress of element i computed per Ftu = tensile ultimate strength (Table A.3.1, Table A.3.3,
Section B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.5 (E.3.1) A.3.2, A.3.3, A.3.5, D.2, F.2, J.3.4, J.3.6, J.4.6,
Fco = stress corresponding to the uniform compressive J.5.4.1.2, J.5.4.3, J.5.5.1, J.6.4, J.6.5, J.7.3, J.8,
strength for an element if no part of the cross sec- Table 4.2)
tion were weld-affected (B.5.4) Ftum = tensile ultimate strength at elevated temperatures
Fcw = stress corresponding to the uniform compressive (4.2.3.1)
strength for an element if the entire cross section Ftuw = tensile ultimate strength of weld-affected zones
were weld-affected (B.5.4) (A.3.2, A.3.4, D.2, Table J.2.2)
Fcy = compressive yield strength (Table A.3.1, Table Ftu1 = tensile ultimate strength of the part in contact with
B.4.1, Table B.4.2, B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3, the screw head or washer (J.5.4.2)
B.5.4.4, B.5.4.5, B.5.4.6, B.5.5.1, B.5.5.2, B.5.5.3, Ftu2 = tensile ultimate strength of member not in contact
B.5.5.4, B.5.5.5, E.2, E.3.1, F.2, F.3.1, F.4, F.5, with the screw head (J.5.4.1.1, J.5.5.2)
J.9.1) Fty = tensile yield strength (Table A.3.1, Table A.3.3,
Fcyw = compressive yield strength of weld-affected zones Table A.3.4, A.3.2, A.3.3, D.2, F.2, J.6.4, J.7.3, 1.4,
(E.2) Table 4.2)
Fe = elastic buckling stress (B.5.4.6, B.5.5.5, Table Ftym = tensile yield strength at elevated temperatures
B.5.1, E.2.2, E.4, F.4.3, L.3) (4.2.3.1)
Fex = elastic buckling stress for buckling about the x-axis Ftyw = tensile yield strength of weld-affected zones
(E.2.2) (A.3.2, D.2)
Fey = elastic buckling stress for buckling about the y-axis Fty1 = tensile yield strength of the part in contact with the
(E.2.2) screw head (J.5.4.2)
Fez = elastic buckling stress for torsional buckling (E.2.2) Fty2 = tensile yield strength of member not in contact
Fm = mean value of the fabrication factor (1.3.2) with the screw head (J.5.4.1.1)
Fn = strength of an A 325 bolt (J.3.7.4) FUT = stress corresponding to the uniform compressive
strength of an element supported on one edge only
(B.5.4.3)

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 G = shear modulus of elasticity (Table A.3.1, E.2.2) Lv = length of pipe or tube from maximum to zero shear
Gf = the grip of a bolt (J.3.5) force (G.4)
Lwe = effective length of a weld (J.2.1.3, J.2.2.2, Table
x0 2 + y0 2 J.2.2)
H= 1– (E.2.2) Lx = unbraced length for buckling about the x-axis
r0 2
(E.2.2)
If = moment of inertia of the flange group about the cross Ly = unbraced length for buckling about the y-axis
section’s neutral axis. The flange group consists of the (E.2.2)
flat elements in uniform compression or uniform Lz = unbraced length for twisting (E.2.2)
tension and their edge or intermediate stiffeners MA = absolute value of the moment at the quarter point
(F.3.1) of the unbraced segment (F.4.1.1)
IL = moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener MB = absolute value of the moment at the midpoint of
about the web of the beam (B.5.5.3) the unbraced segment (F.4.1.1)
Io = moment of inertia of a section comprising the MC = absolute value of the moment at the three-quarter
stiffener and one half of the width of the adjacent point of the unbraced segment (F.4.1.1)
sub-elements and the transition corners between Mc = design or allowable flexural strength (H.1, J.6.4,
them taken about the centroidal axis of the section J.9.3)
parallel to the stiffened element (B.5.4.4) Me = elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment (F.4.2.5,
Is = moment of inertia of the transverse stiffener (G.2) F.5, F.5.1, F.5.2)
Iw = moment of inertia of the web group about the cross Mi = flexural strength of member of intermediate thick-
section’s neutral axis. The web group consists of ness ti (1.4.2)
the flat elements in flexure and their intermediate Mm = mean value of the material factor (1.3.2)
stiffeners. (F.3.1) Mmax = absolute value of the maximum moment in the un-
Iw = moment of inertia about the major principal axis braced segment (F.4.1.1, F.4.1.2)
(F.5.2) Mn = nominal strength moment (F.1, F.5, F.5.1, F.5.2,
Ix = moment of inertia about the x-axis (E.2.2, F.4.2.5) J.6.4)
Iy = moment of inertia about the y-axis (E.2.2, F.4.1.2, Mnlb = nominal flexural strength for the limit state of local
F.4.2.1, F.4.2.2, F.4.2.3, F.4.2.5, 6.3.2.1) buckling (F.3, F.3.1, F.3.2, F.3.3)
Iyc = moment of inertia of the compression flange about Mnmb = nominal flexural strength for the limit state of later-
the y-axis (F.4.1.2, F.4.2.2, F.4.2.5) al-torsional buckling (F.4, F.4.3)
Iyt = moment of inertia of the tension flange about the Mnmbo = lateral-torsional buckling strength if no part of the
y-axis (F.4.2.2) cross section were weld-affected (F.4)
Iz = moment of inertia about the minor principal axis Mnp = nominal flexural strength for the limit state of
(F.5.2) yielding (B.5.5.4, B.5.5.5, F.2, F.4)
J = torsion constant (E.2.2, F.4.2.1, F.4.2.2, F.4.2.3, Mnmbw = lateral-torsional buckling strength if the entire
F.4.2.5, H.2.1) cross section were weld-affected (F.4)
K = statistical coefficient based on the number of tests Mr = required flexural strength using LRFD or ASD load
n (1.3.1) combinations (H.1, J.6.4, J.9.3, 6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2,
Ks = a coefficient used to determine the pull-out strength 6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.2, 6.4)
of a screw (J.5.4.1.1) Mrb = required bracing flexural strength using LRFD
L = member length (E.2, E.2.1, F.4, J.1.3, 6.1, 6.2.2, or ASD load combinations (6.3.2.1)
6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.2) My = yield moment about the axis of bending (F.5)
Lb = length of a beam between brace points or between M1 = flexural strength of member of thinnest material
a brace point and a cantilever’s free end (F.4.2.1, (1.4.2)
F.4.2.3, F.4.2.4, F.4.2.5, F.4.3, F.5.1, F.5.2, 6.1, M2 = flexural strength of member of thickest material
6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2, 6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.2, 6.4) (1.4.2)
LC = length of the connection in the direction of load, N = number of stress cycles (3.2, 3.3, Table 3.2)
measured from the center of fasteners or the end of NS = number of stress ranges in the spectrum (3.3)
welds (D.3.2) Pc = available axial force (H.1)
Le = length of full thread engagement of a screw in a Pnc = nominal axial compressive strength (E.1, E.2,
hole or screw slot not including tapping or drilling E.3.1, E.3.2, E.4)
point (J.5.4.1.1, J.5.4.1.2) Pno = nominal member buckling strength if no part of the
Ln = nominal live load (1.3.2, 4.1.3, 5.4) cross section were weld-affected (E.2)
Ls = length of pipe or tube between transverse stiffen- Pnt = nominal axial tensile strength (D.1, D.2)
ers, or overall length if no transverse stiffeners are Pnw = nominal member buckling strength if the entire
present (H.2.1) cross section were weld-affected (E.2)

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 Pr = required axial force using LRFD or ASD load com- Vn = nominal shear strength (G.1, G.2, G.3, G.4, G.5,
binations (C.2, H.1, 6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.4) J.6.4)
Prb = required bracing strength (6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.3.1.1, VP = coefficient of variation of the ratio of the observed
6.3.1.2) failure loads divided by the average value of all the
Py = axial yield strength (C.2) observed failure loads (1.3.2)
R = outside radius of a pipe or tube (H.2.1) VQ = coefficient of variation of the loads (1.3.2)
R = transition radius of a fatigue detail (Table 3.1) Vr = required shear strength (J.6.4)
Ra = required strength for ASD (B.3.2.2) Xi = result of the ith test (1.3.2)
Rb = radius of curved elements taken at the mid-thick- Z = plastic section modulus (F.2)
ness of the element (B.5.2, B.5.4.5, B.5.5.4, Table a = fatigue detail dimension parallel to the direction of
B.5.1, G.4, H.2.1) stress (Table 3.1)
Rc = available concentrated force determined in accor- a1 = shorter dimension of rectangular panel (G.2)
dance with Section J.9.1 (J.9.3) a2 = longer dimension of rectangular panel (G.2)
Ri = inside bend radius at the juncture of the flange and b = element width (B.5.1, B.5.3, B.5.4, B.5.4.1,
web; for extruded shapes, Ri = 0 (J.9.1) B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3, B.5.4.4, B.5.5.1, B.5.5.2, B.5.5.3,
Rti = strength of ith test (1.3.2) Table B.5.1, F.5, F.5.1, F.5.2, G.2, G.3, J.1.3, L.3)
Rtm = mean strength of all tests (1.3.1, 1.3.2) b = fatigue detail dimension normal to the direction of
Rn = nominal strength (B.3.2.1, B.3.2.2, J.2, J.2.5, J.3.4, stress and the surface of the base metal (Table 3.1)
J.3.5, J.3.6, J.3.7.4, J.4.5, J.4.6, J.5.4, J.5.4.1.1, be = element’s effective width for determining deflections
J.5.4.1.2, J.5.4.2, J.5.4.3, J.5.5, J.5.5.1, J.5.5.2, (L.3)
J.5.5.3, J.6.4, J.6.5, J.7.1, J.7.2, J.7.3, J.7.4, J.8, bs = stiffener width (6.3.2.1)
J.9.1, 1.3.1) c = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber
Rr = required concentrated force (J.9.3) (F.4)
RS = the ratio of minimum stress to maximum stress for cc = distance from neutral axis to the element extreme fiber
fatigue design (Table 3.1) with the greatest compressive stress (B.5.5.1)
Ru = required strength for LRFD (B.3.2.1) ccf = distance from the centerline of the compression
S = section modulus (B.5.5.4) flange to the cross section’s neutral axis (F.3.1)
Sc = section modulus on the compression side of the ccs = distance from the cross section’s neutral axis to
neutral axis (F.2, F.5, F.5.1) the extreme fiber of compression flange stiffeners
Sn = nominal snow load (4.1.3) (F.3.1)
Sra = applied stress range, the algebraic difference ccw = distance from the web group’s extreme compression
between the minimum and maximum nominal fiber to the cross section’s neutral axis (F.3.1)
stresses perpendicular to the plane of expected co = distance from neutral axis to other extreme fiber of
cracking determined by elastic methods (3.2) the element (see cc) (B.5.5.1)
Srd = design stress range (3.2, 3.3) d = full depth of the section (F.4.2.1, F.4.2.2, F.4.2.4,
Sre = equivalent applied stress range (3.3) G.2, J.9.1, J.10.1)
Sri = ith applied stress range in the spectrum (3.3) de = distance from the center of the fastener to the edge
St = section modulus on the tension side of the neutral axis of the part in the direction of force (J.3.6, J.4.6,
(F.2) J.5.5.1, J.6.5)
Sw = size of a weld (J.2.1.2, J.2.2.2, Table J.2.2) df = the distance between the flange centroids; for T-shapes
Swe = effective throat of a fillet weld (J.2.2.1) df is the distance between the flange centroid and the
Sx = section modulus about the x-axis (F.4.2.1, F.4.2.2) tip of the stem. (F.4.2.5)
Sxc = section modulus about the compression side of the ds = stiffener’s flat width (B.5.4.3)
x-axis (B.5.5.5, F.3.2, F.4, F.4.2.3, F.4.2.5, F.4.3) d1 = distance from the neutral axis to the compression
T, T1, T2 = temperature (A.3.1.1) flange (B.5.5.3)
T = nominal forces and deformations due to the design- e = base for natural logarithms = 2.71828… (1.3.2)
basis fire defined in Section 4.2.1 (4.1.3) f = compressive stress at the toe of the flange (B.5.5.3)
Tn = nominal torsional strength (H.2, H.2.1, H.2.2, fa = maximum compressive stress in the element from
H.2.3, H.2.4) the service load combinations (L.3)
U = coefficient used to determine Me (F.4.2.5) fb = compressive stress due to flexure (H.3.1, H.3.2)
V = shear force on the web at the transverse stiffener fc = compressive stress due to axial compression
(G.2) (H.3.1, H.3.2)
Vc = available shear strength (J.6.4) fs = shear stress due to shear and torsion (H.3.1, H.3.2)
VF = coefficient of variation of the fabrication factor g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) between
(1.3.2) fastener gage lines (D.3.1, J.1.3)
VM = coefficient of variation of the material factor (1.3.2)

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 go = distance from the shear center to the point of t = element thickness (B.5.4, B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3,
application of the load; go is positive when the load B.5.4.4, B.5.4.5, B.5.5.1, B.5.5.2, B.5.5.3, B.5.5.4,
acts away from the shear center and negative when Table B.5.1, F.4.2.4, F.5, F.5.1, F.5.2, G.2, G.3,
the load acts towards the shear center. If there is G.4, H.2.1, J.1.3, J.2.2.1, J.3.6, J.4.6, J.5.5.1, J.6.5,
no transverse load (pure moment cases) go = 0. J.9.1)
(F.4.2.5) t = time (A.3.1.1)
ho = distance between flange centroids (6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2, tavg = average thickness of a tapered thickness element
6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.2) (B.5.3)
k = effective length factor for buckling (C.3, E.2.1, ti = thickness of intermediate thickness material (1.4.2)
J.1.3, 6.1, 6.2.2) tmax = maximum thickness of a tapered thickness element
kt = tension coefficient (Table A.3.3, A.3.2, D.2, F.2, (B.5.3)
G.2, G.3, G.4, G.5, H.2, H.2.3, J.6.4, J.7.2, J.7.3) tmax = thickness of thickest material tested (1.4.2)
kx = effective length factor for flexural buckling about tmin = minimum thickness of a tapered thickness element
the x-axis (E.2.2) (B.5.3)
ky = effective length factor for flexural buckling about tmin = thickness of thinnest material tested (1.4.2)
the y-axis (E.2.2) ts = beam web stiffener thickness (6.3.2.1)
kz = effective length factor for torsional buckling (E.2.2) tw = beam web thickness (6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.2)
k1 = coefficient for determining the λ2 slenderness limit t1 = nominal thickness of the part in contact with the
for elements with postbuckling strength (Table screw head or washer (J.5.4.2, J.5.5.2)
B.4.3, B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.6, B.5.5.1, B.5.5.3) t1 = time corresponding to temperature T1 (A.3.1.1)
k2 = coefficient for determining postbuckling strength t2 = nominal thickness of the part not in contact with
(Table B.4.3, B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.6, B.5.5.1, the screw head or washer (J.5.5.2)
B.5.5.3, B.5.5.5) t2 = time corresponding to temperature T2 (A.3.1.1)
lb = length of the bearing at the concentrated force = eccentricity of the connection in the x-axis direction
(J.9.1) (D.3.2)
m = coefficient for elements in flexure and supported on xo = the shear center’s x-coordinate (E.2.2)
both edges (B.5.5.1) = eccentricity of the connection in the y-axis direction
m = coefficient used to determine the allowable stress (D.3.2)
range for fatigue (Table 3.2, 3.2, 3.3) yo = the shear center’s y-coordinate (E.2.2, F.4.2.5)
n = number of threads/in. (mm) (Table J.2.2, J.3.4, zo = coordinate along the z-axis of the shear center with
J.3.5, J.5.4.1.1) respect to the centroid (F.5.2)
n = number of nodal braced points in the span (6.3.2.1, α = factor used to determine reduced flexural stiffness
6.3.2.2) (C.2)
n = number of tests (1.3.1, 1.3.2) α = ratio of nominal dead load to nominal live load
q = design pressure load for roofing and siding (1.4) (1.3.2)
r = radius of gyration (E.2.1) α = coefficient of thermal expansion (Table A.3.1)
ro = polar radius of gyration of the cross section about αi = number of stress cycles in the spectrum of the ith
the shear center (E.2.2) stress range divided by the total number of stress
rs = stiffener’s radius of gyration about the stiffened cycles (3.3)
element’s mid-thickness (B.5.4.3) αs = coefficient for a longitudinal stiffener (B.5.5.3)
rx = radius of gyration about the x-axis (E.2.2, F.4.2.1) βbr = required bracing stiffness (6.2.1, 6.2.2, 6.3.1.1,
ry = radius of gyration about the y-axis (E.2.2, F.4.2.1) 6.3.1.2)
rye = effective radius of gyration about the y-axis for βo = target reliability index (1.3.2)
lateral-torsional buckling (F.4.2.1, F.4.2.2, F.4.3) βsec = web distortional stiffness (6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.2)
rz = radius of gyration about the minor principal axis βT = overall brace system stiffness (6.3.2.1)
(F.5.2) βTb = required bracing torsional stiffness (6.3.2.1)
s = transverse stiffener spacing. For a stiffener composed βx = coefficient of monosymmetry about the x-axis
of a pair of members, one on each side of the web, (F.4.2.5)
the stiffener spacing s is the clear distance between βw = coefficient of monosymmetry (F.5.2)
the pairs of stiffeners. For a stiffener composed of γ = density (Table A.3.1)
a member on only one side of the web, the stiffener (t − t )
spacing s is the distance between fastener lines or δ = max min = a measure of taper in tapered
t min
other connecting lines. (B.5.5.3, G.2)
s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of any thickness elements (B.5.3)
two consecutive holes (D.3.1, J.1.3) κ = metric conversion factor (Table B.4.1, Table B.4.2)
ν = Poisson’s ratio (Table A.3.1)

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 φ = resistance factor (B.3.2.1, D.1, E.1, F.1, G.1, λ1 = slenderness at the intersection of the equations for
H.2, H.3.1, H.3.2, J.2, J.3.4, J.3.5, J.3.6, J.3.7.4, yielding and inelastic buckling
J.3.7.5, J.4.5, J.4.6, J.5.4, J.5.5, J.6.4, J.6.5, J.7.1, λ2 = slenderness at the intersection of the equations for
J.7.2, J.7.3, J.7.4, J.8, J.9.1, 1.3.2, 6.1, 6.2.1, 6.2.2, inelastic buckling and elastic buckling
6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2, 6.3.2.1) λe = 1.28 E / Fcy (B.5.4.3)
Ω = safety factor (B.3.2.2, D.1, E.1, F.1, G.1, H.2,
H.3.1, H.3.2, J.2, J.3.4, J.3.5, J.3.6, J.3.7.4, J.3.7.5, E
J.4.5, J.4.6, J.5.4, J.5.5, J.6.4, J.6.5, J.7.1, J.7.2, λeq = π
Fe
J.7.3, J.7.4, J.8, J.9.1, 1.3.2, 6.1, 6.2.1, 6.2.2,
6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2, 6.3.2.1) = equivalent slenderness for alternate determination
θs = angle between a stiffener and the stiffened element of compressive strength for flexural or axial com-
(B.5.4.3) pression (B.5.4.6, B.5.5.5)
θw = angle between the plane of web and the plane of λs = slenderness of an element with an intermediate
the bearing surface (θw < 90o) (J.9.1) stiffener (B.5.4.4, B.5.6)
ρST = stiffener effectiveness ratio (B.5.4.3, B.5.6) σx = standard deviation of the test strengths (1.3.1)
λ = slenderness τb = parameter for reduced flexural stiffness (C.2)
μ = mean slip coefficient (J.3.7.5)

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Glossary
allowable strength: nominal strength divided by the safety design strength: the resistance factor multiplied by the nominal
factor, Rn/Ω. strength, φRn.
allowable stress: allowable strength divided by the appropriate design stress: the design strength divided by the appropriate
section property, such as section modulus or cross section property, such as section modulus or cross
section area. section area.
aluminum: aluminum or an aluminum alloy. effective length: the length of an otherwise identical column
analysis: the rational determination of the effects of loads with the same strength when analyzed with pinned end
on and the strength of structures, members, and con- conditions.
nections based on approprate theory, relevant test data, effective length factor: ratio between the effective length
and sound engineering judgment. and the unbraced length of the member.
applicable building code: the building code under which the effective net area: net area modified to account for the effect
structure is designed. of shear lag.
ASD (Allowable Strength Design): the method of proportion- elastic analysis: structural analysis based on the assumption
ing structural components such that the allowable strength that the structure returns to its original geometry on
equals or exceeds the required strength of the component removal of the load.
under the action of the ASD load combinations. element: a component of a shape’s cross section. Elements
ASD load combination: the load combination in the applicable are connected to other elements only along their longi-
building code intended for allowable strength design. tudinal edges. Elements addressed by the Specification
available strength: for LRFD, design strength; for ASD, include flat elements, described by their width b and
allowable strength. thickness t, and curved elements, described by their
beam: a structural member that has the primary function of mid-thickness radius Rb and thickness t. An Aluminum
resisting bending moments. Association standard I beam, for example, consists of
bearing-type connection: a bolted connection where shear five flat elements: a web element and two elements in
forces are transmitted by the bolt bearing against the each flange.
connection elements. engineer of record: engineer responsible for the structural
blind rivet: a rivet that can be installed with access to only design.
one side of the parts being joined. factored load: the product of a load factor and the nominal load.
block shear rupture: in a connection, the limit state of fastener: a device such as a bolt, rivet, screw, or pin used to
tensile fracture or yielding along one path and shear mechanically connect two or more parts.
yielding or fracture along another path. fatigue: the limit state of crack initiation and growth resulting
bolt: a headed and externally threaded mechanical device from repeated application of loads.
designed for insertion through holes in assembled parts filler metal: metal to be added in making a welded joint.
to mate with a nut and normally intended to be tightened fillet weld: weld of generally triangular cross section made
or released by turning that nut. between intersecting surfaces of elements.
bridge-type structure: a structure not addressed by building flexural buckling: a buckling mode in which a compression
codes and designed for highway, pedestrian, or rail traffic. member deflects laterally without twist or change in
buckling: the limit state of a sudden change in the geom- cross-sectional shape.
etry of a structure or any of its elements under a critical flexural-torsional buckling: a buckling mode in which a
loading condition. compression member bends and twists simultaneously
building-type structure: a structure of the type addressed by without change in cross-sectional shape.
a building code. gage: transverse center-to-center spacing of fasteners.
camber: curvature fabricated into a beam or truss so as to gauge: a term previously used in referring to the thickness
compensate for deflection induced by loads. of a wrought product. Thickness is preferred in
closed shape: a hollow shape that resists lateral-torsional dimension description.
buckling primarily by torsional resistance rather than geometric axis: axis parallel to a web, flange, or angle leg.
warping resistance, that is, for which Cw is much less grip: thickness of material through which a fastener passes.
than 0.038JLb2. See Section F.4.2.3. lateral-torsional buckling: the buckling mode of a flexural
column: a structural member that has the primary function member involving deflection normal to the plane of
of resisting a compressive axial force. bending occurring simultaneously with twist about the
contract documents: documents that define the responsibilities shear center of the cross-section.
of the parties that design, fabricate, or erect the structure. limit state: a condition in which a structure or component
design load: the applied load determined in accordance with becomes unfit for service and is judged either to be no
either LRFD load combinations or ASD load combinations, longer useful for its intended function (serviceability
whichever is applicable. limit state) or to have reached its ultimate load-carrying
capacity (strength limit state).

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load effect: forces, stresses, and deformations produced in a quality assurance: monitoring and inspection tasks performed
structural component by the applied loads. by an agency or firm other than the fabricator or erector
load factor: a factor that accounts for deviations of the nominal to ensure that the material provided and work performed
load from the actual load, for uncertainties in the analysis by the fabricator and erector meet the requirements of the
that transforms the load into a load effect and for the approved construction documents and referenced stan-
probability that more than one extreme load will occur dards. Quality assurance includes those tasks designated
simultaneously. “special inspection” by the applicable building code.
local buckling: the limit state of buckling of a compression quality control: controls and inspections implemented by
element within a cross section. the fabricator or erector, as applicable, to ensure that the
lockbolt: a two-piece fastener consisting of a shaft (bolt) and material provided and the work performed meet the
collar. The softer, smooth bore collar is mechanically requirements of the approved construction documents
swaged (reduced or tapered by squeezing) onto the pin and referenced standards.
and into either zero pitch, annular lock grooves or required strength: Forces, stresses and deformations acting
special thread form grooves in a tension-tension installation on a structural component determined by either structural
method. Hydraulic or pneumatic installation tools provide analysis, for the LRFD or ASD load combinations, as
the tension and swaging action. appropriate, or as specified by this Specification.
longitudinal centroidal axis: axis through the centroid of a resistance factor: a factor that accounts for unavoidable
member along its length. deviations of the actual strength from the nominal
LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design): a method of strength and for the manner and consequences of failure.
proportioning structural components such that the de- rivet: a headed and unthreaded mechanical device used to
sign strength equals or exceeds the required strength of assemble two or more components by an applied force
the component under the action of the LRFD load com- which deforms the plain rivet end to develop a completed
binations. mechanical joint.
LRFD load combination: a load combination in the applicable rod: a solid wrought product that is long in relation to its circular
building code intended for strength design (load and cross section, which is not less than 0.375 in. diameter.
resistance factor design). safety factor: a factor that accounts for deviations of the
member: an individual, discrete component of a larger structure, actual strength from the nominal strength, deviations of
such as a beam or column. the actual load from the nominal load, uncertainties in
member buckling: flexural, torsional, or flexural-torsional the analysis that transforms the load into a load effect,
buckling of the overall member. and for the manner and consequences of failure.
net area: gross area reduced to account for removed material. screw: a headed and externally threaded fastener held in
nominal dimension: designated or theoretical dimension, as place by threading into one of the connected parts.
in the tables of section properties. screw chase: a groove parallel to the longitudinal axis of
nominal load: magnitude of the load specified by the an extrusion, intended to retain a screw whose axis is
applicable building code. perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the extrusion.
nominal strength: strength of a structure or component (with- (See Figure GL.1).
out the resistance factor or safety factor applied) available
to resist load effects, as determined in accordance with
this Specification.
pin: a fastener that is a rod about which the connected parts
are free to rotate.
pitch: longitudinal center-to-center spacing of fasteners;
center-to-center spacing of bolt threads along the axis
of a bolt.
post-buckling strength: the load or force that can be carried by
an element, member, or frame after initial elastic buckling
has occurred. Figure GL.1
pull-out: the tensile load required to pull a screw out of a TRANSVERSE CROSS SECTION
threaded part. OF A SCREW CHASE
pull-over: the tensile load required to pull a part over the
head of a screw.

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screw slot: a semi-hollow in an extrusion intended to retain structure: an object, including but not limited to buildings,
a screw parallel to the axis of the extrusion. (See Figure walls, fences, towers, bridges, railings, signs, and
GL.2). luminaires, designed to support loads.
tapping screw: a screw that threads a preformed hole as it is
being driven.
thread cutting screw: a tapping screw that is installed into a
preformed hole, with internal mating threads formed as
a result of cutting out the material being tapped to form
the relief area of the threaded shank.
thread forming screw: a tapping screw that is installed into a
preformed hole, with internal mating threads formed as
Figure GL. 2 ow of the material being tapped into the
relief area of the threaded shank.
TRANSVERSE CROSS SECTION
torsional buckling: a buckling mode in which a compression
OF A SCREW SLOT member twists about its shear center axis.
self-drilling screw: a screw that drills and taps its own hole unbraced length: the length of a member between brace
as it is being driven. points or between a brace point and a cantilever’s free
service load: load under which serviceability limit states end, measured between the longitudinal centroidal axes
are evaluated. of the bracing members. For columns, brace points are
service load combination: load combinations under which exural
serviceability limit states are evaluated. buckling or twisting is restrained for torsional buckling.
slip-critical connection: a bolted connection designed to For beams, brace points are points at which the compres-
resist movement by friction on the faying surface of the ection or the
connection under the clamping forces of the bolts. cross section is restrained against twisting.
stiffener: a structural element attached or integral to a member weld-affected zone: metal within 1 in. (25 mm) of the
to distribute load, transfer shear, or prevent buckling. centerline of a weld.
structural component: member, connector, connecting
element or assemblage.

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Chapter A General Provisions
A.1 SCOPE ASTM International (ASTM)
A 194/A 194M-12a Standard Specification for Carbon and
The Specification for Aluminum Structures, hereafter Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for High Pressure or High
referred to as the Specification, applies to the design of Temperature Service, or Both
aluminum load-carrying structures, members, and connections. A 325-10e1 Standard Specification for Structural Bolts,
This Specification includes the symbols, glossary, Chapters Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum Tensile
A through N, and Appendices 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Strength
The provisions of this Specification, or a more rigorous A 325M-13 Standard Specification for Structural Bolts,
analysis, shall be used for all cases addressed by this Steel, Heat Treated 830 MPa Minimum Tensile Strength
Specification. Appropriate analysis shall be used for cases [Metric]
not addressed by this Specification. A 563-07a Standard Specification for Carbon and Alloy
Steel Nuts
A.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS A 563M-07 Standard Specification for Carbon and Alloy
The following documents are referenced in this Specification: Steel Nuts [Metric]
B 26/B 26M-12 Standard Specification for Aluminum-
Aluminum Association
Alloy Sand Castings
Aluminum Standards and Data 2013
B 108/B 108M-12e1 Standard Specification for Aluminum-
Aluminum Standards and Data 2013 Metric SI
Alloy Permanent Mold Castings
Standards for Aluminum Sand and Pemanent
B 209-10 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
Mold Castings (2008)
Aluminum-Alloy Sheet and Plate
American Association of State Highway and B 209M-10 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
Traffic Officials (AASHTO) Aluminum-Alloy Sheet and Plate [Metric]
Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian B 210-12 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
Bridges (1997) Aluminum-Alloy Drawn Seamless Tubes
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (2002) B 210M-12 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for High- Aluminum-Alloy Drawn Seamless Tubes [Metric]
way Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2013) B 211-12e1 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
American Institute for Steel Construction Aluminum-Alloy Bar, Rod, and Wire
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC B 211M-12e1 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
360-10) Aluminum-Alloy Bar, Rod, and Wire [Metric]
B 221-13 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Aluminum-Alloy Extruded Bars, Rods, Wire, Profiles,
ASNT CP-189, Standard for the Qualification and Certifi- and Tubes
cation of Nondestructive Testing Personnel B 221M-13 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Aluminum-Alloy Extruded Bars, Rods, Wire, Profiles,
ASCE/SEI 7-10 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and and Tubes [Metric]
Other Structures B 241/B 241M-12e1 Standard Specification for Alumi-
num and Aluminum-Alloy Seamless Pipe and Seamless
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Extruded Tube
ASME B18.6.4-1998(R2005) Thread Forming
B 247-09 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
and Thread Cutting Tapping Screws and Metallic Drive
Aluminum-Alloy Die Forgings, Hand Forgings, and
Screws, Inch Series
Rolled Ring Forgings
ASME B46.1-2009 Surface Texture (Surface Roughness,
B 247M-09 Standard Specification for Aluminum and
Waviness, and Lay)
Aluminum-Alloy Die Forgings, Hand Forgings, and
American Welding Society (AWS) Rolled Ring Forgings [Metric]
AWS A.5.10/A5.10M:2012 Welding Consumables – Wire B 308/B 308M-10 Standard Specification for Aluminum-
Electrodes, Wires and Rods for Welding of Aluminum Alloy 6061-T6 Standard Structural Profiles
and Aluminum-Alloys - Classification B 316/B 316M-10 Standard Specification for Aluminum
AWS B5.1, Standard for the Qualification and Aluminum-Alloy Rivet and Cold-Heading Wire and
of Welding Inspectors Rods
AWS D1.2/D1.2M:2014 Structural Welding Code B 429/B 429M-10e1 Standard Specification for Aluminum-
– Aluminum Alloy Extruded Structural Pipe and Tube

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B 557-10 Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing A.3 MATERIAL
Wrought and Cast Aluminum- and Magnesium-Alloy
Products A.3.1 General Provisions
B 557M-10 Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing The properties listed in Table A.3.1 shall be used unless
Wrought and Cast Aluminum- and Magnesium-Alloy more precise values are specified.
Products (Metric)
B 632/B 632M-08 Standard Specification for Aluminum- Table A.3.1
Alloy Rolled Tread Plate MATERIAL PROPERTIES
B 928/B 928M-09 Standard Specification for High Mag- PROPERTY SYMBOL VALUE
nesium Aluminum-Alloy Sheet and Plate for Marine
Poisson’s ratio ν 0.33
Service and Similar Environments
E 119 - 12a Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Build- Modulus of elasticity E 10,100 ksi
70,000 MPa
ing Construction and Materials
Shear modulus of elasticity G 3,800 ksi
E 330-02(2010) Standard Test Method for Structural 26,000 MPa
Performance of Exterior Windows, Doors, Skylights and
Coefficient of thermal expansion α 13 × 10-6/oF
Curtain Walls by Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference 23 × 10-6/oC
E 1592-05(2010) Standard Test Method for Structural Density γ 0.10 lb/in3
Performance of Sheet Metal Roof and Siding Systems 2.7 × 103 kg/m3
by Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference Shear yield strength Fsy 0.6 Fty
F 436-11 Standard Specification for Hardened Steel
Shear ultimate strength Fsu 0.6 Ftu
Washers
Compressive yield strength
F 436M-11 Standard Specification for Hardened Steel
Washers [Metric] unwelded - H temper material Fcy 0.9 Fty
F 467-13 Standard Specification for Nonferrous Nuts for all other material Fcy Fty
General Use
F 467M-06a(2012) Standard Specification for Nonferrous
Nuts for General Use [Metric] A.3.1.1 Properties at Elevated Temperatures
F 468-12 Standard Specification for Nonferrous Bolts, Hex Except as noted in Section A.3.1.2, the properties giv-
Cap Screws, Socket Head Cap Screws, and Studs for en in Section A.3 apply to material held at temperatures
General Use of 200oF (93oC) or less for any period of time and for the
F 468M-06(2012) Standard Specification for Nonferrous alloys and tempers listed in Table A.3.2 held at the tempera-
Bolts, Hex Cap Screws, and Studs for General Use tures listed in Table A.3.2 for cumulative periods of time
[Metric] no greater than the times listed in Table A.3.2. When al-
F 606 - 11a Standard Test Methods for Determining the loys not addressed in Table A.3.2 are heated above 200oF or
Mechanical Properties of Externally and Internally alloy-tempers addressed in Table A.3.2 are heated beyond
Threaded Fasteners, Washers, Direct Tension the time-temperature limits of Table A.3.2, properties used
Indicators, and Rivets in design shall be adjusted to the properties after heating.
F 606M - 13 Standard Test Methods for Determining the Table 4.1 gives the modulus of elasticity for 6xxx alloys
Mechanical Properties of Externally and Internally at elevated temperatures and Table 4.2 gives strengths of
Threaded Fasteners, Washers, and Rivets [Metric] 6061-T6, 6063-T5, and 6063-T6 at elevated temperatures.
Research Council on Structural Connections (RCSC)
Specification for Structural Joints Using High Strength
Bolts, 2009

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 Table A.3.2 A.3.1.2 Temperature Limits
TIME-TEMPERATURE LIMITS FOR Alloys 535.0, 5083, 5086, 5154, and 5456 shall not be
T5 AND T6 TEMPERS OF 6005, 6005A, subjected to temperatures greater than 150oF (66oC), except
6061, AND 6063 during fabrication in accordance with Section M.3.
TEMPERATURE TIME
A.3.2 Wrought Products
o o
F C
450 230 5 min
This Specification applies to the wrought products listed
in Table A.3.3 and produced to one of the ASTM specifica-
425 220 15 min
tions listed in Table A.3.3 or A.3.3M.
400 205 30 min
The tensile ultimate strength Ftu, tensile yield strength
375 190 2 hr Fty, and tension coefficient kt of non-weld affected
350 175 10 hr material and the tensile ultimate strength Ftuw and tensile
325 165 100 hr yield strength Ftyw of weld-affected material used to de-
300 150 1,000 hr termine available strength shall be as listed in Table A.3.3
212 100 100,000 hr or A.3.3M.

Interpolate time t for other temperatures T using

log (T2 / T )
log t = log t 2 + log ( t1 / t 2 ) (A.3-1)
log (T2 / T1 )

where
T1 = next lower temperature in Table A.3.2 than T
T2 = next higher temperature in Table A.3.2 than T
t1 = time corresponding to T1
t2 = time corresponding to T2

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 Table A.3.3
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM PRODUCTS
THICKNESS Ftu Fty Ftuw Ftyw kt
ASTM SPECIFICATION, in.
ALLOY TEMPER
PRODUCT
from to ksi ksi ksi ksi
1060 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 11 9 8 2.5 1
1060 H12 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 10 4 8.5 2.5 1
1060 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 12 10 8 2.5 1
1060 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 12 10 8.5 2.5 1
1100 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 14 11 11 3.5 1
1100 H12 B210, drawn tube 0.014 0.500 14 11 11 3.5 1
1100 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 16 14 11 3.5 1
1100 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.014 0.500 16 14 11 3.5 1
2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.040 0.249 66 58 – – 1.25
2014 T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.250 2.000 67 59 – – 1.25
2014 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion – 0.499 60 53 – – 1.25
2014 T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 0.125 8.000 65 55 – – 1.25
2014 T6 B210, drawn tube 0.018 0.500 65 55 – – 1.25
Alclad 2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.040 0.050 63 55 – – 1.25
Alclad 2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.051 0.124 64 57 – – 1.25
Alclad 2014 T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.250 0.499 64 57 – – 1.25
2219 T87 B209, sheet & plate 0.250 3.000 64 51 35 26 1.25
3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 17 12 14 5 1
3003 H12 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 17 12 14 5 1
3003 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 20 17 14 5 1
3003 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 20 17 14 5 1
3003 H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 24 21 14 5 1
3003 H16 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 24 21 14 5 1
3003 H18 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 27 24 14 5 1
3003 H18 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 27 24 14 5 1
Alclad 3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 16 11 13 4.5 1
Alclad 3003 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 19 16 13 4.5 1
Alclad 3003 H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 23 20 13 4.5 1
Alclad 3003 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 19 16 13 4.5 1
Alclad 3003 H18 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 26 23 13 4.5 1
3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 28 21 22 8.5 1
3004 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 32 25 22 8.5 1
3004 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 35 28 22 8.5 1
3004 H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 38 31 22 8.5 1
Alclad 3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 27 20 21 8 1
Alclad 3004 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 31 24 21 8 1
Alclad 3004 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 34 27 21 8 1
3005 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.016 0.080 26 22 – – 1
3005 H28 B209, sheet & plate 0.016 0.080 31 27 – – 1
3105 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.013 0.080 23 19 – – 1
5005 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 18 14 15 5 1
5005 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 21 17 15 5 1
5005 H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 24 20 15 5 1
5005 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 17 12 15 5 1

January 2015 I - 23

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 Table A.3.3 (Continued)
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM PRODUCTS
THICKNESS Ftu Fty Ftuw Ftyw kt
ASTM SPECIFICATION, in.
ALLOY TEMPER
PRODUCT
from to ksi ksi ksi ksi
5005 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 20 15 15 5 1
5005 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 23 18 15 5 1
5050 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 0.249 22 16 18 6 1
5050 H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 22 16 18 6 1
5050 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 0.249 25 20 18 6 1
5050 H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 25 20 18 6 1
5050 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 27 22 18 6 1
5052 O B209, sheet & plate 0.006 3.000 25 9.5 25 9.5 1
5052 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 31 23 25 9.5 1
5052 H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 31 23 25 10 1
5052 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 34 26 25 9.5 1
5052 H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 34 26 25 10 1
5052 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 37 29 25 9.5 1
5083 O, H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 39 16 39 16 1
5083 O B209, sheet & plate 0.051 1.500 40 18 40 18 1
5083 H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 40 24 39 16 1
5083 H111 B247, forging – 4.000 42 22 38 16 1
5083 H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 44 31 40 18 1
5083 H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 39 17 1
5083 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 44 31 40 18 1
5083 H32 B209, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 39 17 1
5083 H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 44 31 40 18 1
5083 H321 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 39 17 1
5086 O, H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 35 14 35 14 1
5086 O B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 35 14 35 14 1
5086 H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 36 21 35 14 1
5086 H112 B209, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 36 18 35 14 1
5086 H112 B209, sheet & plate 0.500 1.000 35 16 35 14 1
5086 H112 B209, sheet & plate 1.001 2.000 35 14 35 14 1
5086 H112 B209, sheet & plate 2.001 3.000 34 14 34 14 1
5086 H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 2.000 40 28 35 14 1
5086 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 40 28 35 14 1
5086 H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 40 28 35 14 1
5086 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 44 34 35 14 1
5086 H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 44 34 35 14 1
5086 H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 2.000 40 28 35 14 1
5154 H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 45 35 30 11 1
5454 O, H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 31 12 31 12 1
5454 O B209, sheet & plate 0.020 3.000 31 12 31 12 1
5454 H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 33 19 31 12 1
5454 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 36 26 31 12 1
5454 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 1.000 39 29 31 12 1
5456 O B209, sheet & plate 0.051 1.500 42 19 42 19 1
5456 H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 1.250 46 33 42 19 1

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 Table A.3.3 (Continued)
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM PRODUCTS
THICKNESS Ftu Fty Ftuw Ftyw kt
ASTM SPECIFICATION, in.
ALLOY TEMPER
PRODUCT
from to ksi ksi ksi ksi
5456 H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.251 1.500 44 31 42 19 1
5456 H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 41 18 1
5456 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 46 33 42 19 1
5456 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.500 1.500 44 31 42 19 1
5456 H32 B209, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 41 18 1
5456 H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 46 33 42 19 1
5456 H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.500 1.500 44 31 42 19 1
5456 H321 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 41 18 1
6005 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 24 13 1.25
6005A T61 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 24 13 1
6061 T6, T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.010 4.000 42 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6 B632, tread plate 0.100 0.625 42 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 38 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 0.125 8.000 42 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6 B210, drawn tube 0.025 0.500 42 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6 B241, pipe & tube All 38 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6 B429, pipe & tube All 38 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6 B247, forging – 4.000 38 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6061 T6 B308, std structural profile 0.062 – 38 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6063 T5 B221, extrusion – 0.500 22 16 17 8 1
6063 T5 B221, extrusion 0.501 1.000 21 15 17 8 1
6063 T52 B221, extrusion – 1.000 22 16 17 8 1
6063 T6 B221, extrusion – 1.000 30 25 17 8 1
6063 T6 B241, pipe & tube – 1.000 30 25 17 8 1
6063 T6 B429, pipe & tube – 1.000 30 25 17 8 1
6066 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 50 45 – – 1.1
6070 T6 B221, extrusion – 2.999 48 45 – – 1.1
6082 T6, T6511 B221, extrusion 0.200 6.000 45 38 28 16 1
6105 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 – – 1.25
6351 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 24 11Q or 15W 1
6351 T6 B221, extrusion – 0.749 42 37 24 11Q or 15W 1
6463 T6 B221, extrusion – 0.500 30 25 – – 1
7005 T53 B221, extrusion – 0.750 50 44 40 24 1

Q When welded with 4043, 5554, or 5654 alloy filler for thicknesses > 0.375 in.
W When welded with 5183, 5356, or 5556 alloy filler regardless of thickness, and when welded with 4043, 5554, or 5654 alloy filler for thicknesses < 0.375 in.
E Material in either of these tempers (H32 or H22), (H34 or H24), (H36 or H26), (H38 or H28), (H12 or H22), (H14 or H24), (H16 or H26), (H18 or H28), is acceptable
if the supplied H2x temper material meets all of the respective H1x or H3x temper tensile property limits.

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 Table A.3.3M
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM PRODUCTS
THICKNESS Ftu Fty Ftuw Ftyw kt
ASTM SPECIFICATION, mm
ALLOY TEMPER
PRODUCT
over thru MPa MPa MPa MPa
1060 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 75 60 55 15 1
1060 H12 B210, drawn tube 0.25 12.50 70 30 60 15 1
1060 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 85 70 55 15 1
1060 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.25 12.50 85 70 60 15 1
1100 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 95 75 75 25 1
1100 H12 B210, drawn tube 0.32 12.50 95 75 75 25 1
1100 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 110 95 75 25 1
1100 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.32 12.50 110 95 75 25 1
2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 1.00 6.30 455 400 – – 1.25
2014 T6, T651 B209, sheet & plate 6.30 50.00 460 405 – – 1.25
2014 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion – 12.50 415 365 – – 1.25
2014 T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 3.20 200.00 450 380 – – 1.25
2014 T6 B210, drawn tube 0.45 12.50 450 380 – – 1.25
Alclad 2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.63 1.00 435 380 – – 1.25
Alclad 2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 1.00 6.30 440 395 – – 1.25
Alclad 2014 T651 B209, sheet & plate 6.30 12.50 440 395 – – 1.25
2219 T87 B209, sheet & plate 6.30 80.00 440 350 240 180 1.25
3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 120 85 95 35 1
3003 H12 B210, drawn tube 0.25 1.20 120 85 95 35 1
3003 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 140 115 95 35 1
3003 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.20 25.00 140 115 95 35 1
3003 H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 165 145 95 35 1
3003 H16 B210, drawn tube 0.25 12.50 165 145 95 35 1
3003 H18 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 3.20 185 165 95 35 1
3003 H18 B210, drawn tube – 12.50 185 165 95 35 1
Alclad 3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 115 80 90 30 1
Alclad 3003 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 135 110 90 30 1
Alclad 3003 H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 160 140 90 30 1
Alclad 3003 H14 B210, drawn tube 0.25 12.50 135 110 90 30 1
Alclad 3003 H18 B210, drawn tube 0.25 12.50 180 160 90 30 1
3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 190 145 150 60 1
3004 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 220 170 150 60 1
3004 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 240 190 150 60 1
3004 H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 3.20 260 215 150 60 1
Alclad 3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 185 140 145 55 1
Alclad 3004 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 215 165 145 55 1
Alclad 3004 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 235 185 145 55 1
3005 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 2.00 180 150 – – 1
3005 H28 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 2.00 215 185 – – 1
3105 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.32 1.60 160 130 – – 1
5005 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 125 95 105 35 1
5005 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 145 115 105 35 1
5005 H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 165 135 105 35 1
5005 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 120 85 105 35 1

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 Table A.3.3M (Continued)
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM PRODUCTS
THICKNESS Ftu Fty Ftuw Ftyw kt
ASTM SPECIFICATION, mm
ALLOY TEMPER
PRODUCT
over thru MPa MPa MPa MPa
5005 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 140 105 105 35 1
5005 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 160 125 105 35 1
5050 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 6.30 150 110 125 40 1
5050 H32 B210, drawn tube 0.25 12.50 150 110 125 40 1
5050 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 6.30 170 140 125 40 1
5050 H34 B210, drawn tube 0.25 12.50 170 140 125 40 1
5050 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 185 150 125 40 1
5052 O B209, sheet & plate 0.15 80.00 170 65 170 65 1
5052 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.40 50.00 215 160 170 65 1
5052 H32 B210, drawn tube 0.25 11.50 215 160 170 70 1
5052 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 235 180 170 65 1
5052 H34 B210, drawn tube 0.25 11.50 235 180 170 70 1
5052 H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 4.00 255 200 170 65 1
5083 O, H112 B221, extrusion – 130.00 270 110 270 110 1
5083 O B209, sheet & plate 6.30 80.00 270 115 270 115 1
5083 H111 B221, extrusion – 130.00 275 165 270 110 1
5083 H111 B247, forging – 100.00 290 150 270 110 1
5083 H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.60 40.00 305 215 270 115 1
5083 H116 B928, sheet & plate 40.00 80.00 285 200 270 115 1
5083 H32 B209, sheet & plate 3.20 40.00 305 215 270 115 1
5083 H32 B209, sheet & plate 40.00 80.00 285 200 270 115 1
5083 H321 B928, sheet & plate 3.20 40.00 305 215 270 115 1
5083 H321 B928, sheet & plate 40.00 80.00 285 200 270 115 1
5086 O, H112 B221, extrusion – 130.00 240 95 240 95 1
5086 O B209, sheet & plate 0.50 50.00 240 95 240 95 1
5086 H111 B221, extrusion – 130.00 250 145 240 95 1
5086 H112 B209, sheet & plate 4.00 12.50 250 125 240 95 1
5086 H112 B209, sheet & plate 12.50 40.00 240 105 240 95 1
5086 H112 B209, sheet & plate 40.00 80.00 235 95 240 95 1
5086 H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.60 50.00 275 195 240 95 1
5086 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.50 50.00 275 195 240 95 1
5086 H32 B210, drawn tube 0.25 11.50 275 195 240 95 1
5086 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.20 25.00 300 235 240 95 1
5086 H34 B210, drawn tube 0.25 11.50 300 235 240 95 1
5086 H321 B928, sheet & plate 1.60 8.00 275 195 240 95 1
5154 H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.50 3.20 310 240 205 75 1
5454 O, H112 B221, extrusion – 130.00 215 85 215 85 1
5454 O B209, sheet & plate 0.50 80.00 215 85 215 85 1
5454 H111 B221, extrusion – 130.00 230 130 215 85 1
5454 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.50 50.00 250 180 215 85 1
5454 H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.50 25.00 270 200 215 85 1
5456 O B209, sheet & plate 6.30 80.00 285 125 285 125 1
5456 H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.60 30.00 315 230 285 125 1
5456 H116 B928, sheet & plate 30.00 40.00 305 215 285 125 1
5456 H116 B928, sheet & plate 40.00 80.00 285 200 285 125 1

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 Table A.3.3M (Continued)
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WROUGHT ALUMINUM PRODUCTS
THICKNESS Ftu Fty Ftuw Ftyw kt
ASTM SPECIFICATION, mm
ALLOY TEMPER
PRODUCT
over thru MPa MPa MPa MPa
5456 H32 B209, sheet & plate 4.00 12.50 315 230 285 125 1
5456 H32 B209, sheet & plate 12.50 40.00 305 215 285 125 1
5456 H32 B209, sheet & plate 40.00 80.00 285 200 285 125 1
5456 H321 B928, sheet & plate 4.00 12.50 315 230 285 125 1
5456 H321 B928, sheet & plate 12.50 40.00 305 215 285 125 1
5456 H321 B928, sheet & plate 40.00 80.00 285 200 285 125 1
6005 T5 B221, extrusion – 25.00 260 240 165 90 1.25
6005A T61 B221, extrusion – 25.00 260 240 165 90 1
6061 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.15 6.30 290 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T651 B209, sheet & plate 6.30 100.00 290 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6 B632, tread plate 5.00 16.00 290 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 260 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 3.20 200.00 290 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6 B210, drawn tube 0.63 12.50 290 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6, T6510, T6511 B241, pipe & tube All 260 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6, T6510, T6511 B429, pipe & tube All 260 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6 B247, forging – 100.00 260 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6061 T6 B308, std structural profile 1.20 – 260 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6063 T5 B221, extrusion – 12.50 150 110 115 55 1
6063 T5 B221, extrusion 12.50 25.00 145 105 115 55 1
6063 T52 B221, extrusion – 25.00 150 110 115 55 1
6063 T6 B221, extrusion – 25.00 205 170 115 55 1
6063 T6 B241, pipe & tube – 25.00 205 170 115 55 1
6063 T6 B429, pipe & tube – 25.00 205 170 115 55 1
6066 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 345 210 – – 1.1
6070 T6 B221, extrusion – 80.00 330 310 – – 1.1
6082 T6 B221, extrusion 5.00 20.00 310 260 190 110 1
6082 T6511 B221, extrusion 20.00 150.00 310 260 190 110 1
6105 T5 B221, extrusion – 25.00 250 240 – – 1.25
6351 T5 B221, extrusion – 25.00 260 240 165 80Q or 105W 1
6351 T6 B221, extrusion – 20.00 290 255 165 80Q or 105W 1
6463 T6 B221, extrusion – 12.50 205 170 – – 1
7005 T53 B221, extrusion – 25.00 345 305 275 165 1

Q When welded with 4043, 5554, or 5654 alloy filler for thicknesses > 9.50 mm.
W When welded with 5183, 5356, or 5556 alloy filler regardless of thickness, and when welded with 4043, 5554, or 5654 alloy filler for thicknesses < 9.50 mm.
E Material in either of these tempers (H32 or H22), (H34 or H24), (H36 or H26), (H38 or H28), (H12 or H22), (H14 or H24), (H16 or H26), (H18 or H28), is acceptable
if the supplied H2x temper material meets all of the respective H1x or H3x temper tensile property limits.

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 Table A.3.4
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF ALUMINUM CASTINGS
ALLOY TEMPER ASTM CASTING TYPE Ftu Fty Ftu Fty NOTE kt
Specification ksi ksi MPa MPa
356.0 T6 B26 sand 22.5 15.0 155 105 Q 1.0
A356.0 T6 B26 sand 25.5 18.0 175 125 Q 1.0
47.0 36.0 325 250 W 1.0
354.0 T61 B108 permanent mold
43.0 33.0 295 230 Q 1.0
40.0 30.0 275 205 W 1.0
C355.0 T61 B108 permanent mold
37.0 30.0 255 205 Q 1.0
356.0 T6 B108 permanent mold 24.7 16.5 170 110 Q 1.0
33.0 26.0 230 180 W 1.0
A356.0 T61 B108 permanent mold
28.0 26.0 195 180 Q 1.0
46.0 36.0 315 250 W 1.0
A357.0 T61 B108 permanent mold
41.0 31.0 285 215 Q 1.0
45.0 34.0 310 235 W 1.0
359.0 T61 B108 permanent mold
40.0 30.0 275 205 Q 1.0
47.0 38.0 325 260 W 1.0
359.0 T62 B108 permanent mold
40.0 30.0 275 205 Q 1.0
535.0 F B108 permanent mold 26.2 13.5 180 95 Q 1.0

Q These strengths apply at any location in the casting if the purchaser specifies that the strength of test specimens cut from any location in the casting equal or
exceed these strengths.
W.These strengths apply in the locations specified by the purchaser if the purchaser specifies that strengths equal or exceed these strengths at these locations.
At other locations, the strengths in Q apply.

A.3.3 Castings Table A.3.5

This Specification applies to cast products listed in Table RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
A.3.4 and that meet all of the following requirements: CRITERIA FOR CASTINGS
a) Sand casting meet the requirements of B 26/B 26M Number of Number of Castings
Aluminum-Alloy Sand Castings and permanent mold castings Lot Size Castings Required Required to Meet
to be Radiographed Grade C to Pass Lot
meet the requirements of B 108/B 108M Aluminum-Alloy
Permanent Mold Castings 2 through 50 2 2
b) The casting’s dimensional tolerances conform to Stan- 51 through 500 8 7
dards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Castings. over 500 13 11
c) The casting producer reports tensile yield strengths of
the castings.
d) Radiographic inspection in accordance with ASTM B
26 Grade C or B 108 Grade C criteria is performed. The
number of castings radiographed and the lot acceptance
criteria shall be as listed in Table A.3.5.

The tensile strength Ftu, yield strength Fty, and tension co-
efficient kt of non-weld affected material used to determine
available strength shall be as listed in Table A.3.4. Welded
strengths of castings shall be those established in the AWS
D1.2 weld procedure qualification test.

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A.3.4 Filler Metal for Welding Table A.3.7
This Specification applies to filler alloys produced to AWS NOMININAL STRENGTHS OF
A5.10/A5.10M and listed in Tables M.9.1 and M.9.2. Filler ALUMINUM BOLTS
metal nominal strengths used to determine available strength
Shear Tensile Shear Tensile
shall be as listed in Table A.3.6. Alloy and Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate
Temper StrengthQ StrengthQ StrengthW StrengthW
Table A.3.6 Fsu ksi Ftu ksi Fsu MPa Ftu MPa
NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF 2024-T4 37 62 255 425
FILLER METAL 6061-T6 25 42 170 290

Tensile Ultimate Tensile Ultimate 7075-T73 41 68 280 470

Filler Strength Ftuw Strength Ftuw Q From ASTM B 316/B 316M and F 468
ksi MPa W From ASTM B 316/B 316M
1100 11 75
2319 35 240 A.3.6 Rivets
4043 24 165
This Specification applies to rivets of material that meets
4047 25 170 ASTM B 316/B 316M. Nominal strengths used to deter-
5183 40 275 mine available strength for aluminum rivets shall be as list-
5356 35 240 ed in Table A.3.8.
5554 31 215 Table A.3.8
5556 42 290 NOMINAL STRENGTHS
5654 30 205 OF ALUMINUM RIVETS
Designation Shear Ultimate Shear Ultimate
A.3.5 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts Before Strength Fsu Strength Fsu
Driving ksi Q MPa Q
This Specification applies to aluminum fasteners pro-
2017-T4 33 225
duced to ASTM specifications
2024-T42 37 255
F 468 Nonferrous Bolts, Hex Cap Screws, Socket Head 2117-T4 26 180
Cap Screws, and Studs for General Use 2219-T6 30 205
F 468M Nonferrous Bolts, Hex Cap Screws, and Studs for 6053-T61 20 135
General Use [Metric]
6061-T6 25 170
7050-T7 39 270
and aluminum nuts produced to ASTM specifications
7075-T6 42 290
F 467 Nonferrous Nuts for General Use 7075-T73 41 280
F 467M Nonferrous Nuts for General Use [Metric] 7178-T6 46 315

Q From ASTM B 316/B 316M

Nuts for ¼ in. (M6) bolts and smaller shall be 2024-T4;
larger nuts shall be 6061-T6 or 6262-T9.
Flat washers shall be Alclad 2024-T4. Spring lock wash- A.3.7 Screws
ers shall be 7075-T6. This Specification applies to aluminum tapping screws
Nominal strengths used to determine available strength that meet ASME B18.6.4.
for aluminum bolts shall be as listed in Table A.3.7.

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Chapter B Design Requirements
B.1 SECTION PROPERTIES B.3.2 Required Strength
Section properties such as cross-sectional area, moment The required strength of structural members and
of inertia, section modulus, radius of gyration, and torsion connections shall be determined by structural analysis
and warping constants shall be determined using nominal using the loads and load combinations stipulated in
dimensions. Section properties used to determine bending Section B.2. Computation of forces and moments shall be by
deflections shall be determined in accordance with Section elastic analysis in accordance with Chapter C. The effect of
L.3. Cross section dimensions shall not vary by more than the eccentricities at connections shall be addressed as required
tolerances given in Aluminum Standards and Data. by Section J.1.1.

B.2 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS B.3.2.1 Design for Strength Using Load and Resis-
tance Factor Design (LRFD)
B.2.1 Building-Type Structures
Design using the provisions for Load and Resistance
Building-type structures shall be designed for the nominal
Factor Design (LRFD) meets the requirements of this
loads and load combinations given in the applicable building
Specification when the design strength of each structural
code or contract documents. In the absence of a building code
component equals or exceeds the required strength determined
or contract documents, ASCE 7, Minimum Design Loads for
on the basis of the LRFD load combinations. All provisions of
Buildings and Other Structures, shall be used.
this Specification except Section B.3.2.2 shall apply.
B.2.2 Bridge-Type Structures Design shall satisfy Equation B.3-1:

Bridge-type structures shall be designed for the nominal Ru < φRn (B.3-1)
loads and load combinations given in the contract documents.
In the absence of contract documents, highway bridges shall where
be designed for the nominal loads and load combinations Ru = required strength for LRFD
given in AASHTO’s Standard Specifications for Highway Rn = nominal strength
Bridges, and pedestrian bridges shall be designed for the φ = resistance factor
nominal loads and load combinations given in AASHTO’s φRn = design strength
Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges.
Resistance factors for building-type structures shall be as
given in this Specification.
B.2.3 Other Structures
Structural supports for highway signs, luminaires, and traffic B.3.2.2 Design for Strength Using Allowable
signals shall be designed for the loads given in Standard Strength Design (ASD)
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires, and Traffic Signals. Other structures shall be Design using the provisions for Allowable Strength
designed for the loads given in the contract documents. In Design (ASD) meets the requirements of this Specification
the absence of contract documents, other structures shall be when the allowable strength of each structural component
designed for the loads given in ASCE 7 where applicable. equals or exceeds the required strength determined on the
basis of the ASD load combinations. All provisions of this
B.3 DESIGN BASIS Specification except Section B.3.2.1 shall apply.
Design shall satisfy Equation B.3-2:
Designs shall be made according to the provisions for
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) or Allowable
Ra < Rn /Ω (B.3-2)
Strength Design (ASD). LRFD is limited to building-
type structures.
where
Ra = required strength for ASD
B.3.1 Limit States Rn = nominal strength
No applicable strength or serviceability limit state shall Ω = safety factor
be exceeded by the loads and load combinations given in Rn /Ω = allowable strength
Section B.2. Safety factors for building-type structures and bridge-
type structures shall be as given in this Specification.

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B.3.3 Design for Stability B.3.6 Design for Fire Conditions
Stability of the structure and its components shall be Design for fire conditions shall meet the requirements
determined in accordance with Chapter C. of Appendix 4.

B.3.4 Design for Serviceability B.3.7 Design of Braces

Structures and their components shall meet the serviceability Braces for columns and beams shall meet the requirements
requirements given in Chapter L. of Appendix 6.

B.3.5 Design for Fatigue B.4 BUCKLING CONSTANTS

Structures and their components subjected to repeated Buckling constants B, D, and C shall be determined
loading shall meet the requirements of Appendix 3. Fatigue from Tables B.4.1 and B.4.2. Postbuckling constants k1 and
need not be considered for seismic loads. k2 shall be determined from Table B.4.3.

Table B.4.1
BUCKLING CONSTANTS FOR TEMPER DESIGNATIONS BEGINNING WITH
O, H, T1, T2, T3, OR T4, AND WELD-AFFECTED ZONES OF ALL TEMPERS
TYPE OF STRESS
INTERCEPT SLOPE INTERSECTION
AND MEMBER

⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/2 ⎞ Bc ⎛ 6 Bc ⎞
1/2
2 Bc
Member Buckling Bc = Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dc = ⎜ ⎟ Cc =
⎝ ⎝ 1000κ ⎠ ⎠ 20 ⎝ E ⎠ 3Dc

⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/3 ⎞ B ⎛ 6B ⎞
1/2
2 Bp
Uniform Compression in
Bp = Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dp = p ⎜ p ⎟ Cp =
⎝ ⎝ 440κ ⎠ ⎠ 20 ⎝ E ⎠
Flat Elements 3D p

Uniform Compression in
⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/5 ⎞ Bt ⎛ Bt ⎞
1/3
Bt = Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dt = ⎜ ⎟ Ct W
Curved Elements
⎝ ⎝ 6500κ ⎠ ⎠ 3.7 ⎝ E ⎠

⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/3 ⎞ Bbr ⎛ 6 Bbr ⎞

1/2
2 Bbr
Flexural Compression in
Bbr = 1.3Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dbr = ⎜ ⎟ Cbr =
Flat Elements
⎝ ⎝ 340κ ⎠ ⎠ 20 ⎝ E ⎠ 3Dbr

Flexural Compression in
⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/5 ⎞ Btb ⎛ Btb ⎞
1/3
⎛ B − Bt ⎞
2

Btb = 1.5 Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dtb = ⎜ ⎟ Ctb = ⎜ tb

Curved Elements
⎝ ⎝ 6500κ ⎠ ⎠ 2.7 ⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ Dtb − Dt ⎟⎠

⎛ ⎛ F ⎞ 1/3 ⎞ Bs ⎛ 6 Bs ⎞
1/2
2 Bs
Shear in Flat Elements Bs = Fsy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ sy ⎟ ⎟ Ds = ⎜ ⎟ Cs =
⎝ ⎝ 240κ ⎠ ⎠ 20 ⎝ E ⎠ 3Ds

Q κ = 1.0 ksi (6.895 MPa)

W Ct shall be determined using a plot of curves of limit state stress based on elastic and inelastic buckling or by trial and error solution.

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 Table B.4.2
BUCKLING CONSTANTS FOR TEMPER DESIGNATIONS BEGINNING WITH
T5, T6, T7, T8, OR T9
TYPE OF STRESS
INTERCEPT SLOPE INTERSECTION
AND MEMBER

⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/2 ⎞ Bc ⎛ Bc ⎞
1/2
Bc
Member Buckling Bc = Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dc = ⎜ ⎟ Cc = 0.41
⎝ ⎝ 2250κ ⎠ ⎠ 10 ⎝ E ⎠ Dc

⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/3 ⎞ Bp ⎛ Bp ⎞
1/2
Bp
Uniform Compression in
Bp = Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dp = C p = 0.41
Flat Elements
⎝ ⎝ 1500κ ⎠ ⎠ 10 ⎜⎝ E ⎟⎠ Dp

Uniform Compression in
⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/5 ⎞ Bt ⎛ Bt ⎞
1/3
Bt = Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dt = ⎜ ⎟ Ct W
Curved Elements
⎝ ⎝ 50, 000κ ⎠ ⎠ 4.5 ⎝ E ⎠

⎛ ⎛ F ⎞ 1/3 ⎞ Bbr ⎛ 6 Bbr ⎞

1/2
2 Bbr
Flexural Compression in
Bbr = 1.3Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ cy ⎟ ⎟ Dbr = ⎜ ⎟ Cbr =
Flat Elements
⎝ ⎝ 340κ ⎠ ⎠ 20 ⎝ E ⎠ 3Dbr

Flexural Compression in
⎛ ⎛ Fcy ⎞ 1/5 ⎞ Btb ⎛ Btb ⎞
1/3
⎛ B − Bt ⎞
2

Btb = 1.5 Fcy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Dtb = ⎜ ⎟ Ctb = ⎜ tb

Curved Elements
⎝ ⎝ 50, 000κ ⎠ ⎠ 2.7 ⎝ E ⎠ ⎝ Dtb − Dt ⎟⎠

⎛ ⎛ F ⎞ 1/3 ⎞ Bs ⎛ Bs ⎞
1/2
Bs
Shear in Flat Elements Bs = Fsy ⎜ 1 + ⎜ sy ⎟ ⎟ Ds = ⎜ ⎟ Cs = 0.41
⎝ ⎝ 800κ ⎠ ⎠ 10 ⎝ E ⎠ Ds

Q κ = 1.0 ksi (6.895 MPa)

W Ct shall be determined using a plot of curves of limit state stress based on elastic and inelastic buckling or by trial and error solution.

B.5 ELEMENTS
Table B.4.3
B.5.1 Width of Flat Elements and Stiffeners
POSTBUCKLING CONSTANTS
For flat elements:
TYPE OF ELEMENT k1 k2
Flat Elements in Compression for 0.50 2.04 a) supported on one edge, the element width b is the
Temper Designations Beginning with
O, H, T1, T2, T3, or T4, and weld-affected
distance from the element’s unsupported edge to the toe of the
zones of all tempers fillet or bend at the element’s supported edge (Figure B.5.1)
Flat Elements in Compression for 0.35 2.27 b) supported on both edges and flat elements supported
Temper Designations Beginning with on one edge and with a stiffener on the other edge, the
T5, T6, T7, T8, or T9 element width b is the distance between the toes of the
Flat Elements in Flexure 0.50 2.04 fillets or bends at the element’s supported or stiffened edges
(Figures B.5.2 and B.5.3).
c) supported on both edges and with an intermediate
stiffener, the element width b is the largest distance between
the toe of the fillet or bend at the element’s supported edge and
the toe of the fillet or bend at the intermediate stiffener (Figure
B.5.4).

For all flat elements, if the inside corner radius exceeds

4 times the element thickness, the inside radius shall be
assumed equal to 4 times the thickness in calculating b.
Dimensions and properties of stiffeners shall be
determined in accordance with Figures B.5.3 and B.5.4.

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 b b b

r t r t r t

Figure B.5.1
FLAT ELEMENTS SUPPORTED ON ONE EDGE

b b

r
r t

Figure B.5.2
FLAT ELEMENTS SUPPORTED ON BOTH EDGES

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 Figure B.5.3
EDGE STIFFENED ELEMENTS

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 Figure B.5.4
FLAT ELEMENTS WITH AN INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER

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B.5.2 Radius of Curved Elements Awz = cross sectional area of the weld-affected zone
Ag = gross cross sectional area of the element.
The radius of curved elements Rb shall be taken at the
mid-thickness of the element.
B.5.4.1 Flat Elements Supported On One Edge
B.5.3 Thickness of Elements The stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive
at elements supported on one edge is:
For uniform compression on elements with linearly varying
thickness with δ < 2.0: LIMIT STATE Fc b /t

a) For tapered thickness elements with the thick yielding Fcy b /t < λ1
edge supported and the thin edge free, the slenderness
is (1 – 0.12δ)(b/tavg). inelastic buckling Bp – 5.0Dp b/t λ1 < b /t < λ2
b) For tapered thickness elements with the thin edge
supported and the thick edge free, the slenderness is b/tavg in columns whose buckling axis is not an axis of symmetry:
c) For tapered thickness elements supported on both π2E
edges, the slenderness is b/tavg. elastic buckling b /t > λ2
( 5.0 b /t )2
where
b = element width in all other columns and all beams:

k2 B p E
post-buckling b /t > λ2
tavg = t max + t min (B.5-1) 5.0b / t
2
where
= average thickness of the element Bp − Fcy
tmin = minimum thickness of the tapered thickness element λ1 =
tmax = maximum thickness of the tapered thickness element 5.0 D p

Cp
t max − t min λ2 = for elastic buckling
δ= (B.5-2) 5.0
t min
k1Bp
λ2 = for post-buckling
B.5.4 Strength of Elements in Uniform Compression 5.0 D p
The stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive
strength of elements is: B.5.4.2 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges
For unwelded elements: The stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive
at elements supported on both edges is:
Fc = Fco (B.5-3)

For welded elements:

LIMIT STATE Fc b /t

Fc = Fco(1 – Awz /Ag) + Fcw Awz /Ag (B.5-4) yielding Fcy b /t < λ1

where inelastic buckling Bp –1.6Dp b/t λ1 < b /t < λ2

Fco = stress corresponding to the uniform compressive
k2 B p E
strength calculated using Sections B.5.4.1 through post- buckling b /t > λ2
B.5.4.5 for an element if no part of the cross section 1.6b / t
were weld-affected. Use buckling constants for un-
welded metal (Table B.4.1 or Table B.4.2) and Fcy. where
Fcw = stress corresponding to the uniform compressive
strength calculated using Sections B.5.4.1 through Bp − Fcy
λ1 =
B.5.4.5 for an element if the entire cross section 1.6 D p
were weld-affected. Use buckling constants for
k1 Bp
weld-affected zones (Table B.4.1) and Fcyw. For λ2 =
transversely welded elements with b/t < λ1, Fcw = Fco. 1.6 D p

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B.5.4.3 Flat Elements Supported on One Edge and B.5.4.4 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges
with a Stiffener on the Other Edge and with an Intermediate Stiffener
For flat elements The stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive
a) supported on one edge and with a stiffener on the strength of flat elements supported on both edges and with an
other edge, intermediate stiffener is:
b) with a stiffener of depth DS < 0.8b, where DS is defined
in Figure B.5.3, and LIMIT STATE Fc λs
c) with a thickness no greater than the stiffener’s thickness,
the stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive yielding Fcy λs < λ1
strength is
inelastic buckling Bc – Dc λs λ1 < λs < λ2
Fc = FUT + (FST –FUT)ρST (B.5-5) πE2

elastic buckling λs > λ2

λs 2
where
FUT is determined using Section B.5.4.1 and neglecting
where
the stiffener
FST is determined using Section B.5.4.2 Bc − Fcy
λ1 =
ρST = stiffener effectiveness ratio determined as follows: Dc
a) ρST = 1.0 for b/t < λe/3 (B.5-6)
λ2 = Cc
rs
b) ρST = ≤ 1.0 for λe /3 < b/t < λe ⎛ b⎞ 1 + As / (bt )
⎛ b / t 1⎞ λs = 4.62 ⎜ ⎟ (B.5-10)
9t ⎜ − ⎟ (B.5-7) ⎝t⎠ 10.67 I o
⎝ λe 3 ⎠ 1+ 1+
bt 3
rs As = area of the stiffener
c) ρST = ≤ 1.0 for λe < b/t < 2 λe Io = moment of inertia of a section compris-
⎛b/t ⎞
1.5t ⎜ + 3⎟ (B.5-8) ing the stiffener and one half of the width
⎝ λe ⎠ of the adjacent sub-elements and the tran-
sition corners between them taken about
rs = the stiffener’s radius of gyration about the stiffened the centroidal axis of the section parallel
element’s mid-thickness. For straight stiffeners of constant to the stiffened element (Figure B.5.4).
thickness (see Figure B.5.3) rs = (ds sin θs ) / 3 where ds Fc shall not exceed Fc determined using Section B.5.4.2
= the stiffener’s flat width and θs = the angle between the for the sub-elements of the stiffened element.
stiffener and the stiffened element. Fc need not be less than Fc determined using Section
B.5.4.2 and neglecting the stiffener.
λe = 1.28 E / Fcy (B.5-9)
B.5.4.5 Round Hollow Elements and Curved Ele-
Fc for the stiffened element determined using Section ments Supported on Both Edges
B.5.4.3 shall not exceed Fc for the stiffener determined using
The stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive
Section B.5.4.1.
strength of round hollow elements and curved elements
supported on both edges is:
For flat elements
a) supported on one edge and with a stiffener on the other
LIMIT STATE Fc Rb /t
edge, and
b) with a stiffener of depth DS > 0.8b, where DS is yielding Fcy Rb /t < λ1
defined in Figure B.5.3, or with a thickness greater than
the stiffener’s thickness, Rb
the stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive inelastic buckling Bt − Dt λ1 < Rb /t < λ2
strength is Fc = FUT . t
π2 E
2
⎛R ⎞⎛ Rb / t ⎞
elastic buckling 16 ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜ 1 + Rb /t > λ2
⎝ t ⎠⎝ 35 ⎟⎠

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where where
2 Fbo = stress corresponding to the flexural compres-
⎛ Bt − Fcy ⎞
λ1 = ⎜ sive strength calculated using Sections
⎝ Dt ⎟⎠ B.5.5.1 through B.5.5.3 for an element if no
λ2 = Ct part of the cross section were weld-affected.
Use buckling constants for unwelded metal
For round hollow elements with transverse welds, use of (Table B.4.1 or Table B.4.2) and Fcy.
Section B.5.4.5 is limited to elements with Rb/t < 20. Fbw = stress corresponding to the flexural compres-
sive strength calculated using Sections B.5.5.1
B.5.4.6 Direct Strength Method through B.5.5.3 for an element if the entire cross
section were weld-affected. Use buckling constants
As an alternate to Sections B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.4, the for weld-affected zones (Table B.4.1) and Fcyw.
stress Fc corresponding to the uniform compressive strength Awzc = cross sectional area of the weld-affected zone
of flat elements without welds may be determined as: in compression
Agc = gross cross sectional area of the element
LIMIT STATE Fc λeq in compression.

yielding Fcy λeq < λ1 B.5.5.1 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges
inelastic buckling Bp – Dp λeq λ1 < λeq < λ2 The stress Fb corresponding to the flexural compressive
strength of flat elements supported on both edges and flat
k2 B p E
elastic buckling λeq > λ2 elements supported on the compression edge with the
λeq tension edge free is:

where LIMIT STATE Fb b /t

Bp − Fcy yielding 1.5Fcy b /t < λ1
λ1 =
Dp
inelastic buckling Bbr – mDbr b /t λ1 < b/t < λ2
k1 Bp k2 Bbr E
λ2 = post- buckling b /t > λ2
Dp ( mb / t )
E
λeq = π where
Fe (B.5-11)
Bbr − 1.5 Fcy
λ1 =
mDbr
Fe = the elastic local buckling stress of the cross
section determined by analysis k1 Bbr
λ2 =
mDbr
B.5.5 Strength of Elements in Flexural Compression
The stress Fb corresponding to the flexural compressive m= 1.15 + co /(2cc) for –1 < co /cc < 1
strength of elements is: m= 1.3/(1 – co /cc) for co /cc < –1
m= 0.65 for cc = – co
For unwelded elements:
cc = distance from neutral axis to the element ex-
treme fiber with the greatest compressive stress
Fb = Fbo (B.5-12)
co = distance from neutral to other extreme
fiber of the element
For welded elements:
Distances to compressive fibers are negative and distances
to tensile fibers are positive.
Fb = Fbo(1 – Awzc /Agc) + Fbw Awzc /Agc (B.5-13)
B.5.5.2 Flat Elements Supported on Tension Edge,
Compression Edge Free
The stress Fb corresponding to the flexural compressive
strength of flat elements supported on the tension edge with
the compression edge free is:

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 The moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener IL
LIMIT STATE Fb b /t
about the web of the beam shall equal or exceed
yielding 1.5Fcy b /t < λ1
0.02α s ftb 3  
2
inelastic buckling Bbr – 3.5Dbr b/t λ1 < b /t < λ2 6 AL   s 
IL =  1 +    + 0.4  (B.5-14)
E  bt b 
π2 E
elastic buckling
( 3.5b / t )2 b /t > λ2
where (see Figure B.5.5)
AL = cross-sectional area of the longitudinal stiffener
where d1 = distance from the neutral axis to the
Bbr − 1.5 Fcy ange
λ1 = f ange
3.5 Dbr b = clear height of the web
Cbr s = distance between transverse stiffeners
λ2 = t = web thickness
3.5
αs = 1 for a stiffener consisting of equal
members on both sides of the web
= 3.5 for a stiffener consisting of a member
B.5.5.3 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges on only one side of the web
and with a Longitudinal Stiffener For a stiffener consisting of equal members on both sides
The stress Fb exural compressive of the web, the moment of inertia IL shall be the sum of
at elements supported on both edges and with a the moments of inertia about the centerline of the web. For
longitudinal stiffener located 0.4d1 from the supported edge a stiffener consisting of a member on one side of the web
that is in compression is: only, the moment of inertia IL shall be taken about the face
of the web in contact with the stiffener.
LIMIT STATE Fb b /t B.5.5.4 Pipes and Round Tubes
yielding 1.5Fcy b /t < λ1 The stress Fb exural compressive
inelastic buckling Bbr – 0.29Dbr b/t λ1 < b /t < λ2 strength of pipes and round tubes is:

k2 Bbr E LIMIT STATE Fb Rb /t

post- buckling b /t > λ2
( 0.29b / t ) Rb
upper inelastic
buckling
Btb − Dtb Rb /t < λ1
t
where
Bbr − 1.5 Fcy lower inelastic Rb
λ1 = buckling Bt − Dt λ1 < Rb /t < λ2
0.29 Dbr t
k1 Bbr π2E
λ2 =
0.29 Dbr 2
elastic buckling R  Rb / t  Rb /t > λ2
16  b   1 +
 t  35 

0.4d1
where
d1
λ1 = Ctb
b X X λ2 = Ct

B.5.5.5 Direct Strength Method

As an alternate to Sections B.5.5.1 through B.5.5.3
exure without welds, the stress Fb
exural compressive strength may be
Figure B.5.5 determined as:
FLAT ELEMENT WITH A
LONGITUDINAL STIFFENER

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 LIMIT STATE Fb leq B.5.6 Elastic Buckling Stress of Elements
The elastic buckling stress of elements shall be
yielding Mnp /Sxc λeq < λ1
determined using Table B.5.1.
M np ⎛ M np π 2 E ⎞ ⎛ λ eq − λ1 ⎞
inelastic B.6 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
−⎜ − 2 ⎟⎜ ⎟ λ1 < λeq < λ2
buckling S xc ⎜⎝ S xc C p ⎟⎠ ⎝ C p − λ1 ⎠
Fabrication and erection shall meet the requirements in
Chapter M.
k2 B p E
post- buckling λeq ≥ λ2
λ eq B.7 QUALITY CONTROL AND
QUALITY ASSURANCE
where Quality control and quality assurance shall meet the re-
Bp – Fcy quirements in Chapter N.
λ1 =
Dp
B.8 EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
λ2 = Cp Evaluation of existing structures shall meet the require-
ments in Appendix 5.
E
λeq = π (B.5-15)
Fe

Fe = the elastic local buckling stress of the cross

section determined by analysis

Table B.5.1
ELASTIC BUCKLING STRESS Fe OF ELEMENTS
ELEMENT TYPE ELEMENT STRESS ELEMENT SUPPORT Fe

uniform π 2E
flat supported on both edges
compression (1.6 b / t )2

uniform π 2E
flat supported on one edge
compression (5.0 b /t ) 2

uniform supported on one edge and 1 – ρST π 2E ρ π 2E

flat 2 + ST
compression with a stiffener on the other edge (5.0 b / t ) (1.6 b /t )2

uniform supported on both edges and π 2E

flat
compression with an intermediate stiffener λs2

π 2E
2
⎛R ⎞⎛ Rb / t ⎞
uniform
curved supported on both edges
compression 16 ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜ 1 +
⎝ t ⎠⎝ 35 ⎟⎠

Q λs is determined from equation B.5-10

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Chapter C Design for Stability
This chapter addresses requirements for the analysis and The analysis shall include all loads that affect the
design of structures for stability. stability of the structure as a whole or of any of its
components, including loads on members that do not
C.1 GENERAL STABILITY REQUIREMENTS provide stability. Analysis shall be conducted for either:
Stability shall be provided for the structure as a whole a) The LRFD load combinations with the results used
and for each of its components. The available strengths of directly to obtain the required strengths, or
members and connections determined in accordance with b) 1.6 times the ASD load combinations with the
Section C.3 shall equal or exceed the required strengths results divided by 1.6 to obtain the required strengths.
determined in accordance with Section C.2.
C.3 CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE
C.2 CALCULATION OF REQUIRED
STRENGTHS
STRENGTHS
The available strengths of members and connections
The required strengths of members and connections of shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of
the structure shall be determined from an elastic analysis Chapters D, E, F, G, H, and J. The effective length factor
that considers the effects of each of the following: k of all members that provide stability of the structure as a
whole or of any of its components shall be taken as 1. The
1) Flexural, shear, and axial deformations, including effective length factor k of other members shall be taken as
all member and connection deformations that contribute to 1 unless a smaller value is justified by rational analysis.
displacements of the structure; Bracing intended to define the unbraced length of
2) Second-order effects including P-Δ effects (the members shall have sufficient stiffness and strength to
effect of loads acting on the displaced location of joints control member movement at the brace points.
or nodes in a structure) and P-δ effects (the effect of loads
acting on the deflected shape of a member between joints
or nodes);
3) Geometric imperfections. The effect of geometric
imperfections on the stability of the structure shall be
accounted for by analyzing the structure with the members’
points of intersection displaced from their nominal loca-
tions by the tolerances specified in the contract documents.
The displacements shall be placed to cause the greatest
destabilizing effect.
4) Member stiffness reduction due to inelasticity. The
effect of member stiffness reduction due to inelasticity on
the stability of the structure shall be accounted for by using
a reduced stiffness as follows:
A factor τb shall be applied to the flexural stiffnesses of all
members whose flexural stiffnesses contribute to the stability
of the structure, where
τb = 1.0 for α Pr /Py < 0.5
τb = 4(α Pr /Py )(1 – α Pr /Py ) for α Pr /Py > 0.5
Pr = required axial compressive strength using
LRFD or ASD load combinations
Py = axial yield strength
α = 1.0 (LRFD); α = 1.6 (ASD)
5) Uncertainty in stiffness and strength shall be
addressed by applying a factor of 0.8 to all axial, shear, and
flexural stiffnesses in the structure.

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Chapter D Design of Members for Tension
This chapter addresses members subjected to axial computed as follows:
tension through the centroidal axis. The width of holes shall be taken as the nominal hole
diameter for drilled or reamed holes and the nominal hole
D.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS diameter plus 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) for punched holes.
For a chain of holes extending across a part in any
The available tensile strength of members is the lesser diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of the part shall be
of the available strengths for the limit states of yielding and obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of the
rupture. The available tensile strength (φ t Pnt for LRFD and hole widths of all holes in the chain, and adding, for each
Pnt /Ωt for ASD) shall be determined in accordance with gage space in the chain, the quantity s2/4g where
Chapter D where Pnt is nominal tensile strength and s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing
(pitch) of any two consecutive holes
φt Ωt Ωt g = transverse center-to-center spacing
LIMIT STATE building-type building-type bridge-type
structures structures structures (gage) between fastener gage lines
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite legs shall be
tensile rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20
the sum of the gages from the back of the angles less the
tensile yielding 0.90 1.65 1.85
thickness.
Weld metal in plug or slot welds shall not be included in
D.2 TENSILE STRENGTH the net area.
The nominal tensile strength Pnt of tension members
shall be determined as follows. D.3.2 Effective Net Area
The effective net area Ae for angles, channels, tees, zees,
a) For tensile yielding in the gross section: rectangular tubes, and I-shaped sections shall be determined
For unwelded members and members with as follows:
transverse welds
a) If tension is transmitted directly to each of the cross-
Pnt = Fty Ag (D.2-1) sectional elements of the member by fasteners or welds, the
effective net area Ae is the net area.
For members with longitudinal welds b) If tension is transmitted by fasteners or welds through
some but not all of the cross-sectional elements of the member,
Pnt = Fty(Ag – Awz) + Ftyw Awz (D.2-2) the effective net area Ae is:
⎛ x ⎞⎛ y ⎞
Ae = An ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎜ 1 − ⎟
b) For tensile rupture in the net section: ⎝ LC ⎠ ⎝ LC ⎠ (D.3-1)

For unwelded members

where
Pnt = Ftu Ae /kt (D.2-3) An = net area of the member at the connection
LC = length of the connection in the direction of
For welded members load, measured from the center of fasteners
or the end of welds. If the length of the con-
Pnt = Ftu(Ae – Aewz)/kt + Ftuw Aewz (D.2-4) nection LC is zero, the effective net area is
the net area of the connected elements.
where = eccentricity of the connection in the x-axis direction
Ae = effective net area defined in Section D.3.2 = eccentricity of the connection in the y-axis direction
Aewz = effective net area in the weld-affected zone
The effective net area of the section need not be less than
Block shear rupture strength for the end connections of the net area of the connected elements.
tension members is given in Section J.7.3.

D.3 AREA DETERMINATION

D.3.1 Net Area
The net area An of a member is the sum of the products
of the thickness and the least net width of each element

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 Chapter E Design of Members for Compression
This chapter addresses members subjected to axial For members with longitudinal welds, the nominal member
compression through the centroidal axis. buckling strength is:

E.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS Pnc = Pno(1 – Awz /Ag) + Pnw (Awz /Ag) (E.2-2)
The available compressive strength of members is the
E.2.1 Flexural Buckling
least of the available strengths for the limit states of member
buckling (E.2), local buckling (E.3), and the interaction exural buckling, λ is the largest slenderness
between member buckling and local buckling (E.4). The kL/r of the column. The effective length factor k for
available compressive strength (φcPnc for LRFD and Pnc /Ωc calculating column slenderness kL/r shall be determined us-
for ASD) shall be determined in accordance with Chapter E ing Section C.3.
where Pnc is the nominal compressive strength and
φc = 0.90 (LRFD) E.2.2 Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling
Ωc = 1.65 (ASD building-type structures)
exural-torsional buckling,
Ωc = 1.85 (ASD bridge-type structures)
E
E.2 MEMBER BUCKLING λ=π (E.2-3)
Fe
The nominal member buckling strength Pnc is
where Fe is the elastic buckling stress determined by
Pnc = Fc Ag (E.2-1) analysis or as follows:
a) For doubly symmetric members:
where
Fc λ  π 2 ECw  1
LIMIT Fe =  + GJ  (E.2-4)
 ( k z Lz )  Ix + Iy
STATE 2

yielding Fcy λ < λ1 b) For singly symmetric members where y is the axis of
symmetry:
 C −λ
inelastic ( Bc − Dc λ )  0.85 + 0.15 C c − λ  λ1 < λ < Cc
buckling  c 1  Fey + Fez   4 Fey Fez H 
Fe =  1 − 1 −  (E.2-5)
 2 H   ( Fey + Fez )2 
elastic 0.85 π 2 E
λ > λ2
buckling λ2 c) For unsymmetric members, Fe is the lowest root of the
cubic equation:
where (Fe – Fex)(Fe – Fey)(Fe – Fez)
– Fe2(Fe – Fey)(xo /ro)2 – Fe2(Fe – Fex)(yo /ro)2 = 0 (E.2-6)
Bc − Fcy
λ1 = where
Dc
Ix + Iy
λ2 = Cc ro2 = x0 + y0 +
2 2
(E.2-7)
Ag
λ = greatest column slenderness determined from
Sections E.2.1 and E.2.2. x0 2 + y0 2
H = 1– (E.2-8)
For members without welds determine the nominal r0 2
member buckling strength Pnc = Pno using Bc, Dc, and Cc for
unwelded material using Table B.4.1 or B.4.2 and Fcy. π 2E
For members that are fully weld-affected determine the 2 (E.2-9)
Fex =  k x Lx 
nominal member buckling strength Pnc = Pnw using Bc, Dc,  r 
and Cc for welded material using Table B.4.1 and Fcyw. x

For members with transverse welds and: π 2E

a) supported at both ends with no transverse weld 2
farther than 0.05L from the member ends, Pnc = Pno Fey =  k y Ly  (E.2-10)
b) supported at both ends with a transverse weld farther  r 
 y 
than 0.05L from the member ends or supported at only one
end with a transverse weld Pnc = Pnw, 1  π 2 ECw 
Fez = GJ + (E.2-11)
Ag ro 2  ( kz Lz )2 

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 Ix, Iy = moments of inertia about the principal axes E.3.2 Direct Strength Method
xo, yo = coordinates of the shear center with respect to
As an alternate to Section E.3.1, the local buckling
the centroid
strength of a shape composed of flat elements shall be
ro = polar radius of gyration about the shear center
determined as:
rx, ry = radii of gyration about the centroidal principal axes
Pnc = Fc Ag (E.3-2)
E.3 LOCAL BUCKLING
For members without welds, the local buckling strength where Fc is determined using Section B.5.4.6.
shall be determined in accordance with either Section
E.3.1 or E.3.2. For members with welds, the local buckling E.4 INTERACTION BETWEEN MEMBER
strength shall be determined in accordance with Section BUCKLING AND LOCAL BUCKLING
E.3.1.
If the elastic local buckling stress Fe is less than the
member buckling stress Fc, the nominal compressive
E.3.1 Weighted Average Method
strength of the member shall not exceed
The weighted average local buckling strength is 1/3
⎡ 0.85π 2 E ⎤
n
⎛ n
⎞ Pnc = ⎢ ⎥ Fe 2/3 Ag
Pnc = ∑ Fci Ai + Fcy ⎜ Ag − ∑ Ai ⎟
(E.4-1)
⎣ λ
2
(E.3-1) ⎦
i =1 ⎝ i =1 ⎠
where If the local buckling strength is determined using
Fci = local buckling stress of element i determined Section E.3.1, Fe is the smallest elastic local buckling
using Sections B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.5. stress for all elements of the cross section determined
Ai = area of element i by Table B.5.1.
If the local buckling strength is determined using
Section E.3.2, Fe is the elastic local buckling stress of the
cross section determined by analysis.

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Chapter F Design of Members for Flexure
This chapter addresses members subjected to flexure that F.3.1 Weighted Average Method
are either
Mnlb = Fc If /ccf + Fb Iw /ccw (F.3-1)
a) loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that passes
through the shear center, or
where
b) restrained against rotation about their longitudinal
Fc = stress corresponding to the strength of an element
axis at load points and supports.
in uniform compression determined using
Sections B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.5. The strength of
F.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS
stiffened elements shall not exceed the strength of
The available flexural strength of members is the least an intermediate stiffener or an edge stiffener.
of the available strengths for the limit states of yielding, Fb = stress corresponding to the strength of an element
rupture, local buckling, and lateral-torsional buckling. The in flexural compression determined using Sections
available flexural strength (φb Mn for LRFD and Mn/Ωb for B.5.5.1 through B.5.5.4.
ASD) shall be determined in accordance with Chapter F, ccf = distance from the centerline of a uniform
where Mn is the nominal flexural strength, and compression element to the cross section’s neutral
axis
φb Ωb Ωb
LIMIT STATE building-type building-type bridge-type
ccw = distance from a flexural compression element’s
structures structures structures extreme compression fiber to the cross section’s
rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20 neutral axis
If = moment of inertia of the uniform stress elements
other flexural 0.90 1.65 1.85
limit states about the cross section’s neutral axis. These
elements include the elements in uniform
For all shapes except single angles, determine the nomi- compression and the elements in uniform tension
nal flexural strength using Sections F.2, F.3, and F.4. For and their edge or intermediate stiffeners.
single angles, use Section F.5. Iw = moment of inertia of the flexural compression
elements about the cross section’s neutral axis.
F.2 YIELDING AND RUPTURE These elements include the elements in flexure
and their intermediate stiffeners.
For the limit state of yielding, the nominal flexural If there are stiffeners located farther than the
strength Mnp of wrought products is the least of Z Fcy, compression flange from the cross section’s neutral
1.5St Fty, and 1.5Sc Fcy axis, the compressive flexural strength shall not exceed
For the limit state of yielding, the nominal flexural strength
Mnp of cast products is the lesser of St Fty and Sc Fcy. Fcy If /ccs + Fb Iw /ccw
For the limit state of rupture, the nominal flexural
strength is where
ccs = distance from the cross section’s neutral axis to
Mnu = Z Ftu/kt (F.2-1) the extreme fiber of uniform compression element

where F.3.2 Direct Strength Method

Z = plastic modulus
St = section modulus on the tension side of the neutral axis Mnlb = Fb Sxc (F.3-2)
Sc = section modulus on the compression side of the
neutral axis where Fb is determined in accordance with Section B.5.5.5.

F. 3 LOCAL BUCKLING F.3.3 Limiting Element Method

For shapes composed of flat or curved elements, The nominal flexural strength for local buckling Mnlb
the nominal flexural strength for the limit state of local shall be determined by limiting the stress in any element to
buckling Mnlb shall be determined by Section F.3.1, F.3.2, the local buckling stress of that element, determined in ac-
or F.3.3. Local buckling is not a limit state for wire, rod, cordance with Sections B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.5 and B.5.5.1
or bar. through B.5.5.4.

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F.4 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING F.4.1.1 Doubly Symmetric Shapes
For the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling, the nomi- For doubly symmetric shapes between brace points
nal flexural strength Mnmb is: 12.5 M max
Cb = (F.4-2)
LIMIT Mnmb SLENDERNESS 2.5 M max + 3M A + 4 M B + 3M C
STATE LIMITS
where
inelastic ⎛ λ ⎞ π 2 E λSxc
Mnp ⎜ 1 − ⎟ + λ < Cc Mmax = absolute value of the maximum moment in the
buckling ⎝ Cc ⎠ Cc3 unbraced segment
elastic MA = absolute value of the moment at the quarter point
buckling π2ESxc /λ2 λ > Cc
of the unbraced segment
MB = absolute value of the moment at the midpoint of
for lateral-torsional buckling about an axis designated as the unbraced segment
the x-axis. MC = absolute value of the moment at the three-quarter
To determine the lateral-torsional buckling slenderness point of the unbraced segment
λ use Sections F.4.2.1 through F.4.2.5. If more than one
Section applies, any applicable Section shall be used. F.4.1.2 Singly Symmetric Shapes
For members without welds determine the lateral- For singly symmetric shapes between brace points
torsional buckling strength Mnmb = Mnmbo using Cc for
unwelded material using Table B.4.1 or B.4.2 and Fcy. a) If Iyc /Iy < 0.1 or Iyc /Iy > 0.9, Cb = 1.0
b) If 0.1 < Iyc /Iy < 0.9, Cb shall be determined using
For members that are fully weld-affected determine
Equation F.4-2.
the lateral-torsional buckling strength Mnmb = Mnmbw using Cc
for welded material using Table B.4.1 and Fcyw.
If Mmax produces compression on the larger flange and
For members with transverse welds and: the smaller flange is also subjected to compression in the
unbraced length, the member shall be checked at the
a) supported at both ends with no transverse weld location of Mmax using Cb determined using Equation F.4-2
farther than 0.05L from the member ends, Mnmb = Mnmbo and at the location where the smaller flange is subjected to
b) supported at both ends with a transverse weld farther its maximum compression using Cb =1.67.
than 0.05L from the member ends, or supported at only one F.4.2 Slenderness for Lateral-Torsional Buckling
end with a transverse weld Mnmb = Mnmbw
F.4.2.1 Shapes Symmetric About the Bending Axis
For members with longitudinal welds, the lateral- The slenderness for shapes symmetric about the
torsional buckling strength Mnmb is bending axis is
Lb
Mnmb = Mnmbo(1 – Awz /Af) + Mnmbw(Awz /Af) (F.4-1) λ= (F.4-3)
rye Cb
where where rye is:
Af = area of the member farther than 2c/3 from the neu-
tral axis, where c is the distance from the neutral axis to the a) Between brace points of beams subjected to end
extreme compression fiber. moment only or to transverse loads applied at the beam’s
neutral axis, or at brace points:
F.4.1 Bending Coefficient Cb Iy
a) Members supported on both ends: For members sub- rye = Cw + 0.038 JLb2 (F.4-4)
Sx
jected to uniform bending moment, the bending coefficient
Cb = 1. For other members, Cb shall be taken as 1 or deter- b) Between brace points of beams subjected to transverse
mined using Section F.4.1.1 or F.4.1.2. loads applied on the top or bottom fiber (where the load is
b) Cantilevers: For doubly symmetric shape cantilevers free to move laterally with the beam if the beam buckles):
unbraced at the free end, Cb shall be determined as follows:
Iy ⎡ d d 2 Cw 0.038 JLb 2 ⎤
rye = ⎢± + + + ⎥
LOADING Cb Sx ⎢⎣ 4 16 I y Iy ⎥⎦ (F.4-5)
Concentrated load applied at the centroid at 1.3
the free end
d /4 is negative when the load acts toward the shear center
Uniform transverse load applied at the centroid 2.1
and positive when the load acts away from the shear center.

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where the unbraced segment C1 = 0 and C2 = 1.
The y-axis is the principal axis in the plane of bending b) If transverse loads are applied between the ends of
Iy = moment of inertia about the y-axis the unbraced segment C1 and C2 shall be taken as 0.5 or
Sx = section modulus about the x-axis determined by rational analysis.
d = depth of the beam
Alternately, for channels and I-shaped sections g0 = distance from the shear center to the point of
symmetric about the bending axis rye shall be taken as application of the load; g0 is positive when the load acts
ry d/(2rx) or 1.2ry. away from the shear center and negative when the load acts
towards the shear center. If there is no transverse load (pure
F.4.2.2 Singly Symmetric Open Shapes moment cases) g0 = 0.
Unsymmetric About the Bending Axis
1⎛ 3 ⎞
I x ⎜⎝ ∫A
For singly symmetric open shapes unsymmetric about the βx = y dA + ∫ yx 2 dA⎟ − 2 yo (F.4-11)
A ⎠
bending axis and with Iyc < Iyt, determine the slenderness using
Section F.4.2.1 where rye is calculated with Iy, Sx and J deter-
For singly symmetric I shapes, as an alternative to Equa-
mined as though both flanges were the same as the compres-
tion F.4-11,
sion flange with the overall depth d remaining the same.
⎛ 2 I yc ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ I y ⎞ ⎤
2

F.4.2.3 Closed Shapes βx = 0.9 d f ⎜ − 1⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (F.4-12)

⎝ Iy ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎝ I x ⎠ ⎥⎦
For closed shapes, the slenderness is
where
Lb S xc
λ= 2.3 (F.4-6) Iyc = moment of inertia of the compression flange about
Cb I y J the y-axis
df = the distance between the flange centroids; for tees
F.4.2.4 Rectangular Bars df is the distance between the flange centroid and
the tip of the stem.
For rectangular bars, the slenderness is Alternately, for singly symmetric I shapes where the
2.3 dLb smaller flange area is not less than 80% of the larger flange
λ= (F.4-7) area, βx shall be taken as – 2yo.
t Cb
yo = the shear center’s y-coordinate
where
d = dimension of the bar in the plane of flexure F.4.3 Interaction Between Local Buckling and
t = dimension of the bar perpendicular to the plane Lateral-Torsional Buckling
of flexure
For open shapes:
F.4.2.5 Any Shape
a) whose flanges are flat elements in uniform compres-
For any shape symmetric or unsymmetric about sion supported on one edge and
the bending axis the slenderness is: b) for which the flange’s elastic buckling stress Fe given
in Section B.5.6 is less than the lateral-torsional buckling
ESxc
λ= π (F.4-8) stress of the beam Fb determined in accordance with Section
Me F.4, the lateral-torsional buckling strength shall not exceed
where Me is the elastic lateral-torsional buckling 1/3
moment determined by analysis or as: ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Cbπ 2E I y ⎡ 0.038 JLb 2 Cw ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
Me = ⎢U + U +
2
+ ⎥ (F.4-9) ⎢ π E
2
⎥ F 2/3S
Lb 2 Mnmb = (F.4-13)
⎢⎣ Iy I y ⎥⎦ ⎢⎛ ⎞
2⎥ e xc

⎢ L ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
b
where
r C ⎟
The y-axis is the centroidal symmetry or principal axis ⎢⎣ ⎝ ye b ⎠ ⎥⎦
such that the tension flange has a positive y coordinate and
bending is about the x-axis. The origin of the coordinate F.5 SINGLE ANGLES
system is the intersection of the principal axes. For single angles, the nominal flexural strength Mn shall
be determined as follows.
U = C1go – C2βx/2 (F.4-10)
a) For the limit state of local buckling:
C1 and C2: (1) If a leg tip is a point of maximum compression
a) If no transverse loads are applied between the ends of (Figure F.5.1):

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 b) For the limit state of yielding (Figure F.5.3):

Z Z W W
X X X X
Z Z W W
Figure F.5. 1

LIMIT STATE Mn b/t Figure F.5. 3

yielding 1.5FcySc b/t < λ1 Mn = 1.5My (F.5-1)
where My = yield moment about the axis of bending.
inelastic buckling [B br − 4.0 Dbr (b / t )] Sc λ1 < b/t < λ2
c) For the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling:
π 2 ESc
b/t > λ2 (1) for Me < My, Mn = (0.92 – 0.17Me /My)Me (F.5-2)
elastic buckling
( 4.0 b / t )2
(2) for Me > My, Mn = (1.92 − 1.17 M y / M e ) M y < 1.3My
(F.5-3)
where
where Me = elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment from
Bbr − 1.5 Fcy Section F.5.1 or F.5.2.
λ1 = Cb between brace points shall be determined using Equa-
4.0 Dbr
tion F.4-2 but shall not exceed 1.5.
Cbr
λ2 = F.5.1 Bending About Geometric Axes
4.0
Bending about a geometric axis is shown in Figure F.5.4.
Buckling constants Bbr, Dbr, and Cbr are given in Tables For combined axial compression and bending, resolve
B.4.1and B.4.2. moments about principal axes and use Section F.5.2.
(2) If a leg is in uniform compression (Figure F.5.2): Z
X X
X X Z

Figure F.5. 4

Figure F.5. 2 a) Angles with continuous lateral-torsional restraint: Mn

is the lesser of:
(1) local buckling strength determined by Section F.5a.
LIMIT STATE Mn b/t (2) yield strength determined by Section F.5b.
yielding FcySc b/t < λ1 b) Equal leg angles with lateral-torsional restraint only
at the point of maximum moment: Strengths shall be cal-
inelastic buckling ⎡⎣ Bp − 5.0 D p (b / t ) ⎤⎦ Sc λ1 < b/t < λ2 culated with Sc being the geometric section modulus. Mn is
the least of:
π 2 ESc
b/t > λ2 (1) local buckling strength determined by Section F.5a.
elastic buckling
( 5.0 b / t )2 (2) yield strength determined by Section F.5b.
(3) If the leg tip is in compression, lateral-torsional buck-
where ling strength determined by Section F.3c with

Bp − Fcy 0.82 Eb 4 tCb ⎡

Me = 1 + 0.78( Lbt / b 2 )2 − 1⎤ (F.5-4)
λ1 = Lb 2 ⎣ ⎦
5.0 D p
If the leg tip is in tension, lateral-torsional buckling
Cp
λ2 = strength determined by Section F.3c with
5.0
0.82 Eb 4 tCb ⎡
Buckling constants Bp, Dp, and Cp are given in Tables Me = 1 + 0.78( Lbt / b 2 )2 + 1⎤ (F.5-5)
Lb 2 ⎣ ⎦
B.4.1and B.4.2.

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 c) Equal leg angles without lateral-torsional restraint: 0.46 Eb 2t 2
Strengths shall be calculated with Sc equal to 0.80 of the M e = Cb (F.5-8)
geometric section modulus. Lb

b) Unequal leg angles, major axis bending: Mn is the

If the leg tip is in compression, Mn is the lesser of: lesser of:
(1) local buckling strength determined by Section F.5a(1)
(2) lateral-torsional buckling strength determined by (1) local buckling strength determined by Section F.5a
F.5c with for the leg with its tip in compression
(2) lateral-torsional buckling strength determined by
0.66 Eb 4 tCb ⎡
Me = 1 + 0.78( Lbt / b 2 )2 − 1⎤ (F.5-6) Section F.3c, with
Lb 2 ⎣ ⎦
I
M e = 4.9 E z2 Cb ⎡ βw 2 + 0.052( Lbt / rz )2 + βw ⎤
Lb ⎣ ⎦
(F.5-9)
If the leg tip is in tension, Mn is the lesser of:
(1) yield strength determined by Section F.5b Iz = moment of inertia about the minor principal axis
(2) lateral-torsional buckling strength determined by rz = radius of gyration about the minor principal axis
Section F.5c with
⎡1 ⎤
4
2
(
2
)
βw = ⎢ ∫ z w + z dA ⎥ − 2 zo (F.5-10)
Me =
0.66 Eb tCb ⎡
1 + 0.78( Lbt / b 2 )2 + 1⎤ ⎣ Iw ⎦
⎣ ⎦ (F.5-7)
Lb 2
βw is the coefficient of monosymmetry about the
d) Unequal leg angles without lateral-torsional restraint: major principal axis and is positive when the short leg
moments about the geometric axes shall be resolved into is in compression and negative when the long leg is in
moments about the principal axes and the angle shall be compression. (See the commentary for values for common
designed as an angle bent about a principal axis (Section angle sizes and equations for determining βw.) If the long
F.5.2). leg is in compression anywhere along the unbraced length
of the angle, βw is negative.
zo = coordinate along the z-axis of the shear center with
F.5.2 Bending About Principal Axes
respect to the centroid
Bending about principal axes is shown in Figure F.5.5. Iw = moment of inertia about the major principal axis

c) Equal and unequal leg angles, minor axis bending:

(1) If the leg tips are in compression, Mn is the lesser
Z Z W W of the local buckling strength determined by
Section F.5a(1) and the yield strength determined by
Section F.5b.
(2) If the leg tips are in tension, Mn is the yield strength
Figure F.5. 5 determined by Section F.5b.

a) Equal leg angles, major axis bending: Mn is the lesser of:

(1) local buckling strength determined by Section F.5a
(2) lateral-torsional buckling strength determined by
Section F.3c, with

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Chapter G Design of Members for Shear
This chapter addresses flat webs of members subjected G.2 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS
to shear in the plane of the web, shear in pipes and round or SUPPORTED ON BOTH EDGES
oval tubes, and shear in rods.
The nominal shear strength Vn of flat webs supported on
G.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS both edges is

The available shear strength of members is the least For the limit state of shear rupture
of the available strengths for the limit states of buckling,
yielding, and rupture. The available shear strength (φvVn For unwelded members
for LRFD and Vn /Ωv for ASD) shall be determined in Vn = Fsu An /kt (G.2-1)
accordance with Chapter G, where Vn is the nominal shear
strength and For welded members
φv Ωv Ωv
LIMIT STATE Vn = Fsu (An – Awz)/kt + Fsuw Awz (G.2-2)
building-type building-type bridge - type
structures structures structures
where
shear rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20 An = net area of the web
other shear 0.90 1.65 1.85 Awz = weld-affected area of the web
limit states
For the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling
For the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling, Vn is as defined in Section G.1 with
the nominal shear strength Vn is Av = dt (G.2-3)

For unwelded members: and Fs determined from:

Vn = Fso Av (G.1-1) LIMIT STATE Fs b/t

yielding Fsy b/t < λ1
For welded members:
inelastic buckling Bs – 1.25Ds b /t λ1 < b /t < λ2
Vn = Fso(Av – Awz) + Fsw Awz (G.1-2)
π2E
where elastic buckling
(1.25 b / t )2 b /t > λ2
Fso = shear stress Fs corresponding to the shear strength
for an element determined using Section G.2, G.3,
or G.4 if no part of the cross section were weld- where
affected. Use buckling constants for unwelded
metal (Table B.4.1 or Table B.4.2) and Fsy. Bs − Fsy
Fsw = shear stress Fs corresponding to the shear λ1 =
1.25 Ds
strength for an element determined using Sec-
tion G.2, G.3, or G.4 if the entire cross section Cs
λ2 =
were weld-affected. Use buckling constants for 1.25
weld-affected zones (Table B.4.1) and Fsyw.
Av = shear area as defined in Section G.2, G.3, G.4 or G.5 b = clear height of the web (see Figure G.2.1) for webs
Awz = weld-affected portion of the shear area without transverse stiffeners and

a1
2
b= ⎛a ⎞ for webs with transverse stiffeners
1 + 0.7 ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ a2 ⎠

a1 = the lesser of the clear height of the web

and the distance between stiffeners
a2 = the greater of the clear height of the web
and the distance between stiffeners
t = web thickness
d = full depth of the section

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 G.3 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS
SUPPORTED ON ONE EDGE
The nominal shear strength Vn of flat webs supported on
one edge is
b For the limit state of shear rupture

For unwelded members

Vn = Fsu An /kt (G.3-1)

For welded members

Vn = Fsu(An – Awz)/kt + Fsuw Awz (G.3-2)

where
b An = net area of the web
Awz = weld-affected area of the web

For the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling Vn

is as defined in Section G.1 with

Av = bt (G.3-3)
Figure G.2.1
FLAT WEBS IN SHEAR and Fs determined from:

Transverse stiffeners shall have a moment of inertia Is not LIMIT STATE Fs b/t
less than the following:
yielding Fsy b /t < λ1
s 0.55Vh 2 ⎛ s ⎞
≤ 0.4, Is = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (G.2-4)
b E b inelastic buckling Bs – 3.0Ds b /t λ1 < b /t < λ2
2
s 0.088Vh ⎛ b ⎞ π2E
> 0.4, Is = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (G.2-5)
b E s elastic buckling
( 3.0 b / t )2 b /t > λ2
where
b = clear height of the web regardless of whether where
or not a longitudinal stiffener is present
Is = moment of inertia of the transverse stiffener. For Bs − Fsy
a stiffener composed of members of equal size on λ1 = 3.0 Ds
each side of the web, the moment of inertia of the
stiffener shall be computed about the centerline Cs
of the web. For a stiffener composed of a member λ 2 = 3.0
on only one side of the web, the moment of b = distance from the unsupported edge to the
inertia of the stiffener shall be computed about mid-thickness of the supporting element
the face of the web in contact with the stiffener. t = web thickness
s = transverse stiffener spacing. For a stiffener
composed of a pair of members, one on each side
G.4 PIPES AND ROUND OR OVAL TUBES
of the web, the stiffener spacing s is the clear
distance between the pairs of stiffeners. For a The nominal shear strength Vn of pipes and round or oval
stiffener composed of a member on only one side tubes is
of the web, the stiffener spacing s is the distance For the limit state of shear rupture
between fastener lines or other connecting lines.
V = shear force on the web at the transverse stiffener For unwelded members

Stiffeners shall extend from flange to flange but need not Vn = Fsu An /(2kt) (G.4-1)
be connected to either flange.
For welded members
Vn = Fsu(An – Awz)/(2kt ) + Fsuw Awz /2 (G.4-2)

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where Rb = mid-thickness radius of a pipe or round tube or
An = net area of the pipe or tube maximum mid-thickness radius of an oval tube
Awz = weld-affected area of the pipe or tube t = wall thickness
Lv = length of pipe or tube from maximum to zero
For the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling Vn shear force
is as defined in Section G.1 with
G.5 RODS
Av = π(Do2 – Di2)/8 (G.4-3)
The nominal shear strength Vn of rods is
where
Do = outside diameter of the pipe or tube For the limit state of shear rupture
Di = inside diameter of the pipe or tube
For unwelded members
and Fs determined from:
Vn = Fsu An /kt (G.5-1)
LIMIT STATE Fs λ For welded members
yielding Fsy λ < λ1
Vn = Fsu(An – Awz)/kt + Fsuw Awz (G.5-2)
inelastic buckling 1.3Bs – 1.63Ds λ λ1 < λ < λ2 where
An = net area of the rod
1.3π 2 E
λ > λ2 Awz = weld-affected area of the rod
(1.25 λ) 2
elastic buckling

For the limit state of shear yielding, Vn is as defined in

Section G.1 with
where

1.3Bs − Fsy Av = πD2/4 (G.5-3)

λ1 =
1.63Ds
where
D = diameter of the rod
Cs
λ2 = Fs = Fsy (G.5-4)
1.25
1/4
⎛ Lv ⎞
5/8
⎛R ⎞
λ = 2.9 ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ (G.4-4)
⎝ t ⎠ b

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Chapter H Design of Members for Combined Forces and Torsion
This chapter addresses members subject to axial force For unwelded members
and flexure about one or both axes, with or without torsion,
and to members subject to torsion only. Fs = Fso (H.2-3)

H.1 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO FLEXURE AND For welded members

AXIAL FORCE
Fs = Fso(1 – Awz /Ag) + Fsw Awz /Ag (H.2-4)
For members subject to flexure and axial force,
where
Pr M rx M ry Fso = shear stress corresponding to the torsional strength
+ + < 1.0 (H.1-1)
Pc M cx M cy for an element determined using Section H.2
if no part of the cross section were weld-affected.
where
Use buckling constants for unwelded metal (Table
x= subscript for major principal axis bending
B.4.1 or Table B.4.2) and Fsy.
y= subscript for minor principal axis bending
Fsw = shear stress corresponding to the torsional strength
Pr = required axial strength
for an element determined using Section H.2 if the
Pc = available axial strength determined in ac-
entire cross section were weld-affected. Use buckling
cordance with Chapter D for axial tension
constants for weld-affected zones (Table B.4.1)
and Chapter E for axial compression
and Fsyw.
Mr = required flexural strength
Awz = cross sectional area of the weld-affected zone
Mc = available flexural strength determined
Ag = gross cross sectional area of the element.
in accordance with Chapter F

H.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION H.2.1 Pipes and Round or Oval Tubes
The nominal torsional strength Tn for pipes and round or
The available torsional strength of members is the least of
oval tubes is
the available strengths for the limit states of rupture, yield-
ing, and buckling. The available torsional strength (φTTn for
Tn = Fs J /R (H.2-5)
LRFD and Tn /ΩT for ASD) shall be determined in accor-
dance with this Section and Sections H.2.1, H.2.2, H.2.3,
For the limit state of torsional rupture, the shear stress Fs
or H.2.4, where Tn is the nominal torsional strength and
corresponding to the torsional strength shall be determined in
accordance with Section H.2.
φT ΩT ΩT
LIMIT STATE
For the limit state of torsional yielding and torsional buck-
building-type building-type bridge-type
structures structures structures ling, the shear stress Fs corresponding to the shear strength is
torsional rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20
other torsional 0.90 1.65 1.85
LIMIT STATE Fs λ
limit states
yielding Fsy λ < λ1
For the limit state of torsional rupture, the shear stress Fs inelastic buckling Bs – 1.25Ds λ λ1 < λ < λ2
corresponding to the torsional strength is
For unwelded members π 2E
elastic buckling λ > λ2
(1.25λ) 2
Fs = Fsu /kt (H.2-1)
where
For welded members
Bs − Fsy
Fs = Fsu(1 – Awz /Ag) /kt + Fsuw Awz /Ag (H.2-2) λ1 = 1.25 D
s
For the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling,
Cs
the shear stress Fs corresponding to the torsional strength is λ2 =
1.25

Buckling constants Bs, Ds, and Cs are given in Table

B.4.1 or B.4.2.

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 5/8
⎛ Ls ⎞
1/4 rupture due to normal stress determined in accordance with
⎛R ⎞
λ= 2.9 ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ (H.2-6) Chapter B, and
⎝ t ⎠ b b) the limit states of yielding, local buckling, and rupture
Rb = mid-thickness radius of a pipe or round tube or the due to shear stress determined in accordance with Chapter G.
maximum mid-thickness radius of an oval tube
t = wall thickness H.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION,
Ls = length between transverse stiffeners, or overall FLEXURE, SHEAR, AND/OR AXIAL
length if no transverse stiffeners are present COMPRESSION
R = outside radius of the pipe or tube
J = torsion constant of the pipe or tube H.3.1 Flat Elements
Stresses in flat elements subject to torsion, flexure, shear,
H.2.2 Rectangular Tubes and/or axial compression shall satisfy the following:
The nominal torsional strength Tn for rectangular tubes is For LRFD:

Tn = Fs C (H.2-7) fc /(φFc) + [fb /(φFb)]2 + [fs /(φFs)]2 < 1.0 (H.3-1)

where C is the torsional shear constant. For ASD:

For the limit state of torsional rupture, the shear stress fc /(Fc /Ω) + [fb /(Fb /Ω)]2 + [fs /(Fs /Ω)]2 < 1.0 (H.3-2)
Fs corresponding to the torsional strength is determined in
accordance with Section H.2. where
For the limit state of torsional yielding and torsional fc = compressive stress due to axial compression
buckling, Fs is determined in accordance with Section G.2 fb = compressive stress due to flexure
for the side with the larger slenderness. fs = shear stress due to shear and torsion
Fc = axial compressive stress corresponding
H.2.3 Rods to the nominal axial compressive strength
The nominal torsional strength Tn for rods for the limit Fb = flexural compressive stress corresponding
state of torsional yielding is to the nominal flexural compressive strength
Fs = shear stress corresponding to the nominal
For unwelded members: shear strength

Tn = 0.196Fsy D3 (H.2-8) H.3.2 Curved Elements

For welded members Stresses in curved elements subject to torsion, flexure,
shear, and/or axial compression shall satisfy the following:
Tn = 0.196Fsyw D3 (H.2-9) For LRFD:

The nominal torsional strength Tn for rods for the limit fc /(φFc) + fb /(φFb) + [fs /(φFs)]2 < 1.0 (H.3-3)
state of torsional rupture is
For unwelded members For ASD:

Tn = 0.262Fsu D3 /kt (H.2-10) fc /(Fc /Ω) + fb /(Fb /Ω) + [fs /(Fs /Ω)]2 < 1.0 (H.3-4)

For welded members where

fc = compressive stress due to axial compression
Tn = 0.262Fsuw D3 (H.2-11) fb = compressive stress due to flexure
fs = shear stress due to shear and torsion
where Fc = axial compressive stress corresponding to
D = diameter of the rod the nominal axial compressive strength
Fb = flexural compressive stress corresponding to
H.2.4 Open Shapes the nominal flexural compressive strength
Fs = shear stress corresponding to the
The nominal torsional strength Tn for open shapes nominal shear strength
is the lesser of:

a) the limit states of yielding, local buckling, and

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Chapter J Design of Connections
This chapter addresses connecting elements and connectors. c) Welds welded from one side using AC-GTAW root
pass without backing
J.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS d) Welds welded from one side using PAW-VP in the
keyhole mode.
J.1.1 Design Basis All other groove welds are partial joint penetration welds.

The design strength and the allowable strength of J.2.1.2 Groove Weld Size
connections shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of this chapter and Chapter B. The size Sw of a complete joint penetration groove weld
If the longitudinal centroidal axes of connected is the thickness of the thinner part joined.
axially loaded members do not intersect at one point, the The size Sw of a partial joint penetration groove weld is
connection and members shall be designed for the effects the depth of preparation for all J and U groove welds and for
of eccentricity. all V and bevel groove welds with an included angle greater
than 45o.
J.1.2 Fasteners in Combination with Welds
J.2.1.3 Groove Weld Effective Length
Fasteners shall not be considered to share load in
combination with welds. A groove weld’s effective length Lwe for tension and
compression is the length of the weld perpendicular to the
J.1.3 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners direction of tensile or compressive stress. A groove weld’s
effective length for shear is the length of the weld parallel to
The pitch and gage of fasteners joining components of the direction of shear stress.
tension members shall not exceed (3 + 20t) in. [(75 + 20t)
mm] where t is the thickness of the outside component. J.2.2 Fillet Welds
In outside components of compression members:

a) The component’s strength shall satisfy the requirements J.2.2.1 Fillet Weld Size
of Section E.2 with an effective length kL = s/2, where s is
The effective throat Swe is the shortest distance from the
the pitch, and
joint root to the face of the diagrammatic weld.
b) If multiple rows of fasteners are used, the component’s
The size of fillet welds shall be not less than the size
strength shall satisfy the requirements of Section B.5.4.2
required to transmit calculated forces or the size shown in
with a width b = 0.8g where g is the gage. If only one line of
Table J.2.1. These requirements do not apply to fillet weld
fasteners is used, the component’s strength shall satisfy the
reinforcements of groove welds.
requirements of Section B.5.4.1 with a width b = the edge
distance of the fastener. Table J.2.1
MINIMUM SIZE OF FILLET WELDS
J.2 WELDS
Base Metal Base Metal
The design strength φRn and allowable strength Rn /Ω of Thickness t of Minimum Thickness t of Minimum
Thicker Part Size of Thicker Part Size of
welds shall be determined using this Section where Joined Fillet Weld Joined Fillet Weld
φ = 0.75 (LRFD) in. in. mm mm
Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures) t<¼ 1/8 t<6 3
Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures)
¼<t<½ 3/16 6 < t < 13 5

J.2.1 Groove Welds ½<t<¾ 1/4 13 < t < 20 6

t>¾ 5/16 t > 20 8

J.2.1.1 Complete Joint Penetration and Partial

Joint Penetration Groove Welds The maximum size of fillet welds shall be:

The following types of groove welds are complete joint (a) Along edges of material less than ¼ in. (6 mm) thick,
penetration welds: not greater than the thickness of the material.
a) Welds welded from both sides with the root of the first (b) Along edges of material ¼ in. (6 mm) or more in
weld backgouged to sound metal before welding the second thickness, no greater than the thickness of the material minus
side. 1/16 in. (2 mm), unless the weld is especially designated on
b) Welds welded from one side using permanent or the drawings to be built out to obtain full-throat thickness.
temporary backing.

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In the as-welded condition, the distance between the edge Table J.2.2
of the base metal and the toe of the weld is permitted to NOMINAL STRENGTH OF
be less than 1/16 in. (2 mm) provided the weld size is
able.
WELDED JOINTS
Load Type
Nominal
J.2.2.2 Fillet Weld Effective Length and Direc-
Metal Stress
Effective Area
tion Relative ABM or Awe
FnBM or Fnw
llet weld’s effective length Lwe is the overall length to Weld Axis
of the weld, including boxing. If the effective length is less COMPLETE-JOINT PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
than four times its nominal size Sw, the effective weld size tension or Base Ftuw Sw Lwe
shall be considered to be 25% of its effective length. compression
Weld Ftuw Sw Lwe
normal to
llet welds weld axis
shall not be less than the greater of four times the weld size
tension or tension or compression in parts parallel to a
and 1½ in. (40 mm). compression weld need not be considered in designing welds
llet parallel to joining the parts
weld is 100Sw. weld axis
shear Base 0.6Ftuw Sw Lwe
J.2.3 Plug and Slot Welds Weld 0.6Ftuw Sw Lwe
PARTIAL-JOINT PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
The effective area Awe of plug or slot welds is the
nominal area of the hole or slot in the plane of the faying tension or tension or compression in parts parallel to a
compression weld need not be considered in designing welds
surface. Slot lengths shall not exceed 10 times the slotted parallel to joining the parts
material’s thickness. weld axis
shear Base 0.6Ftuw Sw Lwe
J.2.4 Stud Welds Weld 0.6Ftuw Sw Lwe
The base metal thickness for arc stud welding shall not FILLET WELDS
be less than 50% of the stud diameter. The base metal thick- shear Base 0.6Ftuw Sw Lwe
ness for capacitor discharge stud welding shall not be less Weld Q 0.6(0.85Ftuw ) Swe Lwe
than 25% of the stud diameter. tension or tension or compression in parts parallel to a
compression weld need not be considered in designing welds
J.2.5 Strength parallel to
weld axis
joining the parts

The nominal strength Rn llet, plug, and slot PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
welded joints shall be the lesser of the base material strength shear Base 0.6Ftuw see J.2.3
for the limit states of tensile rupture and shear rupture and the parallel to fay-
Weld 0.6Ftuw
weld metal strength for the limit state of rupture as follows: ing surface
STUD WELDS
(a) For the base metal shear Base 0.6Ftuw π D 2/4
Weld 0.6Ftuw (π/4)(D – 1.191/n)2
Rn = FnBM ABM (J.2-1) tension Base Ftuw π D 2/4
Weld Ftuw (π/4)(D – 1.191/n)2
(b) For the weld metal
Q llet welds loaded transversely shall be
Rn = Fnw Awe (J.2-2) taken as 1.36 times the strength given in Table J.2.2.
W Ftuw for base metal is listed in Tables A.3.3 and A.3.3M.
E Ftuw ller metal is listed in Table A.3.6.
where
FnBM = nominal stress of the base metal corre-
sponding to its welded ultimate strength J.2.6 Combination of Welds
from Table A.3.3 or Table A.3.3M llet,
Fnw = nominal stress of the weld metal correspond- plug, or slot) are combined in a single joint, the strength
ing to its ultimate strength from Table A.3.6 of each shall be separately computed with respect to the
ABM = cross-sectional area of the base metal axis of the group in order to determine the strength of
Awe = effective area of the weld the combination.
FnBM , Fnw , ABM, and Awe are given in Table J.2.2.

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J.2.7 Post-Weld Heat Treatment a) For bolts with threads in the shear plane,
For 6063 alloy through 0.375 in. (10 mm) thick welded
Rn = (π(D − 1.191/n)2/4)Fsu (J.3-2)
in the T4 temper with 4043 filler and artificially aged to the
T6 temper after welding the strength of the base metal with-
b) For bolts without threads in the shear plane,
in 1.0 in. (25 mm) of the weld shall be taken as 85% of the
values for unwelded 6063-T6.
Rn = (πD2/4)Fsu (J.3-3)
J.3 BOLTS where
Fsu = shear ultimate strength of the bolt
J.3.1 Holes and Slots for Bolts (Table A.3.7 or Table A.3.7M).
The nominal diameter of holes for bolts shall not
be more than 1/16 in. (2 mm) greater than the nominal If the grip (total thickness of parts being fastened) of
diameter of the bolt unless slip-critical connections are used. an aluminum bolt exceeds 4.5D, the bolt’s nominal shear
The nominal width of slots for bolts shall not be more than strength shall be reduced by dividing by 1/2 + Gf /(9D)
1/16 in. (2 mm) greater than the nominal diameter of the bolt. where Gf is the grip and D is the bolt’s nominal diameter.
If the nominal length of the slot exceeds 2.5D or the edge
distance is less than 2D, where D is the nominal bolt diam- J.3.6 Bolt Bearing
eter, the edge distance perpendicular to the slot length and The design bearing strength φRn and the allowable bearing
slot length shall be sized to avoid overstressing the material strength Rn /Ω shall be determined for the limit state of
along the slot. Unless slip-critical connections are used, the bearing as follows:
length shall be perpendicular to the direction of force. φ = 0.75 (LRFD)
Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures)
J.3.2 Minimum Spacing of Bolts Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures)
The distance between bolt centers shall not be less than
2.5 times the nominal diameter of the bolt. a) For a bolt in a hole,

J.3.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Bolts Rn = detFtu < 2DtFtu (J.3-4)

The distance from the center of a bolt to an edge of a b) For a bolt in a slot with the slot perpendicular to the
part shall not be less than 1.5 times the nominal diameter of direction of force:
the bolt. See Section J.3.6 for the effect of edge distance on
bearing strength. Rn = 1.33DtFtu (J.3-5)

J.3.4 Bolt Tension and the edge distance perpendicular to the slot length and
The design tension strength φRn and the allowable slot length shall be sized to avoid overstressing the material
tension strength Rn /Ω of aluminum bolts shall be determined between the slot and the edge of the part.
for the limit state of tensile rupture as follows: where
φ = 0.65 (LRFD) de = distance from the center of the bolt to the
Ω = 2.34 (ASD building-type structures) edge of the part in the direction of force.
Ω = 2.64 (ASD bridge-type structures) t = for plain holes, thickness of the connected part;
for countersunk holes, thickness of the
Rn = (π(D − 1.191/n)2/4)Ftu (J.3-1) connected part less ½ the countersink depth
Ftu = tensile ultimate strength of the connected part
where D = nominal diameter of the bolt
Ftu = tensile ultimate strength of the bolt
(Table A.3.7 or Table A.3.7M). J.3.7 Slip-Critical Bolted Connections

J.3.5 Bolt Shear J.3.7.1 General

The design shear strength φRn and the allowable shear Slip-critical connections between aluminum members
strength Rn /Ω of aluminum bolts shall be determined for or between aluminum and steel members shall comply
the limit state of shear rupture as follows: with the Research Council on Structural Connections
φ = 0.65 (LRFD) (RCSC) Specification for Structural Joints Using High
Ω = 2.34 (ASD building-type structures) Strength Bolts except as modified here. Slip-critical
Ω = 2.64 (ASD bridge-type structures) connections shall be designed for the limit states of shear rup-

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ture in accordance with Section J.3.7.4, bearing strength in d) μ = mean slip coefficient
accordance with Section J.3.6, and slip in accordance with d) μ = 0.50 for aluminum surfaces abrasion blasted
Section J.3.7.5. with coal slag to SSPC SP-5 to an average
substrate profile of 2.0 mils (0.05 mm) in contact
J.3.7.2 Material with similar aluminum surfaces or zinc painted
steel surfaces with a maximum dry film thickness
Aluminum used in slip-critical connections shall have a
of 4 mils (0.1 mm) (Class B surfaces). Determine
tensile yield strength of at least 15 ksi (105 MPa). Bolts
slip coefficients for other surfaces in accordance
shall comply with ASTM A 325, nuts shall comply with
with the RCSC specification Appendix A.
ASTM A 563 Grade DH or ASTM A 194 Grade 2H, and
washers shall comply with ASTM F 436. Bolts, nuts, and
washers shall be zinc coated by the hot-dip or mechanically
J.3.7.6 Washers
deposited processes as specified in ASTM A 325. Washers shall be used under bolt heads and under
nuts. At a long slotted hole in an outer ply, a galvanized
J.3.7.3 Holes steel plate washer or bar at least 5/16 in. (8 mm) thick
with standard holes shall be used. The plate washer or bar
Holes shall be standard holes, oversize holes, short
shall completely cover the slot but need not be hardened.
slotted holes, or long slotted holes. The nominal dimensions
Where the outer face of the bolted parts has a slope greater
for each hole type shall not exceed those shown in the
than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis, a
RCSC specification.
beveled washer shall be used.
J.3.7.4 Bolt Tension and Shear
J.3.8 Lockbolts
The design tensile or shear strength φRn and the
Lockbolts shall meet the requirements in this
allowable tensile or shear strength Rn /Ω shall be
Specification for conventional bolts and be installed in
determined for the limit state of rupture as follows:
conformance with the lockbolt manufacturer's specifications.
φ = 0.75 (LRFD)
The bearing areas under the head and collar shall not be less
Ω = 2.0 (ASD building-type structures)
than those of a conventional bolt and nut.
Ω = 2.24 (ASD bridge-type structures)

Rn = Fn Ab (J.3-6)
J.4 RIVETS

where J.4.1 Holes for Cold-Driven Rivets

Fn is Fnt or Fnv determined in accordance with the The finished diameter of holes for cold-driven rivets shall
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360). not be more than 4% greater than the nominal diameter of
Ab = nominal cross sectional area (unthreaded body the rivet.
area) of the bolt
J.4.2 Minimum Spacing of Rivets
J.3.7.5 Slip Resistance
The distance between rivet centers shall not be less than
Slip-critical connections shall be designed for the limit state 3 times the nominal diameter of the rivet.
of slip in accordance with the Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings with the following exceptions: J.4.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Rivets
a) For standard size and short-slotted holes perpendicular to The distance from the center of a rivet to an edge
the direction of the load: of a part shall not be less than 1.5 times the nominal
φ = 1.00 (LRFD) diameter of the rivet. See Section J.4.6 for the effect of edge
Ω = 1.50 (ASD building-type structures) distance on the bearing strength.
Ω = 1.68 (ASD bridge-type structures)
J.4.4 Rivet Tension
b) For oversized and short-slotted holes parallel to the
direction of the load: Rivets shall not be used to resist loads acting parallel to
φ = 0.85 (LRFD) the axis of the rivet.
Ω = 1.76 (ASD building-type structures)
Ω = 1.97 (ASD bridge-type structures) J.4.5 Rivet Shear
c) For long-slotted holes: The design shear strength φRn and the allowable shear
φ = 0.70 (LRFD) strength Rn /Ω of aluminum rivets shall be determined for
Ω = 2.14 (ASD building-type structures) the limit state of shear rupture as follows:
Ω = 2.40 (ASD bridge-type structures)

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 φ = 0.65 (LRFD) Table J.5.1
Ω = 2.34 (ASD building-type structures) HOLE DIAMETER Dh FOR
Ω = 2.64 (ASD bridge-type structures) TYPE AB, B, AND BP SCREWS
Rn = πDh2Fsu /4 (J.4-1)
Screw Size Metal Hole Drill
Thickness Diameter Size
where in. in. Q
Dh = nominal diameter of the hole (See Section J.4.1 for 8 0.030 0.116 32
hole size limits and Section J.4.8 for hollow-end rivets). 0.036 0.120 31
Fsu = shear ultimate strength of the rivet (See Table A.3.8).
0.048 0.128 30
0.060 0.136 29
J.4.6 Rivet Bearing
0.075 0.140 28
The design bearing strength φRn and the allowable bear- 0.105 0.147 26
ing strength Rn /Ω shall be determined for the limit state of
0.125 0.147 26
bearing as follows:
0.135 0.149 25
φ = 0.75 (LRFD)
Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures) 0.162 to 0.375 0.152 24
Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures) 10 0.036 0.144 27
0.048 0.144 27
Rn = de tFtu < 2DhtFtu (J.4-2) 0.060 0.144 27
0.075 0.147 26
where
0.105 0.147 26
de = distance from the center of the rivet to the edge of
0.125 0.154 23
the part in the direction of force.
t = for plain holes, nominal thickness of the connected 0.135 0.154 23
part; for countersunk holes, nominal thickness of the 0.164 0.159 21
connected part less ½ the countersink depth 0.200 to 0.375 0.166 19
Ftu = tensile ultimate strength of the connected part 12 0.048 0.161 20
Dh = nominal diameter of the hole 0.060 0.166 19
0.075 0.173 17
J.4.7 Blind Rivets
0.105 0.180 15
Grip lengths and hole sizes for blind rivets shall comply 0.125 0.182 14
with the manufacturer’s specifications. 0.135 0.182 14
0.164 0.189 12
J.4.8 Hollow-End (Semi-Tubular) Rivets
0.200 to 0.375 0.196 9
The shear strength of hollow-end rivets with solid cross ¼ 0.060 0.199 8
sections for a portion of the length shall be taken equal 0.075 0.201 7
to the strength of solid rivets of the same material if the
0.105 0.204 6
bottom of the cavity is at least 25% of the rivet diameter
0.125 0.209 4
from the plane of shear.
0.135 0.209 4
J.5 TAPPING SCREWS 0.164 0.213 3
0.187 0.213 3
This section applies to tapping screws with a nominal
0.194 0.221 2
diameter D from 0.164 in. (4.2 mm) (No. 8) through 0.25 in.
(6.3 mm). Screws shall be thread-forming or thread-cutting, 0.200 to 0.375 0.228 1
with or without a self-drilling point. Q for material thicknesses not given, use the next smaller thickness.
Screws shall be installed in accordance with the
manufacturer's specifications.

J.5.1 Holes for Screws

The nominal diameter of unthreaded holes for screws
shall not exceed the nominal diameter of the screw by more
than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm).
The nominal diameter of threaded holes for screws shall
not exceed that given in Tables J.5.1 and J.5.2.

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 Table J.5.2
HOLE DIAMETER Dh FOR TYPE C, D, F, AND T SCREWS
Metal Thickness (in.)
screw 0.050 0.060 0.083 0.109 0.125 0.140 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 1/2
size
Hole Diameter (in.)
8-32 0.1360 0.1360 0.1360 0.1405 0.1405 0.1440 0.1470 0.1495 0.1495
10-24 0.1495 .01520 0.1540 0.1570 0.1590 0.1610 0.1660 0.1719 0.1730 0.1730
10-32 0.1610 0.1610 0.1610 0.1660 0.1660 0.1660 0.1719 0.1770 0.1770 0.1770
12-24 0.1770 0.1800 0.1820 0.1850 0.1875 0.1910 0.1990 0.1990 0.1990 0.1990
¼-20 0.2055 0.2090 0.2130 0.2130 0.2210 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280
¼-28 0.2188 0.2210 0.2210 0.2210 0.2280 0.2344 0.2344 0.2344 0.2344

Q for material thicknesses not given, use the next smaller thickness.

J.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Screws 1) for 0.060 in. < Le < 0.125 in. (1.5 mm < Le < 3 mm)
The distance between screw centers shall not be less than
Rn = Ks D Le Fty2 (J.5-1)
2.5 times the nominal diameter of the screw.
where
J.5.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Screws Ks = 1.01 for 0.060 in. < Le < 0.080 in. (1.5 mm < Le < 2 mm)
The distance from the center of a screw to an edge of a Ks = 1.20 for 0.080 in. < Le < 0.125 in. (2 mm < Le < 3 mm)
part shall not be less than 1.5 times the nominal diameter of Fty2 = tensile yield strength of member not in contact
the screw. See Section J.5.5.1 for the effect of edge distance with the screw head
on the bearing strength. D = nominal diameter of the screw
2) for 0.125 in. < Le < 0.25 in. (3 mm < Le < 6.3 mm)
J.5.4 Screwed Connection Tension
The tensile strength of a screwed connection is the Rn = 1.2DFty2(0.25 – Le) + 1.16AsnFtu2(Le – 0.125) (J.5-2)
least of the pull-out, pull-over, and screw tensile rupture
strengths. The design tensile strength φRn and the allowable where
tensile strength Rn /Ω shall be determined as follows: Asn = thread stripping area of internal thread per unit
φ = 0.50 (LRFD) length of engagement
Ω = 3.0 (ASD building-type structures) Ftu2 = tensile ultimate strength of member not in
Ω = 3.5 (ASD bridge-type structures) contact with the screw head
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of pull-out 3) for 0.25 in. < Le < 0.375 in. (6.3 mm < Le < 10 mm)
shall be determined in accordance with Section J.5.4.1.
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of pull-over Rn = 0.58 Asn Le Ftu2 (J.5-3)
shall be determined in accordance with Section J.5.4.2.
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of screw b) For spaced threads (screw types AB, B, BP, BF, and BT)
tensile rupture shall be determined in accordance with 1) for 0.038 in. < Le < 2/n (1 mm < Le < 2/n)
Section J.5.4.3.
For screws subjected to tension, the head of the screw Rn = Ks D Le Fty2 (J.5-4)
or washer, if a washer is provided, shall have a nominal
diameter not less than 5/16 in. (8 mm). Washers shall have where
a nominal thickness not less than 0.050 in. (1.3 mm). Ks = 1.01 for 0.038 in. < Le < 0.080 in. (1 mm < Le < 2 mm)
Ks = 1.20 for 0.080 in. < Le < 2/n (2 mm < Le < 2/n)
J.5.4.1 Pull-Out
2) for 2/n < Le < 4/n
J.5.4.1.1 Screws in Holes
Rn = 1.2D Fty2 (4/n – Le) + 3.26D Ftu2 (Le – 2/n) (J.5-5)
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of pull-out of
a screw in a hole is: 3) for 4/n < Le < 0.375 in. (4/n < Le < 8 mm)

a) For UNC and UNF threads (screw types C, D, F, G, Rn = 1.63D Le Ftu2 (J.5-6)
and T)

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J.5.4.1.2 Screws in Screw Slots Dh = nominal diameter of the hole in the material under
the screw head
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of pull-out of
The nominal pull-over strength for non-countersunk
a screw in a screw slot with the dimensions shown in Figure
screws need not be less than the nominal pull-over strength
J.5.1 and Table J.5.3 is:
computed from Equation J.5-10 for countersunk screws.
Rn = 0.29DLe Ftu (J.5-7) Alternately, for parts with: 1) a nominal thickness of at
least 0.040 in., 2) holes with the nominal diameters given in
where Table J.5.4, and 3) t1/Dws < 0.5, the nominal strength Rn for
D = nominal diameter of the screw the limit state of pull-over for non-countersunk screws with
Ftu = tensile ultimate strength of the extrusion all-metal washers is:
The screw embedment length in the screw slot Le shall
not be less than 2D. Rn = (1.0 + 1.7t1/Dws)Dws t1 Fty1 (J.5-9)

62° nom. where

greater of Fty1 = tensile yield strength of the part in contact with the
0.050 in. or t/2 screw head
Dws = nominal diameter of the washer. The washer may
be integral with the screw head.

R min = Dss/2 Table J.5.4

Dss/2
HOLE DIAMETER FOR EQUATION J.5-9
t Screw Screw Hole Drill Size
Size Diameter Diameter
D in. Dh in.
8 0.164 0.177 16
• 0.25 in. Dss 10 0.190 0.201 7
12 0.216 0.228 1
Figure J.5.1
¼ 0.250 0.266 H

b) The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of pull-over

Table J.5.3 for countersunk screws with an 82o nominal angle head is:
SCREW SLOT DIMENSIONS
Screw Size Screw Diameter Dss in.
Rn = (0.27 + 1.45t1 /D) D t1Fty1 (J.5-10)
D in. +/- 0.007 in.
8 0.164 0.147 for 0.06 in. < t1 < 0.19 in. (1.5 mm < t1 < 5 mm) and
10 0.190 0.169
t1 /D < 1.1. If t1 /D > 1.1, use t1 /D = 1.1
12 0.216 0.190
J.5.4.3 Screw Tension
1/4 0.250 0.228
The nominal strength Rn of an aluminum screw for the
limit state of screw tensile rupture is:
J.5.4.2 Pull-Over
Rn = Ar Ftu /1.25 (J.5-11)
a) The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of pull-over
for non-countersunk screws is: where
Ar = root area of the screw
Rn = Cpov t1 Ftu1 (Dws – Dh) (J.5-8) Ftu = tensile ultimate strength of the screw
= 68 ksi for 7075-T73 screws,
where = 62 ksi for 2024-T4 screws
Cpov = 1.0 for valley fastening and 0.7 for crown fastening
t1 = nominal thickness of the part in contact with the J.5.5 Screwed Connection Shear
screw head or washer
Ftu1 = tensile ultimate strength of the part in contact with The shear strength of a screwed connection is the least of
the screw head or washer the bearing, tilting, and screw shear rupture strengths. The
Dws = larger of the nominal washer diameter and the design shear strength φRn and the allowable shear strength
screw head diameter, but no greater than 5/8 in. Rn /Ω shall be determined as follows:
(16 mm). (See Section J.5.5 for the washer φ = 0.50 (LRFD)
thickness requirement.)

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 Ω = 3.0 (ASD building-type structures) J.6.2 Minimum Edge Distance of Pins
Ω = 3.5 (ASD bridge-type structures)
The distance from the center of a pin to an edge of a
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of bearing part shall not be less than 1.5 times the nominal diameter of
shall be determined in accordance with Section J.5.5.1. the pin. See Section J.6.5 for the effect of edge distance on
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of tilting shall bearing strength.
be determined in accordance with Section J.5.5.2.
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of screw J.6.3 Pin Tension
shear rupture shall be determined in accordance with
Section J.5.5.3. Pins shall not be used to resist loads acting parallel to the
axis of the pin.
J.5.5.1 Screw Bearing
J.6.4 Pin Shear and Flexure
The nominal strength Rn for the limit state of bearing is
The design strength φRn and the allowable strength Rn/Ω
Rn = de t Ftu < 2DtFtu (J.5-12) of an aluminum pin in shear or flexure shall be determined
as follows:
where φy = 0.90, φu = 0.65 (LRFD)
de = distance from the center of the screw to the edge Ωy = 1.65, Ωu = 2.34 (ASD building-type structures)
of the part in the direction of force. Ωy = 1.85, Ωu = 2.64 (ASD bridge-type structures)
t = for plain holes, nominal thickness of the connected
part; for countersunk holes, nominal thickness of a) Pin Shear
the connected part less ½ the countersink depth. The design shear strength is
Ftu = tensile ultimate strength of the connected part
D = nominal diameter of the screw φVn = φy(πD2Fsy /4) < φu(πD2Fsu /4) (J.6-1)

J.5.5.2 Screw Tilting The allowable shear strength is

For t2 < t1, the nominal strength Rn for the limit state of Vn /Ω = (πD2Fsy /4)/Ωy < (πD2Fsu /4)/Ωu (J.6-2)
tilting is:
b) Pin Flexure
Rn = 4.2(t23D)1/2 Ftu2 (J.5-13) The design flexural strength is

For t2 > t1, tilting is not a limit state. φMn = φy(πD3Fty /21.3) < φu(πD3Ftu /(21.3kt)) (J.6-3)

J.5.5.3 Screw Shear The allowable flexural strength is

The nominal strength Rn of an aluminum screw for the
Mn/Ω = (πD3Fty /21.3)/Ωy < (πD3Ftu /(21.3kt))/Ωu ( J.6-4)
limit state of screw shear rupture is:
c) For pins subjected to shear and flexure,
Rn = Ar Fsu /1.25 (J.5-14)
3
⎛ Vr ⎞ ⎛ M r ⎞
where
⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ M ⎟⎠ ≤ 1.0 (J.6-5)
Ar = root area of the screw c c

Fsu = shear ultimate strength of the screw

= 41 ksi for 7075-T73 screws, For LRFD:
= 37 ksi for 2024-T4 screws Vr = required shear strength using
LRFD load combinations
J.6 PINS Vc = φVn = design shear strength determined
using Section J.6.4a
J.6.1 Holes for Pins Mr = required flexural strength using
The nominal diameter of holes for pins shall not LRFD load combinations
be more than 1/32 in. (1 mm) greater than the nominal Mc = φMn = design flexural strength determined
diameter of the pin. using Section J.6.4b

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For ASD: J.7.3 Block Shear Strength
Vr = required shear strength using
The design strength φRn and the allowable strength
ASD load combinations
Rn /Ω shall be determined for the limit state of block shear
Vc = Vn /Ω = allowable shear strength determined
rupture as follows:
using Section J.6.4a
φ = 0.75 (LRFD)
Mr = required flexural strength using
Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures)
ASD load combinations
Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures)
Mc = Mn /Ω = allowable flexural strength de-
termined using Section J.6.4b a) For mechanically fastened connections on a failure
path with shear on some segments and tension on the other
J.6.5 Pin Bearing segments:
The design bearing strength φRn and the allowable bear- For Ant > 0.6Anv
ing strength Rn/Ω of a part in contact with a pin shall be
determined as follows: Rn = Fsy Agv + Ftu Ant /kt (J.7-1)
φ = 0.75 (LRFD)
Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures) otherwise
Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures)
Rn = Fsu Anv /kt + Fty Agt (J.7-2)
Rn = de t Ftu /1.5 < 1.33DtFtu (J.6-6)
b) For welded connections on a failure path with shear on
where some segments and tension on the other segments:
D = nominal diameter of the pin For Agt > 0.6 Agv
t = thickness of the connected part
de = distance from the center of a pin to the edge of Rn = Fsy Agv + Ftu Agt /kt (J.7-3)
a part, which shall not be less than 1.5D
otherwise
J.7 AFFECTED ELEMENTS OF MEMBERS
AND CONNECTORS Rn = Fsu Agv /kt + Fty Agt (J.7-4)
This section applies to elements of members at where
connections and connectors such as plates, gussets, angles, Agv = gross area in shear
and brackets. Agt = gross area in tension
Anv = net area in shear
J.7.1 Strength of Connectors in Tension Ant = net area in tension
The design strength φRn and the allowable strength
Rn/Ω of connectors in tension shall be determined in J.7.4 Strength of Connectors in Compression
accordance with Chapter D. For mechanically connected The design strength φRn and the allowable strength
plates, Ae = An < 0.85Ag. Rn / Ω of connectors in compression shall be determined in
accordance with Chapter E.
J.7.2 Strength of Connectors in Shear
The design strength φRn and the allowable strength J.8 BEARING STRENGTH OF FLAT SURFACES
Rn/Ω of connectors in shear shall be the lesser value for the The design bearing strength φRn and the allowable bear-
limit states of shear yielding and shear rupture. ing strength Rn/Ω of surfaces in contact shall be determined
as follows:
a) For shear yielding of connectors:
Rn = Fsy Ag φ = 0.75 (LRFD)
φ = 1.00 (LRFD) Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures)
Ω = 1.50 (ASD building-type structures) Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures)
Ω = 1.68 (ASD bridge-type structures)
b) For shear rupture of connectors: Rn = 1.33 Ftu Apb (J.8-1)
Rn = Fsu Anv /kt
φ = 0.75 (LRFD) where Apb = projected bearing area
Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures)
Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures)

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J.9 FLANGES AND WEBS WITH CONCEN- J.9.3 Combined Crippling and Flexure of
TRATED FORCES Flat Webs
Combinations of flexure and concentrated forces applied
J.9.1 Crippling of Flat Webs at a distance of one-half or more of the member depth from
the member end shall be limited by the following formula:
The design strength φRn and the allowable strength Rn/Ω
for the limit state of web crippling shall be determined 1.5 1.5
⎛ Rr ⎞ ⎛M ⎞
as follows: ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ +⎜ r⎟ ≤ 1.0 (J.9-5)
c ⎝ Mc ⎠
φ = 0.75 (LRFD)
Ω = 1.95 (ASD building-type structures) where
Ω = 2.20 (ASD bridge-type structures) Rr = required concentrated force
Rc = available concentrated force determined in
For concentrated forces applied at a distance from the member accordance with Section J.9.1
end that equals or exceeds d /2: Mr = required flexural strength at the location of the
concentrated force
Cwa (lb + Cw1 ) Mc = available flexural strength at the location of the
Rn = (J.9-1) concentrated force
Cwb
For concentrated forces applied at a distance from the mem- J.10 ROOFING AND SIDING CONNECTIONS
ber end that is less than d /2:
J.10.1 Endlaps
1.2Cwa (lb + Cw 2 )
Rn = (J.9-2) Minimum endlaps shall be those given in Table J.10.1.
Cwb

where Table J.10.1

MINIMUM ENDLAPS
Cwa = t 2 sin θw (0.46 Fcy + 0.02 EFcy ) (J.9-3)
Depth of Roofing Roofing Siding
section d slope slope
Cwb = Cw 3 + Ri (1 − cos θw ) (J.9-4) > 2 on 12, > 3 on 12
< 3 on 12
Cw1 = 5.4 in. (140 mm) d < 1 in. – 6 in. 4 in.
Cw2 = 1.3 in. (33 mm) (25 mm) (150 mm) (100 mm)
Cw3 = 0.4 in. (10 mm) 1 in. (25 mm) 9 in. 6 in. 4 in.
< d < 2 in. (230 mm) (150 mm) (100 mm)
d = member depth (50 mm)
lb = length of the bearing at the concentrated
d > 2 in. 9 in. 6 in. 6 in.
force (50 mm) (230 mm) (150 mm) (150 mm)
Ri : for shapes made by bending, Ri = inside bend
radius at the juncture of the flange and web;
for extruded shapes, Ri = 0 J.10.2 Sidelaps
t = web thickness
θw = angle between the plane of web and the plane For sinusoidal corrugated sheet, the minimum sidelap width
of the bearing surface (θw < 90o) for roofing shall equal the pitch of the corrugations, and the
minimum sidelap width for siding shall equal half the pitch.
For trapezoidal sheet with a depth greater than 1 in. (25
J.9.2 Bearing Stiffeners
mm) the minimum sidelap for both roofing and siding shall
Bearing stiffeners at concentrated forces shall be have a developed width equal to the width of the narrowest
sufficiently connected to the web to transmit the concentrated flat plus 2 in. (50 mm). Trapezoidal sheet with a depth of
force. Such stiffeners shall form a tight and uniform bearing 1 in. (25 mm) or less shall have a sidelap of proven design
against the flanges unless welds designed to transmit the full with an anti-siphoning feature.
concentrated force are provided between flange and stiffener.
Only the part of a stiffener cross section outside the flange-to- J.10.3 Fasteners in Laps
web fillet shall be considered effective in bearing.
The bearing stiffener shall meet the requirements of The minimum size of fasteners used in end laps and
Chapter E with the length of the stiffener equal to the height side laps shall be #12 (5.5 mm) for screws and 3/16 in.
of the web. (5 mm) diameter for rivets. The maximum spacing for sidelap
fasteners shall be 12 in. (300 mm). Endlap fasteners shall be no
more than 2 in. (50 mm) from the end of the overlapping sheet.

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Chapter L Design for Serviceability
L.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS L.4 VIBRATION
Serviceability is the preservation of a structure’s function Vibration caused by service load combinations shall not
under service load combinations. impair serviceability.

L.2 CAMBER L.5 WIND-INDUCED MOTION

If camber is required, its magnitude, direction, and Wind-induced motion caused by service load combina-
location shall be shown on the structural drawings. tions shall not impair serviceability.

L.3 DEFLECTIONS L.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

Deflections caused by service load combinations shall Thermal expansion and contraction shall not impair ser-
not impair serviceability. viceability.
For shapes with elements addressed by Sections B.5.4.1,
B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3, B.5.5.1, or B.5.5.3 with fa > Fe, effective L.7 CONNECTION SLIP
widths shall be used to determine the moment of inertia
Connection slip under service load combinations shall be
used to calculate deflections.
precluded if it would impair serviceability.
The effective width be of such elements in compression is:

If fa < Fe, be = b (L.3-1)

If fa > Fe, be = b Fe / fa (L.3-2)

where
be = element’s effective width
b = element’s width
Fe = element’s elastic local buckling stress determined
using Section B.5.6
fa = maximum compressive stress in the element from
service load combinations
The effective width of elements subjected to flexure shall
be placed next to the compression flange.
Bending deflections shall be calculated using the modu-
lus of elasticity given in Table A.3.1.

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Chapter M Fabrication and Erection
M.1 LAYOUT M.6 FINISHES
A temperature correction shall be applied where neces-
sary in the layout of dimensions. The coefficient of thermal M.6.1 Where Protective Coating Is Required
expansion used shall be per Section A.3.1. Aluminum shall be provided with a protective coating when:
a) alloy 2014 is in the presence of moisture,
M.2 CUTTING b) aluminum would otherwise be in contact with or
fastened to dissimilar materials as described
M.2.1 Methods in Section M.7,
Cutting shall be by shearing, sawing, nibbling, routing, c) aluminum is exposed to corrosive conditions.
arc cutting, laser, or abrasive water jet. Edges which have
been arc or laser cut shall be planed to remove edge cracks. M.6.2 Surface Preparation
Oxygen cutting is prohibited. Surfaces to be painted shall be prepared immediately be-
fore painting by:
M.2.2 Edge Quality a) chemical cleaning (such as a solution of
The surface roughness profile of edges, including holes, phosphoric acid and organic solvents),
shall not exceed 1,000 μin. (25μm) as defined in ASME B46.1. b) abrasion blasting,
c) unsealed anodizing,
M.2.3 Re-entrant Corners d) chemical conversion coating, or
e) using a procedure specified by the coating supplier.
Re-entrant corners shall be filleted.
M.6.3 Abrasion Blasting
M.3 HEATING
Abrasion blasting shall not be used if it distorts,
Alloys 535.0, 5083, 5086, 5154, and 5456 shall not be perforates, or significantly reduces the thickness of
held at temperatures from 150oF (66oC) to 450oF (230oC). the material blasted.
To hot form such alloys, they shall be 1) rapidly heated to a
temperature not to exceed 550oF (290oC), 2) formed before M.7 CONTACT WITH DISSIMILAR MATERIALS
the metal cools below 450oF (230oC), 3) rapidly cooled from
450oF to 150oF, and 4) designed using O temper strength. As an alternative to the requirements of Sections M.7.1
For other alloys heated above 200oF (93oC) during fabri- through M.7.3, aluminum shall be separated from the
cation other than welding, time at temperature shall be lim- materials of this Section by a nonporous isolator compatible
ited as specified in Section A.3.1.1. with the aluminum and the dissimilar material.

M.4 HOLES M.7.1 Metals

M.4.1 Fabrication Methods Where 1) aluminum contacts other metals except 300
series stainless steel, zinc, or cadmium and 2) the faying
The diameter of punched holes shall equal or exceed the surfaces are exposed to moisture, the other metal shall
metal thickness. The amount by which the diameter of a be painted or coated with zinc, cadmium, or aluminum.
sub-punched hole is less than that of the finished hole shall Uncoated aluminum shall not be exposed to moisture or
be at least ¼ the thickness of the piece but not less than runoff that has come in contact with other uncoated metals
1/32 in. (0.8 mm). Punching shall not be used for castings. except 300 series stainless steel, zinc, or cadmium.
Steel fasteners with a specified minimum tensile
M.4.2 Hole Alignment ultimate strength greater than 120 ksi in the load
Holes shall not be drifted in a manner that distorts the bearing portion of the shank shall not be used in contact
metal. All chips and foreign matter between connected parts with aluminum.
shall be removed before assembly.
M.7.2 Wood, Fiberboard, or Other
M.5 BENDING Porous Materials
Bend radii shall be large enough to avoid cracking. Aluminum surfaces to be placed in contact with wood,
fiberboard, or other porous material that absorbs water shall
be painted.

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M.7.3 Concrete or Masonry M.9 WELDING
Aluminum surfaces shall be painted if they are to be Welding shall comply with the AWS D1.2 Structural
placed in contact with concrete or masonry unless the con- Welding Code – Aluminum. Filler alloys shall be selected
crete or masonry remains dry after curing and no corrosive from Tables M.9.1 and M.9.2.
additives such as chlorides are used. Aluminum shall not The contract documents shall specify if visual inspec-
be embedded in concrete with corrosive additives such as tion is required to be performed by AWS certified welding
chlorides if the aluminum is electrically connected to steel. inspectors. When inspection other than visual inspection
is required, the contract documents shall state the method,
M.8 FABRICATION TOLERANCES extent, inspector qualifications, and acceptance criteria for
such inspection.
A fabricated member shall not vary from straight or from
its intended curvature by more than its length divided by 960.

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 Table M.9.1
WELD FILLERS FOR WROUGHT ALLOYS
Base 6005,
1060,
Metal 6005A,
1100, 3004,
5005, 5083, 6061,
3003, 2219 Alclad 5052 5086 5154 5454 7005
5050 5456 6063,
Base Alclad 3004
6082,
Metal 3003
6351
5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5556
5556
7005 (5183, DNW (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183,
(5183)
5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5356)
6005,
5356 5356
6005A,
(4043, 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 (4043,
6061, 4043
4145 4047, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, 4047,
6063, (4047)
5183, 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5183,
6082,
5556) 5556)
6351
5654 5554
5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356
(5183, (5183,
5454 (5183, DNW (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183,
5356, 5356,
5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556)
5556) 5556)
5654
5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356
(5183,
5154 (5183, DNW (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183,
5356,
5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556)
5556)
5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356
5086 (5183, DNW (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183, (5183,
5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556) 5556)
5356 5356 5356 5356
5083, 5556
(5183, DNW (5183, (5183, (5183,
5456 (5183)
5556) 5556) 5556) 5556)
5356 5356 5356 5356
5052 (5183, DNW (5183, (5183, (5183,
5556) 5556) 5556) 5556)
5356 5356
4043 (4043, (4043,
5005,
(1100, DNW 4047, 4047,
5050
4047) 5183, 5183,
5556) 5556)
3004, 4043 DNW 5356
Alclad (4047, (5183,
3004 5183, 5556)
5356,
5556)
2219 4145 2319
(4145)
1060,
1100, 4043
3003, (1100,
Alclad 4047)
3003

Q This table is for structural applications subjected to normal atmospheric conditions using GTAW or GMAW.
W DNW = Do Not Weld
E Fillers in parentheses are acceptable alternates.

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 Table M.9.2 M.11 RIVET INSTALLATION
WELD FILLERS FOR CAST ALLOYS M.11.1 Driven Head
BASE METAL The driven head of aluminum rivets shall be flat or cone-
BASE METAL 535.0 356.0, 354.0, C355.0 point, with dimensions as follows:
A356.0,
A357.0, 359.0
a) Flat heads shall have a diameter at least 1.4 times the
1060, 1100, 5356 4043 (4047) 4145
3003, nominal diameter of the rivet and a height at least 0.4 times
Alclad 3003 the nominal diameter of the rivet.
2219 DNW 4145 4145 b) Cone-point heads shall have a diameter at least 1.4
3004, 5356 4043 (4047) 4145 (4043, times the nominal diameter of the rivet and a height to the
Alclad 3004 4047) apex of the cone at least 0.65 times the nominal diameter of
5005, 5050 5356 4043 (4047) 4145 (4043, the rivet. The nominal included angle at the apex of the cone
4047) shall be 127o.
5052 5356 4043 (4047) 4043 (4047)
5083, 5456 5356 5356 DNW M.11.2 Hole Filling
5086 5356 5356 DNW Rivets shall fill holes completely. Rivet heads shall be
5154 5356 4043 DNW concentric with the rivet holes and shall be in continuous
5454 5356 4043 (4047) 4043 contact with the surface of the part joined.
6005, 6005A, 5356 4043 (4047, 4145 (4043,
6061, 6063, 4145, 4643) 4047) M.11.3 Defective Rivets
6082, 6351
7005 5356 4043 (4047) 4145 (4043, Defective rivets shall be removed by drilling. The
4047) drill bit diameter shall not exceed the diameter of the re-
354.0, C355.0 DNW 4145 4145 Q placement rivet.
356.0, 5356 4043 Q
A356.0, M.12 ERECTION TOLERANCES
A357.0, 359.0
535.0 5356
Tolerances on erected dimensions shall be suitable for
the intended service and consistent with the geometric im-
Q To weld C355.0 to itself, 4009 may be used; to weld A356.0 to itself, perfections used in the stability analysis conducted in ac-
4010 may be used; to weld A357.0 to itself, 4011 may be used.
cordance with Chapter C.
W DNW = Do Not Weld
E Fillers in parentheses are acceptable alternates.

M.10 BOLT INSTALLATION

Unless the joint is a slip-critical connection, bolts need
only be installed snug tight, the tightness that exists when
all plies in a joint are in firm but not necessarily continu-
ous contact. Slip-critical connections shall be tightened and
inspected in accordance with the RCSC Specification for
Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts.

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Chapter N Quality Control and Quality Assurance
N.1 SCOPE N.3 ERECTOR QUALITY
Quality control (QC) specified in this chapter shall CONTROL PROGRAM
be the responsibility of the fabricator and erector. Quality The erector shall establish and maintain a quality
assurance (QA) specified in this chapter and nondestructive control program that ensures that the work complies with
testing shall be the responsibility of others when required by this Specification. The quality control program shall include:
the contract documents.
a) Procedures for identifying the specification, alloy, and
temper of all aluminum supplied by the erector
N.2 FABRICATOR QUALITY b) Inspection procedures
CONTROL PROGRAM c) Procedures to address nonconformance
The fabricator shall establish and maintain a quality For work performed by the erector, the erector shall obtain
control program that ensures that the work complies the following documents prior to erection. The erector shall
with this Specification. The quality control program submit these documents for review by the EOR when requested
shall include: by the EOR.
a) Procedures for identifying the specification, alloy, and a) Erection drawings
temper of all aluminum supplied by the fabricator b) Quality control program
b) Inspection procedures c) QC inspector qualifications
c) Procedures to address nonconformance d) Weld procedure specifications (WPSs)
For work performed by the fabricator, the fabricator shall e) Procedure qualification records (PQRs) for the WPSs
obtain the following documents prior to fabrication. The f) Welding personnel performance qualification records
fabricator shall submit these documents for review by the (WPQRs)
EOR when requested by the EOR. For material furnished by the erector, the erector shall
a) Fabrication drawings obtain the following documents prior to erection. The erector
b) Quality control program shall submit these documents for review by the EOR when
c) QC inspector qualifications requested by the EOR.
d) Weld procedure specifications (WPSs) a) For wrought products, certification by the supplier that
e) Procedure qualification records (PQRs) for the WPSs the material complies with Section A.3.2
f) Welding personnel performance qualification records b) For castings, certification by the supplier that the material
(WPQRs) complies with Section A.3.3
For material furnished by the fabricator, the fabricator c) For weld filler metal, certification by the supplier that
shall obtain the following documents prior to fabrication. the material complies with Section A.3.4
The fabricator shall submit these documents for review by d) For bolts and nuts, certification by the supplier that the
the EOR when requested by the EOR. material complies with Section A.3.5
e) For rivets, certification by the supplier that the material
a) For wrought products, certification by the supplier that
complies with Section A.3.6
the material complies with Section A.3.2
f) For screws, certification by the supplier that the material
b) For castings, certification by the supplier that the material
complies with Section A.3.7
complies with Section A.3.3
c) For weld filler metal, certification by the supplier that
N.4 INSPECTION AND NONDESTRUCTIVE
the material complies with Section A.3.4
d) For bolts and nuts, certification by the supplier that the TESTING PERSONNEL
material complies with Section A.3.5 Quality control and quality assurance welding inspection
e) For rivets, certification by the supplier that the material personnel shall be welding inspectors or higher as defined
complies with Section A.3.6 in AWS B5.1, Standard for the Qualification of Welding
f) For screws, certification by the supplier that the material Inspectors.
complies with Section A.3.7 Nondestructive testing personnel shall be qualified in
accordance with the American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT) ASNT CP-189, Standard for the Qualification
and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel.

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N.5 INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS The acceptance criteria for ultrasonic testing (UT) shall
be as required by AWS D1.2 for radiographic testing (RT).
The fabricator’s quality control inspector (QCI) shall inspect: Inspectors shall submit inspection reports and nondestructive
a) Shop cut surfaces in accordance with Section M.2 testing reports to the EOR and to the fabricator or erector that
b) Shop fabricated holes in accordance with Section M.4 performed the work.
c) Shop fabricated bends in accordance with Section M.5
d) Fabrication tolerances in accordance with Section M.8
N.6 NONCONFORMANCE
e) Shop welding in accordance with Section M.9
f) Bolt installation in accordance with Section M.10 The party responsible for QC or QA shall report
g) Rivet installation in accordance with Section M.11 nonconformance to the engineer of record (EOR) and to the
h) Fabrication in accordance with the fabrication drawings fabricator or erector that performed the work. Nonconforming
The erector’s quality control inspector (QCI) shall inspect: work or material shall be brought into conformance or made
suitable for its intended purpose as determined by the EOR.
a) Field cut surfaces in accordance with Section M.2
b) Field fabricated holes in accordance with Section M.4
c) Field fabricated bends in accordance with Section M.5
d) Field welding in accordance with Section M.9
e) Bolt installation in accordance with Section M.10
f) Rivet installation in accordance with Section M.11
g) Erection tolerances in accordance with Section M.12
h) Erection in accordance with the erection drawings

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Appendix 1 Testing
1.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS Table 1.3.1
Testing is an acceptable method for determining the STATISTICAL COEFFICIENT K
available strengths of aluminum members, assemblies, n K n K
or connections when such strengths cannot be determined 3 10.55 18 3.370
in accordance with this Specification’s provisions other
4 7.042 19 3.331
than with Appendix 1. Tests shall be conducted by a
testing laboratory accredited by a nationally recognized 5 5.741 20 3.295
accreditation service. 6 5.062 21 3.262
7 4.641 22 3.233
1.2 TEST CONDITIONS 8 4.353 23 3.206

Test conditions, including loading, supports, material, 9 4.143 24 3.181

dimensions, tolerances, QA/QC, and configuration, shall be 10 3.981 25 3.158
the same as nominal conditions in service. 11 3.852 30 3.064
In tests that require measurement of deflection, a 12 3.747 35 2.994
preload that is 20% of the design load shall be applied to 13 3.659 40 2.941
set the specimen before testing. During testing, deflections 14 3.585 45 2.897
shall be measured at the supports as well as at the point of
15 3.520 50 2.863
maximum deflection, and the difference shall be taken as
the specimen deflection. 16 3.463 100 2.684
As an alternative, the structural performance of exterior 17 3.415
aluminum fenestration products such as windows, curtain
walls, and doors shall be determined in accordance with 1.3.2 Method 2
ASTM E 330.
The resistance and safety factors used with the aver-
age of test strengths shall be determined in accordance
1.3 DESIGN BASED ON TESTING with this Section. Resistance factors determined using this
Design based on testing shall be performed in accordance Section shall not be greater than the resistance factors given
with Section 1.3.1 or Section 1.3.2. in the Specification. Safety factors determined using this
Section shall not be less than the safety factors given in the
1.3.1 Method 1 Specification.
No fewer than four identical specimens shall be tested. If
The nominal strength Rn determined from testing and any individual result deviates from the average result by more
used with the resistance and safety factors given in this than 10%, at least three more tests shall be performed.
Specification shall be calculated as follows: For LRFD of building-type structures, the design strength
Rn = Rtm – Kσx (1.3-1) shall be the average of all test results multiplied by the resis-
tance factor φ determined as follows:
where
Rn = nominal strength
φ = 1.5Mm Fme – β O VM 2 +VF 2 + C nVP 2 +VQ 2
(1.3-2)
Rtm = mean strength of all tests
σx = standard deviation of the test strengths
For ASD of building-type structures, the allowable
K = statistical coefficient based on the number of tests n.
strength shall be the average of all test results divided by the
K is a one-sided factor for 99% of the population exceeding
safety factor Ω determined as follows:
Xa with a confidence of 95%. Values of K for the following
values of n are: 1.05α + 1 βo VM 2 +VF 2 + C nVP 2 +VQ 2
Ω= e (1.3-3)
M m Fm (α + 1)

where
n2 − 1
Cn = correction factor = 2
n − 3n
Dn = nominal dead load
e = base for natural logarithms ≈ 2.72
Fm = mean value of the fabrication factor, the ratio of
the specimen’s relevant geometric property to its
nominal value

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 Ln = nominal live load a) Web angles are asymmetrical about the centerline
Mm = mean value of the material factor, the ratio of of a valley, rib, flute, crimp, or other corrugation;
the specimen’s relevant material strength to the b) Web angles are less than 45o;
specified minimum strength. The relevant mate- c) Aluminum panels are alternated with panels composed
rial strength shall be determined by conducting of any material having significantly different strengths or
tensile tests in accordance with ASTM B 557 deflection characteristics;
on specimens taken from the component tested. d) Flats spanning from rib to rib or other corrugation
n = number of tests n
in the transverse direction have a width to thickness ratio
Rti = strength of ith test
∑ Rti
Rtm = mean strength of all tests = i =1
greater than either of the following:
1230 447
n (1) 3 q
where q is the design load in psf ( 3 where
q
VF = coefficient of variation of the fabrication factor
VM = coefficient of variation of the material factor q is the design load in kN/m2)
VP = coefficient of variation of the ratio of the ob-
served failure loads divided by the average Fty Fty
(2) 435 where Fty is in ksi and q is in psf ( 37
value of all the observed failure loads q q
2 where Fty is in MPa and q is in kN/m2);
⎛ n Rti ⎞
n
⎛R ⎞
2 ⎜⎝ ∑ R ⎟⎠ e) Panel ribs, valleys, crimps, or other corrugations are
= ∑ ⎜⎝ R ti ⎟⎠ − i=1 n tm of unequal depths;
f) Specifications prescribe less than one fastener per
i =1 tm

n −1 rib to resist negative or uplift loading at each purlin, girt, or

other transverse supporting member; or
VQ = coefficient of variation of the loads g) Panels are attached to supporting members by
profile interlocking straps or clips.

(0.105α )2 + 0.252 1.4.1 Test Method

= ;
1.05α + 1
Tests shall be conducted in accordance with
in lieu of calculation by the above formula, VQ = 0.21
ASTM E 1592.
α = Dn /Ln ; in lieu of calculation, α = 0.2
βo = the target reliability index 1.4.2 Different Thicknesses
= 2.5 for columns, beams and beam-columns,
= 3.0 for tension members, and Only the thinnest and thickest specimens manufactured are
= 3.5 for connections. required to be tested when panels are of like configuration,
The following values shall be used when data established differing only in material thickness. Where the failure of the
from a sufficient number of results on material properties do test specimens is from flexural stress, the flexural strength for
not exist for the member or connection: intermediate thicknesses shall be interpolated as follows:
Mm = 1.10 for behavior governed by yield ⎛ log ti − log t min ⎞
log M i = log M 1 + ⎜ ( log M 2 − log M 1 )
= 1.00 for behavior governed by rupture ⎝ log t max − log t min ⎟⎠
Fm = 1.00
(1.4-1)
VM = 0.06
VF = 0.05 for structural members and mechanically where
fastened connections Mi = flexural strength of member of intermediate
= 0.15 for welded connections thickness ti
The safety factor for bridge-type structures is 9/8 times M1 = flexural strength of member of thinnest material
the safety factor for building-type structures. M2 = flexural strength of member of thickest material
ti = thickness of intermediate thickness material
1.4 TESTING ROOFING AND SIDING tmin = thickness of thinnest material tested
tmax = thickness of thickest material tested
The flexural strength of roofing and siding shall
be established from tests when any of the following 1.4.3 Available Strengths
conditions apply.
Design strengths shall be determined using the
resistance factors given in Chapter F for flexure and those
in Chapter J applied to the minimum test strength achieved
for fasteners.

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 Allowable strengths shall be determined using the safety
factors given in Chapter F for flexure and those in Chapter J
applied to the minimum test strength achieved for fasteners.

1.4.4 Deflections
Deflections shall meet the requirements of Section L.3.
APPENDIX 2 Reserved

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Appendix 3 Design for Fatigue
3.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS αi = number of stress cycles in the spectrum of the
ith applied stress range divided by
Welded details, mechanically fastened joints, and
the total number of stress cycles
wrought material subjected to 100,000 or more stress
Sri = ith applied stress range in the spectrum
cycles shall meet the static requirements of this Specification
Cf, m = constants from Table 3.2
and the requirements of this Appendix. Fatigue design
NS = number of stress ranges in the spectrum
of castings shall be made by testing in accordance with
N = number of stress cycles
Appendix 1.
Categories of details for fatigue design shall be chosen
The design stress range Srd shall not exceed the value
from Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1.
from Equation 3.3-3 when N = 100,000 cycles.
The applied stress range is the algebraic difference
If the maximum stress range in the spectrum is less
between the maximum and minimum nominal service
than the constant amplitude fatigue limit, no further
load stresses perpendicular to the expected plane of cracking
fatigue assessment is required.
determined by elastic methods. Stresses shall not be amplified
by stress concentration factors for geometrical discontinuities.
The provisions of this Appendix do not apply to
3.4 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
structures subjected to temperatures exceeding 200oF (93oC). REQUIREMENTS
Permanent backing bars for longitudinal welds shall
3.2 CONSTANT AMPLITUDE LOADING be continuous. Splices in backing bars shall be complete
joint penetration welds with the reinforcement ground flush
For constant amplitude loading
in the long direction of the bar and shall be made be-
fore making the longitudinal weld. Backing bars shall be
Sra < Srd (3.2-1)
attached with continuous fillet welds. Permanent backing bars
where shall not be used for transverse welds subject to tension.
Sra = applied stress range A reinforcing fillet weld shall be added to transverse tee
Srd = design stress range and corner joints. The fillet weld size shall equal or exceed
Srd = Cf N -1/m (3.2-2) one quarter of the minimum thickness of the parts joined but
Cf, m = constants from Table 3.2 shall not be less than 3/16 in. (5 mm).
N = number of stress cycles Re-entrant corners shall have a radius of at least 3/4 in.
If the applied stress range Sra is less than the constant (20 mm).
amplitude fatigue limit given in Table 3.2, no further Fillet welds on outstanding elements shall be returned
fatigue assessment is required. The design stress range Srd around the end of the element for a distance of at least twice
shall not be less than the value from Equation 3.2-2 when N the nominal weld size.
= 5 × 106 cycles and shall not be greater than the value from Punched or scribed layout marks shall not remain on parts.
Equation 3.2-2 when N = 100,000 cycles.

3.3 VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING

For variable amplitude loading:
Sre < Srd (3.3-1)
where

Sre = equivalent applied stress range

1/ m
⎛ NS ⎞
Sre = ⎜ ∑ α i Sri m ⎟ (3.3-2)
⎝ i =1 ⎠
Srd = design stress range

Srd = C f N −1/ m (3.3-3)

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 Table 3.1
STRESS CATEGORY
DETAIL Detail Fatigue
GENERAL
Category Design Details
CONDITION
Q
Base metal with rolled, extruded, drawn, or cold finished surfaces; cut or sheared surfaces A 1, 2
Plain Material
with ANSI/ASME B46.1 surface roughness < 1000 μin. (25μmm)
Base metal and weld metal in members without attachments and built up of plates or shapes B 3, 4, 5
connected by continuous full or partial penetration groove welds or continuous fillet welds par-
allel to the direction of applied stress.
Built-up
Flexural stress in base metal at the toe of welds on girder webs or flanges adjacent to welded C 6, 21
Members
transverse stiffeners.
Base metal at the end of partial-length welded cover plates with square or tapered ends, with E 5
or without welds across the ends.
Base metal at the gross section of slip-critical connections and at the net section of bearing connec-
tions, where the joint configuration does not result in out-of-plane bending in the connected material
and the stress ratio (the ratio of minimum stress to maximum stress) RS is W
Mechanically
RS < 0 B 7
Fastened
Connections 0 < RS < 0.5 D 7
0.5 < RS E 7
Base metal at the gross section of slip-critical connections and at the net section of bearing connec- E 8
tions, where the joint configuration results in out-of-plane bending in connected material.
Base metal at intermittent fillet welds E

Fillet Welds Base metal at the junction of axially loaded members with fillet-welded end connections. E 15, 17
Welds shall be disposed about the axis of the members so as to balance weld stresses.
Shear stress in weld metal of continuous or intermittent longitudinal or transverse fillet welds. F 5, 15, 18
Base metal and weld metal at full-penetration groove welded splices of parts of similar cross B 9, 10
section ground flush, with grinding in the direction of applied stress and with weld soundness
established by radiographic or ultrasonic inspection.
Base metal and weld metal at full-penetration groove welded splices at transitions in width or B 11. 12
Groove thickness, with welds ground to slopes < 1: 2.5, with grinding in the direction of applied stress,
Welds and with weld soundness established by radiographic or ultrasonic inspection.
Base metal and weld metal at full-penetration groove welded splices with or without transitions C 9,10, 11, 12
with slopes < 1: 2.5, when reinforcement is not removed and/or weld soundness is not estab-
lished by radiographic or ultrasonic inspection.
Base metal and weld metal at full-penetration groove welds with permanent backing. E 22
Base metal detail of any length attached by groove welds subject to transverse and/or longitudinal
loading, with a transition radius R > 2 in. (50 mm) and with the weld termination ground smooth:
R > 24 in. (610 mm) B 13
24 in. > R > 6 in. (150 mm) C 13
6 in. > R > 2 in. (50 mm) D 13
Base metal at a detail attached by groove welds or fillet welds with a detail dimension parallel C 19
to the direction of stress a < 2 in. (50 mm)
Base metal at a detail attached by groove welds or fillet welds subject to longitudinal loading,
Attachments with a transition radius, if any, < 2 in. (50 mm):
2 in. (50 mm) < a < 12b or 4 in. (100 mm)
a > 12b or 4 in. (100 mm)
Base metal at a detail of any length attached by fillet welds or partial-penetration groove welds D 14
in the direction parallel to the stress, with a transition radius R > 2 in. (50 mm), and the weld E 14, 19, 20
termination is ground smooth:
R > 24 in. (610 mm) B 16
24 in. > R > 6 in. (150 mm) C 16
6 in. > R > 2 in. (50 mm) D 16
Base metal and filler metal at a pair of circumferential fillet welds at least 0.48D apart in a F1 23
tube’s longitudinal direction, where D = the outside diameter of the tube. Fillet welds shall
be sufficient to develop the static bending strength of the tube and be placed in the following
Luminaire
order: weld the top of the base and the tube, then weld the end of the tube and the bottom
Base Welds
of the base. The base shall be for a top mounted luminaire or as a support for a short arm,
defined as that producing no more than 5 ksi (35 MPa) tensile dead load stress in the tube at
top of the base.

Q See Figure 3.1. These examples are provided as guidelines and are not intended to exclude other similar details.
W Tensile stresses are considered to be positive and compressive stresses are considered to be negative.

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 B
E categor
y

2
6

3 7

or

Figure 3.1
FATIGUE DESIGN DETAILS

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 11

12

groove
weld
9

13

10 14

Figure 3.1
FATIGUE DESIGN DETAILS

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 b

a
15
19

groove
o r fillet w
eld
a

R $ 2 (5
0 mm) b

16 20

groove weld

21

17

groove weld with

permanent backing

22
18
Figure 3.1
FATIGUE DESIGN DETAILS
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 Bolt Slots

Bolt Circle
Diameter

weld top side first

•D

23
Figure 3.1
FATIGUE DESIGN DETAILS

Table 3.2
CONSTANTS FOR S-N CURVES
Constant Amplitude
Detail Cf m
Fatigue Limit
Category
ksi MPa ksi MPa
A 96.5 665 6.85 10.2 70
B 130 900 4.84 5.4 37
C 278 1920 3.64 4.0 28
D 157 1080 3.73 2.5 17
E 160 1100 3.45 1.8 13
F 174 1200 3.42 1.9 13
F1 29.0 200 7.31 3.2 22

Q Constant amplitude fatigue limit is based on N = 5 x 106 except for detail category F1 where N = 10 x 106.

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Appendix 4 Design for Fire Conditions
This appendix addresses the design and evaluation of thermal expansion throughout the range of anticipated
aluminum structures exposed to fire. It includes criteria for elevated temperatures.
determining heat input, thermal expansion, and reduction in unrestrained construction: floor and roof assemblies and
mechanical properties of aluminum at elevated temperatures. individual beams in buildings that are assumed to be
free to rotate and expand throughout the range of antici-
4.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS pated elevated temperatures.
Design for fire conditions shall comply with the re-
4.1.2 Performance Objectives
quirements for design by engineering analysis given in
Section 4.2 or the requirements for design by qualification test- Structural components, members, and frame systems
ing given in Section 4.3. The analysis methods in Section 4.2 shall be designed to maintain their load-bearing function
document the anticipated performance of aluminum struc- during the design-basis fire and to satisfy other performance
tures when subjected to design-basis fires, and provide evi- requirements specified for the building occupancy.
dence of compliance with the performance objectives of Sec- Deformation criteria shall be applied where the means of
tion 4.1.2. The qualification testing methods in Section 4.3 providing structural fire resistance or the design criteria for
document the fire resistance of aluminum structures subject fire barriers requires consideration of the deformation of the
to the standardized fire testing protocols required by build- load-carrying structure.
ing codes. Forces and deformations from the design-basis fire shall
not cause a horizontal or vertical breach of the compartment
4.1.1 Definitions of fire origin.
This appendix uses the following terms as defined below:
4.1.3 Load Combinations and Required Strength
active fire protection: structural materials and systems
activated by a fire to mitigate adverse effects or notify The required strength of the structure and its elements
people to take action to mitigate adverse effects. shall be determined using load and resistance factor design
compartmentation: the enclosure of a structure’s space for the following gravity load combination:
with elements that have a specific fire endurance. [0.9 or 1.2]Dn + T + 0.5Ln + 0.2Sn (4-1)
design-basis fire: a set of conditions that define the devel-
opment of a fire and the spread of combustion products where
in a structure. Dn = nominal dead load
elevated temperatures: temperatures in excess of the antici- Ln = nominal live load
pated ambient temperature, experienced by structural Sn = nominal snow load
elements as a result of fire. T = nominal forces and deformations due to the design-
fire: destructive burning, as manifested by any or all of the basis fire defined in Section 4.2.1.
following: light, flame, heat, or smoke.
fire barrier: an element of construction formed of fire- Dn, Ln, and Sn shall be the nominal loads specified in
resisting materials and tested in accordance with ASTM ASCE 7.
E 119 or other approved standard fire-resistance test to
demonstrate compliance with the building code.
4.2 DESIGN FOR FIRE CONDITIONS BY
fire endurance: a measure of the elapsed time during which ANALYSIS
a material or assembly continues to exhibit fire resis-
tance. 4.2.1 Design-Basis Fire
fire resistance: the property of assemblies that prevents A design-basis fire shall be defined that describes heat-
or retards the passage of excessive heat, hot gases, or ing conditions for the structure. These heating conditions
flames under conditions of use and enables them to shall relate to the fuel commodities and compartment
continue to perform a stipulated function. characteristics present in the assumed fire area. The fuel
flashover: the transition to a state of total surface involve- load density based on the occupancy of the space shall be
ment in a fire of combustible materials within an considered when determining the total fuel load. Heating
enclosure. conditions shall be specified in terms of a heat flux or
heat flux: radiant energy per unit surface area. temperature of the upper gas layer created by the fire. The
heat release rate: the rate at which thermal energy is gen- variation of the heating conditions with time shall be de-
erated by a burning material. termined for the duration of the fire.
restrained construction: floor and roof assemblies and When the analysis methods in Section 4.2 are used to
individual beams in buildings where the surrounding or demonstrate an equivalency as an alternative material or
supporting structure is capable of resisting substantial method as permitted by a building code, the design-basis
fire shall be determined in accordance with ASTM E 119.

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4.2.1.1 Localized Fire 4.2.1.5 Active Fire Protection Systems
Where the heat release rate from the fire is insufficient The effects of active fire protection systems shall be con-
to cause flashover, a localized fire exposure shall be sidered when defining the design-basis fire.
assumed. In such cases, the fuel composition, arrangement Where automatic smoke and heat vents are installed in
of the fuel, and area occupied by the fuel shall be used to non-sprinklered spaces, the resulting smoke temperature
determine the radiant heat flux from the flame and smoke shall be determined from calculation.
plume to the structure.
4.2.2 Temperatures in Structural Systems under
4.2.1.2 Post-Flashover Compartment Fires Fire Conditions
Where the heat release rate from the fire is sufficient to Temperatures within structural members, components,
cause flashover, a post-flashover compartment fire shall be and frames due to heating conditions posed by the design-
assumed. The determination of the temperature versus time basis fire shall be determined by a heat transfer analysis.
profile resulting from the fire shall include fuel load, venti-
lation characteristics to the space (natural and mechanical), 4.2.3 Material Properties at Elevated Temperatures
compartment dimensions, and thermal characteristics of the
compartment boundary. 4.2.3.1 Mechanical Properties
The deterioration in strength and stiffness of struc-
4.2.1.3 Exterior Fires tural members shall be accounted for in the structural
The exposure of exterior structure to flames project- analysis. The modulus of elasticity at elevated tempera-
ing from wall openings as a result of a post-flashover tures Em shall be determined from test data or Table 4.1.
compartment fire shall be considered along with the Yield strengths Ftym and ultimate strengths Ftym at elevated
radiation from the interior fire through the opening. temperatures shall be determined from test data or Table 4.2.
The shape and length of the flame projection and distance
between the flame and the exterior structure shall be used Table 4.1
to determine the heat flux to the aluminum. The method MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AT
in Section 4.2.1.2 shall be used to define the interior com-
partment fire characteristics.
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
ALUMINUM TEMPERATURE Em /E
4.2.1.4 Fire Duration 6XXX ALLOYS
oF oC
The fire duration in a particular area shall be determined 75 24 1.00
by considering the total combustible mass, the available 200 93 1.00
fuel in the space. In the case of a localized fire or a post- 212 100 0.96
flashover fire, the time duration shall be determined as the
300 149 0.92
total combustible mass divided by the mass loss rate, except
350 177 0.90
where determined from Section 4.2.1.2.
400 204 0.87
450 232 0.84
500 260 0.80
600 316 0.69
700 371 0.56
1000 538 0.00

Interpolate for temperatures between those given in the table.

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 Table 4.2
STRENGTHS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
Aluminum
6061-T6 6063-T5 6063-T6
Temperature

o
F o
C Ftym /Fty Ftum /Ftu Ftym /Fty Ftum /Ftu Ftym /Fty Ftum /Ftu

75 24 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

200 93 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
212 100 0.95 0.91 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.89
300 149 0.90 0.84 0.89 0.84 0.84 0.80
350 177 0.88 0.80 0.89 0.84 0.77 0.71
400 204 0.75 0.67 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.57
450 232 0.58 0.53 0.50 0.50 0.42 0.43
500 260 0.40 0.40 0.36 0.38 0.29 0.29
600 316 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.11 0.11
700 371 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.07
1000 538 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Interpolate for temperatures between those given in the table.

4.2.3.2 Thermal Expansion es and deformations in the members of the structure devel-
oped by the temperatures of the design-basis fire.
Thermal expansion for temperatures between 70oF
Individual members shall be provided with adequate
and 600oF (20oC and 300oC) shall be determined using a co-
strength to resist the shears, axial forces, and moments de-
efficient of thermal expansion for aluminum of 14.2 × 10-6/
oF (25.6 × 10-6/oC).
termined by this analysis.
Connections shall develop the strength of the connected
members or the forces indicated above. Where the means of
4.2.3.3 Specific Heat providing the fire resistance requires the consideration of de-
The specific heat of aluminum alloys is 0.23 Btu/lb/oF formation criteria, the deformation of the structural system
(960 J/kg/oC) at 212oF (100oC). or members thereof under the design-basis fire shall not ex-
ceed the prescribed limits.
4.2.4 Structural Design Requirements
4.2.4.3 Methods of Analysis
4.2.4.1 General Structural Integrity
4.2.4.3.1 Advanced Methods of Analysis
Structures shall provide adequate strength and
deformation capacity to withstand the conditions developed The methods of analysis in this section are permitted for
during the design-basis fire within the prescribed limits of the design of all aluminum structures for fire conditions.
deformation. The structural system shall be designed to The design-basis fire exposure shall be that determined
sustain local damage with the structural system as a whole in Section 4.2.1. The analysis shall include both a thermal re-
remaining stable. sponse and the mechanical response to the design-basis fire.
Continuous load paths shall be provided to transfer all The thermal response shall produce a temperature field
forces from the region exposed to fire to the final point of in each structural element as a result of the design-basis fire
resistance. The foundation shall be designed to resist the and shall incorporate temperature-dependent thermal prop-
forces and to accommodate the deformations developed erties of the structural elements and fire-resistive materials
during the design-basis fire. in accordance with Section 4.2.2.
The mechanical response results in forces and
4.2.4.2 Strength Requirements and deformations in the structural system subjected to the ther-
Deformation Limits mal response calculated from the design-basis fire. The me-
chanical response shall explicitly account for the deteriora-
Conformance of the structural system to these require- tion in strength and stiffness with increasing temperature,
ments shall be demonstrated by constructing a mathemati- the effect of thermal expansion, and large deformations.
cal model of the structure based on principles of structural Boundary conditions and connection fixity in the analysis
mechanics and evaluating this model for the internal forc- shall be representative of the proposed structural design.

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Material properties shall be as given in Section 4.2.3. 3) Flexural members
The resulting analysis shall consider all relevant limit It is permitted to model the thermal response of a
states, such as excessive deflections, connection fractures, flexural member using a one-dimensional heat transfer
and overall and local buckling. equation to calculate bottom flange temperature and to
assume that this bottom flange temperature is constant over
4.2.4.3.2 Simple Methods of Analysis the depth of the member. Heat input shall be determined from
the design-basis fire defined in Section 4.2.1.
The methods of analysis in this section apply to evalu- The design strength of a flexural member shall be de-
ating the performance of individual members at elevated termined using the provisions of Chapter F with aluminum
temperatures during exposure to fire. properties as given in Section 4.2.3.
Support and restraint conditions (forces, moments, and
boundary conditions) at normal temperatures may be as-
4.2.4.4 Design Strength
sumed to remain unchanged throughout the fire exposure.
The design strength shall be determined in accordance with
1) Tension members Section B.3. The nominal strength Rn shall be determined using
It is permitted to model the thermal response of a ten- the material properties given in Section 4.2.3 at the temperature
sion member using a one-dimensional heat transfer equa- developed during the design-basis fire.
tion with heat input from the design-basis fire defined in
Section 4.2.1. 4.3 DESIGN BY QUALIFICATION TESTING
The design strength of a tension member shall be
determined using the provisions of Chapter D with aluminum 4.3.1 Qualification Standards
properties as given in Section 4.2.3 and assuming a uniform Structural members and components in aluminum
temperature over the cross section using the temperature structures shall be qualified for the rating period in
equal to the maximum aluminum temperature. conformance with ASTM E 119.

2) Compression members 4.3.2 Restrained Construction

It is permitted to model the thermal response of a
compression member using a one-dimensional heat transfer A restrained condition exists when the surrounding or
equation with heat input from the design-basis fire defined supporting structure is capable of resisting actions caused
in Section 4.2.1. by thermal expansion through out the range of anticipated
The design strength of a compression member shall be elevated temperatures.
determined using the provisions of Chapter E with alumi-
num properties as given in Section 4.2.3.

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Appendix 5 Evaluation of Existing Strucures
5.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS 5.3.2 Strength Evaluation
These provisions apply to evaluating the strength or ser- Loads shall be determined in accordance with Sec-
viceability of existing members, connections, or structures. tion B.2 or the maximum load that can be withstood shall
Evaluations shall be performed by structural analysis or be determined. Load effects in the structure shall be deter-
both structural analysis and load testing. mined by structural analysis. The strength of members and
connections shall be determined using the Specification for
5.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES Aluminum Structures.

5.2.1 Wrought and Cast Products 5.3.3 Serviceability Evaluation

Unless the aluminum alloy and temper used in the struc- Deformations shall be calculated at service loads.
ture are identified from records, specimens shall be cut from
the structure and both:
5.4 EVALUATION BY LOAD TESTING
a) Chemical composition tests shall be conducted to de- To prevent excessive permanent deformation or collapse
termine the alloy, and during load testing, the structure shall be analyzed and a
b) Tensile tests shall be conducted in accordance with written testing plan prepared before testing.
ASTM B 557 to determine the tensile yield strength, tensile Test loads shall be applied incrementally in accordance
ultimate strength, and elongation to determine the temper. with the written testing plan. Test loads shall not exceed
a factored load of 1.0Dn + 1.4Ln. The structure shall be
Mechanical properties given in the appropriate ASTM visually inspected for signs of distress or imminent failure
material specification for the alloy, temper, and product that at each load increment. Deformations shall be recorded at
were determined to have been used in the structure shall be each load increment and one hour and 24 hours after the
used in the structural analysis. removal of the load.

5.2.2 Welds 5.5 EVALUATION REPORT

Where structural performance depends on existing The evaluation shall be documented by a written report
welds: that includes:

a) The filler metals used in the structure shall be a) whether the evaluation was performed by structural
identified from records or chemical analysis of representative analysis or a combination of structural analysis and load
samples of weld metal. testing;
b) If welds do not meet the visual inspection criteria of b) when testing is performed, the loads and load
AWS D1.2, additional inspection shall be conducted to de- combinations used and the load-deformation and time-
termine their strength. deformation relationships observed;
c) information obtained from records and material testing;
5.2.3 Bolts and Rivets d) the allowable strength or design strength of the
structure; and
Unless bolt or rivet strength can be determined from e) the date the evaluation was performed.
records or markings, representative samples shall be
removed and tested to determine tensile strength in
accordance with ASTM F 606 or ASTM F 606M.

5.3 EVALUATION BY STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

5.3.1 Dimensions
Dimensions and the condition of structural members and
connections shall be determined from records and/or from
a field survey.

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Appendix 6 Design of Braces for Columns and Beams
This appendix addresses strength and stiffness require- where
ments for braces for columns and beams. Lb = distance between braces
For LRFD, Pr = required axial compressive strength us-
6.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS ing LRFD load combinations.
The available strength and stiffness of bracing members and For ASD, Pr = required axial compressive strength using
connections shall equal or exceed the required strength and ASD load combinations.
stiffness, respectively, given in this appendix.
Columns with end and intermediate braced points that
meet the requirements of Section 6.2 shall be designed us- 6.2.2 Nodal Bracing
ing an unbraced length L equal to the distance between the For nodal braces equally spaced along the column:
braced points with an effective length factor k = 1.0. Beams The required strength is
with intermediate braced points that meet the requirements
of Section 6.3 shall be designed using an unbraced length Lb Prb = 0.01Pr (6-3)
equal to the distance between the braced points.
As an alternate to the requirements of Sections 6.2 and The required stiffness is
6.3, a second-order analysis that includes initial out-of-
1  8 Pr 
straightness of the member to be braced shall be used to βbr = (LRFD) (6-4)
obtain the brace strength and stiffness requirements. φ  Lb 
For all braces, φ = 0.75 (LRFD), and Ω = 2.00 (ASD),
except that for nodal torsional bracing of beams, Ω = 3.00.  8P 
βbr = Ω  r  (ASD) (6-4)
 Lb 
6.1.1 Bracing Types
where
a) A relative brace controls movement of the braced point Lb = distance between braces. In Equation 6-4, Lb
with respect to adjacent braced points. need not be taken less than the maximum unbraced
b) A nodal brace controls movement of the braced point length kL permitted for the column based on the re-
without direct interaction with adjacent braced points. quired axial strength Pr.
c) Continuous bracing is bracing attached along the en-
tire member length. Pr = required axial compressive strength

6.1.2 Bracing Orientation 6.3 BEAM BRACING

The brace strength (force or moment) and stiffness (force Beams and trusses shall be restrained against rota-
per unit displacement or moment per unit rotation) require- tion about their longitudinal axis at support points. Beam
ments given in this appendix are perpendicular to the mem- bracing shall prevent relative displacement of the top
ber braced. The available brace strength and stiffness per- anges (twist of the section). Lateral stability
pendicular to the member braced for inclined braces shall be of beams shall be provided by lateral bracing, torsional brac-
adjusted for the angle of inclination. The determination of ection points shall not be
brace stiffness shall include the effects of member proper- considered braced points unless they are provided with braces
ties and connections. meeting the requirements of this appendix.

6.2 COLUMN BRACING 6.3.1 Lateral Bracing

6.2.1 Relative Bracing Lateral braces shall be attached at or near the compression
ange, except:
The required strength is
a) At the free end of cantilever members, lateral braces
Prb = 0.004Pr (6-1)
ange.
b) For beams subjected to double curvature bending, lat-
The required stiffness is
anges at the brace
1  2 Pr  ection point.
βbr = (LRFD) (6-2)
φ  Lb 

 2 Pr 
βbr = Ω 
 Lb 
(ASD) (6-2)

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6.3.1.1 Relative Bracing The required stiffness of the brace is
The required strength is βT
βTb =  βT 
Prb = 0.008Mr Cd /ho (6-5)  1 − β  (6-10)
sec
The required stiffness is

1  4 Mr Cd  If βsec < βT, torsional beam bracing shall not be used.

βbr =
φ  Lb ho 
(LRFD) (6-6)
1  2.4 LM r 2 
βT = 
φ  nEI yCb 2 
(LRFD) (6-11)
 4 M r Cd 
βbr = Ω 
 Lb ho 
(ASD) (6-6)

 2.4 LM r 2 
where βT = Ω  2  (ASD) (6-11)
ho ange centroids  nEI yCb 
Cd = 1.0 except Cd = 2.0 for the brace closest to
ection point in a beam subject to 3.3E  1.5 hot w 3 t sbs 3 
βsec = +
ho  12 12 
double curvature (6-12)
Lb = distance between braces
where
Mr = exural strength
L = span length. In Equation 6-9, Lb need not
be taken less than the maximum unbraced
6.3.1.2 Nodal Bracing
length permitted for the beam based on
The required strength is exural strength Mr.
n = number of nodal braced points in the span
Prb = 0.02Mr Cd /ho (6-7) Iy = out-of-plane moment of inertia
Cb cient determined in accordance
The required stiffness is with Section F.1.1
tw = beam web thickness
1  10 M r Cd  ts = beam web stiffener thickness
βbr =
φ  Lb ho  (LRFD) (6-8)
bs = stiffener width for one-sided stiffeners (use twice
the individual width for pairs of stiffeners)
 10 M r Cd  βT = overall brace system stiffness
βbr = Ω  (ASD) (6-8) βsec = web distortional stiffness, including the effect
 Lb ho 
of web transverse stiffeners, if any
where Mr = required flexural strength
ho ange centroids Web stiffeners shall extend the full depth of the braced
Cd = 1.0 except Cd = 2.0 for the brace closest to the in- ange if the torsional
ection point in a beam subject to double curvature ange. Alternatively, the
Lb = distance between braces. In Equation 6-8, Lb need stiffener may end a distance of 4tw ange
not be taken less than the maximum unbraced length that is not directly attached to the torsional brace.
ex-
ural strength Mr. 6.3.2.2 Continuous Bracing
Mr = exural strength
For continuous bracing, use Equations 6-9 and 6-10 with
6.3.2 Torsional Bracing cations:
Bracing shall be attached to the braced member at
a) L/n = 1.0;
any cross section location on the member and need not
b) Lb shall be taken as the maximum unbraced length
ange.
exural
strength Mr;
6.3.2.1 Nodal Bracing
c) The web distortional stiffness shall be taken as:
The required strength is
3.3Et w 3
0.024 M r L βsec = (6-13)
Mrb = (6-9) 12 ho
nCb Lb

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6.4 BEAM-COLUMN BRACING Equations 6-3 and 6-7, and the required stiffness is the
sum of the values determined using Equations 6-4 and
For beam-columns, the required strength and stiffness
6-8. In Equations 6-4 and 6-8, Lb for beam columns shall
for axial force shall be determined as specified in Section
be taken as the actual unbraced length; the provisions in
6.2, and the required strength and stiffness for flexure shall
Sections 6.2.2 and 6.3.1.2 that Lb need not be taken less than
be determined as specified in Section 6.3. The values so
the maximum permitted unbraced length based upon Pr and
determined shall be combined as follows:
Mr shall not be applied.
c) When torsional bracing is provided for flexure in
a) When relative lateral bracing is used, the required
combination with relative or nodal bracing for the axial
strength is the sum of the values determined using
force, the required strength and stiffness shall be combined
Equations 6-1 and 6-5, and the required stiffness is the sum
or distributed in a manner consistent with the resistance
of the values determined using Equations 6-2 and 6-6.
provided by the element(s) of the actual bracing details.
b) When nodal lateral bracing is used, the required
strength is the sum of the values determined using

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 Aluminum Design Manual

PART II

Commentary on the Specification

for Aluminum Structures

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 II
Commentary on the Specification for Aluminum Structures

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter A General Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

A.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A.3 MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A.3.1 General Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A.3.1.1 Properties at Elevated Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A.3.1.2 Temperature Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A.3.2 Wrought Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A.3.3 Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A.3.4 Filler Metal for Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A.3.5 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A.3.6 Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A.3.7 Screws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Chapter B Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

B.1 SECTION PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.2 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.2.1 Building-Type Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.2.2 Bridge-Type Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.2.3 Other Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.3 DESIGN BASIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.3.1 Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.3.2 Required Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.3.2.1 Design for Strength Using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B.3.2.2 Design for Strength Using Allowable Strength Design (ASD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B.3.3 Design for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.3.4 Design for Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.3.5 Design for Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.3.6 Design for Fire Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.3.7 Design of Braces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.4 BUCKLING CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B.5 ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B.5.1 Width of Flat Elements and Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B.5.2 Radius of Curved Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B.5.3 Thickness of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B.5.4 Strength of Elements in Uniform Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B.5.4.1 Flat Elements Supported on One Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
B.5.4.2 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
B.5.4.3 Flat Elements Supported on One Edge and with a Stiffener on the Other Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
B.5.4.4 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges and with an Intermediate Stiffener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
B.5.4.5 Round Hollow Elements and Curved Elements Supported on Both Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
B.5.4.6 Direct Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
B.5.5 Strength of Elements in Flexural Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
B.5.5.1 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
B.5.5.2 Flat Elements Supported on Tension Edge, Compression Edge Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
B.5.5.3 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges and with a Longitudinal Stiffener . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
B.5.5.4 Pipes and Round Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B.5.5.5 Direct Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B.5.6 Elastic Buckling Stress of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
B.6 FABRICATION AND ERECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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 B.7 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
B.8 EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Chapter C Design for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

C.1 GENERAL STABILITY REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
C.2 CALCULATION OF REQUIRED STRENGTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
C.3 CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE STRENGTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Chapter D Design of Members for Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

D.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
D.2 TENSILE STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
D.3 AREA DETERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
D.3.1 Net Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
D.3.2 Effective Net Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Chapter E Design of Members for Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

E.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
E.2 MEMBER BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
E.2.1 Flexural Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
E.2.2 Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
E.3 LOCAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
E.3.1 Weighted Average Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
E.3.2 Direct Strength Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
E.4 INTERACTION BETWEEN MEMBER BUCKLING AND LOCAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter F Design of Members for Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

F.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
F.2 YIELDING AND RUPTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
F.3 LOCAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
F.3.1 Weighted Average Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
F.3.2 Direct Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
F.3.3 Limiting Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
F.4 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
F.4.1 Bending Coefficient Cb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
F.4.1.1 Doubly Symmetric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
F.4.1.2 Singly Symmetric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
F.4.2 Slenderness for Lateral-Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
F.4.2.1 Shapes Symmetric About the Bending Axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
F.4.2.2 Singly Symmetric Open Shapes Unsymmetric About the Bending Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
F.4.2.3 Closed Shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
F.4.2.4 Rectangular Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
F.4.2.5 Any Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
F.4.3 Interaction Between Local Buckling and Lateral-Torsional Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
F.5 SINGLE ANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
F.5.1 Bending About Geometric Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
F.5.2 Bending About Principal Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Chapter G Design of Members for Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

G.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
G.2 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS SUPPORTED ON BOTH EDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
G.3 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS SUPPORTED ON ONE EDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
G.4 PIPES AND ROUND OR OVAL TUBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
G.5 RODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
Chapter H Design of Members for Combined Forces and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
H.1 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO FLEXURE AND AXIAL FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
H.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
H.2.1 Pipes and Round or Oval Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
H.2.2 Rectangular Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
H.2.3 Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
H.2.4 Open Shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
H.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION, FLEXURE, SHEAR, AND/OR AXIAL COMPRESSION . . . . . . . . . . . 41
H.3.1 Flat Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
H.3.2 Curved Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Chapter I Reserved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter J Design of Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

J.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.1.1 Design Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.1.2 Fasteners in Combination with Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.1.3 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2 WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.1 Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.1.1 Complete Joint Penetration and Partial Joint Penetration Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.1.2 Groove Weld Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.1.3 Groove Weld Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.2 Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.2.1 Fillet Weld Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.2.2 Fillet Weld Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
J.2.3 Plug and Slot Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
J.2.4 Stud Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
J.2.5 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
J.2.6 Combination of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.2.7 Post-Weld Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
J.3 BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
J.3.1 Holes and Slots for Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
J.3.2 Minimum Spacing of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
J.3.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
J.3.4 Bolt Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
J.3.5 Bolt Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
J.3.6 Bolt Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
J.3.7 Slip-Critical Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
J.3.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
J.3.7.2 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
J.3.7.3 Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.3.7.4 Bolt Tension and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.3.7.5 Slip Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.3.7.6 Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.3.8 Lockbolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.4 RIVETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.4.1 Holes for Cold-Driven Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.4.2 Minimum Spacing of Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.4.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.4.4 Rivet Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.4.5 Rivet Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.4.6 Rivet Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.4.7 Blind Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
J.4.8 Hollow-End (Semi-Tubular) Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

January 2015 II - 5

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 J.5 TAPPING SCREWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.1 Holes for Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.4 Screwed Connection Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.4.1 Pull-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.4.1.1 Screws in Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.4.1.2 Screws in Screw Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.4.2 Pull-Over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
J.5.4.3 Screw Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.5.5 Screwed Connection Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.5.5.1 Screw Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.5.5.2 Screw Tilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.5.5.3 Screw Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.6 PINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.6.1 Holes for Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.6.2 Minimum Edge Distance of Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.6.3 Pin Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.6.4 Pin Shear and Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J.6.5 Pin Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.7 AFFECTED ELEMENTS OF MEMBERS AND CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.7.1 Strength of Connectors in Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.7.2 Strength of Connectors in Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.7.3 Block Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.7.4 Strength of Connectors in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.8 BEARING STRENGTH OF FLAT SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.9 FLANGES AND WEBS WITH CONCENTRATED FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.9.1 Crippling of Flat Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.9.2 Bearing Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.9.3 Combined Crippling and Flexure of Flat Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.10 ROOFING AND SIDING CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
J.10.1 Endlaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.10.2 Sidelaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J.10.3 Fasteners in Laps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Chapter K Reserved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter L Design for Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

L.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
L.2 CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
L.3 DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
L.4 VIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
L.5 WIND-INDUCED MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
L.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
L.7 CONNECTION SLIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Chapter M Fabrication and Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

M.1 LAYOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M.2 CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.2.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.2.2 Edge Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.2.3 Re-entrant Corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.3 HEATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.4 HOLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

II - 6 January 2015

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 M.4.1 Fabrication Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.4.2 Hole Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M.5 BENDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.6 FINISHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.6.1 Where Protective Coating Is Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.6.2 Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.6.3 Abrasion Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.7 CONTACT WITH DISSIMILAR MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
M.7.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
M.7.2 Wood, Fiberboard, or Other Porous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
M.7.3 Concrete or Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
M.8 FABRICATION TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
M.9 WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
M.10 BOLT INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
M.11 RIVET INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
M.11.1 Driven Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
M.11.2 Hole Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
M.11.3 Defective Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M.12 ERECTION TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Chapter N Quality Control and Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

N.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
N.2 FABRICATOR QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
N.3 ERECTOR QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
N.4 INSPECTION AND NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N.5 INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
N.6 NONCONFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 1 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

1.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.2 TEST CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 DESIGN BASED ON TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.3.1 Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.3.2 Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.4 TESTING ROOFING AND SIDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.4.1 Test Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Different Thicknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Available Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 2 Reserved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 3 Design for Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

3.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2 CONSTANT AMPLITUDE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4 FABRICATION AND ERECTION REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Appendix 4 Design for Fire Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

4.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Performance Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 Load Combinations and Required Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

January 2015 II - 7

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 4.2 DESIGN FOR FIRE CONDITIONS BY ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.1 Design-Basis Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.1 Localized Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.2 Post-Flashover Compartment Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.3 Exterior Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.4 Fire Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.5 Active Fire Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Temperatures in Structural Systems under Fire Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Material Properties at Elevated Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.3.1 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.3.2 Thermal Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.3.3 Specific Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.4 Structural Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.1 General Structural Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.2 Strength Requirements and Deformation Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.3 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.3.1 Advanced Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.3.2 Simple Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.4 Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 DESIGN BY QUALIFICATION TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Qualification Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Restrained Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 5 Evaluation of Existing Strucures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

5.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Wrought and Cast Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 Bolts and Rivets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 EVALUATION BY STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2 Strength Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3 Serviceability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 EVALUATION BY LOAD TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.5 EVALUATION REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix 6 Design of Braces for Columns and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

6.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.1.1 Bracing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Bracing Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 COLUMN BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.1 Relative Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Nodal Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 BEAM BRACING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.3.1 Lateral Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1.1 Relative Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1.2 Nodal Bracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Torsional Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2.1 Nodal Bracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.3.2.2 Continuous Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 BEAM-COLUMN BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

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Chapter A General Provisions
A.1 SCOPE ultimate strength Fsu were provided in Table A.3.4 for each
alloy-temper-product addressed by the Specification. In the
This Specification replaces the 2010 Specification for 2015 edition the compressive yield strength was changed
Aluminum Structures and its organization is similar to the to be a function of tensile yield strength and shear ultimate
2010 AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. strength was changed to be a function of tensile ultimate
This Specification provides the nominal strength of alu- strength. The tensile yield strength Fty and tensile ultimate
minum structures, members, and connections. The nomi- strength Ftu are the minimum strengths from material speci-
nal strength is usually defined as a force or moment, but in fications such as ASTM B221 for extrusions.
some cases as a stress. The compressive yield strengths Fcy and shear ultimate
This Specification provides two methods of design: strengths Fsu previously listed in the Specification were from
1) Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD): The unpublished data generated prior to the first edition of the
nominal strength multiplied by a resistance factor must equal Specification (1967) and of limited extent. The commentary
or exceed the required strength determined by analysis for on this data read:
the appropriate LRFD load combinations. This Specifica- "Table A.3.4 compressive yield strengths Fcy and shear
tion provides resistance factors for building-type structures; ultimate strengths Fsu are expected strengths that 99%
2) Allowable Strength Design (ASD): The nominal of the population is expected, but not guaranteed, to
strength divided by a safety factor must equal or exceed the equal or exceed. Material should not be accepted or
required strength determined by analysis for the appropriate rejected based on these strengths. These strengths are
ASD load combinations. This Specification provides safety derived strengths established by multiplying strengths
factors for building-type structures and bridge-type struc- from tests of representative lots of material by the ratio
tures. of the specified tensile yield or ultimate strength to the
tensile yield or ultimate strength of the lot tested. Ef-
A.2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS fort is made to base these strengths on test results for at
This section lists the referenced documents and estab- least 5 lots of each alloy, temper, and product, but there
lishes the editions of the documents to be used with this are instances where insufficient data are available and
Specification. the strengths are based on data for similar products."

A.3 MATERIAL Shear Ultimate Strength: The table below shows the
relationship between Fsu and Ftu for the alloy-temper and
products in the 2010 Specification. Fsu = 0.6Ftu with a coef-
A.3.1 General Provisions ficient of variation of 4.4%. This equation gives a larger Fsu
Modulus of Elasticity: The modulus of elasticity E giv- than the 2010 Table A.3.4 by a maximum of 12% (in the
en in Table A.3.1 is a typical value for compression. The case of 5154-H34 sheet). The Specification uses the same
tensile modulus of elasticity is approximately 2% less than relationship for shear yielding: Fsy = 0.6Fty.
the compressive modulus. While the modulus varies slightly
among aluminum alloys, for all but 2014, the difference be- Fsu /Ftu
tween 10,100 ksi (70,000 MPa) and a more accurate modu- average 0.60
lus is 5% or less, and zero for most alloys. This variation minimum 0.53
is small compared to typical engineering accuracy. More
maximum 0.65
precise moduli are given in Aluminum Standards and Data
(2013) Table 2.1. standard deviation 0.026
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: More precise co- coefficient of variation 0.044
efficients of thermal expansion than those given in this
Section are given in the Aluminum Design Manual Part IV Compressive Yield Strength: The table below shows
Table 8 and in Aluminum Standards and Data. the relationship between Fcy and Fty for the alloy-temper and
Density: More precise densities than those given in this products in the 2010 Specification.
Section are given in the Aluminum Design Manual Part IV a) For non-cold-worked tempers, Fcy = Fty with a coef-
Table 7 and in Aluminum Standards and Data. ficient of variation of 1.0%. This equation gives a larger Fcy
Shear Yield Strength: The shear yield strength Fsy is than the 2010 Table A.3.4 by a maximum of 4% (in the case
based on the von Mises yield criterion that of 2014-T6 rod and bar).
b) For cold-worked tempers, Fcy = 0.9Fty with a coeffi-
Fty cient of variation of 6.6%. This equation gives a larger Fcy
Fsy = , approximated as Fsy = 0.6 Fty.
3 than the 2010 Table A.3.4 by a maximum of 11% (in the
Prior to the 2015 edition of the Specification for Alumi- case of 5456-H116, H32, and H321 plate).
num Structures, the compressive yield strength Fcy and shear

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 Fcy /Fty Test methods used to determine mechanical properties
are summarized below:
Cold-worked tempers
average 0.90
Type of Stress ASTM Test Method
minimum 0.81
Tension B 557
maximum 1.08
Compression E9
standard deviation 0.060
Shear B 769
coefficient of variation 0.066
Non-cold-worked tempers 1.00 Aluminum alloys gain strength by heat treatment or
average 0.96
strain hardening. Welding causes local annealing in a zone
around the weld, reducing the strength within the zone. The
minimum 1.02
resulting variation in mechanical properties in the vicinity
maximum 0.010 of a weld is illustrated by the typical distribution in Figure
standard deviation 0.010 CA.3.1. Moore, et al. (1971) discussed the effect of welding
heat on aluminum mechanical properties.
The Canadian Standards Association CAN3-S157-M83
Strength Design in Aluminum Section 1.2.3 used Fcy = 0.9Fty
for non-heat treatable alloys. The commentary to the 2005
edition of S157 read:
“In compression, the yield strength is taken to be equal
to that in tension for fully heat treated plate alloys and
extruded products. As a consequence of the Bausch-
inger effect, the yield strength of rolled products in
work-hardened alloys may be lower in compression,
but this is not expected to influence significantly the
level of safety.”

A.3.1.1 Properties at Elevated Temperatures

For the alloys included in this Specification, properties
are negligibly affected at temperatures up to 200oF. The
Aluminum Design Manual Part IV Table 9 and Kaufman
(1999) provide typical mechanical properties for many alu- Figure CA.3.1
minum products at elevated temperatures. The reduction in DISTRIBUTION OF MECHANICAL
strength varies with alloy, temper, temperature, and time of PROPERTIES NEAR A WELD
exposure.
Because the reduction in strength will not exceed 5% for For non-heat treatable alloys, the welded tensile ultimate
the alloys, tempers, times, and temperatures given in Table strengths Ftuw and welded tensile yield strengths Ftyw match
A.3.2, it is unnecessary to account for this reduction in de- the strengths for the annealed temper (O) of the alloy, and
sign within these limits. for heat treatable alloys, the welded tensile ultimate and ten-
sile yield strengths are slightly less than the solution heat
A.3.1.2 Temperature Limits treated (T4 temper) strengths (Nelson and Howell (1952)).
See the commentary to Section M.3. Table A.3.3 gives the welded strengths for welds pro-
duced in accordance with AWS D1.2. The welded tensile
A.3.2 Wrought Products ultimate strengths Ftuw are the weld procedure qualification
strengths required by AWS D1.2 for groove welds, and are
Table A.3.3 tensile ultimate strengths Ftu and tensile from specimens loaded transverse to the weld.
yield strengths Fty are specified minimum strengths (Alumi- Tests of welded yield strengths are not routinely required
num Association (2013)). Specified minimum strengths are by welding codes or product specifications. Welded yield
established after sufficient test data have been accumulated strengths Ftyw are for 0.2% offset in a 2 in. (50 mm) gauge
to determine the form of the frequency distribution curve length, the same criteria used for determining the yield
and to provide a reliable estimate of the population mean strength of unwelded material. The welded yield strengths
and standard deviation. In most instances the distribution for heat treatable alloys are from unpublished tests of 10
is normal and strengths are based on the results of at least in. gauge length, transverse groove-welded specimens, fac-
100 tests from at least 10 different lots of material. Tensile tored by 0.75 to adjust to a 2 in. gauge length. The welded
strengths are established at levels at which 99% of the mate- tensile yield strengths were based on statistical analysis of
rial is expected to conform at a 0.95 confidence level.

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test data where possible, and were the strengths that 99% of the purchaser specifies such inspection. If such inspection
the population would be expected to equal or exceed with a is specified, the purchaser must also specify which of four
confidence level of 0.75. Where insufficient data were avail- quality grades (A, B, C, or D) must be met. Grade A allows
able, welded strengths were based on data for combinations no discontinuities at all; this is more stringent than wrought
of similar filler and base metal. The yield strength of the product quality levels and so it is unwarranted. When Grade
weld-affected zone from weld-affected specimens loaded D is specified, no tensile tests of coupons cut from castings
longitudinally (parallel to the weld) is more useful than are required. Therefore, only grade B or C are suitable for
specimens loaded transverse to the weld. This is because the type of structural components addressed by this Speci-
the welded yield strength is only used for member design, fication. Grade C is used, since Grade C allows gas holes
and the longitudinal direction is the direction of the stress of no larger than approximately 1/8 in. (3 mm) and this is the
interest for member design. The longitudinal welded yield same as the ultrasonic inspection Grade B flaw size limit for
strength is the average of the welded yield strength of the wrought plate in Aluminum Standards and Data (Table 6.3).
base metal in the weld-affected zone and the welded yield Once the acceptance criteria for an individual casting are
strength of the filler. determined, the number of castings from a given lot to be
The notch strength is the tensile ultimate strength of a radiographed and the acceptance criteria for the lot must be
standard notched specimen. Kaufman (2001) documented established. Standards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent
the notch strength of a number of aluminum alloy-tempers Mold Castings establishes four frequency levels for inspec-
and suggested ASTM tests for determining notch strength. tion, Level 1 requiring the most frequent inspection (radio-
Alloy-tempers with notch-strength-to-yield-strength ra- graphing every casting). Inspection Level 2 requires a statis-
tios less than 1 are considered to be notch sensitive, since tically determined frequency of sampling and is used in this
they will rupture at a notch before yielding. Such alloy-tem- Specification. Level 3 leaves the inspection frequency up to
pers require a reduction in the tensile ultimate strength used the foundry and Level 4 requires no radiographs; therefore,
for design. This reduction is made by dividing the tensile neither requires inspection.
ultimate strength by the tension coefficient kt, a coefficient Strengths given in Table A.3.4 are taken from ASTM B
greater than or equal to 1. 108 for permanent mold castings. For certain alloy-tempers,
The kt factor of 1.25 for 2014-T6 has been used since B 108 allows the purchaser to specify either 1) that all loca-
publication of ASCE (1956). tions in the casting shall have certain B 108-specified tensile
The kt factor of 1.25 for 6005-T5 and 6105-T5 is strengths, or 2) purchaser-designated locations in the cast-
based on the fact that Kaufman (2001) shows that the unit ing that shall have certain B 108-specified tensile strengths.
propagation energy for 6005-T5 is no greater than that for The strengths for case 2 are usually greater than those for
2014-T6. case 1. For both cases 1 and 2, the strengths in Table A.3.4
are the B 108-specified strengths without any factors.
A.3.3 Castings The strengths specified in ASTM B 26 Table 2 for sand
castings are for separately cast test bars and not for the cast-
ASTM B 26 and B 108 do not specify tensile yield
ings themselves. Section 11.3 of ASTM B 26 states, “When
strengths for some of the cast alloy-tempers they include
specified, the tensile strength, yield strength, and elonga-
(for example, sand cast 356.0-T7). These alloy-tempers
tion values of specimens cut from castings shall not be less
are not included in Table A.3.4 (and therefore are excluded
than 75% of the tensile and yield strength values and not
from the scope of this Specification) since design usually
less than 25% of the elongation values specified in Table
uses the yield strength. There are also other alloy-tempers
2.” Therefore, the strengths given in Table A.3.4 for sand
in B 26 or B 108 that are not included in Table A.3.4 and
castings are 75% of the ASTM B 26 Table 2 strengths to
therefore not included in this Specification.
represent what a purchaser would expect to receive if he
ASTM B 26 and B 108 do not require conformance with
requires testing of the actual castings.
dimensional standards (tolerances) as do ASTM Specifica-
Kaufman (2001) Figure 5.4 provides notch-strength-to-
tions for wrought products (for example, B 209). Therefore,
yield-strength ratios for various sand and permanent mold
dimensional standards for castings are established in this
alloy/temper products. The alloy/temper products in this
Specification as those in the Aluminum Association Stan-
Specification have notch-yield ratios > 1.0, so no reduction
dards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Castings.
in tensile fracture strength is required for notch sensitivity
Castings are more prone to discontinuities than wrought
for these alloy-tempers and the tension coefficient kt is 1.0.
products. Therefore, this Specification includes discontinu-
ity standards for castings in order for them to be designed to
A.3.4 Filler Metal for Welding
the same Specification provisions as wrought products. The
quality standards are based on the following: This Specification and AWS D1.2 require that weld filler
ASTM B 26 and B 108 (section 20) both include options metal comply with AWS A5.10. Tables M.9.1 and M.9.2
for liquid penetrant and radiographic inspection that may be show the appropriate filler alloy for various base metal com-
specified by the purchaser. Liquid penetrant inspection de- binations.
tects only surface flaws, so it is insufficient. ASTM B 26 and For 1100 and 5000 series filler alloys, tensile strengths
B 108 only require radiographic inspection be performed if are based on the tensile strengths of annealed alloys with

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chemical compositions similar to the filler alloy. For The strength of other filler alloys can be established by
2319 filler alloy, the tensile strength is based on the AWS testing as described below and conducted in accordance
D1.2:2014 weld qualification tensile strength for 2219. For with Appendix 1. Calculate minimum strengths using
4043 filler alloy, the tensile strength is based on the AWS Specification Section 1.3.1. To prepare the test weldments
D1.2:2014 weld qualification tensile strength for 6061. • Comply with AWS D1.2 and use its requirements
For 4047 filler alloy, the tensile strength is calculated from for statically loaded, non-tubular structures,
the shear strength determined by Menzemer and Iasconne • Limit interpass temperatures to 250ºF
(2002) using the relationship between the shear strength of with unassisted cooling,
fillet welds and the tensile strength given in Section J.2.5. • Use base metal that complies with this Specifica-
Table CA.3.1 lists the sources of filler tensile strengths. tion and for which the filler is intended, and
For 2319, 5454, 5556, and 5654, the only difference in the • Use filler metal that complies with AWS A5.10.
chemical composition of the filler and the base metal on
which the filler strength is based is titanium (Ti). Titanium’s a) Determine the tensile ultimate strength, tensile yield
principal purpose in fillers is as a grain refiner to enhance strength, and elongation of longitudinal specimens taken
the formation of fine grains as the weld metal solidifies rath- from groove welds (Figure CA.3.2) in accordance with
er than the otherwise occurring more natural, larger casting- AWS B4.0 (Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing
like grain structure. Finer grain structure improves strength. of Welds) with a standard 0.500 in. (12.5 mm) round test
specimen with 2 in. (50 mm) gage length. Test at least 10
specimens from each of 5 different lots (as defined by AWS
A5.01 Lot Class S1) of filler material.

Table CA.3.1
SOURCES OF TENSILE STRENGTH FOR FILLERS
FILLER TENSILE STRENGTH SOURCE NOTES
1100 1100-O 1100 filler and 1100 base metal have the same chemical composition

2319 2219 weld qualification strength 2219 and 2319 have identical chemical composition except Ti content:
2219 has 0.02 to 0.10% and 2319 has 0.10 to 0.20%

4043 6061 weld qualification strength

4047 fillet weld shear strength Menzemer and Iasconne (2002)

5183 5083-O 5083 and 5183 have identical chemical composition except Mg content:
5083 has 4.0 to 4.9% and 5183 has 4.3 to 5.2%, and Mn content: 5083
has 0.40 to 1.0% and 5183 has 0.50 to 1.0%
5356 5086-O

5554 5454-O 5454 and 5554 have identical chemical composition except Ti content:
5454 has 0 to 0.20% and 5554 has 0.05 to 0.20%

5556 5456-O 5456 and 5556 have identical chemical composition except Ti content:
5456 has 0 to 0.20% and 5556 has 0.05 to 0.20%

5654 5254-O 5254 and 5654 have identical chemical composition except Ti content:
5254 has 0 to 0.05% and 5654 has 0.05 to 0.15%

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 Figure CA.3.2

b) Determine the shear ultimate strength of longitudinal multiplying the machined specimen stresses corresponding
fillet welds in accordance with the AWS B4.0 fillet weld to strength by the root area are 0 to 7% greater than bolt ten-
shear test method. Test at least 12 specimens from each sile strengths determined by multiplying the full-size bolt
of 4 different thicknesses. Determine the effective throat stresses corresponding to strength by the tensile stress area.
of fillets by measuring a macroetched specimen from each This difference is considered sufficiently small to be accept-
fillet weld. able for design purposes. Bolt dimensions are given in Part
VI, Table 5-4. ASTM F467, Nonferrous Nuts for General
For each test, report: Use, includes 2024-T4, 6061-T6, and 6262-T9 aluminum
• The alloy and chemical composition of each filler lot nuts. Nut dimensions are given in Part VI, Table 5-5.
• The time elapsed between welding and testing Steel (uncoated or coated with zinc or other coatings)
• The times and temperatures of any post-weld and stainless steel bolts are often used to connect aluminum
heat treatment parts. The AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings
• Material certifications for the filler alloy and includes design rules for ASTM A307, A325, and A449
base metals steel bolts. ASCE 8-02, Specification for the Design of
• Base metal alloys, temper before welding, and Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members, provides
product specification design rules for fasteners meeting ASTM F593, Stainless
• A procedure qualification record (PQR) and welding Steel Bolts, Hex Cap Screws, and Studs. Steel fasteners with
procedure specification (WPS) for each WPS used a specified minimum tensile strength greater than 120 ksi
• A welder performance qualification record (those with a Rockwell hardness greater than or equal to
(WPQR) for each welder or welding operator. C35) may suffer hydrogen-assisted stress corrosion crack-
Use at least two welders or welding operators. ing (HASCC) when exposed to certain dissimilar materials
• The individual test results (including aluminum), moisture, and tensile stress due to
• The location of rupture. installation or loading. Examples of fasteners that are not to
be used in contact with aluminum are A490 bolts and Grade
8 (SAE J429) bolts or screws, all of which have a specified
A.3.5 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts
minimum tensile strength of 150 ksi. Each of the maximum
This Specification addresses aluminum bolts, washers, hardness values (C38 for A490 and C39 for Grade 8) ex-
and nuts only. ASTM F468, Nonferrous Bolts, Hex Cap ceeds C34.
Screws, Socket Head Cap Screws, and Studs for General
Use, includes 2024-T4, 6061-T6, and 7075-T73 aluminum A.3.6 Rivets
bolts. The strengths given in Table A.3.7 are the F468 stress-
es corresponding to strength of machined specimens. Sec- This Specification addresses aluminum rivets only.
tion J.3.4 requires that these stresses be multiplied by the ASTM B 316, Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Rivet and
root area to determine the tensile strength of a bolt. F468 Cold-Heading Wire and Rods, provides the strengths that
gives lesser tensile stresses corresponding to the strength of are used in Table A.3.8.
full-size bolts and requires that these stresses be multiplied Carbon steel rivets should not be used unless a) the alu-
by the tensile stress area to determine the strength of a bolt. minum is joined to carbon steel (see Section M.7.1) and cor-
The tensile stress area is greater than the root area. How- rosion resistance of the structure is not required, or b) the
ever, for 1/4" ≤ D ≤ 1", bolt tensile strengths determined by structure is protected against corrosion.

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A.3.7 Screws Aluminum and austenitic stainless steel screws do not ex-
perience HASCC. When fasteners will not be exposed to
This Specification addresses aluminum screws only.
contact with liquid water or humidity near the dew point,
There are no ASTM specifications for aluminum screws.
certain other steels, with appropriate hardness, and appro-
The material for screws used to connect aluminum parts
priately coated and/or plated are often used. An example
is selected to meet strength and corrosion resistance consid-
is 430 stainless steel, which has a nominal composition of
erations. Steel screws with a Rockwell hardness of C35 or
16% chromium. The AISI North American Specification for
greater may suffer hydrogen-assisted stress corrosion crack-
the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members pro-
ing (HASCC) where exposed to certain dissimilar metals,
vides design rules for steel screws.
moisture, and tensile stress due to installation or loading.

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Chapter B Design Requirements
B.1 SECTION PROPERTIES B.2 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
Section properties for many shapes are given in this
Manual in Part V. Formulas for calculating section proper- B.2.1 Building-Type Structures
ties are also given in Part V.
For building-type structures, ASCE 7 Section 2.3 pro-
Nominal (rather than minimum) dimensions are used to
vides LRFD load combinations and ASCE 7 Section 2.4
calculate section properties. This is because safety or re-
provides ASD load combinations.
sistance factors account for the fact that actual dimensions
may be less than nominal dimensions, within the toler-
ances prescribed by the material specifications required by B.2.2 Bridge-Type Structures
Section A.3. AASHTO (1991) for ASD and AASHTO (2012) for
The torsion constant J may be determined as follows: LRFD address aluminum highway bridges.
a) For open shapes J = Σ (1/3 – 0.2t/b)bt3 for the rect-
angles comprising the shape where b is the larger dimension B.2.3 Other Structures
and t is the smaller dimension of each rectangle. The term
for rectangles with b/t > 10 may be approximated by bt3/3. Loads for structures other than building- and bridge-
type structures may be determined from specifications that
4A2mt address such structures. For example, AASHTO’s Standard
b) For closed shapes of uniform thickness, J =
s Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
where Am = the mean of the areas between the inner and Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2013) may be used to
outer boundaries, s is the length of the boundary at mid- determine the loads for structures within its scope.
thickness, and t is the boundary thickness.
For rectangular tubes with side dimension a with thick- B.3 DESIGN BASIS
ness t1 and side dimension b with thickness t2 (see Figure
CB.1.1) Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) and
Allowable Strength Design (ASD) are equally acceptable
2t2t1 (a-t2)2(b-t1)2 in this Specification.
J=
t2 (a-t2) + t1(b-t1)
B.3.1 Limit States
2t(a-t)2 (b-t)2
If t1 = t2 = t, J = A limit state is a condition in which a structure or compo-
a + b - 2t
nent is judged to be no longer useful for its intended service
(serviceability limit state) or to have reached its ultimate
load-carrying capacity (strength limit state). An example of
a serviceability limit state is a deflection beyond which the
structure is unfit for service. An example of a strength limit
state is member buckling of a column.

B.3.2 Required Strength

This Specification permits the use of elastic analysis only
in determining required strengths.

B.3.2.1 Design for Strength Using Load and

Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Design by LRFD requires that equation B.3-1 be satis-
fied; that is, the required strength determined from the LRFD
load combinations does not exceed the design strength.
Figure CB.1.1 The design strength φRn is the product of the resistance
CROSS-SECTIONAL NOTATION factor φ and the nominal strength Rn. Resistance factors are
less than or equal to 1.0 and account for unavoidable devia-
tions of the actual strength from the nominal strength and
c) For shapes containing open parts and closed parts, J
for the manner and consequence of failure.
is the sum of J for the open parts and J for the closed parts.
The basis for load and resistance factor design is given
by Ellingwood, et al. (1982). The resistance of the structure
R and the load effect Q are modeled as statistically indepen-

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dent random quantities as shown in Figure CB.3.1. Failure
occurs when the resistance R is less than the load effect Q;
the probability of this occurring is represented by the over-
lap between the two curves in Figure CB.3.1. This prob-
ability is a function of the difference between mean value of
the resistance and the mean value of the load effect and the
distribution shapes of the R and Q curves.
Galambos (1979) determined the reliability index for
limit states in the Specifications for Aluminum Structures.
His work is summarized in Tables CB.3.1, CB.3.2, and
CB.3.3.

Figure CB.3.2
DEFINITION OF THE RELIABILITY
INDEX β

Failure can also be defined as ln(R/Q) < 0. In Figure

CB.3.2, failure is represented by the shaded area. The
reliability index β is given by
ln(Rm/Qm)
β = 2 2
VR +VQ

Figure CB.3.1 where Rm = mean value of resistance

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF Qm = mean value of load effect
VR = coefficient of variation of resistance
PROBABILITIES OF THE LOAD EFFECT
VQ = coefficient of variation of load effect.
AND THE RESISTANCE

Table CB.3.1 SUMMARY OF RELIABILITY INDEX STATISTICAL DATA

Limit
Sec 3.4.* Ω Pm Mm Fm Rm /Rn VP VM VF VR Category
State
1,2,3,4 Y 1.65 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 A
1,2,3,4 U 1.95 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 B
8,9 Y 1.65 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 C
8,9 B 1.95 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.09 D
10 Y 1.65 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 C
10 IB 1.95 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.09 D
10 EB 1.95 1.24 1.0 1.0 1.24 0.27 0.06 0.05 0.28 E
11,13,14 Y 1.65 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 C
11,13,14 B 1.65 1.03 1.0 1.0 1.03 0.11 0.06 0.05 0.13 F
12,16.1 Y 1.65 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 C
12,16.1 IB 1.65 1.01 1.0 1.0 1.01 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.09 G
12,16.1 EB 1.65 1.24 1.0 1.0 1.24 0.27 0.06 0.05 0.28 H
15,16,17 Y 1.65 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 C
15,16,17 B 1.65 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.09 I
20 Y 1.65 1.0 1.10 1.0 1.10 0 0.06 0.05 0.08 C
20 IB 1.65 1.07 1.0 1.0 1.07 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.12 J
20 EB 1.65 0.93 1.0 1.0 0.93 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.12 K
*Section number in Specification for Aluminum Structures, 2005.

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Notes Table CB 3.1:
1. Limit states are: Y = yield; U = tensile rupture;
B = buckling; IB = inelastic buckling; EB = elastic
buckling.
2. Parameters are:
Ω = safety factor
Pm = mean value of the ratio of actual strength to
theoretical strength
Mm = mean value of the ratio of material strength to
specified material strength
Fm = mean value of the ratio of fabricated dimen-
sions to nominal dimensions
Rm/Rn = Pm Mm Fm
VP = coefficient of variation of the ratio of actual
strength to theoretical strength
VM = coefficient of variation of the ratio of material
strength to specified material strength
VF = coefficient of variation of the ratio of fabricated
dimensions to nominal dimensions
2 2 2
VR = VP +VM +VF .

Table CB.3.2 LIMIT STATE CATEGORIES

Category Ω Rm /Rn VR Description

A 1.65 1.10 0.08 yield in tension

B 1.95 1.10 0.08 rupture in tension

C 1.65 1.10 0.08 yield in compression

D 1.95 1.00 0.09 local buckling in columns

E 1.95 1.24 0.28 elastic local buckling of curved elements in compression

F 1.65 1.03 0.13 lateral torsional buckling of beams

G 1.65 1.01 0.09 inelastic local buckling of curved elements in bending

H 1.65 1.24 0.28 elastic local buckling of curved elements in bending

I 1.65 1.00 0.09 local buckling in beams

J 1.65 1.07 0.12 inelastic shear buckling

K 1.65 0.93 0.12 elastic shear buckling

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 Table CB.3.3 RELIABILITY INDICES

b b
Category Description
for D/L = 0.1 for D/L = 0.2

A 2.46 2.64 yield in tension

B 3.16 3.40 rupture in tension
C 2.87 3.09 yield in compression
D 2.72 2.92 local buckling in columns
E 2.44 2.51 elastic local buckling of curved elements in compression
F 2.01 2.13 lateral torsional buckling of beams
G 2.08 2.22 inelastic local buckling of curved elements in bending
H 1.98 2.03 elastic local buckling of curved elements in bending
I 2.04 2.18 local buckling in beams
J 2.20 2.34 inelastic shear buckling
K 1.65 1.75 elastic shear buckling

Resistance factors in this Specification were chosen to Table CB.3.4 shows that for D/L ratios of about 0.5 or
achieve similar levels of safety and reliability for ASD and less, resistance factors of 0.75 for rupture, 0.90 for all other
LRFD. To do so, the relationship between safety factors and member limit states, 0.65 for bolt or rivet failure, and 0.5 for
resistance factors can be established as follows: screw failure are no less conservative than ASD; therefore,
For ASD: Rn / Ω = D + L this Specification uses these resistance factors. This matches
For LRFD: φRn = AD + BL the 2005 AISC Specification for rupture and other member
limit states.
where A = dead load factor = 1.2
B = live load factor = 1.6.
Solving for φ
φ = [A(D/L) + B]/[Ω(1 + D/L)].

Table CB.3.4 RELATING RESISTANCE FACTORS TO SAFETY FACTORS

Dead-to-live load ratio D/L 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
dead load factor A 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
live load factor B 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
Limit state: rupture
safety factor Ω 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95 1.95
resistance factor φ 0.82 0.80 0.79 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73
All other member limit states
safety factor Ω 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65
resistance factor φ 0.97 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86
Limit state: bolt, rivet failure
safety factor Ω 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.34
resistance factor φ 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.61
Limit state: screw failure
safety factor Ω 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
resistance factor φ 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.47

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B.3.2.2 Design for Strength using Allowable B.5.3 Thickness of Elements
Strength Design (ASD) Kim (2003) provided the method used in this Section for
The Specification for Aluminum Structures has histori- determining the slenderness for members that have linearly
cally used a safety factor of 1.65 on yield and beam buck- tapered thickness elements with δ ≤ 2.0 (i.e., tmax < 3tmin).
ling limit states and 1.95 on tensile rupture limit states, and The tapered flanges of American Standard channels and
those are used in this edition of the Specification. American Standard I beams meet this criterion.
The safety factor for column member buckling in this Three types of edge supports for elements with tapered
Specification has effectively been 1.65, since a safety factor thickness are addressed in Section B.5.3:
of 1.95 was prescribed without applying a factor for out-of- a) Tapered thickness elements with the thick edge sup-
straightness, which is approximately 0.85 (1.95 × 0.85 = ported and the thin edge free (Figure CB.5.1(a)): For such
1.65). Because a column out-of-straightness factor of 0.85 elements, it is conservative to use b/tavg for the slenderness.
is applied in this edition of the Specification, the safety fac- Using b/tavg gives a slenderness that is conservative by as
tor for column member buckling is set at 1.65. much as 28% compared to finite element analysis for δ = 2.
The safety factor for column local buckling has been Section B.5.3a provides an approximate expression for the
changed in this edition of the Specification from 1.95 to slenderness that is less conservative and more accurate than
1.65 to be consistent with the safety factor for beam local using b/tavg.
buckling. An out-of-straightness factor has not been applied b) Tapered thickness elements with the thin edge sup-
to local buckling because the local buckling strength is not ported and the thick edge free (Figure CB.5.1(b)): For
sensitive to out-of-straightness (Sharp (1993)). such elements, the slenderness can be approximated
by 1.02b/tavg. Using b/tavg understates the slenderness by
B.4 BUCKLING CONSTANTS only 3% compared to finite element analysis, so this
Specification allows the use of b/tavg.
The buckling constants given in Section B.4 are used to c) Tapered thickness elements supported on both edges
determine inelastic buckling strengths and reflect the tan- (Figure CB.5.1(c)): The slenderness can be approximated
gent modulus of elasticity in the inelastic range, as docu- by (1.02 + 0.02δ)b/tavg. Using b/tavg understates the slender-
mented by Clark and Rolf (1966). The stress-strain curve ness by at most only 5% compared to finite element analy-
for artificially aged tempers (those beginning with T5, T6, sis, so this Specification allows the use of b/tavg.
T7, T8, or T9) has a different shape after yield than that for Once the slenderness has been determined, use the
non-artificially aged tempers (those beginning with O, H, Specification Section for a constant thickness element with
T1, T2, T3, or T4). Therefore, different buckling constant the same edge conditions to determine the strength of the
formulae are used for artificially aged tempers than those element.
used for non-artificially aged tempers.
The weld-affected zone in non-heat treatable alloys has
the annealed (O) temper strength, and the weld-affected
zone in heat-treatable alloys has a strength slightly less
than the solution heat-treated (T4) temper. For this reason,
buckling constants for weld-affected zones of all alloys are
determined from Table B.4.1, which applies to O and T4
temper material.
Figure CB.5.1
B.5 ELEMENTS
B.5.4 Strength of Elements in Uniform
B.5.1 Width of Flat Elements and Stiffeners Compression
If the inside corner radius exceeds 4 times the element Sections B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.5 address the compres-
thickness, the inside radius is taken as 4 times the thickness sive strengths of beam elements assuming that the support-
in calculating the element width. This rule is arbitrary but ed edges of elements are fixed against translation and free
deemed reasonable. to rotate.
The strength of elements in uniform compression is the
B.5.2 Radius of Curved Elements weighted average of the strengths of the unwelded and weld-
affected zones of the element. The strength of elements with
The mid-thickness radius of curved elements is used to
transverse welds is not limited by yielding because yielding
determine their slenderness to be consistent with the work
at a transverse weld does not cause an appreciable change
by Clark and Rolf (1964).
in length. The weld-affected zone for transverse welds that
extend across the full width of an element is the gross area
of the element.

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B.5.4.1 Flat Elements Supported On One Edge Sharp (1966). The elastic buckling analysis by Sharp shows
that Ra = 6t. Elastic buckling begins at a b/t ratio equal to
Sooi and Peköz (1993) determined the post-buckling
λe where λe is the limiting b/t ratio at which a stiffened ele-
strength given in Section B.5.4.1 for slenderness ratios
ment is fully effective. At this value of b/t, the value of Ra
greater than λ2.
obtained from Equation B.5-7 matches the value derived by
Using the buckling coefficient k = 0.425 for an element
Sharp. A linear relationship is assumed between Ra and b/t
with one edge simply supported and the other free from
if b/t is between λe /3 and λe.
Ziemian (2010) Figure 4.2 and ν = 0.33 (see Section A.3.1),
To develop post-bucking strength of the stiffened ele-
the elastic buckling stress can be determined as
ment, Ra is greater than 6t. An edge stiffened element with
k π 2E 0.425π 2E a b/t ratio exceeding λe has post-buckling strength. Equation
Fe = = B.5-8 addresses such cases, where b/t is between λe and 2λe.
12(1 − ν 2 )(b / t ) 2 12(1 − 0.332 )(b / t ) 2
There is insufficient test data to develop an equation for Ra
π 2E π2 E when b/t exceeds 2λe.
= 2
= The limitation on the Ds /b ratio prevents adverse interac-
25.16(b / t ) (5.02b / t ) 2
tion between local buckling of the edge stiffener and the
In columns buckling about a principal axis that is not stiffened element.
an axis of symmetry (for example, channels buckling about Stiffening bulbs and other complex shapes may provide
the weak axis), the centroid of the stresses may not be the greater strengths than those provided for in Section B.5.4.3.
same as that for the full section. This is due to the non-linear Sharp (1993) gives a method for estimating the buckling
post-buckling stress distribution in the section’s elements. strength for these other shapes.
Although some post-buckling strength may exist, it may
not be as large as that if the buckling axis were an axis of B.5.4.4 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges
symmetry. Therefore, this Section limits the strength in such and with an Intermediate Stiffener
cases to the elastic local buckling strength.
The provisions in this Section are based on Sharp (1966),
who developed an equation for flat elements supported on
B.5.4.2 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges
both edges with multiple intermediate stiffeners. Sooi and
Using the buckling coefficient k = 4.00 for an element Peköz (1993) found that these provisions, in conjunction
simply supported on both edges from Ziemian (2010) Fig- with the weighted average method, gave good agreement
ure 4.2 and ν = 0.33 (see Section A.3.1), the elastic buckling with test strengths.
stress is:
k π 2E 4.00 π 2E B.5.4.5 Round Hollow Elements and Curved Ele-
Fe = = ments Supported on Both Edges
12(1 − ν 2 )(b / t ) 2 12(1 − 0.332 )(b / t ) 2
The elastic local buckling strength of an ideal cylin-
π 2E π2 E
= = drical shell (pipe or round tube) in axial compression is
2.673(b / t ) 2 (1.64 b / t ) 2
π2 E
. The buckling strength of actual shells,
Jombock and Clark (1968) determined the post-buckling 16 Rb / t
strength given in Section B.5.4.2 for slenderness ratios however, is strongly affected by geometric imperfections
greater than λ2. (Ziemian (2010)). Tests indicate that this effect tends to
increase with increasing Rb /t. The effect of imperfections
B.5.4.3 Flat Elements Supported on One Edge and is taken into account by dividing the ideal cylinder elastic
with a Stiffener on the Other Edge  
2
Rb / t
buckling strength by 1 +  which is based on tests
The study by Sooi and Peköz (1993) used to establish  35 
these provisions was based on sheet metal shapes where  
the thickness of the stiffener is the same as the thickness of on tubes (Clark and Rolf (1964), Weingarten, Morgan, and
the stiffened element, and these provisions give the same Seide (1965)). No post-buckling strength is included in the
result regardless of the stiffener thickness. Therefore, this
Specification requires that the stiffener be at least as thick as π2 E
resulting strength of 2 .
  Rb / t 
the element to be stiffened.
R
The denominator in each of Equations B.5-7 and B.5-8 16  b  1+
for ρST is the radius of gyration of a stiffener adequate to  t   35 
give the element being stiffened the strength of an element
supported on both longitudinal edges (Ra). Sooi and Peköz
adapted the equations for Ra from the AISI Specification
(1986) and compared them with the equation proposed by

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 The strengths given in Section B.5.4.5 are for full round B.5.5.1 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges
tubes, and are conservative for curved elements supported
The coefficients in the formula for inelastic buckling
on both edges (Shepherd and Ziemian (2013)). The com-
strength are the same as for solid rectangular shapes. When
pressive strength of curved elements with a small arc (small
the neutral axis is at the mid-height of the element, the
curvature 1/Rb) should approach the strength of flat ele-
equivalent slenderness is 0.65b/t, which applies to an ele-
ments, but the strength given in Section B.5.4.5 for such
ment in bending with both edges simply supported. Simple
elements can be considerably less than the strength of flat
support is assumed because the boundary conditions at the
elements and thus can be very conservative. For a small cur-
compression edge are more important than those at the ten-
vature (or large radius), that is, when the central angle is less
sion edge and compression elements supporting the com-
than about 20 degrees between supported edges, Section
pression flange may buckle at the same time as the web.
B.5.4.2 produces a greater strength (ignoring the curvature)
than Section B.5.4.5.
For transversely welded cylinders with Rb /t > 20, Sharp B.5.5.2 Flat Elements Supported on Tension Edge,
(1993) showed that Section B.5.4.5 may be very uncon- Compression Edge Free
servative. Transversely welded slender-wall cylinders may The coefficients in the formula for inelastic buckling
have more severe geometric imperfections than stocky-wall strength are the same as for solid rectangular shapes. The
cylinders, and AWS D1.2:2014 does not provide dimension- equivalent slenderness of 3.5b/t is based on partial restraint
al tolerances on welded tubes. against rotation at the supported edge.
Section B.5.5.2 is based on elastic buckling strength.
B.5.4.6 Direct Strength Method This type of element is assumed to have negligible post-
Section B.5.4.6 provides an alternate method by which buckling strength.
a more accurate assessment of element support conditions
can be used to determine the compressive strength. The use B.5.5.3 Flat Elements Supported on Both Edges
of Section B.5.4.6 for welded members is prohibited be- and with a Longitudinal Stiffener
cause the accuracy of this method has not been established The coefficients in the formula for inelastic buckling
for welded members. strength are the same as for solid rectangular shapes. The
Strengths determined using the provisions of this Section equivalent slenderness is 0.29b/t based on simple support
agree well with the test strengths reported by Bijlaard and at the edges and at the stiffener using theory from Bleich
Fisher (1952) for I beams and square tubes. (1952).
To determine Fe , the elastic buckling stress of the col- Section B.5.5.3 requires that a longitudinal stiffener on a
umn with continuous lateral support, a linear elastic analy- beam web shall be located so that the distance from the toe
sis such as the finite strip method, by which a member is of the compression flange to the stiffener’s centroid is 0.4
divided into strips that run the length of the member, may times the distance from the toe of the compression flange
be used. to the beam’s neutral axis. This is the optimum location for
increasing the buckling strength of the web. The resulting
B.5.5 Strength of Elements in Flexural strength of the web is based on Bleich (1952). The stiff-
Compression ener’s required moment of inertia is the same as that used
The local buckling strength of elements in flexure is not in earlier ASCE specifications (1962a, 1962b), and agrees
affected by welds in the tension zone of the element. There- with tests by Rockey (1958). The factor a accounts for the
fore, only weld-affected zones in the compression portion effect of eccentricity for a stiffener on one side of the web
of the element are considered in determining the local buck- only (Massonnet (1962)).
ling strength of these elements. Further study is required to
account for the effect of the location of the weld-affected
zone, which is not addressed by the Specification.

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 50.0 ABCDE - Bending Round Tubes
A B HGCDE - Axial Compression Round Tubes
45.0
F FGCDE - Bending Curved Elements
40.0
H G
35.0 C
Strength (ksi)

30.0
D
25.0
20.0
E
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
Slenderness (Rb/t)0.5

CB.5.2
PIPES AND ROUND TUBES

B.5.5.4 Pipes and Round Tubes B.5.5.5 Direct Strength Method

The inelastic buckling strength of round hollow elements Sections B.5.4 and B.5.5 address the compressive
(round tubes) in bending is based on experimental work by strengths of beam elements assuming that the supported
Clark and Rolf (1964). edges of elements are fixed against translation and free to
λ1 is the slenderness Rb/t at which the bending buckling rotate. Section B.5.5.5 provides an alternate method by
strength and axial compression buckling strength curves in- which a more accurate assessment of element support con-
tersect. For values of Rb /t greater than λ1, the bending buck- ditions can be used to determine the compressive strength.
ling strength is conservatively assumed to be the same as the Kim (2003) showed that Section B.5.5.5 is also reason-
axial compression buckling strength. ably accurate for shapes not addressed by Sections B.5.4
Figure CB.5.2 shows, for 6061-T6, the strength of vari- and B.5.5 and composed entirely of flat elements, includ-
ous curved elements: ing those with single or multiple intermediate stiffeners.
The use of Section B.5.5.5 for welded members is prohib-
a) The uppermost four lines (ABCDE) represent the flex- ited because the accuracy of the alternate method given
ural compressive strength for round tubes given by Section in Section B.5.5.5 has not been established for welded
B.5.5.4 and limited by the yield limit state of (Z/S)Fcy. members.
When Section B.5.5.5 is used, the strength of a stiffened
b) The lowest three lines (HGCDE) represent the element need not be limited to the strength of the stiffener
axial compressive strength for round tubes given by since the elastic buckling strength determined is the strength
Section B.5.4.5. of the entire section, accounting for all elements.
To determine Fe , the elastic buckling strength of the
c) The dashed line (FG) represents an estimate of the beam with continuous lateral support, a linear elastic
flexural compressive strength for curved elements sup- analysis such as the finite strip method, by which a member
ported on both edges. Experience with building sheathing is divided into strips that run the length of the member, may
products such as corrugated roofing shows that their strength be used.
for low R/t ratios is less than that for complete cylinders.

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B.5.6 Elastic Buckling Stress of Elements The elastic buckling stress of elements in uniform com-
pression is used to check the interaction between member
The elastic buckling stress of elements is the elastic lo-
buckling and local buckling for columns (Section E.4),
cal buckling stress. Since elastic local buckling stresses
and the interaction of lateral-torsional buckling and flange
are used for the design of both members for compression
buckling for single web beams (Section F.4.3). This inter-
(Chapter E) and members for flexure (Chapter F), the table
action can only govern if postbuckling strength is used.
of elastic local buckling stresses is provided in Chapter B.
Postbuckling strength is used in Sections B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2,
The elastic local buckling stress Fe for elements sup-
and B.5.4.3.
ported on one edge and with a stiffener on the other edge
is based on the effectiveness of the stiffener. When the
B.6 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
stiffener has no effectiveness,
Section B.6 invokes Chapter M for fabrication and
π2 E erection issues.
ρST = 0 and Fe =
(5.0 b / t )2
B.7 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY
and when the stiffener is fully effective ASSURANCE
π2 E Section B.7 invokes Chapter N for quality control and
ρST = 1 and Fe =
(1.6 b / t )2 quality assurance issues.

B.8 EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES

Section B.8 invokes Appendix 5 for the evaluation of
existing structures.

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Chapter C Design for Stability
C.1 GENERAL STABILITY REQUIREMENTS The effective length method is not included in Chapter C
since a second-order analysis must be made to determine if
Design for stability includes the analysis to determine re- the effective length method is appropriate, and the method
quired strengths as well as proportioning the members and in Section C.2 is more direct. Also, it is often quite diffi-
connections so they have adequate available strength. cult to properly determine effective lengths. However, since
Section C.1 allows any elastic method, the effective length
C.2 CALCULATION OF REQUIRED method can be used if properly applied.
STRENGTHS The reason for factoring ASD loads by 1.6 is that the
The five factors listed in Section C.2 are the factors that structure may not behave linearly, which is why second-
must be accounted for in an accurate stability analysis of a order analysis is performed. To produce the same overall
structure. result with ASD and LRFD, the ASD analysis must be done
at the LRFD load level. Then, since ASD results are com-
1) The designer must determine whether connection de- pared to ASD allowable stresses, the ASD results must be
formations are significant and need to be considered. divided by 1.6.
2) Second-order effects are included in many structur- The use of reduced stiffness (item 5 above) only per-
al analysis programs. To determine if a program properly tains to analyses for strength limit states. It does not apply
includes second-order effects, the program’s results can to analyses for other limit states such as serviceability (in-
be compared to the two benchmark problems given in the cluding deflection, vibration and period determination) and
AISC 2010 Specification commentary to Section C2.1. Most fatigue.
structural analysis programs that purport to address second-
order effects include P-Δ effects, but some do not include C.3 CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE
P-δ effects. P-δ effects must be included in determining the STRENGTHS
required strength of individual compression members. Bracing requirements given in Appendix 6 do not apply
3) The pattern of geometric imperfections should be to bracing that is included in the structural analysis per-
similar to the anticipated buckled shape of the structure formed in accordance with Section C.2.
and to the displacements caused by loads. Since the An example of an effective length factor k less than 1 is
Specification for Aluminum Structures does not establish a member fixed at one end and with translation prevented at
erection tolerances, Section C.2 requires that the imperfec- the other end, for which k is theoretically 0.7 and is usually
tions be the tolerances specified by the designer. For ex- taken as 0.8 in practical cases.
ample, if the maximum out-of-plumbness requirement for
the structure is specified as H/500, then the imperfection at
the top of a column relative to its base is H/500 where H is
the height of the column.
Geometric imperfections could also be accounted for by
applying equivalent notional loads to the structure that are a
fraction of the gravity loads for nominally vertical and hori-
zontal members. However, including the geometric imper-
fections in the analysis model is applicable to all structural
configurations.
4) The factor for flexural stiffness τb due to inelasticity
matches the factor used by AISC and ranges from 1.0 for Pr
< 0.5Py to 0 for Pr = Py. This can be addressed by using τbI
in place of I in the analysis.
5) The 0.8 factor on member stiffness due to uncertainty
in stiffness and strength is the product of the resistance fac-
tor for columns (0.90) and the reduction factor (0.85) on
the buckling strength of slender columns. The 0.8 factor
also accounts for additional softening under combined axial
compression and bending of intermediate or stocky col-
umns. This can be addressed by using 0.8E in place of E in
the analysis.

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Chapter D Design of Members for Tension
D.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS
The allowable tensile strength for building structures
is the lesser of the two values that result from applying a
safety factor of 1.65 to the yield strength of the gross sec-
tion and 1.95 to the ultimate strength of the net section. The
corresponding safety factors for bridge structures are 1.85
and 2.2. These factors match those in ASCE (1962a) and
ASCE (1962b) and have been used in the Specification for
Aluminum Structures since its first edition in 1967. Figure CD.3.1
BAR IN TENSION
D.2 TENSILE STRENGTH
The axial tensile strength is the lesser of 1) the yield
strength of the gross section and 2) the ultimate (rupture)
strength of the net section. This is because the net section
usually exists over only a short portion of the overall length
of the member, and the elongation of the member resulting
from yielding across the net section is small. Thus, yielding
on the net section is not a limit state.
The strength of tension members with transverse welds
is limited by the strength of the transverse weld. Transverse Figure CD.3.2
welds are welds with an axis perpendicular to the member
axis. If the entire cross section of the member is weld-af- Figure CD.3.2
fected, the tensile strength is Ftuw Ae. Yielding at a transverse ANGLE IN TENSION
weld is not a limit state, because, in a similar manner as for
yielding at the net section, the elongation of the member For staggered holes in shapes with different thickness
resulting from yielding across a transverse weld is small. elements (for example, staggered holes in a channel flange
Longitudinal welds are welds with an axis parallel to the and web), the Specification does not address the thickness to
member axis. Usually only part of the cross section of lon- be used to determine the net area from the net width based
gitudinally welded members is weld affected. The strength on the s2/4g rule. A possible approach in this instance is to
of a cross section with only part of its area weld affected use the weighted average thickness (weighted by the length
can be estimated by adding up the strength of the material in of the failure path in a given element) (see Gaylord et al.
the weld-affected zone and the unaffected material outside (1992)).
this zone (Hill, et al. (1962)). Hill and Brungraber (1962) The effective width of punched holes is the hole diameter
showed that for members with part of the section weld-af- + 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) to account for break-out on the back
fected, the strength is the sum of the strength of the weld- side of the part that punching may cause.
affected material and the strength of the non-weld-affected
material.
D.3.2 Effective Net Area
D.3 AREA DETERMINATION May and Menzemer (2005) showed that the effective area
in tension is less than the net area due to the non-uniform
stress distribution across the section at the connection for
D.3.1 Net Area angles, tees, and channels connected by some but not all of
Figures CD.3.1 and CD.3.2 illustrate the notation of their elements. This is accounted for by using the effective
this Section. The net section area for the bar shown in net area to calculate the tensile stress in the section. Design-
Figure CD.3.1 is ers should not combine bending stress due to the connection
eccentricity with axial stress on the effective net area since
s2 the effect of the eccentricity is accounted for in the effective
Anet = (b − 2d + )t
4g net area determination.

where t is the thickness of the bar and d is the diameter

of the hole. In Figure CD.3.2, the angle section is flattened
out into a bar for the purpose of calculating the net section.
The flattened width is a + b – t.

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 To determine the eccentricities: y x

a) For tees connected only by their flanges (Figure centerline of

CD.3.3(a)), the eccentricity in the y direction is the distance hole
from the outside face of the flange to the neutral axis of the x x
tee parallel to the flange. The eccentricity in the x direction y
is zero. For I beams connected only by their flanges (Figure
CD.3.3(b)), split the section at the neutral axis parallel to the
flanges to create two tees. y
(a) (b)
y

y Figure CD.3.5
neutral axis
of tee x
x
d) For I beams connected only by the web, eccentricities
are determined as shown in Figure CD.3.6.

y
y y
(a) (b)

Figure CD.3.3
x x
b) For channels connected only by their webs the eccen-
tricities are as shown in Figure CD.3.4.

x
y y y
y

Figure CD.3.6
x x
If there is only one row of bolts in the direction of load or
the only weld has an axis perpendicular to the direction of
load, the length of the connection L is zero and the effective
net area is the net area of the connected elements.
y
x y
Figure CD.3.4
Figure CD.3.4

c) For angles connected only by one leg, the eccentricity

in one direction is the distance from the face of the connect-
ed leg to the neutral axis of the angle parallel to the connect-
ed leg (Figure CD.3.5(a)). The eccentricity in the other di-
rection is determined from a section obtained by subtracting
the portion of the connected leg outside the centerline of the
fastener closest to the unconnected leg. The eccentricity is
the distance perpendicular to the unconnected leg from the
centerline of the fastener closest to the unconnected leg to
the neutral axis of the remaining section (Figure CD.3.5(b)).

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Chapter E Design of Members for Compression
E.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS that for these cases the strength calculated as though the
entire column were of welded material is conservative.
Because column member buckling strength (E.2) did not If a column has both longitudinal and transverse welds,
account for an approximate 0.85 factor on strength due to the strength determined considering the transverse welds
standard tolerance on out-of-straightness, the safety factor usually is less than the strength determined considering the
for column member buckling for members designed using longitudinal welds.
this Specification prior to 2010 was actually about (0.85) The strength of a cross section with only part of its area
(1.95) = 1.66. The 2010 Specification included the 0.85 fac- heat affected (typically the case with longitudinally welded
tor in the column member buckling strength but the safety members) can be estimated by adding up the strength of the
factor changed from 1.95 to 1.65, so column member buck- material in the heat-affected zone and the unaffected mate-
ling allowable strengths did not change in the 2010 Speci- rial outside this zone (Hill, et al. (1962)).
fication.
The safety factor for column local buckling strength of
E.2.1 Flexural Buckling
1.65 is consistent with the safety factor for local buckling of
beams. Unlike member buckling, local buckling strengths For flexural buckling, the slenderness kL/r is the great-
need not be reduced for out-of-straightness since Sharp er of the slenderness ratios taken about each of the prin-
(1993) notes that “the practical plate with initial crooked- cipal axes of the member. Chapuis and Galambos (1982)
ness … has essentially the same strength as that for the per- addressed the effective length of aluminum columns as a
fectly flat plate.” factor k times the length of the column L between lateral
supports.
E.2 MEMBER BUCKLING
E.2.2 Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling
When the member slenderness exceeds Cc, the buckling
strength is based on the elastic buckling strength, also called Section E.2.2 is similar to the AISC (2010) Section E4
the Euler buckling strength. When slenderness is less than for torsional and flexural-torsional buckling. Based on data
Cc, Templin, et al. (1938) and Clark and Rolf (1966) showed provided by Abramson (1977), Sharp (1993) showed that
that the inelastic buckling strength is approximated closely the member buckling strength equations of Section E.2
by a straight line. can be used for torsional-flexural buckling if an equiva-
Hill and Clark (1956) and Batterman and Johnson (1967) lent slenderness is defined. The equivalent slenderness
showed that load eccentricity and initial crookedness reduce
the buckling strength. Sharp (1993) showed that the strength E is based on the elastic torsional-flexural buck-
λ=π
of a 6061-T6 column that is out-of-straight by standard Fe
mill tolerance is about 83% of the strength of a perfectly
straight column. This Specification uses a 0.85 factor on ling stress, which may be determined using the equations
elastic member buckling strength to account for these ef- given in Section E.2.2 or by another method such as finite
fects in the elastic buckling range. In the inelastic buckling strip analysis.
range the factor for out-of-straightness varies from 0.85 at For point-symmetric sections such as cruciforms, tor-
the intersection of elastic and inelastic buckling to 1.0 at the sional buckling is the most likely mode of failure and Fe
intersection of yielding and inelastic buckling. equals Fet .
For very short columns, the compressive strength is the
compressive yield strength. Such columns are sometimes E.3 LOCAL BUCKLING
referred to as stub columns, for which the limit state is The strength of elements with welds that are not along
yielding rather than buckling. the element edges may have less strength than elements
Brungraber and Clark (1962) investigated the strength of without welds for two reasons:
welded aluminum compression members. Welding can af-
fect a member’s compression strength by reducing strength 1) Welding reduces the yield and ultimate strength of the
in the heat-affected zone, causing residual stresses, and dis- metal. This can be accounted for by using the welded yield
torting the member shape. strength and welded buckling constants to determine the el-
Sharp (1993) showed that for calculating the member ement strength.
buckling strength, the buckling formula constants given in
Table B.4.1 (non-artificially aged tempers) best represent 2) Welding may introduce distortions. AWS D1.2
weld-affected material. Section 4.19.4 requires a flatness tolerance on welded webs
Transverse welds not at the ends of a column supported of d/100, where d = web depth, and Section 4.19.5 requires
on both ends or in a cantilever column may appreciably de- a flatness tolerance of w/100 < 0.25 in. (6 mm) on welded
crease the member buckling strength. Sharp (1993) showed flanges, where w = full width of the flange. For extrusions,

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Aluminum Standards and Data 2013 Table 11.8 requires a E.3.2 Direct Strength Method
flatness tolerance of 0.4% to 1.4% of the width, depending
on part thickness and width, being greater for thin parts and The direct strength method for determining the local
large widths. For sheet and plate, Aluminum Standards and buckling stress is described in Section B.5.4.6.
Data 2013 Table 7.17 requires a flatness tolerance of 0.5%
to 1.3% of the width. Since the flatness tolerances for un- E.4 INTERACTION BETWEEN MEMBER
welded mill products and welded parts are approximately BUCKLING AND LOCAL BUCKLING
the same, distortions are not greater in welded elements Sections B.5.4.1 and B.5.4.2 take advantage of the post-
than unwelded elements, and their strengths should not buckling strength of certain types of elements, because such
differ because of distortions. elements may buckle elastically without causing failure of
Sharp (1993) Figure 7.9 shows that the compressive the member. However, if the local buckling stress of the sec-
strength of longitudinally edge-welded elements is slightly tion is less than the member buckling strength of the col-
less than the unwelded strength, and considerably greater umn, the reduced stiffness that accompanies local buckling
than the all-welded strength. The flatness tolerance for the may reduce the member buckling strength. Sharp (1970)
test specimens ranged from 0.1% to 0.7% of the width. developed the strength equation given in Section E.4 to ad-
Sharp noted that “Welds decreased the strength compared dress this interaction between member buckling and local
to unwelded plates but the decrease was not as much as that buckling. Sharp’s equation agrees well with the results of
calculated for all-welded material”. Compressive tests on compression tests on H-section and box section columns
welded aluminum plates (Conley, et al. (1963)) have dem- with thin elements reported by Bijlaard and Fisher (1952).
onstrated that the welds have little effect on postbuckling The interaction between member buckling and local
strength. To account for the reduction in strength in the buckling is more likely to govern the strength when mem-
weld-affected zone, a weighted average method is used. ber buckling is elastic and an element of the member has a
large slenderness.
E.3.1 Weighted Average Local Method The elastic local buckling strengths given in Table B.5.1
Crocket (1942) showed that the local buckling strength are accurate for square tube shapes and conservative for oth-
of a member is the sum of the local buckling strength of the er shapes. These values can be quite conservative for sec-
member’s elements. The compressive strength of portions tions with elements whose edge restraint is more rigid than
of a column at the intersection of elements (for example, at an element that is simply supported. Section E.3.2 provides
the web-flange juncture in a channel) is taken as Fcy since a more accurate and less conservative method to determine
this material does not buckle locally and is not included in the strength in such cases.
the area of the flange element or the web element.

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Chapter F Design of Members for Flexure
When a transverse load parallel to a principal axis does This method is overly conservative and inconsistent with
not act through the shear center, the load can be resolved the AISC yield limit state. Since aluminum alloys provide
into a transverse load through the shear center and a torque. strain hardening after yield, their post-yield capacity is
greater than elastic-plastic materials such as mild carbon
F.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS steel for the same yield strength (see Figure CF.2.1). Also,
the bending moment at which the extreme fiber reaches the
Resistance and safety factors are discussed in Sections tensile ultimate strength determined by integrating alumi-
B.3.2.1 and B.3.2.2. num alloy stress-strain curves is within 10% of the moment
determined from the plastic section modulus. Therefore,
F.2 YIELDING AND RUPTURE the full plastic moment is now used to establish aluminum
In Specification editions prior to 2015, the compressive yield and rupture limit states.
yield, tensile yield, and tensile rupture strengths for beams
used the relationship between the plastic section modulus
for the rigid-plastic case Z and the plastic section modulus
for yield Zy and for ultimate strength Zu established by Sharp
(1993). To define the yield limit state, Sharp plotted the “ap-
parent stress” equal to the moment divided by the elastic
section modulus. He determined the moment by integrat-
ing the area under the stress-strain curve (representing the
stress distribution as a function of distance from the neutral
axis) times the strain. Finally, he determined the 0.2% offset
stress of this apparent stress as the yield stress.

40

35

30

25
Stress

20
6061-T6
extrusions
15
Elas c-
10 Plas c

0
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
Strain
Figure CF.2.1

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The plastic modulus Z is determined by first locating the For heat-treatable alloys, the compressive yield strength
plastic neutral axis (PNA) as shown in Figure CF.2.2. The and the tensile yield strength are equal and for non-heat-
PNA is defined as the axis that divides the cross section such treatable alloys, the compressive yield strength Fcy is nomi-
that the compression force from the cross sectional area in nally 90% of the tensile yield strength Ft y. The Specification
compression Ac equals the tension force from the cross sec- conservatively uses Fcy to determine the yield moment so
tional area in tension At. For members with all the material that only one plastic modulus needs to be determined.
on the compression side of the neutral axis having the same The plastic modulus is limited to 1.5S to preclude yield-
yield strength Fcy, and all the material on the tension side of ing at service loads.
the neutral axis having the same yield strength Fty: The ability of compact wrought aluminum shapes to
deform plastically is required for unwelded aluminum by
Fty At = Fcy Ac ASTM B209 and for welded aluminum by D1.2, which both
require that specimens be capable of being bent 180o around
Since At + Ac = A, a pin of a specified diameter. The ability of aluminum cast-
ings to deform plastically is not required by material or
At = A Fcy /(Fty + Fcy) and Ac = A Fty /(Fty + Fcy) welding specifications. In fact, D1.2 requires a notched
specimen fracture test instead of a bend test for weldments
Ac involving castings. Therefore, the limit state strength for
yielding of castings is the lesser of St Ft y and Sc Fcy .
The Ramberg-Osgood equation for the stress-strain curve
for a given aluminum alloy-temper can be determined using
yc
plastic minimum specified values for the 0.2% yield stress Ft y, the
neutral axis ultimate stress Ftu, the modulus of elasticity E, and the strain
yt at rupture εu: ε = F/E + 0.002(F/Ft y) n, where n is determined
by substituting the ultimate stress and strain at rupture.
The bending moment at which the extreme fiber of a rect-
angular bar reaches Ftu can then be determined by numeri-
At cally integrating the stress-strain curve. This moment can
be compared to the allowable moment, determined as the
Figure CF.2.2 lesser of ZFt y /Ωy and ZFtu /Ωu, to determine the actual safety
factor Ω on rupture. The safety factors thus determined are
tabulated below. The safety factor may be greater than 1.95
If Fty = Fcy, then the PNA is the axis that divides the shape
(the rupture safety factor) if yield governs, which occurs in
into two halves of equal area (At = Ac).
the tabulated examples below for yield-to-ultimate strength
The plastic section modulus is the sum of the products of
ratios of 0.74 or less. The results show that the modulus of
the areas of the cross section on each side of the PNA and
elasticity E and ultimate strain εu have little effect on the
the distance from the centroids of the two areas to the PNA.
actual safety factor.
Z = At yt + Ac yc = At (yt + yc Fty /Fcy) = Ac (yc + yt Fcy /Ft y)

The plastic moment is

Mnp = Fty At (yt + yc) = Fcy Ac (yt + yc)

Mnp = Fty Zt = Fcy Zc

where Zt = At (yt + yc) and Zc = Ac (yt + yc)

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 ACTUAL SAFETY FACTOR ON FLEXURAL RUPTURE FOR VARIOUS
ALLOY-TEMPERS BASED ON THE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE,
LIMITING THE MOMENT TO THE LESSER OF ZFty /Ωy AND ZFtu /Ωu
E Ft y Ft u
alloy-temper Ft y /Ft u εu Ω
ksi ksi ksi

2014-T6 10,800 53 60 0.88 0.07 1.91

5052-H32 10,100 23 31 0.74 0.11 2.14

5083-O 10,300 18 40 0.45 0.16 3.35

5083-H116 10,300 31 44 0.70 0.12 2.24

6061-T6 plate 10,000 35 42 0.83 0.10 1.93

6061-T6 extrusion 10,000 35 38 0.92 0.08 1.92

6063-T5 10,000 16 22 0.73 0.08 2.17

6063-T6 10,000 25 30 0.83 0.10 1.93

The safety factors in the table above are great enough to

justify using the plastic modulus. In the case of 2014-T6 compression
above and other alloy-tempers not listed above for which ccs
ccf ccw
k t > 1, the available rupture moment would be further
neutral axis
reduced by the tension coefficient k t to account for notch
sensitivity.
ctf ctw tension
F.3 LOCAL BUCKLING
axis

The Specification provides three methods for determin-

ing the local buckling strength.

F.3.1 Weighted Average Method Figure CF.3.1

Using equation F.3-1, the weighted average method
combines strengths determined separately for each element F.3.2 Direct Strength Method
from the Specification Sections B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.5 and Local buckling strength of the shape as a whole is deter-
Sections B.5.5.1 through B.5.5.4. This method was origi- mined by analysis which directly includes the interaction of
nally based on tests by Jombock and Clark (1968) of formed the elements. This method is the most accurate of the three
sheet beams and used for the weighted average compres- methods.
sion and tensile bending strengths in Specification editions
prior to 2005. Kim (2003) improved the weighted average F.3.3 Limiting Element Method
method accuracy for a variety of members, as illustrated in
Figure CF.3.1. The distance c for a compression flange is the This method limits the flexural stress in any element of
distance to its centerline because buckling is based on the the shape to the local buckling stress of that element. This
flange’s average stress. method is less accurate because it does not account for in-
For beams composed of a single element, the weighted teraction between elements.
average local buckling strength is the local buckling strength
of the element. For example, the weighted average local F.4 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
buckling strength of a round tube is simply the local buck- Lateral-torsional buckling strengths are based on a beam
ling strength of the tube determined using Section B.5.5.4. with its ends prevented from lateral deflection and axial ro-
tation but free to rotate about the vertical axis.

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 In the 2010 Specification and earlier editions, in the in- If the free end of a cantilever is torsionally braced, equa-
elastic stress range the lateral-torsional buckling strength tion F.4-2 can be used to compute Cb. The SSRC Guide 6th
equation employed the straight line approximation to the edition Section 5.2.9 provides additional information on
tangent modulus buckling curve used for columns. Tests cantilevers.
showed this curve to be conservative for beams (Clark and
Rolf (1966)). In the 2015 Specification, the inelastic buck- F.4.1.2 Singly Symmetric Shapes
ling strength is Mnp (1 – λ /Cc) + π 2E λSxc /Cc3 so that beam
strength is not limited to Bc Sxc, but rather to the plastic Application of the Cb factor to singly symmetric sections
in the same manner as for doubly symmetric sections has
strength of the shape. For λ = 0, the strength is Mnp , the
been shown to be unconservative in certain cases by Kiti-
 2 ES xc pornchai (1986). The unconservative cases arise if the Cb
plastic strength, and for λ = Cc, the strength is , the
Cc2 factor is applied to the critical moment determined for the
case of larger flange in compression, ML, when it is possible
elastic buckling strength.
that somewhere in the unbraced segment the smaller flange
Sharp (1993) noted that there has been little investiga- may be in compression. In such cases, the member must
tion of the effect of welds on the lateral-torsional buckling also be checked at the location where the smaller flange is
strength of beams, but it is expected that the effect is similar subjected to its maximum compression.
to the effect of welds on columns. This approach is used in Kitipornchai (1986) showed that if one of the two flanges
the Specification. is small such that Iyc /Iy < 0.1 or Iyc /Iy > 0.9, Cb should be tak-
Lateral-torsional buckling can occur for beams bent en as 1.0. Cb is also to be taken as 1.0 if rotational restraint
about any axis. The Specification does not limit the lateral- is considered (ky < 1) since Equation F.4-2 overestimates
torsional buckling strength check to beams bent about a ma- Cb when the unbraced length is factored by a ky less than 1.
jor axis. For continuous beams there are no directly derived val-
ues of C1 and C2. For this reason rational analysis must be
F.4.1 Bending Coefficient Cb used in estimating the values of these coefficients for such
The bending coefficient is applied to segments of beams applications. It can be shown that for loading as shown in
between brace points. Inflection points are not brace points. Figure CF.4.1, reasonably conservative results are obtained
The lateral-torsional buckling strengths given in Section by taking:
F.4 are based on a uniform moment over the unbraced length. C1 = 0.41Cb and C2 = 0.47Cb when the smaller (top)
If the moment varies over the unbraced length, the lateral- flange is in compression (shown in the top two cases of
torsional buckling strength is greater than the strength given Figure CF.4.1) and
by Section F.4. This strength increase can be accounted for C1 = 0 and C2 = 0 when the larger (top) flange is in compres-
by using the bending coefficient Cb given in F.4.1 provided sion (shown in the bottom two cases of Figure CF.4.1).
by Kirby and Nethercot (1979).

F.4.1.1 Doubly Symmetric Shapes

The formula for the bending coefficient is the same as
used in the 2010 AISC Specification and given in the SSRC
Guide 6th edition.

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 Figure CF.4.1
ORIENTATION OF THE AXES AND CROSS-SECTIONAL NOTATION

F.4.2 Slenderness for Lateral-Torsional Buckling Substituting for Me in the equation above gives

F.4.2.1 Shapes Symmetric About the Bending Axis rye =

 
The equation for Me for any shape given in Section
F.4.2.5 becomes, for shapes symmetric about the bending which simplifies to
axis (in which case βx = 0), assuming C1 = 0.5 and that go =
± d/2 so that U = ± d/4: rye = .
C I π E d 2
d
2
0.038 JLb 2 Cw 
Me = b y  ± + + + 
Lb 2  4 16 Iy Iy  If the load is applied at the shear center, the d terms go to
 
zero, giving
Combining the Section F.4.2.1 expression for the slen-
derness for shapes symmetric about the bending axis
rye = .
Lb ESxc
λ= and λ =  gives
rye Cb Me

Lb Me
rye =
π Cb ES x

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If the torsional resistance to LTB is neglected, and only the This approximation (ry d/(2rx) or 1.2ry) gives very con-
warping resistance is included, a reasonable and conserva- servative results for values of Lb /ry exceeding about 50 and
tive approximation for open shapes, for beams with transverse loads applied in a direction away
from the beam’s shear center.
Iy Figure CF.4.2 compares the slenderness ratios of 16 Alu-
rye = Cw
Sx minum Association Standard I-beams using 1.2ry and rye
given by equation F.4-4. Using 1.2ry is very conservative for
S x = 2Ix /d , and for symmetric I-shaped members large slenderness ratios, producing larger slenderness ratios
Cw = Iy d 2/4, so than using rye. Sharp’s (1993) comparison of test data and
calculations shows that using rye is conservative.
d Iy d ry 2 ry d
rye = = = .
2 Ix 2 rx 2 2rx

For Aluminum Association standard I beams, rx ≈ d/2.4 so

ry d
rye = = 1.2ry .
2(d / 2.4)

160.0

140.0

120.0

100.0
L b /(1.2ry )

80.0

60.0
Lb = 48
40.0
Lb = 120
20.0

0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0
Lb /rye

Figure CF.4.2
COMPARING LTB SLENDERNESS RATIOS FOR AA STANDARD I BEAMS

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 Section F.4.2.1 applies to any shape (open or closed) unsymmetric about the bending axis, and is more accurate
symmetric about the bending axis, without a transverse load than Section F.4.2.2.
or with a transverse load applied at either extreme fiber to- Winter (1941) determined a method for taking advantage
ward or away from the shear center, and with ky = kz = 1. of the effect of bracing the tension flange. He derived the
In Section F.4.2.1, the coefficient C1 described in Section elastic critical moment Me for pure bending for an I-section
F.4.2.5 is taken as 0.5. When Cw = 0, as for closed shapes, with the tension flange prevented from lateral displacement
the equations given in F.4.2.1 reduce to provide the simpler but free to rotate:
expression for slenderness of closed shapes given in Section
EIyc d π 2 GJ
F.4.2.3. Me = 2
+
Section F.4.2.1 provides bending strengths at the beam Lb d
brace points and between brace points. At brace points of
where Iyc is the moment of inertia of the compression flange
doubly symmetric beams use Equation F.4-4 to calculate the
about the web. λ can be evaluated for this case using this
strength. Use the same equation between brace points if the
beam is subjected to lateral loads that are applied only at the ESxc
shear center of the section. Use Equation F.4-5 to calculate Me in λ = π , regardless of the size of the tension
Me
the strength between brace points when a transverse load is
applied to the top or bottom flange of the beam and the load flange.
is free to move laterally with the beam if it should buckle.
Selection of the proper equation for rye is illustrated by F.4.2.3 Closed Shapes
Figure CF.4.3. At point B for both beams, use Equation
From the expression for the elastic buckling moment for
F.4-4. Use the same equation for point A if the distributed
shapes symmetric about the bending axis
load is applied at the level of the neutral axis. If the distrib-
uted load is not applied at the level of the neutral axis, use Cb I y π2 E  d d
2
0.038 JLb 2 Cw 
Equation F.4-5. Me =  ± + + +  ,
Lb 2  4 16 Iy Iy 
 
Beam
substituting Cw = 0 (an accurate approximation for tubes),
and loading at the shear center so the d terms go to zero
A A
0.195π2Cb E
gives Me = Iy J .
Moment diagram
Lb
B ES xc Lb S xc
Combining this with λ =  gives λ = 2.3
Me Cb Iy J

the slenderness given for closed shapes in Section F.4.2.3.

Beam
B
For shapes unsymmetric about the bending axis load-
C
ed at the shear center and assuming C2 = 0.5, U = -βx /4.
Moment diagram Conservatively assuming (as above) Cw = 0 for tubes, and
Figure CF.4.3 BEAM AND MOMENT substituting U = -βx /4 into the Section F.4.2.5 equation for
Me ,
DIAGRAM EXAMPLES
Cb Iy π2 E  β x βx
2
0.038 JLb 2 
Me =  − + + 
F.4.2.2 Singly Symmetric Open Shapes Lb 2  4 16 Iy 
 
Unsymmetric About the Bending Axis
For unsymmetric shapes βx is twice the distance yo
For singly symmetric shapes that are unsymmetrical between the shear center and the centroid (positive if the
about the bending axis, an approximate bending strength larger flange is in tension) and on the order of d. Tubes have
can be determined using Section F.4.2.1 to determine rye a relatively large torsion constant, so for them the term is
taking ry, Iy, Sx and J as though both flanges were the same much larger than d/4 so neglecting the effect of unsymmetry
as the compression flange with the overall depth remain- has little effect on the calculated strength.
ing the same. This approximation is conservative when the Closed shapes are defined in the glossary as hollow
smaller flange is in compression. The Specification pro- shapes that resist lateral-torsional buckling primarily by tor-
hibits using the approximation when the larger flange is in sional resistance rather than warping resistance. The wall
compression since the approximation is unconservative in thickness need not be uniform.
this case. Section F.4.2.5 applies to all shapes, symmetric or

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 As shown above, the slenderness of a closed shape Section F.4.2.5 applies to any beam bent by moments or by
lateral loads applied through the shear center of the section.
Lb S xc
2.3 , was derived using the general theoretical
Cb Iy J  F 
The expression Me = Cb Ag Fey U + U 2 + ro 2  ez 
 F 
equation for lateral buckling strength given in Section   ey 
F.2.2.5 without transverse loads or with transverse loads
applied at the shear center, assuming symmetry about the where U = C1g 0 – C2 βx /2 was derived by Clark and Hill
bending axis, and ignoring the warping resistance Cw of the (1960) based on elastic buckling theory. This expression
beam, since, for closed shapes, this term is usually small in considers non-symmetry of the section about the bending
comparison to the term 0.038JLb2 that represents St. Venant axis as well as the location of the laterally applied load
torsion. If Cw is not small compared to 0.038JLb2, Section with respect to the shear center. (Alternately, the elastic
F.4.2.1 gives more accurate and less conservative results buckling moment can be determined by other methods,
for shapes symmetric about the bending axis and Section such as finite strip analysis).
F.4.2.5 gives more accurate results for shapes unsymmetric 1  π 2 ECw 
about the bending axis. Substituting for Fez =  GJ +
2 
 ,
Ag ro  (k z Lz ) 2 
F.4.2.4 Rectangular Bars
Using the expression for the elastic buckling moment π2 E
Fey = 2
, and G = 3E/8
Cb I y π2 E  d d
2
0.038 JLb 2 Cw   k y Lb



Me =  ± + + + ,  r 
Lb 2  4 16 Iy Iy   y 
 
substituting Cw = 0 (an accurate approximation for bars),
and loading at the shear center, gives
Cb π 2 EIy  0.038 JLb
2
C 
2
0.195 π Cb E Me = 2
 U + U 2
+ + w
Me = Iy J . Lb  Iy Iy 

Lb
The orientation of the axes and the cross-sectional nota-
ES xc tion are illustrated in Figure CF.4.1. The magnitudes of yo,
Combining this with λ =  and recognizing for rect-
Me torsion constant J and the warping constant Cw can be de-
termined from references such as Roark and Young (1989).
angular bars, J = dt3/3, Iy = dt 3/12, and Sx = td 2/6 gives: The approximate formula for βx given in Equation F.4 -12
is based on work by Kitipornchai et al. (1986).
λ = 2.3 b , the slenderness given for rectangular bars
Ld
t Cb The coefficient C1 is not needed when go = 0, that is,
when there is no transverse load or the transverse load is
in Section F.4.2.4. applied at the shear center. The coefficient C2 is not need-
ed when the beam is symmetric about the bending axis.
Clark and Rolf (1966) showed that using this slenderness For beams unsymmetric about the bending axis and with
to determine lateral-torsional buckling strength agrees well transverse loads not applied at the shear center, the coef-
with the results of tests of rectangular bars. ficients C1 and C2 approximately equal 0.5, but depend on
the beam’s shape and loading. For simply supported singly
F.4.2.5 Any Shape symmetric shapes with 0.1 < Iyc / Iy < 0.9:
Section F.4.2.5 applies to shapes symmetric about the a) For a uniformly distributed load over the entire span,
bending axis as well as shapes unsymmetric about the bend- Cb = 1.13,
ing axis. However, Section F.4.2.1 gives the same results as C1 = 0.41Cb
F.4.2.5 for shapes symmetric about the bending axis and is C2 = 0.47Cb
easier to apply.
b) For a concentrated load at a distance aL from one end
ESxc of the span,
The slenderness for any shape (λ =  ) is de-
Me Cb = 1.75 – 1.6a(1 – a)
rived by combining the equation for a beam’s elastic stress C1 = Cb [sin(2πa)]/[a(1 – a)π2]
fe = Me/Sxc and the equation for elastic buckling stress C2 = (Cb – C1)/2

π2 E
fe = .
λ2

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 c) For two symmetric concentrated loads at a distance aL F.5 SINGLE ANGLES
from each end of the span,
Cb = 1 + 2.8a3 The strength of single angles in flexure in this Section
C1 = 2Cb [sin(2πa)]/(aπ2) is similar to the AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design
C2 = (1 – a)Cb – C1 /2 Specification for Single-Angle Members, 2000.
The local buckling strength of an angle leg depends on
the degree of end fixity that the other leg provides and the
F.4.3 Interaction Between Local Buckling and
variation in stress across the width of the angle leg. The
Lateral-Torsional Buckling lower bound on end fixity is a pinned support and the up-
This Section accounts for the effect that the reduced stiff- per bound is a fixed support. Equivalent slenderness ratios
ness due to local buckling may have on the lateral buck- (from Sharp (1993) Table 7.1) are summarized in Table
ling strength of single web beams based on work by Sharp CF.5.1 for an angle leg of width b and thickness t :
(1970).

Table CF.5.1
EQUIVALENT SLENDERNESS RATIOS FOR ANGLE LEGS
Stress Equivalent Equivalent Angle orientation
distribution slenderness slenderness
Case on leg of angle ratio/(b/t) ratio/(b/t)
(pinned support) (fixed support)

free edge
1 5.13 2.89
supported edge

free edge
2 4.45 2.62
supported edge

free edge
3 3.64 2.27
supported edge

free edge
4 2.56 1.36
supported edge

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Case 1, uniform compression in an angle leg, is ad- Table CF.5.2
dressed in Section F.5a(2). Cases 2, 3, and 4 are ad-
dressed in Section F.5a(1) by conservatively us- Angle Size (in.) βw (in.)!
ing the worst case (Case 2) and assuming that the 8×6 3.31
support is restrained slightly more than the pinned 8×4 5.48
condition so that a factor of 4 (vs. 4.45) can be used.
7×4 4.37
F.5.1 Bending About Geometric Axes 6×4 3.14
6 × 3.5 3.69
Bending about geometric axes occurs when the moment
is applied about an axis parallel to a leg of the angle as 5 × 3.5 2.40
shown in Figure F.5.4. In such cases, when an angle is later- 5×3 2.99
ally restrained at the point under consideration, the neutral 4 × 3.5 0.87
axis is the geometric axis as shown on the left side of Figure
4×3 1.65
F.5.4 and addressed in subsections a and b. When the angle
is laterally unrestrained, the section will deflect laterally as 3.5 × 3 0.87
well as normal to the bending axis, causing the neutral axis 3.5 × 2.5 1.62
to incline as shown on the right side of Figure F.5.4 and 3 × 2.5 0.86
addressed in subsection c.
3×2 1.56

F.5.2 Bending About Principal Axes 2.5 × 2 0.85

equal legs 0.00
Formulas for determining βw are given in Part V. Since
these formulas are cumbersome, βw values for some com- ! βw is positive or negative depending on the direction of
mon angle sizes are given in Table CF.5.2. βw varies only bending.
slightly with angle thickness for the angles listed in ADM
Part V.

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Chapter G Design of Members for Shear
G.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS G.3 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS
Shear limit states include yielding, buckling, and rup-
SUPPORTED ON ONE EDGE
ture. For limit states other than rupture, length effects as This Section addresses shear in elements supported
addressed in G.2, G.3, and G.4 must be considered. on one edge such as angles and tees. For a buckling
coefficient k = 1.2 (see AISC Specification for Steel Buildings
G.2 MEMBERS WITH FLAT WEBS Section G2, which refers to this case as unstiffened webs)
SUPPORTED ON BOTH EDGES and ν = 0.33 (see Section A.3.1):
The buckling strength of unstiffened flat webs is for a
k π2 E 1.2 π 2 E
web with partial restraint against rotation at the attachment Fe = =
to the flanges. The corresponding value of the slenderness 12(1 − v 2 )(b / t ) 2 12(1 − 0.33 2 )(b / t ) 2
is 1.25b/t based on Bleich (1952) and Gerard and Becker
π2 E π2 E
(1957). The buckling strength in the inelastic range was de- = =
veloped originally for shear buckling of tubes (Clark and 8.91(b / t ) 2 (3.0 b / t ) 2
Rolf (1964)) but also applies to flat elements in shear.
For webs with transverse stiffeners, the web’s edges are
assumed to be partially restrained against rotation, giving an G.4 ROUND OR OVAL TUBES
equivalent slenderness of
The provisions for transverse shear of round or oval
1.25a1 tubes are based on local buckling of cylinders subjected to
2
torsion, which is addressed in Section H.2.1. Since torsion
a  is usually constant along the cylinder length but transverse
t 1 + 0.7 1 
shear usually varies along the length, the transverse shear
 a2 
strength is taken as 1.3 times the torsion strength as sug-
gested by Ziemian (2010) in Section 14.3.4. This treatment
A stiffened flat web that has buckled in shear can con- is similar to AISC (2010).
tinue to carry load by diagonal tension action in the web In equation G.4-1, Vn = Fs Ag / 2, it is assumed that the
(Moore (1947)), but this is not accounted for in the provi- shear stress at the neutral axis VQ/(Ib) = Fs. For thin round
sions of Section G.2. tubes of radius R and thickness t, I = πR3t, Q = 2R2t, and
The required moment of inertia for the transverse stiff- b = 2t, which gives the shear stress at the neutral axis as
ener is sufficient to limit local buckling of shear webs to V/(πRt) = V/(Ag/2).
the panels between stiffeners and to provide postbuckling
strength in the web. This moment of inertia is multiplied by G.5 RODS
the ratio of the applied shear load to the shear load causing Shear strength limit states for rods include shear yielding
buckling to adjust the stiffener size for the actual load ap- and shear rupture.
plied. These formulas were used in the specifications pub-
lished by ASCE (1962a, 1962b), agree well with the results
of tests by Moore (1942) and are conservative in compari-
son with the stiffener size theoretically derived by Cook and
Rockey (1962). Hartmann and Clark (1963) and Sharp and
Clark (1970) provide further background.

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Chapter H Design of Members for Combined Forces and Torsion
H.1 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO FLEXURE AND 5
AXIAL FORCE
Use of the interaction equation given in H.1 is predicated 4
on a stability analysis performed in accordance with Chap-
ter C. If the analysis is not performed in accordance with λt 3
Chapter C, using the interaction equation given in Section
H.1 can be unconservative. ( ) ()
R 58 L 14
t r
2
H.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION
1
H.2.1 Pipes and Round or Oval Tubes
0
The equation for equivalent h/t is based on the theoreti- 0 5 10 15 20 25
cal elastic buckling strength of cylinders in torsion. Tubes L
loaded in torsion are not as sensitive to the effect of initial r
imperfections in the geometry as are tubes loaded in axial
compression. Battdorf, et. al. (1947) showed this gives good
( )
R
t
agreement with the results of tests on thin cylinders that fail
Figure CH.2.1
in the elastic range, and Clark and Rolf (1964) showed this
agrees well with experimental results in the inelastic stress SHEAR BUCKLING OF TUBES WITH
range. The elastic buckling strength of cylinders in torsion CIRCUMFERENTIAL STIFFENERS
matches AISC (2010) Specification Section H.3.1, since
H.2.2 Rectangular Tubes
π2 E 1.23E
= Rectangular tubes were not specifically addressed before
(1.25λ t )2 L / D (D / t)5 / 4
the 2010 Specification. The 2005 AISC Specification Sec-
tion H3.1(b) addresses rectangular tubes with equations that
where λt = 2.9(R/t)5/8(L/R)1/4 and R = D/2. give the same limit state shear stress as the equations given
in AISC Specification Section G2.1(b)(i). Section H.2.2
Sharp (1993) noted that the equivalent slenderness for matches the AISC approach, but uses the limit state shear
tubes can give very conservative results for long tubes with stresses for aluminum webs given in the 2010 Specification
both longitudinal and circumferential stiffeners. Figure Section G.2.
CH.2.1 shows the change in the coefficient in Equation H.2- The torsional shear constant C for rectangular tubes of
2 with length of tube. A coefficient of 2.9 is specified for all constant wall thickness t obtained by the membrane analogy
cases (solid line in Figure CH.2.1). A more accurate and less is 2tAm where Am is the area bounded by the midthickness of
conservative value for long tubes is less than 2.9 as illustrat- the section. For a midthickness corner radius r,
ed by the dashed line in Figure CH.2.1. The ordinate in this
figure is a rearrangement of Equation H.2-2. The addition of C = 2t(b – t)(d – t) – 2tr2(4 – π)
longitudinal stiffeners as well as circumferential stiffeners
usually increases the shear strength of a tube compared to a If the midthickness corner radius is conservatively taken
tube with circumferential stiffeners only. as 1.5t,

C = 2 t (b – t)(d – t) – 4.5 t 3 (4 – π)
where
b = midthickness width of the tube
d = midthickness depth of the tube.

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H.2.3 Rods H.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TORSION,
Since shear buckling cannot occur in a rod, the limit FLEXURE, SHEAR, AND/OR AXIAL
states for a rod are yield and rupture. The yield limit state COMPRESSION
equation matches AISC (2010); the rupture limit state equa-
tion is from Sharp (1993). H.3.1 Flat Elements
H.2.4 Open Shapes Equations H.3-1 and H.3-2 are documented in Ziemian
(2010) (equation 4.9).
Shear stresses are the result of St. Venant torsion. If
warping is restrained in open shapes subjected to torsion, H.3.2 Curved Elements
normal stresses are present in addition to shear stresses.
Equations H.3-3 and H.3-4 are documented in Ziemian
(2010) (equation 14.57), which is based on work by Schil-
ling (1965).

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Chapter J Design of Connections
J.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS J.2.1.3 Groove Weld Effective Length
The definition of groove weld effective length is similar
J.1.3 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners to AWS D1.2:2014.
The maximum fastener spacing for tension member
J.2.2 Fillet Welds
components is based on experience rather than tests or
theory. Limiting the fastener spacing for tension member
components reduces the chance of buckling if unanticipat- J.2.2.1 Fillet Weld Size
ed compression acts on the member.
The fillet weld effective throat definition matches AWS
The maximum fastener spacing in built-up compression
D1.2:2014. The effective throat of an equal leg fillet weld of
members is based on preventing buckling of the compo-
size Sw is 0.707Sw.
nents between points of attachment.
Minimum fillet weld sizes are intended to avoid small
welds in thick parts. Such welds may crack upon cooling
J.2 WELDS
because the thick parts they join are not sufficiently heated
Aluminum welded connection types include groove, fil- during welding.
let, plug, slot, and stud welds. Moore et al. (1971) docu- Maximum fillet weld sizes are intended to prevent the
mented strengths of welds joining 6061-T6, and Sharp et welder from melting the upper corner of the edge of the
al. (1982) documented strengths of aluminum welded con- plate joined. This can result in a weld that appears to be
nections. full size but is not, and thus has a smaller throat than a full
size weld. This situation is less likely to arise in parts thin-
J.2.1 Groove Welds ner than ¼ in. (6 mm) since it is difficult to melt the upper
corner of the plate without depositing a full size weld in a
thin part.
J.2.1.1 Complete Joint Penetration and Partial
Joint Penetration Groove Welds

Groove welds are classified as either complete penetra- Effective Throat

tion or partial penetration for the purpose of determining
the weld size. The method of classifying a groove weld is
the same as that in AWS D1.2:2014. Groove welds made o
with permanent backing have less fatigue strength than 90
Sw
groove welds without permanent backing (see Appendix 3).

J.2.1.2 Groove Weld Size

The definition of groove weld sizes matches AWS
D1.2:2014. Sw
> 45 o
Figure CJ.2.2
EFFECTIVE THROAT OF A FILLET WELD
Sw
J.2.2.2 Fillet Weld Effective Length
The fillet weld effective length definition matches AWS
D1.2:2014. Boxing is defined by AWS A3.0 as “the con-
tinuation of a fillet weld around a corner of a member as an
Figure CJ.2.1 extension of the principal weld”.
PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION
GROOVE WELD

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 End-loaded fillet welds are oriented parallel to the stress Nelson and Rolf (1966) tested the shear strengths of
in the member and transmit load to the end of an axially 1100, 2319, 4043, 4643, 5356, 5554, and 5556 fillers.
loaded member. Examples include longitudinally welded Menzemer and Iasconne (2002) tested the shear strengths
lap joints at the ends of axially loaded members and welds of 4047, 4643, and 5183 fillers. These studies used the same
attaching bearing stiffeners. Examples of longitudinally test method on fillet welds to determine shear strength. The
loaded fillet welds that are not end-loaded include: average of the filler shear strengths determined in these
a) welds that connect parts to form built-up members in studies was 50% of the tensile strengths given in Table
which shear is applied to each incremental length of weld J.2.2. (See Table CJ.2.1). The fact that this is less than the
depending on the shear distribution along the member’s shear strength of wrought alloys, which averages 60% of
length; tensile strength, is attributed to load eccentricity and stress
concentrations present in fillet welds. Therefore, the shear
b) welds attaching beam web connection angles and
strength of a fillet weld given in Table J.2.2 is Fsuw times 0.85
shear plates, because the flow of shear from the beam web
(= 0.5/0.6).
to the weld is nearly uniform along the weld’s length; and
c) welds attaching stiffeners to webs, since the stiffeners Table CJ.2.1
and welds are not subject to calculated axial stress and only RATIO OF FILLET WELD TESTS’ SHEAR
serve to keep the web flat. STRENGTH TO TENSILE STRENGTH
J.2.3 Plug and Slot Welds Filler Ftuw Fsuw Fsuw Source Fsuw/Ftuw
Plug and slot welds are primarily used to transmit shear 1100 11 7.5 Nelson and Rolf (1966) 0.68
in the plane of the weld. An example is a cover plate at-
tached to a flange with plug welds. The definition of effec- 2319 35 16 Nelson and Rolf (1966) 0.46
tive area and the limit on slot length match those in AWS 4043 24 11.5 Nelson and Rolf (1966) 0.48
D1.2:2014 Section 2.6.
5183 40 21 Menzemer (2002) 0.53
Effective 5356 35 17 Nelson and Rolf (1966) 0.49
Area
5554 31 17 Nelson and Rolf (1966) 0.55
Slot Length
5556 42 20 Nelson and Rolf (1966) 0.48

The strength of a PJP weld is 60% of the strength of a

CJP weld to account for the notch effect of incomplete fu-
Figure CJ.2.3 sion at the root of the weld. This same factor is used in the
SLOT WELD PLAN VIEW AISC Specification, and should not be confused with the
ratio of shear strength to tensile strength.
Allowable stresses for groove welds for various com-
J.2.4 Stud Welds binations of base metals are given in Part VI, Table 6-1,
The base metal thickness requirements match those in and LRFD design stresses are given in Part VI, Table 6-3.
AWS D1.2:2014 Sections 6.9.3 and 6.13.5. The strength of a groove weld is usually governed by the
strength of the base metal rather than the filler metal.
Allowable stresses for fillet welds for various combina-
J.2.5 Strength
tions of base metals are given in Part VI, Table 6-2, and
The as-welded strength of aluminum filler alloys with- LRFD design stresses are given in Part VI, Table 6-4. The
out post-weld heat treatment depends only on their chemi- strength of a fillet weld is usually governed by the strength
cal composition since the heat of welding erases cold-work of the filler metal rather than the base metal.
and artificial aging heat treatment effects on strength. The The shear strength for transversely loaded welds is based
chemical composition in the as-welded condition depends on a report by the Texas Transportation Institute (1980).
not only on the chemical composition of the filler but also This report determined a factor (1.36) to account for the ad-
on the base metal, since there is some mixing of the base ditional strength of transverse welds above that of longitu-
and filler metals in the weld. To simplify weld strength cal- dinal welds. The AISC Specification (2010) provides a 1.50
culations, however, the welded strength of fillers is consid- ratio for longitudinal to transverse weld strength. Nelson
ered to be independent of the base metal. When the filler has and Rolf (1966) also documented the strength of transverse
a similar chemical composition to the base metal, as is often welds vs. longitudinal welds for various fillers; their results
the case, this is not an issue. are summarized in Table CJ.2.2.

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 Table CJ.2.2 J.3 BOLTS
RATIO OF TRANSVERSE TO Material properties of aluminum bolts, washers, and
LONGITUDINAL STRENGTHS nuts are addressed in Section A.3.5. See the commentary to
OF FILLET WELDS Section A.3.5 for issues related to using steel bolts to
(NELSON AND ROLF (1966)) connect aluminum parts.

Longitudinal Shear Transverse Shear Fsuwt / J.3.1 Holes and Slots for Bolts
Filler Fsuwl
Strength Fsuwl (ksi) Strength Fsuwt (ksi) It may be appropriate to limit hole diameter to 1/32 in.
(0.8 mm) larger than the bolt diameter for bolts with a nomi-
1100 7.5 7.5 1.0
nal diameter of 3/8 in. (9 mm) or less.
2319 16 16 1.0
4043 11.5 15 1.30 J.3.2 Minimum Spacing of Bolts
4643 13.5 20 1.48 The minimum spacing requirement is intended to pro-
5356 17 26 1.53 vide sufficient clearance for installation tools and washers.
5554 17 23 1.35
5556 20 30 1.50 J.3.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Bolts
Edge distance requirements (2D for full bearing strength
The stud weld strengths given in Table J.2.2 are based and a minimum of 1.5D with reduced bearing strength) have
on theory rather than tests, since test data is lacking. AWS been selected so that for a single fastener, the block shear
D1.2:2014 Table 6.1 provides minimum tensile strengths of strength equals or exceeds the bearing strength. So for a
5083, 5086, 5183, 5356, 5554, and 5556 studs to qualify single fastener, meeting the bearing requirements negates
stud weld procedure specifications. the need to check block shear.
The stud weld strengths given in Table J.2.2 are for Edge distance requirements apply to free edges of a part
threaded studs. only, and not to the corner of a structural shape such as the
heel of an angle.
J.2.7 Post-Weld Heat Treatment
The post-weld heat-treated strength of 6063 is based J.3.4 Bolt Tension
on a study of 27 weldments conducted by the National The use of the root area for determining the tensile
Electric Manufacturers Association in 1973. The artificial strength of aluminum fasteners rather than the slightly larger
aging heat treatment is given in Aluminum Standards and tensile stress area used for steel fasteners is based on Dewalt
Data 2013 Table 3.4. The post-weld heat-treated strength and Mack (1980). The root area is based on the nominal
is less than the artificially aged strength (the T6 strength) minor diameter of external threads (D – 1.191/n) given in
because after welding and before post-weld heat-treating, ASME B1.1-1989, Unified Inch Screw Threads (reaffirmed
the weld-affected material does not have a solution heat in 2001) section 10.1.
treated (T4) temper.

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 Part VI, Table 5-3 gives tensile strengths for 2024-T4 and ISO, and Eurocode specifications. In the US, use of high
7075-T73 bolts and cap screws. strength steel bolts is governed by the Research Council on
The safety factor for bolt shear, bolt tension and rivet Structural Connections (RCSC) Specification for Structural
shear (2.34) is higher than for members (1.95) because it Joints Using High Strength Bolts. The RCSC Specification
is preferable for the connections to be stronger than the addresses the use of these high strength steel bolts to con-
members. If connections have greater strength, it is more nect steel parts and so is modified here for connections us-
likely that the structure will exhibit warning of an overload ing aluminum parts. All parts of the RCSC Specification not
(e.g., excessive deflection and/or yielding of the members). modified by the provisions of Section J.3.7 (for example,
Another reason for this higher safety factor is to lessen the provisions on inspection) apply to aluminum slip-critical
likelihood that connection capacity-reducing conditions connections.
(e.g., limited amounts of corrosion or improper installation Slip-critical connections resist shear by friction between
of fasteners) will have an adverse effect on the member's the faying surfaces of the connected parts, which are tightly
ability to reach its calculated nominal strength. Improper clamped together by high strength steel bolts. Slip-critical
installation may include over- or under-tightening, missing connections are used when it is desirable to prevent move-
nuts or washers, or presence of threads in the shear plane ment of connected parts relative to one another. Such con-
when this was not the design condition. nections are useful for joints subjected to dynamic or fatigue
loads, as well as joints in which both bolts and welds share
J.3.5 Bolt Shear the load, joints with oversize holes, and joints with slotted
holes with loads not applied normal to the axis of the slot.
Rather than using approximate relationships between In addition to the requirements for bearing connections,
the threaded and unthreaded areas of bolts and different de- slip-critical connections are subject to the additional re-
sign stresses when threads are in the shear plane and when quirement that the slip resistance of the joint be greater than
threads are not in the shear plane, this Specification uses the the applied shear loads. The design strength of slip-critical
same design stress for both cases and adjusts the effective connections cannot be greater than the design strength of
shear area appropriately. the same connection designed as a bearing connection. The
Part VI, Table 5-3 gives shear strengths for 2024-T4 and design strength of a slip-critical connection is limited to the
7075-T73 bolts and cap screws with threads in and threads lesser of the design strength of the bolt in shear and bearing
not in the shear plane. and the slip resistance of the joint.
The root area term in equation J.3-2 matches the formula
given in ASME B1.1 (1989).
J.3.7.2 Material
J.3.6 Bolt Bearing Since hot-dip galvanizing may embrittle A490 bolts and
galvanizing is required to discourage galvanic corrosion be-
The limit state of bearing is reached when elongation tween the steel fastener and the aluminum parts, A490 bolts
of the fastener hole becomes excessive. Menzemer et al. are not allowed in aluminum slip-critical connections.
(2001) established the bearing strength as 2Ftu for a load at
The RCSC Specification limits the bearing stress under
which hole deformation is approximately D/4, where D is
the bolt head in steel to 64 ksi (440 MPa) for steel with a
the nominal diameter of the bolt.
yield strength less than 40 ksi (275 MPa) by requiring such
Sharp (1993) and the Department of Defense (1994)
steel with A490 bolts to have washers. The Specification
show that for ratios of edge distance to fastener diameter
for Aluminum Structures requires the use of washers under
as small as 1.5, it is conservative to reduce the allowable
bolt heads and nuts, and bearing stresses under the washer
bearing stress by the ratio of the edge distance to twice the
can reach approximately 24 ksi (165 MPa) with A325 bolts.
fastener diameter. Moisseiff et al. (1944) demonstrated that
Therefore, aluminum slip-critical connections are limited
a relatively even distribution of load among the fasteners is
to those alloys with a tensile yield strength of 15 ksi (105
achieved before ultimate failure of mechanically fastened
MPa) or greater.
joints in structural aluminum alloys.
Thin parts, such as aluminum sheet and drawn tube,
For countersunk holes, caution should be exercised when
are effectively prohibited from slip-critical connections by
the depth of the countersink approaches the thickness of the
bearing stress limitations on the sides of the hole.
part, creating a knife-edge on the hole which may be easily
ASTM A325 allows both hot-dip galvanizing and me-
damaged.
chanical galvanizing of fasteners. A325 further requires
that all components of a fastener assembly (bolt, nut, and
J.3.7 Slip-Critical Bolted Connections washer) be coated by the same process, since mixing bolts
and nuts galvanized by different processes may result in an
J.3.7.1 General unworkable assembly.

This Section is based on European specifications and

testing conducted by Kissell and Ferry (1997). Aluminum
slip-critical connections are included in Canadian, British,

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 Table CJ.3.1
HOLE DIMENSIONS FOR SLIP-CRITICAL JOINTS
Bolt Hole Dimensions (in.)
Diameter Standard Oversized Short Slotted Long Slotted
(in.) (Diameter) (Diameter) (Width x Length) (Width x Length)
1/2 9/16 5/8 9/16 × 11/16 9/16 × 1 1/4

5/8 11/16 13/16 11/16 × 7/8 11/16 × 1 9/16

3/4 13/16 15/16 13/16 × 1 13/16 × 1 7/8

7/8 15/16 1 1/16 15/16 × 1 1/8 15/16 × 2 3/16

1 1 1/16 1 1/4 1 1/16 × 1 5/16 1 1/16 × 2 1/2

≥1 1/8 d + 1/16 d + 5/16 (d + 1/16) × (d + 3/8) (d + 1/16) × (2.5d)

J.3.7.3 Holes J.4 RIVETS

For convenience, nominal hole dimensions from the Aluminum rivet material properties are addressed in Sec-
RCSC Specification are given in the Table CJ.3.1. tion A.3.6.

J.3.7.4 Bolt Tension and Shear J.4.1 Holes for Cold-Driven Rivets
Slip-critical connections must be designed assuming slip Holes for cold-driven rivets are sized so that the rivet
could occur, placing shear on the bolt and bearing on the completely fills the hole when driven.
sides of the hole.
J.4.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Rivets
J.3.7.5 Slip Resistance
See Section J.3.4.
Slip coefficients are given for two contact surfaces:
roughened aluminum on roughened aluminum, and rough- J.4.4 Rivet Tension
ened aluminum on zinc-rich painted steel. Kissell and Ferry
(1997) tested these surfaces in accordance with the test Rivets are sensitive to grip (the thickness of the parts
method given in the RCSC Specification for both slip and joined) and hole size, since these parameters affect the fas-
creep. Slip coefficients for other surfaces may be determined tener's head dimensions, unlike bolted installations. If the
by testing in accordance with the RCSC Specification. hole is too large or mislocated, or if the parts are slightly
Luttrell (1999) and Fortlin, et al. (2001) showed that thicker or thinner than the thickness the rivet was selected
bolt tension is not significantly affected if the temperature for, the rivet head formed during installation is imperfect.
changes from the installation temperature. These effects are greater on tensile strength than shear
Tests of mill finish aluminum surfaces degreased and strength, since unless the rivet falls out of the connection,
dried have generally achieved relatively low coefficients of shear can still be resisted, but in tension the parts can begin
friction. to disengage without a proper head on both sides of the parts
joined. The tensile strength of riveted connections, there-
fore, can vary significantly.
J.3.7.6 Washers
Washers are required under all bolt heads and nuts. This J.4.5 Rivet Shear
requirement is intended to minimize galling of the outer ply
of aluminum and creep relaxation of bolt tension. The shear strength of aluminum rivets is based on the
rivet filling the hole so the effective shear area of the rivet is
the nominal hole diameter.
J.3.8 Lockbolts
A lockbolt assembly includes a pin, which is similar to a J.4.7 Blind Rivets
bolt, and a collar, which performs the function of a nut. The
collar is swaged onto locking grooves on the pin. Lockbolts Installing blind rivets requires access to only one side of
are available in carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. a connection.

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J.5 TAPPING SCREWS J.5.4.1 Pull-Out
Screwed connection provisions are based on Peköz J.5.4.1.1 Screws in Holes
(1990), who considered over 3500 tests on light-gage steel
The equations for pull-out are derived from research
and aluminum connections worldwide. ECCS (1987) and
conducted by AAMA (2000), including over 400 pull-out
BSI (1987) were also considered.
tests. These equations are based on three regions of be-
Proper installation of screws is important to achieve sat-
havior: yield (circumferential stretching and bending of
isfactory performance. Power tools with adjustable torque
the aluminum around the screw), shearing of the internal
controls and driving depth limitations are usually used.
threads in the hole, and a transition region between yield
Screw connection tests used to formulate the provisions
and shearing. For most cases they are less conservative
included single fastener specimens as well as multiple fas-
than the pull-out equation in the Specification’s 6th edition
tener specimens. However, it is recommended that at least
(Pnot = 0.85tc DFtu2), especially for UNC threads in alumi-
two screws should be used to connect individual elements.
num parts thicker than 0.084 in. (2.1 mm). Pull-out strengths
This provides redundancy against under torquing, over
are a function of the type of thread: coarse (UNC) or spaced.
torquing, etc., and limits lap shear connection distortion of
A UNC thread is often referred to as a “machine” thread,
flat unformed members such as straps.
and a spaced thread screw is termed a “sheet metal” screw.
The safety factor for screwed connections in building-
Internal thread stripping areas Asn are given in Part VI
type structures is 3.0, which matches AISI (2001). The
Table 5-6 for Class 2B UNC threads.
safety factor for screwed connections in bridge structures is
3.0(2.20/1.95) = 3.38, rounded to 3.5. The safety factor for
screw bearing is consistent with the safety factor for screw J.5.4.1.2 Screws in Screw Slots
shear and tension. Menzemer (2008) tested spaced thread screw types and
Aluminum screw material properties are addressed in machine thread screw types to develop Equation J.5-7. The
Section A.3.7. See the commentary to Section A.3.7 for is- average of all spaced thread tests was 0.2% greater than
sues related to using steel screws to connect aluminum parts. the strength given by Equation J.5-7, and the average of
all machine thread tests was 4.2% greater than the strength
J.5.1 Holes for Screws given by Equation J.5-7. Because both spaced threads and
machine thread pull-out strengths matched Equation J.5-7
This Specification requires that the nominal diameter of
well, this Specification does not provide different strengths
unthreaded holes for screws shall not exceed the nominal
for the different screw types.
diameter of the screw by more than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). Many
designers specify that the nominal diameter of unthreaded
holes for screws shall not exceed the nominal diameter of J.5.4.2 Pull-Over
the screw by more than 1/32 in. (0.8 mm). Sharp (1993) provided the pull-over strength equation for
Table J.5.1 is based on AAMA (1991) Table 20, which non-countersunk screws. Screws may be placed through the
was used for the hole sizes used for the pull-out testing that valley or the crown of corrugated roofing and siding. (See
Section J.5.5.1.1 pull-out strengths are based on. Figure CJ.5.1). A coefficient of 0.7 is used when the con-
Table J.5.2 is based on AAMA (1991) Table 21, which nected parts are not in contact, such as for fastening through
was used for the hole sizes used for the pull-out testing on the crown of roofing when a spacer block is not used be-
which Section J.5.5.1.1 pull-out strengths are based. tween the roofing and the structural member supporting the
roofing. The test strengths of such screwed connections are
J.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Screws more variable than those with the connected parts in direct
See Section J.3.2. contact at the connection such as the fastener through the
valley in Figure CJ.5.1.
J.5.3 Minimum Edge Distance of Screws
Figure CJ.5.1
See Section J.3.3. FASTENERS IN ROOFING
J.5.4 Screwed Connection Tension Fastener through valley
The smallest screw head or washer size allowed is 5/16”
since the diameter of a hex washer head for a No. 8 screw member
(the smallest screw size allowed by this Specification) is
5/16”.

Fastener through crown

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 Alternate pull-over strengths are given for screws in joint causes the axis of the screw to tilt toward the plane of
tight-fitting holes based on tests conducted by LaBelle and the connected parts and the screw threads to tear out of the
Dolby (2009). In these tests, screws had hex heads with in- lower sheet.
tegral washers. Screw nominal diameters were 0.164, 0.190,
0.216, and 0.25”, and part nominal thicknesses were 0.04, J.5.5.3 Screw Shear
0.06, 0.09, and 0.125”. The holes were “free fit” with the
The shear strength of aluminum screws is given in Part
following nominal sizes:
VI Tables 5-1 and 5-2.
Screw Size Hole Diameter (in.) Drill Size
J.6 PINS
8 0.177 16
10 0.201 7
J.6.1 Holes for Pins
12 0.228 1
Hole requirements for pins are intended to provide a rela-
¼ 0.266 H
tively uniform bearing stress at the hole and proper func-
tioning of the pin.
These hole sizes average 0.013” larger than the screw
diameter, smaller than the 0.062” oversize the Specification
for Aluminum Structures allows. The average ratio of pre-
J.6.2 Minimum Edge Distance of Pins
dicted strength (using Specification equation J.5-9) to test The minimum edge distance for pins is the same as that
strength was 0.83 with a coefficient of variation of 7.3%. for bolts.
The equation for the pull-over strength of countersunk
screws is based on over 200 tests by LaBelle and Dolby J.6.3 Pin Tension
(2004) using 5 different flathead screw sizes, 6 sheet thick-
nesses, and 2 alloy-tempers. Testing was limited to com- Pins provide little resistance to forces acting parallel to
monly used screws with 82 degree nominal angle heads, so the axis of the pin.
the equation is not known to apply to other head angles.
Variation in actual diameters of hand-drilled countersunk J.6.4 Pin Shear and Flexure
holes can have a significant effect on pull-over strength. Two limit states are addressed for pins: yielding and
Caution should be used to avoid excessive oversizing of rupture. The limit state of yielding is addressed because a
countersunk holes. Oversizing should be limited so that the pinned connection must accommodate rotation, which may
top of the screw head is no more than the lesser of t1/4 and be impaired by inelastic deformation of the pin at service
1/32 in. (0.8 mm) below the top of the sheet. loads. Since a pinned connection uses only one pin, by def-
inition, there is no redundancy. For this reason a flexural
J.5.4.3 Screw Tension strength check is required for a pin in addition to a shear
The tensile strength of aluminum screws is given in Part strength check.
VI Tables 5-1 and 5-2. The resistance and safety factors for pin rupture match
those for rupture of bolts and rivets. The resistance and
safety factors for pin yield match those for other yield limit
J.5.5 Screwed Connection Shear
states.
Screwed connections loaded in shear have limit states of The shear strength of aluminum pins is based on the av-
screw shear, block shear rupture (see Section J.6.3), tilting, erage shear stress fs = V/A. For a rod,
and bearing failure of the joined materials.
V = 4V
fs =
J.5.5.1 Screw Bearing A πD 2

Based on limited testing, it appears that the bearing force Setting fs = Fsu , the shear ultimate strength of the pin,
exerted on a connected part by a screw should be limited
to that which produces a hole elongation of D/8 to avoid Fsu πD 2
and rearranging, Vn =
threads disengaging from the sides of the hole. Therefore, 4
testing is recommended to establish the bearing strength of
screwed connections that are subjected to both bearing and
tensile loads.

J.5.5.2 Screw Tilting

Screw tilting occurs when the part under the screw head
is thicker than the part beneath it. The shear force on the

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 The flexural rupture and yield strengths of aluminum J.8 BEARING STRENGTH OF FLAT
pins are based on a plastic modulus of 1.5. The plastic mod- SURFACES
ulus for rods, which is 1.7, is reduced to 1.5 to preclude
yielding at service loads. The bearing strength for flat surfaces is 2/3 the bearing
strength for elements with fasteners in holes.
1.5 Ftu S 1.5 Ftu πD 3 π D 3Ftu
Mnu = = =
kt 32k t 21.3k t J.9 FLANGES AND WEBS WITH
CONCENTRATED FORCES
1.5 Fty π D 3 π D 3Fty
Mny = 1.5 Fty S = 32
=
21.3
J.9.1 Crippling of Flat Webs
The interaction equation for combined shear and flexure
of pins is based on Kulicki (1983). The formulas given in this Section are based on Sharp
(1993). The crippling strength is a post-buckling strength.
J.6.5 Pin Bearing
J.9.2 Bearing Stiffeners
The bearing strength for an element with a pin is 2/3 the
bearing strength for an element with a bolt in a hole. This This Specification addresses bearing stiffener size by re-
limits hole deformation in elements at a pin to less than that quiring that the stiffener be sized for the bearing load as a
at a bolt. Less deformation can be tolerated at a pin hole member in axial compression. If the stiffener is also being
because the connected parts rotate about the pin. A single used as a shear stiffener, it must also meet the requirements
pin is used at a pinned connection to allow rotation, where- of Section G.2.2.
as multiple bolts are typically used in bolted connections.
Also, pins exert no clamping force holding the connected J.9.3 Combined Crippling and Flexure of Flat
parts together, unlike bolted connections. Webs
The formulas given in this Section are empirical, based
J.7 AFFECTED ELEMENTS OF MEMBERS on Sharp (1993).
AND CONNECTORS
J.10 ROOFING AND SIDING CONNECTIONS
J.7.2 Strength of Connectors in Shear
The resistance factor for shear yielding of connectors J.10.3 Fasteners in Laps
(1.00) is higher and the safety factor (1.50) is lower than for The minimum size of #12 screws or 3/16 in. (5 mm)
shear yielding of members. This is because shear yielding diameter rivets is specified in end laps and side laps to give
of connectors is unlikely to produce significant deformation neat, weather-resistant closures. In many cases, the primary,
of the structure as a relatively small portion of the structure sheet-to-support fasteners will give satisfactory closures at
is comprised of connectors. the endlaps, but in side laps additional fasteners should be
used if the joint does not interlock.
J.7.3 Block Shear Strength
The block shear rupture strength is based on work by
Menzemer (1999) and is the same as in the AISC LRFD
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings 1993 edition,
Section J4.3. Marsh (1979) also studied this issue.

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Chapter L Design for Serviceability
L.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS L.5 WIND-INDUCED MOTION
This chapter addresses preserving a structure’s appear- Wind on round tube members can cause motion of the
ance, maintainability, durability, occupants’ comfort, or members due to vortex shedding, by which regular impulses
function. Specific limits on parameters (for example, de- transverse to the wind direction are caused by the shedding
flection) are not provided, since these depend on the type of of vortices on alternating sides of the member. Sharp (1993)
structure and its use. gives the frequency of vortex shedding as

L.2 CAMBER f = SV/d

Camber should be measured without load acting in the where f = vortex shedding frequency
camber plane. This may be achieved by measuring camber V = wind velocity
with a beam resting on a flat surface parallel to the camber
d = outside diameter of tube
plane.
S = Strouhal number = 0.2 for tubes.
L.3 DEFLECTIONS If this frequency is near the natural frequency of the
Members and structures deflect under load. For example, tube and sufficient damping is not provided, wind-induced
the lateral deflection of a building under wind load is called motion will be large. (See Section L.4).
drift.
If the compressive stress exceeds the elastic local buck- L.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
ling stress Fe, the full section is not effective in resisting
Aluminum’s coefficient of thermal expansion is approxi-
deflection. This Specification only allows this if the element
mately 13 × 10-6/oF (23 × 10-6/oC). For structures exposed
strength is based on post-buckling strength as it is in Sec- to ambient temperature fluctuations, provision for thermal
tions B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3, B.5.5.1, and B.5.5.3. Re- movement such as expansion joints may be required to limit
duced effective section provisions do not apply to B.5.4.4, stresses.
for example, since this section does not allow post-buckling
strength for such elements (supported on both edges and
L.7 CONNECTION SLIP
with an intermediate stiffener). The method used to ac-
count for the effect of local buckling on the post-buckling Slip-critical connections are addressed in Section J.3.7.
behavior of structural members is to consider that at stresses
above the local buckling stress only part of the buckled ele-
ment is effective in carrying load. Sooi and Peköz (1993)
and Jombock and Clark (1968) documented this approach.
AAMA TIR A11 limits deflections of components that
support glass or similar brittle materials. Some building
codes also limit deflections.

L.4 VIBRATION
Vibration of aluminum structural members can cause
fatigue failures. Vibrations may be caused by cyclically ap-
plied loads from machinery, by wind or other fluids moving
over the structure, or by traffic on a bridge. When the fre-
quency of the applied load is close to the natural frequency
of the structure, the amplitude of the vibrations can be large,
especially for lightly damped structures. The amplitude of
the vibrations can be minimized by adjusting the stiffness
of the structural components so that the natural frequency
of the structure is less than half or more than twice the fre-
quency of the applied loads or by sufficiently dampening the
structural movement.

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Chapter M Fabrication and Erection
M.2 CUTTING extruding direction. Cracking of heat treated alloys is more
readily avoided with the bend line perpendicular to the roll-
ing or extrusion direction, while the opposite is true for non-
M.2.1 Methods heat treatable alloys.
The heat of plasma arc and laser cutting tends to produce
edge cracking, especially in heat treatable alloys (2xxx, M.6 FINISHES
6xxx, and 7xxx series). AWS D1.2 has additional require-
ments for edges that will be welded.
M.6.1 Where Protective Coating Is Required
M.2.2 Edge Quality Examples of protective coatings include anodizing,
painting, and Alclad products.
The edge quality roughness requirement is the same as The American Architectural Manufacturers Association
in the AISC Specification. offers these Voluntary Specification, Performance Require-
ments and Test Procedures for coating aluminum:
M.2.3 Re-entrant Corners AAMA 2603 Pigmented Organic Coatings on Aluminum
Fillets reduce stresses at re-entrant corners of parts. The Extrusions and Panels
proper fillet radius varies depending on the part and its use. AAMA 2604 High Performance Organic Coatings on
AWS D1.1:2004, the steel structural welding code, Section Aluminum Extrusions and Panels
5.16, requires a minimum fillet radius of 1 in. (25 mm). AAMA 2605 Superior Performing Organic Coatings on
AWS D1.2:2014, the aluminum welding code, Section 4.13, Aluminum Extrusions and Panels.
requires ½ in. (12 mm) for statically loaded members and
¾ in. (20 mm) for cyclically loaded members. In Specifica- Where water is allowed to stand between aluminum parts
tion Table 3.1, the smallest radius for attachments for which in contact, oxidation called water staining may result. While
fatigue categories are provided is 2 in. (50 mm). Specifica- this oxidation has little or no effect on material strength and
tion Section 3.4 specifies a minimum radius of ¾ in. for will not progress after the water is removed, it is unsight-
members subject to fatigue. ly and difficult to remove. It can be prevented by keeping
aluminum dry or out of contact with other aluminum parts
M.3 HEATING when moisture can be present.

Alloys 535.0, 5083, 5086, 5154, and 5456 have magne- M.6.2 Surface Preparation
sium contents greater than 3%. When such alloys are held
within the temperature range of 150oF (66oC) to 450oF Proper surface preparation is required for good paint ad-
(230oC), they may “sensitize” and subsequently suffer ex- herence.
foliation and stress corrosion cracking. The length of time
in this temperature range determines the degree of sensitiza- M.6.3 Abrasion Blasting
tion to exfoliation and stress corrosion cracking. Abrasion blasting can be used to clean material or finish
The strength of tempered metal can be reduced by ex- the surface. Abrasive media includes steel grit, silica sand,
posure to elevated temperature processes (such as factory aluminum oxide, crushed walnut shells, or coal slag. Peen-
paint curing, firing of porcelain enamel coatings, and hot ing can be used to improve fatigue strength by introducing
forming). See the commentary to Section A.3.1.1. compressive stress near the surface and is typically achieved
with steel or stainless steel shot.
M.4 HOLES Residual stresses from blasting or peening can curl thin
material. Abrasion blasting may also reduce the thickness
M.4.1 Fabrication Methods of material. Consideration should be given to the effect on
strength if the thickness is reduced by more than standard
The prohibition against punching parts thicker than the mill tolerances for the material.
hole diameter is to guard against break-out at the back side
of the hole. M.7 CONTACT WITH DISSIMILAR MATERIALS
M.5 BENDING Isolators such as Teflon and neoprene may be placed
between aluminum and other materials to prevent contact.
Minimum bend radii for 90o cold forming of sheet and The isolator must be nonporous to avoid trapping water
plate are given in Part VI Table 3-1 for various alloys and or other substances in the joint and compatible with both
tempers. These radii are approximate and are a function of the aluminum and the dissimilar material in the intended
the direction of the bend line with respect to the rolling or service.

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 Aluminum may be coated to prevent contact between grout, which does not exceed a pH of 8.5) do not corrode
aluminum and other materials. Consult paint manufactur- aluminum.
ers for information on suitable paints and their application.
Care should be taken to avoid heating above 150oF during M.8 FABRICATION TOLERANCES
the coating process as this may reduce the strength of alu-
The L/960 straightness tolerance was chosen so that the
minum products.
reduction in buckling strength versus a perfectly straight
member is no greater than about 20%. The standard tol-
M.7.1 Metals
erance for some mill products does not meet the L/960
The electrical potential difference between aluminum straightness tolerance for fabricated members required here
and zinc and cadmium in salt water is small, so galvanic (Aluminum Association (2013)). (An example is T6511
corrosion usually will not occur when aluminum is in con- extrusions with wall thicknesses less than 0.095 in. (2.5
tact with these metals. Doyle and Wright (1988) conducted mm)). Such members may require additional straightening
tests showing that zinc-coated steel is especially effective or tighter tolerance specifications to meet the requirements
in resisting atmospheric exposure galvanic corrosion when of this Section.
in contact with aluminum. Coating the steel is usually more
effective than coating the aluminum to prevent galvanic cor- M.9 WELDING
rosion between aluminum and steel. Additional informa-
AWS D1.2 provides requirements for qualifying, fabri-
tion on galvanic corrosion is given in Part III Section 6.
cating, and inspecting aluminum welds. Welding is done
For 300-series stainless steel, the oxide layer limits cor-
in the shop or in an enclosure because shielding gas must
rosion current to small values because stainless steels are
cover the arc and wind can disrupt the shield.
easily polarized in mild environments. This layer results in
Groove welds (Figure CM.9.1) are utilized for butt joints.
less corrosion than would otherwise be expected based on
Groove welds are shaped for ease of root penetration, to al-
the relative positions in the galvanic series for stainless steel
low for less dilution of the filler by the base metal (where
and aluminum. [See ASM Handbook (vol. 13B, page 102;
hot cracking is a problem), or to permit a desirable sequence
dated 2005) and other corrosion references.]
of weld bead depositions when welding in other than flat
Some metals can cause deposition corrosion of alumi-
positions. Fatigue strength can be significantly increased by
num. Copper is the most common of these metals used in
removing weld reinforcement.
construction, but terne-coated steel (which has a lead/tin
coating) may also have this effect.
See Section A.3.5 regarding the use of steel fasteners to
connect aluminum parts.

M.7.2 Wood, Fiberboard, or Other Porous

Materials
Wood that has been treated with preservatives is usually
corrosive to aluminum. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)
treated wood is about twice as corrosive to aluminum as
non-treated wood. Residential use of CCA treated wood
ended in 2003 and was replaced by alkaline copper quater-
nary (ACQ) treated wood, which is about four times as cor-
rosive to aluminum as untreated wood. ASTM G198, Rela-
tive Corrosion Performance of Driven Fasteners in Contact
with Treated Wood, may be helpful in addressing this issue.

M.7.3 Concrete or Masonry

To avoid staining and surface corrosion, mill finished alu-
minum and anodized aluminum should be protected from
uncured concrete, mortar, and similar alkaline substances
and muriatic acid used in cleaning concrete and masonry.
Masonry products designed to remain at a relatively low
pH during and after curing (such as magnesium phosphate

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 Fillet welds (Figure CM.9.2) are used to join surfaces
to each other in lap, T, or corner joints; the filler usually
determines the strength of these joints. A sounder and more
economical structure results from using continuous welds
rather than intermittent ones. While an intermittent weld
may reduce welding time, filler wire consumption, heat
input and/or distortion, it may produce unfavorable local
stress concentrations. The possibility for poor weld qual-
ity and end craters increases with the repeated stopping and
restarting of the welding. Since the cost of fillet welds is a
function of the square of their size, large intermittent welds
are not as efficient in carrying loads as small continuous
fillets. Intermittent welds also make a structure more sus-
ceptible to moisture infiltration, which may ultimately lead
to corrosion.
Fillet welds exhibit different strengths depending on the
geometry of the part and the type of loading on the weld.
The filler shear strengths in the Specification are based
on tests of longitudinal fillet welds (see Figure CM.9.2a),
which results in pure shear on the throat of the weld. Trans-
verse welds (Figure CM.9.2b is one type) can have higher
strengths in some cases, since the stress on the weld throat
is a combination of shear and tension.

Figure CM.9.1

a. Longitudinal Fillet b. Transverse Fillet c. Corner Weld

Figure CM.9.2

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 There are many joint details that can be utilized to im-
prove weld performance:
1) A butt joint between different thicknesses of metal
should have the thicker one beveled to match the thinner
one (Figure CM.9.3). This helps balance the heat sink for
uniform melting and good fusion, and reduces the stress
raiser caused by change in thickness.

Figure CM.9.3 Figure

Figure CM.9.5
CM.9.5

2) Welds may have lower strength than the base metal No welding should be done across the ends. The dou-
(e.g., welds in 6061-T6 alloy). One way to reduce the effect blers should be as wide as possible, consistent with leaving
this has on load carrying capacity is by locating the welds room for a fillet weld on each side. The doubler length (l)
in areas of low stress. Beams can be fabricated by welding should be greater than its width (w) by a ratio of at least 3 to
together longitudinal extrusions with joints located in webs 1, which orients the fillet welds nearly parallel to the stress
near the neutral axis (Figure CM.9.4). Since the web is of- direction.
ten much thinner than the flanges, the amount and cost of 4) When stiffening a panel or member, care should be
welding are reduced. taken to avoid abrupt changes in cross sections. Reinforc-
ing stiffeners should have tapered ends (Figure CM.9.6) to
avoid fatigue cracks at the end of the stiffener.

Figure
FigureCM.9.6
CM.9.6
5) A common design issue is joining members at corners
to give an economical, structurally sound, and aesthetically
pleasing connection. Figure CM.9.7 illustrates corner de-
Figure CM.9.4 tails. Double fillets or bends to allow a butt or a lap joint
should be used.
3) Rectangular doubler plates welded on four sides have
transverse welds which reduce the member’s strength. If
only the sides of the doubler are welded, the longitudinal
welds may become so highly stressed that they fail. When
a doubler plate is necessary, it should be diamond shaped
(Figure CM.9.5), avoiding a sudden cross-sectional change.

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 Figure CM.9.7

6) When sheets are to be welded to extruded members,

an attempt is sometimes made to use a joint opening be-
tween sheets and make a groove weld (Figure CM.9.8). In
effect, what is desired resembles a slot weld, which seldom
proves practical. The joint fit and the welding procedure are
both critical if the sheet edges are hot enough to melt back
from the joint when the welding current is high enough to
penetrate the extrusion. Therefore, conventional lap joints
are recommended instead for this application.

Figure CM.9.8

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M.10 BOLT INSTALLATION Turn-of-nut tightening of slip-critical connections is per-
formed by bringing the assembly to a snug tight condition
Snug tightness, a condition achieved when all plies in and then applying a prescribed number of turns of the nut.
a joint are in firm but not necessarily continuous contact, Aluminum’s lower modulus of elasticity versus steel means
can usually be attained by a few impacts of an impact more turns would be needed for aluminum assemblies than
wrench or the full effort of a person using an ordinary spud for steel assemblies if the bolt tension at the start of turn-
wrench. A specific clamping force is not necessary in non- of-nut tightening were the same for both steel and alumi-
slip-critical connections because the design accounts for num assemblies. However, the flexibility of aluminum parts
parts slipping relative to each other. enables them to be brought closer to full contact by snug
No rules for determining the tightening torque for alu- tightening than steel, resulting in higher bolt tension in alu-
minum bolt bearing connections have been established minum assemblies at the beginning of turn-of-nut tighten-
because test results vary widely depending on the fric- ing. The net effect, confirmed by testing, is that aluminum
tion developed in the threads and other bearing surfaces. assemblies require approximately the same number of turns
A recommendation sometimes made for establishing a as steel assemblies after the snug tight condition is attained
tightening torque for aluminum bolts is as follows: Tight- to reach the bolt tension prescribed above.
en several bolts of a given size and type to the breaking Galvanizing increases the friction between the bolt and
point under the same conditions of lubrication as will be nut threads and makes torque-induced tension more vari-
encountered on the job and use 70% or 80% of the lowest able, but lubrication both reduces the torque and makes it
torque obtained from the tests. The 70% value should be more consistent. Therefore, ASTM A 325 requires that a
used for bolts that may need to be removed occasionally, galvanized bolt and lubricated galvanized nut be assembled
while the 80% value applies to permanent bolts. Lubricat- in a steel joint with a galvanized washer and tested in ac-
ing the threads and bearing surfaces is helpful. cordance with ASTM A 563 by the manufacturer prior to
These recommendations for tightening may be modi- shipping to assure that the fastener can be rotated beyond
fied for bolts or other threaded parts that carry fluctuating the required rotation from the snug-tight condition without
axial tensile loads that can cause fatigue failures. Under breaking. Since some lubricants are water soluble, galva-
these conditions, the tightness (initial axial tensile load) nized bolts and nuts should be shipped in plastic bags in
should be slightly more (about 5%) than the maximum wood or metal containers.
tensile load on the bolts during service. There are many
devices available to prevent loosening, and guidance is
M.11 RIVET INSTALLATION
available for their use (AAMA (1991)). Lock washers are
commonly used; less common are locking inserts built into
the nut threads. M.11.1 Driven Head
For slip-critical bolted connections, minimum bolt ten-
Rivet head styles are shown in the 2005 ADM, Part VII,
sions from the RCSC Specification are given in the Table
Table 5-6. Part VII, Table 5-13 provides maximum rivet
CM.10.1.
grips for given lengths for flat driven heads.
Table CM.10.1 M.11.2 Hole Filling
MINIMUM BOLT TENSION FOR
SLIP-CRITICAL JOINTS Recommended hole diameters for cold-driven rivets are
shown in the 2005 ADM, Part VII, Table 5-8. Rivet lengths
Bolt Diameter (in.) A325 Bolt Tension (k) are given in Part VII, Table 5-12 for various grips and di-
1/2 12 ameters.
5/8 19
M.12 ERECTION TOLERANCES
3/4 28
7/8 39 Erection tolerances are often expressed in terms of toler-
ances on the plumbness and levelness of structural mem-
1 51
bers. The erection tolerances specified on the construction
1 1/8 56 documents must match the tolerances used for the stability
1 1/4 71 analysis performed in accordance with Chapter C.
1 3/8 85
1 1/2 103

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Chapter N Quality Control and Quality Assurance
N.1 SCOPE N.3 ERECTOR QUALITY CONTROL
This chapter was added to the Specification in 2015. PROGRAM
See the commentary to Section N.2.
N.2 FABRICATOR QUALITY CONTROL
PROGRAM N.5 INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS
Because different aluminum alloys have a similar ap- AWS D1.2 requires that all welds be visually inspected
pearance but different properties, it is important to main- by the entity performing the welding. Additional inspection
tain identification of aluminum products. ASTM B666 (RT, UT, or PT) is only performed when required by the
provides identification marking requirements for aluminum contract documents. The extent of RT, UT, or PT is also
products. ASTM aluminum product specifications such as determined by the contract documents. Acceptance criteria
B209 (sheet and plate) do not require identification marking for RT and PT are given in AWS D1.2.
of aluminum products unless the purchaser specifies such
identification.
The Specification for Aluminum Structures requires that
aluminum welding comply with AWS D1.2, which requires
that welding procedure specifications (WPSs) be qualified
by the company that will use them. This qualification is re-
corded in the procedure qualification record (PQR). D1.2
does not allow the use of prequalified welding procedure
specifications.
ASTM aluminum product specifications such as B209
do not require material certification unless the purchaser
specifies such certification. Since Section N.2 requires that
fabricators and erectors obtain material certification, fabri-
cators and erectors must specify material certification when
they purchase aluminum material in order to comply with
Section N.2.

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Appendix 1 Testing
1.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS the material is expected to exceed. This nominal strength,
which is the minimum strength used elsewhere in the
An example of a nationally recognized accreditation Specification, is applied in conjunction with the resistance
service is the International Code Council’s (ICC) Interna- or safety factors given in the Specification. Equation 1.3-1
tional Accreditation Service (IAS). The ICC publishes the is from Goepfert (1994). Values for K are taken from Juran
International Building Code. (1988) and are one-sided factors affording 95% confidence
that at least 99% of the population would fall above the pre-
1.3 DESIGN BASED ON TESTING dicted minimum value. Johnson (1994) provides K values
The Specification provides two methods by which design for several n values greater than 100, including K = 2.326
based on testing can be performed: for n = infinity. (See Section A.3.2 for discussion of the sta-
Method 1: Using a) a minimum strength determined tistical basis for mechanical properties of aluminum alloys).
from the average test strength, number of tests, and varia-
tion in the test strengths in accordance with Section 1.3.1 1.3.2 Method 2
with b) the safety and resistance factors given in the Speci- Resistance and safety factors determined in Section 1.3.2
fication, or are based on the methods used to determine the resistance
Method 2: Using a) the average test strength with b) and safety factors given in the Specification. Method 2,
safety factors adjusted upward or resistance factors adjusted therefore, produces resistance and safety factors similar to
downward from the safety and resistance factors given in those in the Specification when many tests are performed,
the Specification in accordance with Section 1.3.2. the default values for α, Mm, Fm, VM, and VF apply, and VP is
small (i.e., the test results vary little).
These methods are equally valid. When numerous test The coefficient of variation VP of the test results is the
results are available, as is more often the case with small coefficient of variation for the sample. The correction fac-
specimens such as fasteners, Method 1 may be more easily tor Cn accounts for the effect of a small number of tests;
performed; for large assemblies for which individual tests as the number of tests increases, the effect of Cn becomes
are expensive and the number of tests conducted is small, negligible.
Method 2 may be more easily performed.
1.4 TESTING ROOFING AND SIDING
1.3.1 Method 1
Deflection limits for roofing and siding tests should be
Section 1.3.1 provides an equation to statistically estab- selected accounting for the possibility of ponding.
lish the strength, with a confidence of 95%, which 99% of

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Appendix 3 Design for Fatigue
3.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS conditions. The data used to determine the fatigue strength
of joints with a stress ratio of zero conservatively include
Sanders and Day (1983) studied fatigue behavior of alu- numerous tests with a stress ratio of 0.1.
minum weldments. Sanders and Fisher (1985) provided the Azzam and Menzemer (2006) established the fatigue
fatigue provisions that appeared in the 1986 Specifications strength for detail category F1.
for Aluminum Structures. These provisions were subse- The use of S-N curves given in the Specification is the
quently revised based on work by Menzemer (1992) on full most common but is only one of five methods of design-
scale welded beams and by Kosteas, et al. (1985). ing for fatigue. The others are hot spot (addressed by Sharp
The major factors affecting fatigue behavior are the (1996a, 1996b)), strain-life, fracture mechanics, and good
number of stress cycles, the magnitude of the stress range, practice design methods.
and the type and location of the member or detail. Fatigue Sharp, Nordmark, and Menzemer (1996b) showed that
cracks generally grow perpendicular to the plane of maxi- fatigue strengths are reduced at temperatures above room
mum stress. This Specification uses a nominal stress range temperature, and suggest that this reduction in fatigue
determined by elastic analysis. The effect of stress concen- strength may be approximately equal to the reduction in
trations are accounted for by the proper selection of fatigue static strength.
details. Many other factors, including temperature, corro- Fatigue-resistant joints can be made using gradual
sive substances, weld defects, and post-weld mechanical changes in geometry of components and joints and avoiding
treatment can have an effect on fatigue strength but are not areas of concentrated load and stress. Because most fatigue
addressed by this Specification. failures initiate at areas of localized high stress, particularly
Finite element analysis considers the effect of stress con- joints, these details should be designed carefully. Two ap-
centrations, so using FEA with the fatigue provisions of Ap- proaches to address this are given below.
pendix 3 would consider this effect twice. ▪ Joints may be eliminated by using extrusions, thus
If information on the number of stress cycles is available removing sites for fatigue crack initiation. Sometimes the
for similar structures of materials other than aluminum, the designer can locate joints or discontinuities in areas of low
same values may be used for aluminum structures. stress to improve fatigue resistance.
Wind-induced vibrations of undamped structures or com- ▪ Joints can be enhanced to improve fatigue strength.
ponents can cause large numbers of cycles and high stresses These include shaping the weld toes and peening the edges
and thus should be avoided. Vibration dampers may be used of the welds. Adhesives can be employed in mechanically
to limit wind-induced vibrations. Vibration of structures fastened (and spot welded) joints. Tests are required to es-
caused by unbalanced forces from machinery can be mini- tablish fatigue strength in such cases. See Section M.6.3 for
mized by the use of properly designed vibration mounts and the use of peening to improve fatigue life.
proper design of the structure. If the loading frequency is
between 1/2 and 2 times the natural frequency of a structure,
3.2 CONSTANT AMPLITUDE LOADING
damping should be considered (Sharp (1993)).
The fatigue strength of mechanically fastened connec- The allowable stress range is based on a 95% confidence
tions with a stress ratio less than or equal to zero is based on for 97.7% probability of survival. The constant amplitude
Atzori, et al. (1997), who considered data from about 750 fatigue limit was assumed to occur at 5 × 106 cycles for
tests of bearing and friction joints with a wide variety of each detail except category F1. This Specification’s static
strength provisions limit the allowable stress range for low
numbers of cycles.

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 FigureC3.2.1
Figure C3.2
SCHEMATIC FATIGUE CURVE

3.3 VARIABLE AMPLITUDE LOADING Allowable stress ranges for variable amplitude fatigue
are determined in the same manner as for constant am-
Actual load histories are frequently more complicated plitude fatigue except that the constant amplitude fatigue
than the constant amplitude loading addressed in Section limit is not used because data for variable amplitude loads
3.2. Section 3.3 provides a design method for the variable show continuing strength decrease at long lives. Structures
amplitude loadings experienced by many structures. This subjected to variable amplitude loading may not exhibit a
equivalent stress method is based on nominal stress ranges, fatigue limit because a crack can be initiated by the high-
linear damage accumulation, and no sequencing effects. er stress cycles of the spectrum and propagate at stresses
The rainflow method (Fuchs and Stephens (1980), Smith, below the fatigue limit.
et al. (1988)) is a commonly used cycle-counting method. There also may not be a fatigue limit in mechanical con-
The equation for the equivalent stress range is derived nections that fail by fretting, whereby relative movement of
from Miner's Rule when the S-N curve is a straight line in the connected parts causes part wear to occur. Tests may be
log-log space. Miner's rule is required to evaluate the possibility of fretting failures.

∑n i
≤ 1.0 (3.3-1) 3.4 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
Ni REQUIREMENTS
These requirements prohibit details that cause local
where stress concentrations which reduce fatigue strength. The re-
ni = number of cycles of the ith stress range entrant corner radius requirement is consistent with AWS
Ni = number of cycles constituting failure at the ith stress D1.2:2014.
range. Punched or scribed layout marks serve as fatigue crack
initiation sites and thus are prohibited for material subject
When this fraction approaches unity, some of the details to fatigue.
within the group have begun to fail. Miner's rule may be
used over the equivalent stress range to assess the remaining
life of an existing structure or when fatigue data is not linear
in the log(stress)-log(life) space.

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Appendix 4 Design for Fire Conditions
4.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS 4.2.3.1 Mechanical Properties
This appendix is similar to the AISC (2010) appendix The modulus of elasticity Em at elevated temperatures
on design for fire conditions. While aluminum is non-com- is not a function of time at the elevated temperature. The
bustible as determined by ASTM E 136 tests, aluminum moduli given by Table 4.1 are from Kaufman (1999).
strengths and stiffness are less at elevated temperatures than Strengths at elevated temperatures are a function of time
at room temperature. at the elevated temperature. The strengths given in Table 4.2
are from Kaufman (1999) for 10 hours at the elevated tem-
4.1.3 Load Combinations and Required Strength perature. Kaufman provides test data for additional alloy-
tempers.
The analysis must be performed in accordance with the
requirements of Chapter C.
4.2.3.2 Thermal Expansion
4.2 DESIGN FOR FIRE CONDITIONS BY The coefficient of thermal expansion increases with tem-
ANALYSIS perature and does not vary significantly by alloy.

4.2.3.3 Specific Heat

4.2.3 Material Properties at Elevated Temperatures
Specific heats increase with temperature.
Eurocode 9 Part 1-2 provides additional information on Aluminum Standards and Data (2013) Table 2.3 provides
aluminum material properties at elevated temperatures. thermal conductivities for aluminum alloys at room temper-
ature. Thermal conductivities vary by alloy and temper and
increase with temperature.

Appendix 5 Evaluation of Existing Structures

5.4 EVALUATION BY LOAD TESTING
The procedure for evaluating existing structures by load
testing is intended to produce no permanent deformation.
The International Building Code 2009 section 1714.3.2 re-
quires that existing structures be load tested to 2 times the
design load. This would exceed safety factors used for alu-
minum building structures (1.65 on yield and 1.95 on rup-
ture). The test load is therefore limited to a factored load of
1.0D + 1.4L, which is approximately 85% of the LRFD load
combination 1.2D + 1.6L. ACI uses 85% of their factored
loads. The load factor for wind, snow, or rain loads should
be the same as for live load when determining the test load.

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Appendix 6 Design of Bracing for Columns and Beams
6.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS 6.3 BEAM BRACING
The provisions of this appendix are based on recom- Beam bracing must control twist of the section, but need
mendations given in the SSRC Guide (Ziemian (2010)), and not prevent lateral displacement. Both lateral bracing at-
are similar to those in the AISC Specification for Structural tached to the compression flange of a beam or torsional
Steel Buildings Appendix 6. See the commentary to AISC bracing can control twist.
Appendix 6 for additional information on these provisions.
6.3.2.1 Nodal Bracing
Bracing requirements are based on a member with an ini-
If βsec < βT, βTb determined from Equation 6-10 is nega-
tial out-of-straightness due to lateral forces and fabrication
tive, indicating that torsional beam bracing will not be effec-
or erection tolerances of L/500. If initial out-of-straightness
tive due to inadequate web distortional stiffness.
is greater than L/500, the brace force should be increased in
direct proportion to the increase in initial out-of-straight-
ness. Torsional bracing of beams is based on an initial twist 6.4 BEAM-COLUMN BRACING
of 1o. The bracing requirements for compression and those for
flexure are superimposed to arrive at the requirements for
Appendix 6 addresses two types of bracing systems: rel- beam-columns.
ative and nodal. These bracing systems are described in the
SSRC Guide.

6.2 COLUMN BRACING

For nodal bracing, the required bracing stiffness is a
function of the number of braces. The required bracing stiff-
ness given in Section 6.2 is conservative, being for the case
of many braces, and is twice the stiffness required for one
intermediate brace.

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References
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ASCE (1956), Committee of The Structural Division on
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for Structures of Aluminum Alloy 2014-T6,” Paper 971, Welded Aluminum Columns,” Transactions ASCE, Vol.
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May, 1956.
Chapuis, J., and Galambos, T. V. (1982), “Restrained
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Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 88, No. ST6, December,
1962.

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Clark, J. W., and Hill, H. N. (1960), “Lateral Buckling of Fuchs, H. O. and Stephens, R. I. (1980), Metal Fatigue in
Beams,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 86, Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
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Gaylord, E.H., Gaylord, C.N., and Stallmeyer, J.E. (1992),
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Columns, Plates, and Beams,” Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, Vol. 92, No. ST3, June, 1966, p. 17. Gerard, George, and Becker, Herbert (1957), Handbook
of Structural Stability, Part l-Buckling of Flat Plates,
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“Buckling and Ultimate Strength of Plating Loaded in Aeronautics (now NASA).
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Report 1682, David Taylor Model Basin, U. S. Department Goepfert, W.P. (1994), “Statistical Aspects of Mechanical
of the Navy, Washington, DC, May, 1963. Property Assurance”, Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys,
ASTM Volume 02.02.
Cook, I. T., and Rockey, K. C. (1962), “Shear Buckling
of Clamped and Simply Supported Infinitely Long Plates Hartmann, E. C., and Clark, J. W. (1963), “The U. S. Code”,
Reinforced by Transverse Stiffeners,” The Aeronautical Proceedings of the Symposium on Aluminum in Structural
Quarterly, Vol. 13, February, 1962, p. 41. Engineering, The Institution of Structural Engineers and the
Aluminum Federation, London, 1963.
Crockett, Harold B. (1942), “Predicting Stiffener and Stiff-
ened Panel Crippling Stresses,” Journal of the Aeronautical Hill, H. N., Clark, J. W., and Brungraber, R. J. (1962), “De-
Sciences, Vol. 9, November, 1942, p. 501. sign of Welded Aluminum Structures,” Transactions ASCE,
Vol. 127, Part II, p. 102.
Department of Defense (1994), Metallic Materials and El-
ements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures, MIL-HDBK-5, Hill, H. N., Hartmann, E. C., and Clark, J. W. (1956),
Washington, DC. “Design of Aluminum Alloy Beam-Columns,” Transactions
ASCE, Vol. 121, 1956, p 1.
Dewalt, W.J. and Mack, R.E. (1980), “Design Consider-
ations for Aluminum Fasteners”, SAE Technical Paper Johnson, R. A. (1994), Miller and Freund’s Probability and
800455, 1980. Statistics for Engineers, 5th edition, Prentice-Hall, Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ.
Doyle, D. P. and Wright, T. E., “Quantitative Assessment
of Atmospheric Galvanic Corrosion”, Galvanic Corrosion, Jombock, J. R., and Clark, J. W. (1968), “Bending Strength
ASTM STP 978, Philadelphia, PA, 1988, pp. 161-173. of Aluminum Formed Sheet Members”, Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. ST2, February,
Dux, P. F. and Kitipornchai (1986),“Elastic Buckling 1968, p. 511.
Strength of Braced Beams,” Journal of the Australian
Institute of Steel Construction, May, 1986. Juran, J. M. (1988), Juran’s Quality Control Handbook, 4th
ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ellingwood, B.E., MacGregor, J.G., Galambos, T.V., and
Cornell, C.A., (1982) “Development of a Probability-Based Kaufman, J. G. (1999), Properties of Aluminum Alloys,
Load Criteria: Load Factors and Load Combinations”, ASM International, Materials Park, OH.
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Volatile. 108, No.
Kaufman, J. G. (2001), Fracture Resistance of Aluminum
5, pp. 978-997.
Alloys, ASM International, Materials Park, OH.
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Euro-
Kim, Yongwook (2003), Behavior and Design of Aluminum
pean Recommendations for the Design of Light Gage Steel
Members in Bending, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Members, First Edition, 1987, Brussels, Belgium.
Kirby, P. A. and Nethercot, D. A. (1979), “Design for Struc-
Fortlin, D., Beaulieu D., and Bastien, J., (2001), “Ex-
tural Stability,” Constrado Nomographs, A Halstead Press
perimental Investigation of Aluminum Friction-Type
Book, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
Connections, INALCO 8 Proceedings, Technical University
of Munich, Munich, 2001. Kissell, J.R. and Ferry, R.L. (1997), “Aluminum Friction
Connections”, Proceedings of Structures Congress XV,
April, 1997.

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Kitipornchai, S., Wang, C. M. and Trahair, N. S. (1986), Menzemer, C. C., Deliwala, J., and Kissell, J. R. (2008),
“Buckling of Monosymmetric I-Beams Under Moment Light Metal Age, “Pull-Out Strength of Self Tapping
Gradient,” Journal of the Structural Division, Vol. 112, No. Fasteners in Aluminum Screw Slot Connections”, Septem-
ST4, April, 1986, ASCE, pp. 781-799. ber/October 2008, Volume 66, No. 5, South San Francisco,
CA.
Kosteas, D., Polas, K. and Graf, U. (1985), “Results of the
Welded Beam Program,” Third International Aluminum Moisseiff, Leon S., Hartman, E. C. and Moore, R. L. (1944),
Conference, Munich, 1985. “Riveted and Pin-Connected Joints of Steel and Aluminum
Alloys,” Transactions ASCE, Vol.109, 1944, p. 1359.
Kulicki, John (1983), Load Factor Design of Truss Bridges
with Applications to Greater New Orleans Bridge No. 2, Moore, R. L. (1942), “An Investigation of the Effective-
National Transportation Research Board, Transportation ness of Stiffeners on Shear-Resistant Plate-Girder Webs”,
Research Record 903, 1983. Technical Note 862, National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (now NASA), Washington, DC.
LaBelle, James C. and Dolby, Tanya (2004), “Flat Head
Fastener Pullover in Thin Aluminum with Countersunk Moore, R. L. (1947), “Observations on the Behavior of Alu-
Holes”, 2004 International Aluminum Connections Confer- minum Alloy Test Girders,” Transactions ASCE, Vol. 112,
ence, Cleveland, OH. 1947, p. 901.

LaBelle, James C. and Dolby, Tanya (2009), Light Metal Moore, R. L., Jombock, J. R., and Kelsey, R. A. (1971),
Age, “Hex Washer-Head Fastener Pull-Over in Moderately “Strength of Welded Joints in Aluminum Alloy 6061-T6
Thin Aluminum”, April 2009, Vol. 67, No. 2, South San Tubular Members”, The Welding Journal, April, 1971.
Francisco, CA.
Nelson, F. G. Jr., and Howell, F. M. (1952), “The Strength
Luttrell, C. R. (1999), “Thermal Cycling of Slip-Critical and Ductility of Welds in Aluminum Alloy Plate,” The
Aluminum Joints”, Proceeding of Structures Congress Welding Journal, September, 1952.
XVII, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA,
April, 1999. Nelson, F. G. Jr., and Rolf, R. L. (1966), “Shear Strength of
Aluminum Alloy Fillet Welds,” The Welding Journal, Feb-
Marsh, Cedric, (1979), “Tear-out Failures of Bolt Groups,” ruary, 1966.
Technical Notes, Journal of the Structural Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Peköz, T. (1990), “Designs of Cold-Formed Steel Screw
October, 1979. Connections,” Proceedings of the Tenth International Spe-
cialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Octo-
Massonnet, C. E. L. (1962), “Stability Considerations in ber 23-24, 1990, University of Missouri-Rolla, MO.
the Design of Steel Plate Girders,” Transactions ASCE, Vol.
127, Part II 1962, p. 420. Roark, R. J. and Young, W. C. (1989), Formulas for Stress
and Strain, McGraw-Hill.
May, James E. and Menzemer, C.C. (2005), “Strength of
Bolted Aluminum Alloy Tension Members”, Journal of Rockey, K. C. (1958), “Web Buckling and the Design of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 131, No. 7, p. 1125. Web Plates,” The Structural Engineer, February, 1958, p.
45.
Menzemer, C. and Iasconne, R. (2002), “Reestablishing the
Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Fillet Welds”, Welding Sanders, W. W. and Fisher, J. W. (1985), Recommended
Journal, April, 2002. Specifications for Fatigue Design of Aluminum Structures,
Submitted to the Aluminum Association, Washington, DC.
Menzemer, C. C. (1992), Fatigue Behavior of Welded
Aluminum Structures, Dissertation for the Degree of Sanders, W. W. and Day, R. H., (1983) Fatigue Behavior
Doctor of Philosophy, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA. of Aluminum Alloy Weldments, Welding Research Council
Bulletin 286.
Menzemer, C.C, Ortiz-Morgado, R., Iascone, R., and
Srivatsan, T. (2001), INALCO 2001, Bearing Capacity of Schilling, C. F. (1965), “Buckling Strength of Circular
Aluminum Alloys in Bolted Connections, Munich. Tubes,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 91,
No. ST5, October, 1965, p. 325.
Menzemer, Craig (1999), “Failure of Bolted Connections in
an Aluminum Alloy,” Journal of Materials Engineering and Sharp, Maurice L. (1966), “Longitudinal Stiffeners for
Performance, ASM, Vol. 8, No. 2, April, 1999. Compression Members,” Journal of the Structural Division,
ASCE, Vol. 92, No. ST5, October, 1966, p. 187.

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Sharp, Maurice L. (1970), “Strength of Beams or Columns Templin, R. L., Sturm, R. G., Hartmann, E. C., and Holt,
with Buckled Elements,” Journal of the Structural Division, M. (1938), Column Strength of Various Aluminum Alloys,
ASCE, Vol. 96, No. ST5, May, 1970, p. 1011. Alcoa Research Laboratories Technical Paper No. 1, Alu-
minum Co. of America, Pittsburgh, PA.
Sharp, M. L. (1973), “Static and Dynamic Behavior of
Welded Aluminum Beams”, Supplement to the Welding Texas Transportation Institute (1980), An Investigation of
Journal, February, 1973. the Strength of Welds Used in Aluminum Lighting Poles,
Final Report for the Spun Aluminum Pole Group of the
Sharp, Maurice L. (1993), Behavior and Design of Alumi- National Electrical Manufacturers Association, College
num Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Station, TX.
Sharp, M. L., and Clark. J. W. (1970), “Thin Aluminum Wang, C. M. and Kitipornchai, S. (1986), “Buckling Capac-
Shear Webs,” Preprint No. 1237, ASCE, 1970. ities of Mono Symmetric I-Beams,” Journal of the Structur-
Sharp, M. L., Rolf. R. L., Nordmark, G. E., and Clark, J. W. al Division, ASCE, Vol. 112, No. ST11, November, 1986,
(1982), “Tests of Fillet Welds in Aluminum,” The Welding pp. 2373-2391.
Journal, April, 1982.
Wang, C. M. and Kitipornchai, S. (1986), “On the Stability
Sharp, M. L., Nordmark, G. E. and Menzemer, C. C. (1996b) of Monosymmetric Cantilevers,” Engineering Structures,
Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures, Vol. 8, July, 1986.
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY.
Weingarten, V. I., Morgan, E. J., and Seide, Paul (1965),
Shepherd, C. M. and Ziemian, R. D., Proceedings of the “Elastic Stability of Thin Walled Cylindrical and Conical
Annual Stability Conference Structural Stability Research Shells Under Axial Compression,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 3,
Council, St. Louis, Missouri, April 16-20, 2013 “Elastic No. 3, March, 1965, p. 500.
Compressive Strength of Aluminum Open Circular-Arc
Sections”, 2013. Winter, G. (1941), in “Lateral Stability of Unsymmetrical I
Beams and Trusses in Bending,” ASCE Transactions, Paper
Smith, I. F. C, Castiglioni, C. A. and Keating. P. B. (1988), No. 2178, December, 1941.
“An Analysis of Fatigue Recommendations Considering
New Data”, Proceedings IABSE Meeting, December 1988. Ziemian, Ronald (editor) (2010), Guide to Stability Design
Criteria for Metal Structures, Structural Stability Research
Sooi, T. K. and Peköz, T. (1993), “Behavior of Component Council, 6th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, NJ.
Elements of Aluminum Members”, Research Report No.
93-1, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cor-
nell University, Ithaca, NY.

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 Aluminum Design Manual

PART III

Design Guide

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 III
Design Guide

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Aluminum’s Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Alloy Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Comparing Aluminum and Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.2 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4.3 Alloys and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.4 Bridges and Highway Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.5 Rail Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.6 Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.7 Storage Tanks, Pressure Vessels, and Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.8 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.9 Foreign Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3. Structural Issues not Ad Aluminum Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1 Ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Shear Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Pipe Bursting Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 Biaxial and Triaxial Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5 Aluminum Composite Material (ACM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4. Adhesive Bonded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Adhesive Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Types of Adhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Surface Pretreatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.5 Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6 Current Adhesive Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5. Extrusion Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.1 Replacing Fabrications with Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2 Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3 Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.4 Design for Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6. Preventing Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

7. Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

8. Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.2 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

July 2015 III-3

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1. Introduction

This part of the Aluminum Design Manual addresses structures, and machinery. For example, the equations for
aluminum structural design issues not addressed in Part I, a column given in the Specification apply equally to a col-
the Specification for Aluminum Structures. umn for a patio roof, a member in a latticed roof, a strut in
The strength equations given in Part I may be applied to a rail car or automobile, a member in a bridge truss, and a
the design of any structural components, including build- stanchion or pillar in a ship.
ings, bridges, ships, rail cars, automobiles, trucks, highway

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2.  General Considerations

2.1 Aluminum’s Attributes their combination of specialized properties results in rela-

tively higher costs than that of other alloys. Examples of
Aluminum has many attributes that make it a cost-effec- some of the common alloys and tempers used for each
tive structural material. Most applications make use of a product are given in the following table.
favorable life cycle cost, which includes costs for mate-
rial, fabrication, erection or installation, operation, mainte-
Product Application Alloys
nance, and disposal. Sheet and Plate Building 3105-H25, 5052-H34,
For example, aluminum is the principal material in aero- 3004-H16
space structures, primarily because of its high strength-to- Heavy Duty 5083-H116, 5086-H116,
weight ratio. The density of aluminum is about 1/3 that of Structures 6061-T6
steel, and aluminum alloys have strengths similar to those Extrusions Building 6063-T5, 6063-T6
General Purpose 6061-T6
of construction steels. Aluminum aerospace structures Forgings Wheels 6061-T6
are cost effective because smaller engines and less fuel Castings General Purpose 356.0-T6, A356.0-T6
are needed during service compared to those required for High Elongation A444.0-T4
heavier structures.
Aluminum structures generally weigh 1/3 to 1/2 those
of steel (see Section 2.3). Light weight and corrosion resis- 2.3 Comparing Aluminum and Steel
tance are the major factors for the selection of aluminum
for trucks, automobiles, and rail cars. Aluminum structural design is very similar to that for
Aluminum’s excellent corrosion resistance (see Section steel and other metals. Because many engineers are more
6) helps reduce maintenance costs. Aluminum's corrosion familiar with steel than aluminum, aluminum and steel are
resistance and its appearance, bare or finished, are major compared in Table 2-1, taken from Sharp (1993).
factors in its use in buildings. Many aluminum structures, Because of the difference in properties (modulus, for
such as light poles, overhead sign trusses, latticed roofs, example) an aluminum design should be different than
and bridges do not require painting because of aluminum’s that for steel in order to use material efficiently. Figure
corrosion resistance. 2-1 shows the relative weights of aluminum and steel box
beams with the same bending strength and deflection. The
yield strength of the two materials is the same. The alumi-
2.2 Alloy Selection
num part weighs about 50% of the steel part when its size is
Sheet, plate, extrusions, forgings, and castings are made about 1.4 times that of steel. Other configurations provide
of aluminum. Alloys and tempers with both good strength less weight savings. Where deflection and fatigue consid-
and corrosion resistance are available. Aerospace alloys erations control the design, such as in bridge girders, auto-
are generally not used for other types of structures because motive frames and other transportation vehicles, aluminum
Table 2-1
COMPARING ALUMINUM AND STEEL
Property Steel Aluminum Importance for Design
Modulus of elasticity 29,000 ksi 10,100 ksi Deflection of members
200,000 MPa 70,000 MPa Vibration
Buckling

Weight per volume 0.284 lb/in3 0.10 lb/in3 Weight of product, vibration
7870 kg/m3 2770 kg/m3

Thermal expansion 7 × 10-6 /oF 13 x 10-6/oF Thermal expansion

12 x 10-6/oC 23 x 10-6/oC Thermal stress

Stress-strain curves Varies Varies Depends on alloys. Steel often has higher
strength and elongation at room temperature.
Aluminum has better performance at low temperatures

Fatigue strength Varies Varies For joints, aluminum has about 1/3 to ½ the fatigue
strength as steel for same detail

Corrosion resistance Needs protection Often used unpainted Aluminum usually is maintenance free
Aluminum is non-staining

Strain rate effects on High strain rates Much less change in Need to use dynamic properties for high-strain
mechanical properties increase properties— properties compared to steel rate loadings
varies with type of steel

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 Figure 2-1
MINIMUM WEIGHT OF SQUARE TUBULAR SECTIONS

structures weigh about half that of steel structures. For beams should be deeper than steel beams. The spacing of
structures controlled by static strength, such as automobile stiffeners on aluminum elements should be smaller than for
hoods and deck lids and some building components, alumi- steel. These geometrical differences will help meet deflec-
num structures weighing about 1/3 that of steel have been tion requirements for aluminum components and reduce
achieved. Such structures are designed for aluminum and stresses, helping with fatigue requirements.
do not have the same dimensions as the steel structure.
Figure 2-2 shows fatigue strengths for aluminum and 2.4 References
steel for groove welds (a Category C detail). For long lives
The following references are additional sources of
the fatigue strength of aluminum groove welds is about
information on aluminum structural design. References
40% that for steel. The difference is smaller at shorter lives.
marked * are available from the Aluminum Association
In efficient designs, aluminum components are different
(www.aluminum.org/bookstore).
from steel components for the same loading. Aluminum
2.4.1 General
1. Kissell, J. Randolph, and Ferry, Robert L., Aluminum
Structures, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY,
2002.
2. Sharp, Maurice L., Behavior and Design of Alumi-
num Structures, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY, 1993.
3. Sharp, M.L., Nordmark, G.E., and Menzemer, C.C.,
Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures,
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY, 1996.

2.4.2 Fabrication
1. Forming and Machining Aluminum, Aluminum Asso-
ciation, Washington, DC, 1988.
Figure 2-2 2.AWS D1.2/D1.2M:2014 Structural Welding Code-
FATIGUE DESIGN CURVES Aluminum, American Welding Society, Miami, FL, 2014.
FOR ALUMINUM AND STEEL *3. Welding Aluminum: Theory and Practice, 4th ed.,
Aluminum Association, Washington, DC, 2002.

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 4. Minford, J. Dean, Handbook of Aluminum Bonding 3. API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large,
Technology and Data, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, 11th ed., American
1993. Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, February 2008.
5. AWS D17.3/D17.3M:2010, Specification for Friction 4. API Standard 650, Welded Tanks for Oil Storage, 11th
Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys for Aerospace Applica- ed., American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, June
tions, American Welding Society, Miami, FL, 2010. 2007. Appendix AL addresses aluminum storage tanks.
5. Aluminum Alloys for Cryogenic Applications, Alumi-
2.4.3 Alloys and Products num Association, Washington, DC, 1999.
*1. Aluminum Standards and Data, 2013, Aluminum
2.4.8 Material Properties
Association, Arlington, VA, 2009.
*2. Aluminum Standards and Data Metric SI 2013, Alu- *1. Kaufman, J. Gilbert, Fracture Resistance of Alumi-
minum Association, Arlington, VA, 2009. num Alloys: Notch Toughness, Tear Resistance, and Frac-
*3. Standards for Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold ture Toughness, ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
Castings, Aluminum Association, Arlington, VA, 2008. 2001.
4. AWS A5.10/A5.10M: 2012 Welding Consumables – *2. Kaufman, J. Gilbert, Properties of Aluminum Alloys:
Wire Electrodes, Wires and Rods for Welding of Aluminum Tensile, Creep, and Fatigue Data at High and Low Tem-
and Aluminum-Alloys, American Welding Society, Miami, peratures, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1999.
FL, 2012. *3. Kaufman, J. Gilbert, Properties of Aluminum Alloys:
Fatigue Data and the Effects of Temperature, Product
2.4.4 Bridges and Highway Structures Form, and Processing, ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 2008.
1. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 6th 4. MMPDS-08, Metallic Materials Properties Devel-
ed., American Association of State Highway and Trans- opment and Standardization (MMPDS), (formerly MIL
portation Officials, Washington, DC, 2012. Section 7 Handbook 5) Chapter 3, January 2014, U.S. Department of
addresses aluminum structures. Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Washing-
2. Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for ton, DC. http://www.ihs.com/products/industry-standards/
Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals, 6th edi- organizations/battelle-memorial-institute/index.aspx
tion, American Association of State Highway and Trans-
portation Officials, Washington, DC, 2013.
2.4.9 Foreign Codes
3. CAN/CSA S6-06 (R2012) Canadian Highway Bridge
Design Code, Canadian Standards Association, 2012. 1. EN 1999-1-1:2007 Eurocode 9 Design of Aluminium
Structures Part 1-1: General structural rules, European
2.4.5 Rail Cars Committee for Standardization (CEN), Brussels, 2007.
2. CAN-CSAS157-05 (R2010) Strength Design in Alu-
1. Manual of Standards and Recommended Practices minum, Canadian Standards Association, Mississauga,
Section C, Part II, Design, Fabrication, and Construction Ontario, Canada, 2005.
of Freight Cars, Association of American Railroads, Trans-
portation Technology Center, Pueblo, CO.
2. AWS D15.1:2012 Railroad Welding Specification for
Cars and Locomotives, American Welding Society, Miami,
FL, 2012.

2.4.6 Ships
1. ANSI/AWS D3.7-2004 Guide for Aluminum Hull Welding,
American Welding Society, Inc., Miami, FL, 2004.
2. Rules for Building and Classing Aluminum Vessels,
American Bureau of Shipping, Houston, TX, 1996.

2.4.7 Storage Tanks, Pressure Vessels, and Pipe

1. ASME B31.3-2012, Process Piping, American Soci-
ety of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY, 2012.
2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section II,
Materials, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York, NY, 2013.

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3. Structural Issues not Addressed in the Specification for Aluminum Structures
3.1 Ductility The Metal Construction Association’s Primer on Dia-
phragm Design (2004) addresses aluminum diaphragms.
The accepted measure of ductility of aluminum alloys Sooi and Peköz (1993) provide additional information on
is fracture toughness, and many high strength aluminum building diaphragms and their interaction with building
alloys used in aerospace applications have been evaluated frames.
as summarized by the Aluminum Association (1987). The
ductility of alloys included in the Specification (non-aero-
3.3 Pipe Bursting Pressure
space alloys) is generally not a design issue for wrought
products. The best proof of adequate ductility of alloys is Sharp (1993) gives the bursting pressure of aluminum
the satisfactory service in buildings, bridges, automobiles, pipe as:
trucks, and rail cars. Menzemer (1992) showed that in
laboratory fracture tests the normalized resistance curves
(same fatigue strength) of parts made from 5456-H116
were higher than those of A36 steel at temperatures from Where:
-200 to +75 oF (-130 to 25oC). Sharp (1993) provides addi- P = bursting pressure
tional information on the toughness of aluminum alloys. t = pipe wall thickness
Welded strengths can be increased by welding in the Ftu = tensile ultimate strength
solution heat-treated temper and then aging or by welding K = 0.73 + 0.33Fty /Ftu
and then solution heat treating and aging. Light pole man- D = pipe outside diameter
ufacturers typically use post-weld heat treatment. The duc- Fty = tensile yield strength
tility of transversely welded structures is usually reduced
by post-weld heat treatment because the width of the zone Aluminum pipe applications may be governed by stan-
of lower strength material is decreased (plastic deforma- dards for that use. For example, aluminum pipe used in
tion may be confined to a narrow zone). Post-weld heat chemical plants and petroleum refineries is often designed
treatments require careful evaluation of strength, ductility, in accordance with ASME B31.3, which provides a slightly
and corrosion resistance implications. different strength equation and safety factors appropriate to
such applications.
3.2 Shear Diaphragms
3.4 Biaxial and Triaxial Stresses
Shear diaphragms are efficient in carrying shear loads.
Corrugated panels can be used for a building’s side or roof. The Aluminum Specification predates finite element
The strength and stiffness of a corrugated panel subjected analysis (FEA) and doesn’t directly address all issues that
to shear depend on the alloy, configuration of the corruga- arise from such analyses. For example, the Specification
tion, size of the panel, and the type and configuration of provides design stresses for prismatic members primarily
the fastening to the framing members. Sharp presents the under uniaxial stress, such as columns. FEA, on the other
following design considerations: hand, can provide triaxial stresses by reporting, in addition
to longitudinal stresses, through-thickness and transverse
1. Overall shear buckling of the panel may control stresses. Many FEA programs calculate a von Mises stress
strength. An equivalent slenderness ratio is defined for this (explained below) from the triaxial stresses at a given ele-
mode of failure that is used with the buckling equations ment.
for shear.
2. Local buckling of the shear elements of the corruga- Yielding occurs in ductile materials like aluminum
tions is given by the equations for unstiffened webs. when
3. Failure of the corrugations and of the fastening at the
supports must be calculated. Local failure of the corruga-
tions at their attachment to supporting members can occur
particularly if only part of the shape is connected. where = principal stresses (the normal stress
4. Shear deflection of the panel is much larger than a on each of three orthogonal surfaces
flat panel of the same size. The major factors are size of such that the shear stresses on the
panel, shape and thickness or corrugation, and the type and surfaces are zero)
arrangement of the fastenings. Sharp (1993) provides equa- Fty = tensile yield stress
tions of behavior for several standard corrugated shapes.
This equation is called the von Mises criterion or distor-
tion energy criterion. It predicts that yielding will occur
when the distortion energy equals the distortion energy in

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an axially loaded member at yield. The above equation is “a factory-manufactured panel consisting of metal skins
for the general triaxial stress state. If stresses are biaxial, bonded to both faces of a plastic core”. Panels with alumi-
f3 = 0, and the equation above predicts yielding when num skins are called aluminum composite material (ACM)
(see Figure 3-1). The IBC also defines a metal composite
material system as “an exterior wall covering fabricated
using MCM in a specific assembly including joints, seams,
For convenience, the von Mises stress is defined from attachments, substrate, framing and other details as appro-
the von Mises criterion as priate to a particular design.” However, ACMs are not lim-
ited to exterior applications.
IBC Section 1407 provides requirements for two uses of
MCM: one as exterior wall finish, and the other as archi-
tectural trim. Section 1407.4 requires that MCM exterior
so that it may be compared directly to the yield stress to walls be designed for IBC Chapter 16 wind loads for com-
determine if yielding will occur. In the biaxial stress state, ponents and cladding. Section 1407.5 requires that test
the von Mises stress becomes results or engineering analysis be submitted to the building
official to demonstrate this. IBC also specifies fire-resis-
tance requirements that apply to both MCM uses.
ACM panels must be designed to meet deflection limits
The von Mises criterion is used in the Aluminum Speci- as well as provide sufficient strength for wind loads.
fication to determine the shear yield strength of aluminum
Typical ACM properties
alloys, since there is no established test method to measure
Property Value Units
shear yield strength. In the case of pure shear, the shear
coefficient of thermal expansion 13 x 10-6 /oF
stresses in a biaxial stress element are t and – t. Mohr’s 23 x 10-6 /oC
circle can be used to show that the principal stresses f1 and available thicknesses 3, 4, and 6 mm
f2 are, then, also t and – t, so the von Mises stress is 0.118, 0.157, and 0.236 in.
skin thickness 0.020 in.
0.50 mm

When the von Mises stress equals Fty, yielding occurs, Manufacturers provide additional information on load-
so shear yield ty is span-deflection, dimensional tolerances, section modulus,
stiffness, weight, thermal resistance, sound transmission,
and fire resistance.

Local yielding in a member may not limit its usefulness In a similar product, an aluminum-elastomer sandwich
if the amount of material that yields is small or positioned beam, the components comprising the structural elements
so as to have only a negligible effect on the shape and load- also act together creating a combined strength and other
carrying capacity of the member. Where yielding is a limit characteristics that are greater than the sum of the parts.
state, the von Mises stress should be limited to the yield The composite beam may have to resist stresses due to a
strength of the material. temperature gradient through the section as well as stresses
from wind and dead loads. The amount of composite action
3.5 Aluminum Composite Material (ACM) can be determined by analysis (AAMA (1990)) or testing.
The 2012 International Building Code (IBC) Sec-
tion 1402.1 defines metal composite material (MCM) as

Figure 3-1
Sandwich Panel

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4. Adhesive Bonded Joints
An adhesive can be defined as a substance capable of sive selection. Major areas to address are:
holding materials, similar and dissimilar, together by sur- • Substrates
face attachment. The critical substrate surfaces can be held • Pretreatment
together by chemical and/or mechanical adhesion at the • Application of adhesive
interfacial layer of contact between surfaces (D.A.T.A. • Fabrication process
(1986)). • Service environments
• Design
4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
4.3 Types of Adhesives
Shields (1970) and Thrall (1984) address advantages
and disadvantages of adhesives. Some advantages of adhe- Kinloch (1987) identified two groups of adhesives: ther-
sive bonding are: moplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics are materials
which can be repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by
• Ability to bond a variety of materials that may exhibit dif- cooling to ambient temperature. Thermosets are materials
fering coefficients of thermal expansion, moduli, thick- that undergo chemical reactions initiated by heat, catalyst,
ness, etc., with proper joint design and material selection. UV light, etc. Thermosets are generally more durable than
• Improved cosmetics of the finished product by the elimi- thermoplastics.
nation of protruding mechanical fasteners, such as rivets From the two groups of adhesives extend several classes
or bolts. of adhesives, which include anaerobic, contact, cyanoac-
• Excellent strength to weight ratio in comparison to other rylate, film, hot melt, one-part and two-part. Anaerobic
joining methods. adhesives are generally esters or acrylics in which, upon
• Good joint stiffness and fatigue performance, with appro- the restriction/lack of air/oxygen, curing of the adhesive
priate choice of adhesive. initiates. Anaerobic adhesives can also be cured by UV
• Elimination of stress concentrations inherent to mechani- exposure. Contact adhesives are coated to both substrate
cal fastening methods, and a more uniform stress distribu- surfaces, and a solvent is allowed to evaporate before
tion over the bonded surface area. assembly of the substrates. Cyanoacrylates are known as
• Adaptable to many production processes because of the instant cure adhesives. They are derivatives of unsaturated
variety of forms (pastes, films, emulsions, etc.) and meth- acrylates which cure at room temperature without the aid
ods of application of adhesives. of a catalyst. Films are uniform layers of adhesives that
are generally rolled onto coils. Films can be supported
The advantages of adhesive bonding are most evident (with reinforcing fibers), unsupported, heat-activated, or
when joining relatively thin materials and components. pressure-sensitive. Hot melts are generally solvent-free
The cost advantages and joint efficiencies decrease as the thermoplastics, which are solids at room temperature but
members become thicker. soften and flow at heat activation temperature. Upon cool-
Some disadvantages of adhesive bonding are: ing the hot melt regains its structural strength. One-part
adhesives are usually 99-100% solid systems. This class
• Expert joint design is critical in order to minimize peel of adhesives includes epoxies, moisture activated silicones,
and/or cleavage stresses. and polyimides which can be waterborne or organic sol-
• Temperature limitations may restrict the use of many vent based. Two-part epoxies and acrylics are generally
adhesives from high temperature applications. cured at room temperature or accelerated with heat.
• Adhesives require surface pretreatment of the aluminum
unless the adhesive manufacturer recommends that no 4.4 Surface Pretreatments
pretreatment is necessary. Even with this recommenda-
A surface pretreatment prior to bonding is usually
tion, the durability required for the application should be
necessary in order to achieve long-term bond strength of
verified.
aluminum substrates, although in some cases an adhe-
• Difficulties in inspecting for initial bond integrity and an
insufficient understanding of the effects of in-service dam- sive manufacturer may state that their adhesive requires
no surface pretreatment or that their adhesive is chemi-
age on subsequent bond performance limit confidence in
cally incompatible with the proposed pretreatment. Many
adhesive bonding as a primary structural joining method.
aluminum surface pretreatments have been examined to
determine the best adhesive substrates for bonding. It is
4.2 Adhesive Selection
commonly accepted that chemically pretreating the sur-
Literally thousands of commercial adhesives are avail- face yields more durable bond strength than mechanically
able. In order to select the proper adhesive for a particular abrading the aluminum surface. Some of the most popular
application the user needs a systematic approach to adhe- chemical pretreatment systems to improve the adhesion of

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aluminum are degreasing, acid etching, and phosphoric
acid anodizing. The adhesive manufacturer’s recommen-
dations for surface preparation should be followed.

4.5 Joint Design

The decision to use adhesive bonding must consider
joint geometry, the nature and magnitude of loading, the
properties of the adhesive and the members to be joined,
failure modes, and ease and reliability of manufacturing.
Adapting a joint design intended for other joining methods
often results in ineffective designs. The design must also
consider the assembly scheme including needs for surface
pretreatment, part tolerances, and fixturing.
The stresses present in adhesive-bonded joints are clas-
sified based on loading: normal, shear, peel, and cleav-
Figure 4-2
age (Figure 4-1). Cleavage and peel conditions describe a
combination of normal and shear stresses specific to these Types of Joints: a) Angle;
two loading conditions. Cleavage stresses are concentrated b) Tee; c) Butt; d) Surface
on one side of the joint, while peel loads can occur with
flexible members (Kinloch (1987)). Though technically In single lap joints that are not supported or restrained
different, tensile stresses normal to the bond line are also against joint rotation, bending within the joint and at the
referred to as peel stresses in the literature. Because adhe- ends of the overlap causes locally high transverse tensile
sives perform best when subjected to compressive and stresses in the bond. In joints that are designed to prevent
shear loads, joint design should distribute the loads in the or minimize joint rotation, the bond strength can exceed
adhesive layer as a combination of compressive and shear the full nominal strength of the members.
stresses to avoid tensile, cleavage and peel loadings. Although adhesive bonding has benefits in joining dis-
There are four basic types of joints: angle, tee, butt, and similar materials, the application imposes additional design
surface or lap joints (Figure 4-2). In service, these joints considerations. Using materials with different moduli may
may be subjected to the types of stresses mentioned in the result in reduced joint efficiencies. If the materials do not
previous paragraph. Most practical adhesive joint designs have similar thermal expansion coefficients, temperature
can be classified as variations of lap joints. Lap joint con- changes during elevated temperature cures and in service
figurations are usually preferred because they require can increase stresses in adhesive bonds and lower joint
little or no machining. The use of overly complex con- strengths (Hart-Smith (1987)). If member materials are
figurations for low loads results in unnecessarily expensive not identical, the design should equalize the in-plane and
designs. On the other hand, simple configurations are unac- bending stiffnesses and the materials should have similar
ceptable if smooth uninterrupted surfaces are required, if thermal expansion coefficients.
high stresses are present in the bond, or if high loads must The identification of possible failure modes is crucial
be sustained. to effective joint design and satisfactory performance. For
joints consisting of ductile isotropic materials such as alu-
minum alloys, four common failure modes are:

1) tensile or buckling failure of the member outside the

joint area,
2) shear failure of the adhesive,
3) tensile cracking in the adhesive layer due to tensile or
cleavage forces in the joint, and
4) adhesion failure at the adhesive/member interface.

Adhesion failures are least desirable because such inter-

facial failures typically result in low, inconsistent joint
strengths. If the adhesive fails to adhere to the aluminum,
this indicates incompatibility of the surface oxide of the
Figure 4-1 aluminum with that particular adhesive. If the aluminum
Types of Stresses: a) Shear; is pretreated and failure occurs at that interface between
b) Tension; c) Peel; d) Cleavage the pretreatment and the adhesive, this indicates adhesive/
pretreatment incompatibility.

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 The adhesive properties for joint designs may be 4.6 Current Adhesive Applications
obtained from mechanical tests. Tensile properties can be
obtained using cast adhesive specimens as described in Adhesives are gaining popularity as a viable structural
ASTM D 638 (ASTM (2009a)). Adhesive shear proper- means of joining aluminum. Today, aluminum adhesive
ties can be generated using thick adherend tests (Dreiger bonding is being used in the transportation, construction,
(1985)) or a torsion test described in ASTM E 229 (ASTM marine, aerospace, and electronic industries. Examples in
(2009b)). Properties should be obtained for temperatures each category are:
throughout the range expected in service. Temperature can
affect adhesive properties, ductility and toughness, which • Transportation: buses, trains, and trailers; automotive
will affect joint design and performance, including stiff- seats, hoods, and air bag containers
ness and failure loads and modes. The adequacy of the • Construction: architectural panels
design should be checked for the range of service tempera- • Marine: boats, ships, and desalination plants
tures. Summaries of technology and data are provided by • Aerospace: space vehicles, planes, and helicopters
Minford (1993). • Electronics: antennas, computer boards, and cable wires
For critical applications in complex structures, a com-
plete analysis of the stress components is recommended
along with the identification of the potential failure modes.
Nonlinear behavior of the adhesive and members should be
accounted for in the most effective method of conducting
such analysis. Mechanical tests to simulate typical service
conditions of adhesive-bonded joints should be performed
to verify the predicted failure location and modes.

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5. Extrusion Design
Aluminum can be easily extruded, unlike steel. The ered by consolidating parts or incorporating assembly aids
extrusion process consists of pushing hot aluminum by using extrusions. Extrusions that fit within a circle up to
through a die, likened to pushing tooth paste out of the about 30 in. in diameter are possible, but the more common
tube. Custom shapes can be created that place the material ones fit within a diameter of about18 inches.
where it is most effective. The following information in this section is from the
Cross sections must be constant along their length but Aluminum Extrusion Manual (1998).
they may be intricate. Often fabrication costs can be low-

5.1 Replacing Fabrications with Extrusions

As shown at right, several rolled and riveted

structural shapes (left) can be combined into a
single aluminum extrusion, thus eliminating all
joining costs.

Machined and stamped sections can be

replaced by aluminum sections extruded to
exact size and shape.

As another example, the machining cost and

weight of a framing member is reduced by
redesigning the member as an extruded
section.

Aluminum extrusions may also replace wood

sections. They can be made lighter, stiffer, and
stronger, thus eliminating steel reinforcement.

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 Welded assemblies are frequently rede-
signed into extruded sections. Not only is
cost reduced, but accuracy and strength are
increased.

Because extrusions permit infinite changes in

cross sectional design, they can be produced
more readily to meet specific design require-
ments than rolled sheet sections.

Crimped tubular sections frequently permit

redesign in extruded shapes, with gains in both
stiffness and strength. Cost of manufacture is
also reduced.

Small castings, forgings, and parts machined

from bar stock may also permit redesign as an
extrusion, as long as the cross section is sym-
metrical in at least one plane.

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5.2 Design Parameters The dies required to make semihollow shapes are mod-
erately more expensive than solid shape dies, and the out-
Five major factors should be considered in the detailed put of those dies tends to approach tolerance limits. Tool-
development of an aluminum extrusion design: ing life and productivity are both improved with decreasing
• Shape configuration ratios, thus reducing cost.
• Tolerances A solid extruded shape is any shape that is not a hol-
• Surface finish low or a semihollow. This covers a wide range including,
• Alloy for example, compact cross-sections with or without pro-
• Circumscribing circle size jections; angular or curved shapes; and those wrap-around
shapes whose void area/gap2 ratios are too low for the
These parameters are interrelated in their effect on the semihollow-class.
extrusion design and its application.

Shape Configuration
The designer's first priority is to satisfy a specific need,
and aluminum extrusion allows you to design the shape
that best meets your structural and aesthetics requirements.
Since extrusion dies are relatively inexpensive, designers
can afford to use several different shapes, if that's the best
way to achieve their objectives.
Extrusions can be designed to aid in assembly, improve Figure 5-1
product appearance, reduce or eliminate forming and weld- Example of a solid shape
ing operations, and achieve many other purposes.
Extruded shapes are described in three general catego- Extruded rod is a solid shape with a round cross-sec-
ries—solid, semihollow, and hollow. Dies to produce solid tion at least 0.375 in. in diameter.
shapes are the least complex. The difference between a solid Extruded bar is a solid shape whose cross-section is
shape and a semihollow shape may not be obvious at first square, rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal, and whose
glance. It's easier to describe and understand all three catego- width between parallel faces is a least 0.375 inches.
ries by working in reverse, starting with hollow shapes. If the dimension across any of these rod- or bar-type
A hollow shape is simply an extruded shape which, shapes is less than 0.375 in., it is classified as wire.
anywhere in its cross section, completely encloses a void.
The void itself may have any sort of shape, and the com- Tolerances
plete profile may include a variety of other forms; but if
any part of it encloses a void, it's classified as a “hollow.” In many applications in which the extrusion will be part
Tube and Pipe are specific forms of hollow shapes. of an assembly of components, tolerances are critical. A
“Tube” is a hollow section that is long in comparison designer should be aware of the standard dimensional tol-
to its cross-sectional size. It is symmetrical and has uni- erances to which extrusions are commercially produced.
form wall thickness except as affected by corners. It may These tolerances generally cover such characteristics as
be round or elliptical, or square, rectangular, hexagonal, or straightness, flatness, and twist, and such cross-sectional
octagonal. “Extruded tube,” as the name indicates, is tube dimensions as thickness, angles, contours and corner or fillet
produced by hot extrusion; “drawn tube” is produced by radii. Both standard and precision tolerances for extrusions
drawing through a die. are given in Aluminum Standards and Data, Section 11.
“Pipe” is a tube with certain standardized combinations Aluminum extrusions are often designed to minimize or
of outside diameter and wall thickness. These are com- eliminate the need for machining. If desired, many extru-
monly designated by “Nominal Pipe Sizes” and by “ANSI sions can be produced to the recently introduced “precision
(American National Standards Institute) Schedule Num- tolerances” or to closer-than-standard custom tolerances,
bers.” generating cost savings in secondary operations; such sav-
A semihollow shape is one that partially encloses a ings may range from modest to very large, depending on
void – for example, a circle or rectangle with a gap in one circumstances. The designer should consider his require-
side; but a solid shape can also partially enclose a void, and ments carefully and order special tolerances only where
the difference may not be obvious. It is defined mathemati- they are really needed.
cally, by comparing the area of the partially enclosed void If extruded parts are to interlock in any manner, the
to the size of the gap (actually, to the mathematical square designer should work with the supplier to make sure that
of the gap size). If that ratio is larger than a certain number, tolerances will provide a proper fit.
the shape is classified as semihollow; if the ratio is smaller,
the shape is considered a solid.

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Surface Finish kets justify it, individual companies include in their inven-
tories additional alloys that will vary with the needs of their
One advantage of aluminum extrusions is the variety of
major customers. Thus, a substantial variety of extrusion
ways the surface can be finished, and this offers another
alloy/temper products is regularly available.
range of choices to the designer.
The 6xxx-series of aluminum alloys is selected for
As-extruded, or “mill,” finish can range from “struc-
nearly 75 percent of extrusion applications. Of those,
tural,” on which minor surface imperfections are accept-
alloys 6063 and 6061 are used most frequently.
able, to “architectural,” presenting uniformly good appear-
Alloy 6063 is used for a broad range of solid and hollow
ance. It should be understood that under normal circum-
products. It is easily welded, and it has a pleasing natural
stances aluminum may be marred because it is a relatively
finish and excellent corrosion resistance. 6063 is used in
soft metal and that special care is required if a blemish free
architecture and in many moderate-stress applications.
surface is desired.
Alloy 6061 is a good all-purpose extrusion alloy, com-
Other finishes include scratch finishing, satin finishing
bining high mechanical properties with good corrosion
and buffing. Aluminum can also be finished by clear or col-
resistance, weldability and machining characteristics.
ored anodizing, or by painting or other coatings.
Alloy 6061 is used in many structural applications.
If a product will have surfaces that are exposed in use,
Many other alloys are used for extrusions to meet par-
where normal processing marks may be objectionable, the
ticular requirements. To mention a few:
extruders should be told which surfaces are critical. They
can design a die that orients the shape to protect those sur- Characteristics Alloys
faces during the extrusion process; they can also select High strength 6066, 6070, 6082, 7005
packaging that will protect the product during shipment. High corrosion resistance 1100, 3003
High electrical conductivity 6101
Alloy Selection
The designer should consult alloy and temper tables and
Aluminum extrusions are made in a wide variety of discuss specific needs with the extrusion supplier.
alloys and tempers to meet a broad spectrum of needs.
Selection is made to meet the specific requirements in
strength, weldability, forming characteristics, finish, corro-
sion resistance, machinability, and sometimes other prop-
erties.
The complete list of registered aluminum alloys is quite
long, but in practice a few alloys are chosen repeatedly for
extrusion because of their versatility and highly suitable
characteristics. Extruders generally stock the three or four
most frequently used alloys. When their specialized mar-

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Circumscribing Circle Size eral, extrusions are most economical when they fit within
medium-sized circumscribing circles: that is, one with a
One measurement of the size of an extrusion is the
diameter between 1 and 10 inches.
diameter of the smallest circle that will entirely enclose its
The example shown in Figure 5-2 would be classified as
cross-section – its “circumscribing circle.” This dimen-
a 3 to 4 in. circle size shape.
sion is one factor in the economics of an extrusion. In gen-

Figure 5-2

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5.3 Design Guidelines For example, a U-shaped channel in an extrusion corre-
sponds to a solid “tongue” in the die, attached at only one
end. Flexibility in this tongue can alter the aperture slightly
Good Extrusion Design Practices under the pressure of extrusion; the deeper you make the
At this stage in the development of an extruded product, channel, the longer you make the tongue and the more
the designer has determined its functional shape and size, difficult it becomes to regulate the extruded dimensions.
and considered appropriate tolerances, surface finishes and On the other hand, rounding corners at the base and tip
alloys. of the tongue can ease metal flow and so help to keep the
Before proceeding, it makes sense to review the extrud- extruded dimensions more uniform. Even corners rounded
er's available standard shapes. It may be possible to adapt to only 1/64 in. radius can facilitate extruding.
a standard shape to the needs of the product, with little or Visualize the shape of the die that must produce your
no modification. design, and try to minimize shapes that would weaken the
If a standard shape is not readily adaptable, the design die or impede metal flow.
can be completed as a custom shape perfectly suited to the
requirements of the product. Use Metal Dimensions for Best Tolerance
Here are a few tips on good practices in custom-design- Dimensions measured across solid metal are easier to
ing aluminum extrusions: produce to closer tolerances than those measured across a
gap or angle (see Figure 5-3). So rely on metal dimensions
Specify the Most Appropriate Metal Thicknesses as much as possible when designing close-fitted mating
Specify metal thicknesses that are just heavy enough parts or other shapes requiring closer tolerances. Standard
to meet your structural requirements. Even in low stress industry dimensional tolerances are entirely adequate for
areas, however, keep sufficient thickness to avoid risking many applications, but special tolerances can be specified
distortion or damage. Some shapes tend to invite distortion if necessary.
during the extrusion process (such as an asymmetric profile
or thin details at the end of a long flange). Such tendencies
exert more influence on thin-walled shapes than on those
with normal metal thickness.

Keep Metal Thickness as Uniform As Possible

Extrusion allows you to put extra metal where it is
needed—in high-stress areas, for example—and still save
material by using normal dimensions elsewhere in the same
piece. Adjacent wall thickness ratios of less than 2-to-1 An Open Space Dimension is more
are extruded without difficulty. However, large contrasts difficult to hold to close tolerances.
between thick and thin areas may create uneven conditions
during extrusion. It is best to maintain near uniform metal
thickness throughout a shape if possible. When a design
combines thick and thin dimensions, streamline the transi-
tions with a radius (a curve, rather than a sharp angle) at
junctions where the thickness changes sharply. Rounded
corners ease the flow of metal.

Visualize the Die and the Metal Flow A Metal Dimension can be
Remember what an extrusion die does: while it lets extruded to close tolerances
metal flow through its shaped aperture, it must hold back
metal all around that aperture against great force. When Figure 5-3
you design a shape for extrusion, you are simultaneously
designing a die aperture and you must take extrusion forces
and metal flow into account.

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 Instead of Consider
This This
Smooth All Transitions
Transitions should be streamlined by
a generous radius at any thick-thin
junction.

Keep Wall Thickness Uniform

The preceding shape can be further
improved by maintaining uniform wall
thickness.
In addition to using more metal, thick-
thin junctions give rise to distortion,
die breakage or surface defects on the
extrusion.

Ribs Help Straightening Operation

Wide, thin sections can be hard to
straighten after extrusion. Ribs help to
reduce twisting and to improve flatness.

Symmetry Preferred in Semi-Hollow

Areas
When designing, visualize the die and
tongue that will be necessary to pro-
duce a semi-hollow shape. By keep-
ing the void symmetrical you lessen
the chances that the die tongue may
break.

Figure 5-4

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5.4 Design for Assembly
Aluminum extrusions can be designed for joining by a
wide variety of assembly methods such as riveting, bolting,
welding, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding.
They can also be designed to fit, hook or snap together
with mating parts. Hinges or slides can often by “designed-
in” as integral parts of extrusions, eliminating the need for
additional assembly and moving parts.
Five types of extruded joints are discussed in this section:
• Nesting Joints
• Interlocking Joints
• Snap-Fit Joints
• Screw Slots
• Screw Chases

Nesting Joints
Nesting joints, which include lap joints and tongue-and-
groove joints, have mating elements that are shaped to be
assembled with little or no self-locking action.
They serve primarily to align adjoining parts, and
they usually depend on rivets, bolts, adhesives, confine-
ment within a rigid frame, or other fasteners to hold them
together.
Lap joints, shown in Figure 5-5, are the simplest nest-
ing joints.

Interlocking Joints
The interlocking joint is, in effect, a modified tongue-
and-groove. But instead of being straight, the two mating
elements are curved and so cannot be assembled or (more
to the point) disassembled by simple straight-line motion.
They are assembled by a rotating motion and will not sepa-
rate without a corresponding counter-rotation. As long as
the parts are held in their assembled position, they strongly
resist separation and misalignment in both the horizontal
and the vertical directions.
The amount of rotation required for interlocking assem-
bly depends on the geometry of the design. It can be made
more or less than 45o, as long as the design allows enough
clearance for the required rotation. Figure 5-5
Interlocking joints can be secured in at least five ways,
all based on preventing counter-rotation.

• Fastening the elements to structural cross-members.

• Restraining the assembly within a rigid frame.
• Restraining the assembly with channel end-closures.
• Fastening the joint with rivets, welds, adhesives or other
devices.
• Providing a folding, locking flange as shown in Figure 5-6.

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Snap-Fit Joints Screw Slots
A “snap-fit” or “snap-lock” joint (see Figure 5-7) is one Screw slots are often used to facilitate the assembly of
which is self-locking and requires no additional fasteners aluminum extrusions. Standard screw slots are illustrated
to hold the joint together. in Part I Figure J.5.1 and should always be used with self
The mating parts of a snap-fit joint exert a cam action tapping screws.
on each other, flexing until one part slips past a raised lip The screw slot should be designed so that the area of the
on the other part. Once past this lip, the flexed parts snap void and the metal thickness surrounding it is symmetrical
back to their normal shape and the lip prevents them from about the center line of the gap.
separating. After it is snapped together, this joint cannot be The type F self tapping screw is recommended for use
disassembled unintentionally. with the extruded screw slot. This screw has threads which
This joint’s strength can be increased by applying adhe- approximate machine screw threads plus a blunt point that
sive to the mating surfaces before assembly. Even short will stay within the screw slot.
lengths of an adhesively bonded, snap-fit joint cannot be Sheet metal type screws are not recommended since
easily slid apart. their thread projects to the end of the screw and thereby
Precise dimensions are critical in a snap-fit joint. Expe- can “walk” through the slot opening.
rienced extrusion designers who are fully conversant with
snap-fit production requirements can determine the precise Screw Chases
final dimensions.
Extrusions may have screw chases as shown in Figure
5-8. A screw chase provides a means of attaching a fas-
tener to an extrusion in a direction perpendicular to the
extruded direction. Different chase configurations are used
– some have protrusions on the inside faces of the sides
of the chase, some have grooves, and some have smooth
walls. Table 5-1 suggests dimensions for screw chases
with smooth walls.

Figure 5-8

Table 5-1 Screw Chase Dimensions

Screw Screw Chase Chase
size nominal inside inside
diameter width width tolerance
(in.) (in.) (in.)
D w
Figure 5-6 No. 8 0.164 0.122 0.006
No. 10 0.190 0.142 0.006
No. 12 0.216 0.161 0.008
1/4” 0.250 0.185 0.008

A screw chase should be wide enough so that the screw

won’t break during installation and narrow enough so the
screw won’t strip out too easily. These considerations are
affected by the screw strength, which is a function of screw
material, screw thread type, and screw chase side height
and thickness.
Figure 5-7

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6. Preventing Corrosion
A great deal of technology and experience exists for Joints: A key area for corrosion prevention is joints.
successful prevention of corrosion in assemblies and struc- Joints may involve aluminum and other metals. Galvanic
tures. The following information has been adapted from corrosion can occur when aluminum is joined to other met-
Hatch (1984). als and the joint is connected by a conductive fluid. Joints
Proper selection / application of the following measures designed so that they remain dry in service or where the
can be used to prevent aluminum corrosion: dissimilar metals are not electrically connected, even by a
remote path, will be free from galvanic corrosion. A com-
• Alloy and temper selection mon tool for predicting which metal will corrode (anode) in
• Design a given couple is the galvanic series, which is environment-
• Joints specific (see Table 6-1 for an example in sodium chloride
• Inhibitors solution). In Table 6-1 the metal in a galvanic couple that
• Protective coatings is toward the active end of the galvanic series will corrode,
• Cathodic protection and the other metal in the couple which is toward the noble
end of the series will not corrode. The galvanic series is
Alloy and temper selection: Alloys of the 1xxx, 3xxx, useful only as a predictive tool as to location of corrosion
5xxx, and 6xxx series generally have very good corrosion in a galvanic couple, not corrosion rate. However, selection
resistance in natural environments and can often be used of couple members that are close together in the galvanic
without corrosion protection. Temper selection for the series minimizes galvanic corrosion. Aluminum can be
1xxx, 3xxx, and 6xxx series alloys and for the 5xxx series coupled to magnesium, zinc, cadmium, and passive stain-
alloys containing up to 3% magnesium (e.g. 5005, 5050, less steel in most environments without galvanic corrosion.
5052, and 5454) may be based on factors other than corro- In most other galvanic couples aluminum will experience
sion. For 5xxx series sheet and plate alloys containing more galvanic corrosion.
than 3% magnesium (e.g., 5083, 5086, and 5456) for appli- Where dissimilar metals must be joined, creating an
cations with service temperatures exceeding 150oF or in undesirable galvanic couple, several steps can be taken to
marine environments, the temper should be limited to H116 minimize corrosion. The exposed area of the more noble
or H321 and material should comply with ASTM B 928 to or cathodic metal should be minimized by design and by
guard against intergranular and exfoliation corrosion. application of protective coatings (e.g. paint, gasket, or
Alloys of the 2xxx and 7xxx series alloys have relatively tape). At bolted or riveted galvanic joints (e.g. aluminum
poor corrosion resistance and require corrosion protection. to steel) the fasteners (the smaller exposed surface area)
Temper selection for the 2xxx and 7xxx series alloys can should be the more noble material, such as steel or 3xx
significantly affect exfoliation and stress corrosion resis- series stainless steel rather than aluminum. If using steel
tance. For these alloys, consideration should also be given fasteners, a further required step is to coat the fasteners
to stress corrosion cracking (SCC). SCC can occur when with a zinc (galvanizing) or other suitable coating.
residual or assembly stresses occur in the through-thick- Where galvanic couples have only a few points of elec-
ness or short transverse direction. This can be minimized trical contact, it may be possible to control corrosion by
by considering temper selection, residual stresses from electrical insulation. Insulation can be effective only when
fabrication (e.g. forming, machining, and thermal treat- all points of electrical contact are broken. Insulation can be
ments), and fit up details. achieved by inserting nonmetallic, non-wicking bushings,
Design: Factors that may affect corrosion resistance gaskets, sleeves, or tapes into joints. Such insulation is dif-
can be more cost-effectively considered during the design ficult to achieve in large, complex structures where remote
phase rather than after the design is finalized: electrical paths may exist.

• Avoid contacts with dissimilar metals (galvanic corrosion

prevention discussed below).
• Avoid crevices, especially at joints (crevice corrosion pre-
vention discussed below).
• Avoid skip welding by using continuous welding.
• Avoid standing fluid and poultice catchments.
• Avoid placing absorbent materials, such as open-cell gas-
kets, insulation, and soundproofing, against aluminum.
• Avoid direct impingement by fluid streams, especially
sharp pipe bends.
• Avoid heat transfer hot spots.
• Avoid corrosive conditions when locating parts and joints.
• Avoid sharp edges when coating will be used.

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 Crevices are inevitable in structures. When crevices Inhibitors: In fluid-carrying systems where piping of
trap foreign matter, accelerated corrosion may result. Often aluminum and other metals are joined, a thick-walled,
joints can be located or oriented to minimize moisture replaceable aluminum nipple should be used at the joint. In
ingress and retention. Adhesives, sealants, and nonabsor- closed loop, mixed metal fluid-carrying systems, such as
bent gaskets can prevent the ingress of moisture into crev- automotive cooling systems, it may be possible to control
ices. Continuous welds are more desirable than intermit- galvanic corrosion with a mixed metal corrosion inhibitor.
tent welds because they leave no crevices. A type of crev- Mixed metal fluid-carrying systems that include aluminum
ice corrosion known as poultice corrosion can occur under and cannot be treated with inhibitors should not contain
foreign materials, such as mud, paper, or cloth. Poultice copper.
corrosion can often be minimized by avoiding catchments Protective Coatings: When surface treatments such as
and pockets during design of a structure. anodizing, organic coating, or plating are used on alumi-
num to provide consistent appearance or improve corro-
Table 6-1 sion resistance, the quality of the treatment is extremely
GALVANIC SERIES IN SODIUM important. If flaws or points of damage occur which expose
CHLORIDE SOLUTION the substrate aluminum surface, accelerated localized pit-
(similar to sea water) ting corrosion may result. See Part I and Part II Section
M.7 for additional information on contact with dissimilar
Magnesium Anode materials.
Zinc
Cathodic Protection: For aluminum structures that are
Aluminum alloy 7072 (used in Alclad products)
5xxx aluminum alloys buried or immersed in aqueous environments, corrosion
7xxx structural aluminum alloys may be controlled by application of the electrochemical
1xxx, 3xxx, 6xxx aluminum alloys process known as cathodic protection.
Cadmium
2xxx aluminum alloys
Iron and steel
Lead
Tin
Brass
Copper
Stainless steel (3xx, passive)
Nickel Cathode

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7. Fire Protection
Aluminum alloys are non-combustible when tested in Kaufman and Kasser (1963) tested fire protection for
accordance with ASTM E 136. The behavior of aluminum aluminum members. The criteria for establishing the fire
and steel members exposed to fire are compared below. protection for aluminum were:

1. Both aluminum and steel members are noncombus- 1. To ensure that strength during a fire will at least equal
tible. the allowable stresses at room temperature, the aluminum
2. The cross sectional areas of aluminum members are temperature should be limited to 500oF.
usually about 40% larger than those of steel. 2. To ensure that there will be no substantial change in
3. The thermal conductivity of aluminum is about 2.7 properties after a fire, the aluminum temperature should be
times that of steel. limited to 375oF.
4. Aluminum’s strength degrades at much lower tem-
peratures than that of steel. Light weight vermiculite plaster was used in the tests,
and specimens were as indicated on Figure 7-1. The rela-
These issues affect the relative performance of the two tive thicknesses of protection required for various periods
materials in a fire. Aluminum parts exposed to fire would of time are shown below.
be expected to reach a lower temperature than steel, but Part I Appendix 4 and Eurocode 9, Part 1-2 address alu-
aluminum’s strength relative to that at room temperature minum structural design for fire conditions.
is more degraded compared to that for steel. Aluminum
members thus need more insulation than steel members to
resist the effects of fire.

RELATIVE THICKNESS OF VERMICULITE

REQUIRED FOR FIRE PROTECTION OF STRUCTURAL ALUMINUM MEMBERS
Fire Protection Ratio of
Period Aluminum Member’s Insulation Thickness
(hours) to Steel Member’s Insulation Thickness
1 1.7
2 1.9
3 1.8
4 1.7

Figure 7-1
SPECIMENS FOR FIRE PROTECTION TESTS

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8. Sustainability
8.1 Reflectance and Emittance Reflectance and emittance of bare aluminum is affected
by surface roughness, oxides, and cleanliness. Typical
In warm climates, the more roofs reflect and radiate total solar reflectance is 0.6 to 0.8. Mill finish alumi-
the sun’s radiation, the more energy they save by reducing num can have very low emittance (0.02 to 0.10), although
buildings’ cooling requirements. Solar reflectance, also this increases slightly as natural oxides form. Aluminum
called albedo, measures a material’s ability to reflect sun- is often anodized to create a durable layer of aluminum
light — including visible, infrared, and ultraviolet wave- oxide that is much thicker than that which occurs naturally.
lengths — on a scale of 0 to 1 and can be expressed as Anodized aluminum has significantly higher emittance
a decimal fraction or a percentage. Thermal emittance is (0.6 to 0.9).
the fraction of energy a material radiates away after it is
absorbed. Emittance is the ability to release absorbed heat
8.2 Recycling
and is also expressed as a decimal fraction or a percentage.
Reflectance is determined using ASTM E 1918 or C Aluminum can be recycled indefinitely without loss of
1549; emittance is determined according to ASTM E 408 properties. Aluminum is 100% recyclable, and recycling
or C 1371. aluminum saves approximately 95% of the energy required
Cooling energy requirements are significantly reduced to produce aluminum from bauxite. Using recycled alumi-
by roofing materials with high reflectance and emittance. num instead of raw materials reduces air and water pollu-
For prepainted metal roofing, the substrate has little or no tion by about 95%.
influence on the exterior surface reflectance and emittance. A 2008 survey of aluminum producers indicated that the
The emittance of painted metal is about 0.8 to 0.9. The total recycled content of domestically produced flat rolled
reflectance is a function of paint color and type. products for the building and construction market was
approximately 85%. On average, 60% of the total product
content was from post-consumer sources. To determine
the recycled content of specific aluminum products, con-
sult the supplier.

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9. References
AAMA (2000), Metal Curtain Wall Fasteners, TIR-A9-91 Kaufman, J.G. and Kasser, R.C., “Fire Protection for Alu-
(with 2000 addendum), American Architectural Manu- minum Alloy Structural Shapes,” Civil Engineering,
facturers Association, Schaumberg, IL. March, 1963.
AAMA (1990), Structural Performance, Poured and Kinloch, A.J., Adhesion and Adhesives, Science and Tech-
Debridged Framing Systems, TIR-A8-90, Schaumberg, IL. nology, Chapman and Hall, New York, NY, 1987.
Aluminum Association (1987), The Aluminum Association Menzemer, Craig C., (1992), Fatigue Behavior of Welded
Position on Fracture Toughness Requirements and Qual- Aluminum Structures, Dissertation in partial fulfillment
ity Control Testing 1987, T-5, Washington, DC. of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philoso-
Aluminum Extruders Council and the Aluminum Associa- phy, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.
tion (1998), The Aluminum Extrusion Manual, Wauco- Metal Construction Association (2004), Primer on Dia-
nda, IL. phragm Design, Glenview, IL.
ASTM (2009a), Vol. 08.01, “Plastics,” American Society Minford, J. Dean (1993), Handbook of Aluminum Bonding
for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, 2009. Technology and Data, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
ASTM (2009b), Vol. 15.06, “Adhesives,” American Soci- Sharp, Maurice L., Behavior and Design of Aluminum
ety for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, Structures, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, NY, 1993.
2009. Shields, J., Adhesives Handbook, CRC Press, 1970.
D.A.T.A., Inc. (1986), Adhesives, 4th Edition. Sooi, Took Kowng, “Behavior of Component Elements of
Drieger, R.B., “Analyzing Joint Stresses Using an Exten- Aluminum Members,” Research Report No. 93-1, Teo-
someter,” Adhesive Age, pp 26-28, October, 1985. man Peköz, Project Director, Cornell University, 1993.
Hart-Smith, A.J., “Design of Adhesively Bonded Joints,” Thrall, Edward W. and Shannon, Raymond W., Adhesive
Joining Fibre-Reinforced Plastics, F.L. Mathews, edi- Bonding of Aluminum Alloys, Marcel Dekker, New York,
tor, Elsevier Applied Science Publishing, New York, NY, NY, 1985.
1987.
Hatch, John E., ed., Aluminum–Properties and Physical Met-
allurgy, American Society for Metals, 1984, pp. 300-309.

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 Aluminum Design Manual

PART IV

Material Properties

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 IV
Material Properties

Table of Contents

General Characteristics of Aluminum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Metallurgical Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Wrought Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Designation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3. Cast Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Designation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4. Temper Designation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Property Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 1 Comparative Characteristics and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 2 Mechanical Property Limits for Commonly Used Sand Casting Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 3 Mechanical Property Limits for Commonly Used Permanent Mold Casting Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 4 Mechanical Property Limits of Fastener Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 4M Mechanical Property Limits of Fastener Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Table 5 Typical Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 5M Typical Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Table 6 Typical Physical Properties – Thermal and Electrical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 6M Typical Physical Properties – Thermal and Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Table 7 Nominal Densities of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Table 8 Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 8M Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

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General Characteristics of Aluminum

A unique combination of properties makes aluminum to many acids. Alkalis are among the few substances that
one of our most versatile engineering and construction attack the oxide skin and therefore are corrosive to alumi-
materials. A mere recital of its characteristics is impres- num. Although the metal can safely be used in the pres-
sive. It is light in mass, yet some of its alloys have strengths ence of certain mild alkalis with the aid of inhibitors, in
greater than that of structural steel. It has high resistance general, direct contact with alkaline substances should be
to corrosion under the majority of service conditions, and avoided.
no colored salts are formed to stain adjacent surfaces or Some alloys are less resistant to corrosion than others,
discolor products with which it comes into contact, such particularly certain high-strength alloys. Such alloys in
as fabrics in the textile industry and solutions in chemi- some forms can be effectively protected from the majority
cal equipment. It has no toxic reaction. It has good electri- of corrosive influences, however, by cladding the exposed
cal and thermal conductivities and high reflectivity to both surface or surfaces with a thin layer of either pure alumi-
heat and light. The metal can easily be worked into any num or one of the more highly corrosion-resistant alloys.
form and readily accepts a wide variety of surface finishes. A word of caution should be mentioned in connection
Lightness is one of aluminum’s most useful characteris- with the corrosion-resistant characteristics of aluminum.
tics. The specific gravity is about 2.7. The mass (“weight”) Direct contacts with certain other metals should be avoided
of aluminum is roughly 35 percent that of iron and 30 per- in the presence of an electrolyte; otherwise galvanic corro-
cent that of copper. sion of the aluminum may take place in the vicinity of the
Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of contact area. Where other metals must be fastened to alu-
about 13,000 pounds per square inch. Thus its usefulness minum, the use of a bituminous paint coating or insulating
as a structural material in this form is somewhat limited. tape is recommended.
By working the metal, as by cold rolling, its strength can be The fact that aluminum is nontoxic was discovered in
approximately doubled. Much larger increases in strength the early days of the industry. It is this characteristic that
can be obtained by alloying aluminum with small percent- permits the metal to be used in cooking utensils without
ages of one or more other elements such as manganese, any harmful effect on the body, and today we find also a
silicon, copper, magnesium or zinc. Like pure aluminum, great deal of aluminum equipment in use by food process-
the alloys are also made stronger by cold working. Some ing industries. The same characteristic permits aluminum
of the alloys are further strengthened and hardened by heat foil wrapping to be used safely in direct contact with food
treatments so that today aluminum alloys having tensile products.
strengths approaching 100,000 pounds per square inch are Aluminum is one of the two common metals hav-
available. ing an electrical conductivity high enough for use as an
A wide variety of mechanical characteristics, or tem- electric conductor. The conductivity of electric conductor
pers, is available in aluminum alloys through various com- grade (1350) is about 62 percent that of the International
binations of cold work and heat treatment. In specifying Annealed Copper Standard. Because aluminum has less
the temper for any given product, the fabricating process than one-third the specific gravity of copper, however, a
and the amount of cold work to which it will subject the pound of aluminum will go about twice as far as a pound
metal should be kept in mind. In other words, the temper of copper when used for this purpose. Alloying lowers the
specified should be such that the amount of cold work conductivity somewhat, so that wherever possible alloy
the metal will receive during fabrication will develop the 1350 is used in electric conductor applications.
desired characteristics in the finished products. The high thermal conductivity of aluminum came prom-
Aluminum and its alloys lose part of their strength at inently into play in the very first large-scale commercial
elevated temperatures, although some alloys retain good application of the metal in cooking utensils. This character-
strength at temperatures from 400°F to 500°F. At subzero istic is important wherever the transfer of thermal energy
temperatures, however, their strength increases without from one medium to another is involved, either heating or
loss of ductility, so that aluminum is a particularly useful cooling. Thus aluminum heat exchangers are commonly
metal for low temperature applications. used in the food, chemical, petroleum, aircraft and other
When aluminum surfaces are exposed to the atmosphere, industries. Aluminum is also an excellent reflector of radi-
a thin invisible oxide skin forms immediately, which pro- ant energy through the entire range of wavelengths, from
tects the metal from further oxidation. This self-protecting ultraviolet, through the visible spectrum to infrared and
characteristic gives aluminum its high resistance to corro- heat waves, as well as electromagnetic waves of radio and
sion. Unless exposed to some substance or condition that radar.
destroys this protective oxide coating, the metal remains Aluminum has a light reflectivity of over 80 percent,
fully protected against corrosion. Aluminum is highly which has led to its wide use in lighting fixtures. Alumi-
resistant to weathering, even in industrial atmospheres that num roofing reflects a high percentage of the sun’s heat, so
often corrode other metals. It is also corrosion resistant that buildings roofed with this material are cooler insummer.

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 The ease with which aluminum may be fabricated into Even after many years of service most advantages of
any form is one of its most important assets. Often it can the painted sheet remain. It can be repainted with any good
compete successfully with cheaper materials having a lower grade of house paint with no danger of cracking or peeling,
degree of workability. The metal can be cast by any method such as is often experienced when paint is applied to other
known to foundrymen; it can be rolled to any desired thick- types of base materials.
ness down to foil thinner than paper; aluminum sheet can Painted sheet and the products made from it should be
be stamped, drawn, spun or roll-formed. The metal also handled with care to avoid damage to the paint film. Repair
may be hammered or forged. Aluminum wire, drawn from of large damaged areas is not recommended, but for repair
rolled rod, may be stranded into cable of any desired size of small areas air drying touch-up paint intended for brush
and type. There is almost no limit to the different profiles application is available from paint suppliers. Your painted
in which the metal may be extruded. sheet supplier should be contacted for precise information.
The ease and speed with which aluminum may be This touch-up paint cannot be expected to exhibit the same
machined is one of the important factors contributing to weathering and other characteristics as the original painted
the low cost of finished aluminum parts. The metal may sheet, and touched-up areas will present appearance differ-
be turned, milled, bored, or machined in other manners at ences after weather exposure. For this reason, use of touch-
the maximum speeds of which the majority of machines up paint should be held to a minimum.
are capable. Another advantage of its flexible machining Many types of paint systems are used, and it is diffi-
characteristics is that aluminum rod and bar may readily be cult to establish reasonable and meaningful standards for
employed in the high speed manufacture of parts by auto- all of them. Specific applications require consideration of
matic screw machines. life expectancy, forming requirements and methods, eco-
Almost any method of joining is applicable to alu- nomics, and so forth. Paint systems generally in use exhibit
minum: riveting, welding, brazing or soldering. A wide general characteristics as shown on Aluminum Standards
variety of mechanical aluminum fasteners simplifies the and Data 2013 pages 7-31 to 7-33, but for specific applica-
assembly of many products. Adhesive bonding of alumi- tions consult the painted sheet supplier.
num parts is widely employed, particularly in joining air- These are the characteristics that give aluminum its
craft components. extreme versatility. In the majority of applications, two
For the majority of applications, aluminum needs no or more of these characteristics come prominently into
protective coating. Mechanical finishes such as polishing, play—for example, light weight combined with strength
sand blasting or wire brushing meet the majority of needs. in airplanes, railroad cars, trucks and other transportation
In many instances, the surface finish supplied is entirely equipment. High resistance to corrosion and high thermal
adequate without further finishing. Where the plain alumi- conductivity are important in equipment for the chemical
num surface does not suffice, or where additional protection and petroleum industries; these properties combine with
is required, any of a wide variety of surface finishes may nontoxicity for food processing equipment.
be applied. Chemical, electrochemical and paint finishes Attractive appearance together with high resistance to
are all used. Many colors are available in both chemical weathering and low maintenance requirements have led to
and electrochemical finishes. If paint, lacquer or enamel is extensive use in buildings of all types. High reflectivity,
used, any color possible with these finishes may be applied. excellent weathering characteristics, and light weight are
Vitreous enamels have been developed for aluminum, and all important in roofing materials. Light weight contributes
the metal may also be electroplated. to low handling and shipping costs, whatever the application.
Aluminum sheet, because of its superior corrosion Many applications require the extreme versatility that
resistance and smooth continuous surface, is an excellent only aluminum has. Almost daily its unique combination
base for the high quality paints used in producing painted of properties is being put to work in new ways. The metal
sheet. The chemical pretreatment plus the application of now serves as a basic raw material for more than 20,000
high quality thermally cured paint assures a finish that businesses scattered throughout the country.
will exhibit no cracking, blistering, or peeling. Acciden-
tal damage to products made of painted aluminum sheet
will not result in unsightly rust areas or streaks. Experience
has shown that paint in the quality used for this product,
properly formulated, applied and cured, will show little
change in color or loss of gloss after one year’s service
in the adverse climatic conditions of south-central Florida.
Highly industrialized areas may cause some color
change due to atmospheric contaminants.
Proper maintenance can extend the service life consider-
ably—even the finest automobiles require occasional washing
and polishing if they are to retain their original appearance.

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Metallurgical Aspects
In high-purity form aluminum is soft and ductile. Most alloys. To increase the corrosion resis­tance of these alloys
commercial uses, however, require greater strength than in sheet and plate form, they are often clad with high-
pure aluminum affords. This is achieved in aluminum purity aluminum, a low magne­sium-silicon alloy, or an
first by the addition of other elements to produce various alloy containing 1 percent zinc. The cladding, usually from
alloys, which singly or in combi­nation impart strength to 2½ percent to 5 per­cent of the total thickness on each side,
the metal. Further strength­ening is possible by means that not only pro­tects the composite due to its own inherently
classify the alloys roughly into two categories, non-heat- excellent corrosion resistance but also exerts a galvanic
treatable and heat-treatable. effect, which further protects the core material.
non-heat-treatable alloys—The initial strength of alloys Special composites may be obtained such as clad non-
in this group depends upon the hardening effect of elements heat-treatable alloys for extra corrosion protection, for
such as manganese, silicon, iron and mag­nesium, singly or brazing purposes, or for special surface finishes. Some
in various combinations. The non-heat-treatable alloys are alloys in wire and tubular form are clad for similar rea­
usually designated, there­fore, in the 1xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx, or sons, and on an experimental basis extru­sions also have
5xxx series. Since these alloys are work-hard­enable, further been clad.
strength­ening is made possible by various degrees of cold annealing characteristics—All wrought aluminum
working, denoted by the “H” series of tempers. Al­loys al­loys are available in annealed form. In addition, it may be
containing appreciable amounts of magnesium when sup- desirable to anneal an alloy from any other initial temper,
plied in strain-hardened tempers are usually given a final after working, or between successive stages of working
elevated-temperature treatment called stabilizing to ensure such as in deep drawing.
stability of properties.
heat-treatable alloys—The initial strength of alloys in Effect of Alloying Elements
this group is enhanced by the addition of alloying elements
such as copper, magnesium, zinc, and sili­con. Since these 1xxx series—Aluminum of 99 percent or higher
pu­rity has many applications, especially in the electri-
elements singly or in various com­binations show increas­
cal and chemical fields. These compositions are charac­
ing solid solubility in alumi­num with increasing tempera­
terized by excellent corrosion resistance, high ther­mal
ture, it is possible to subject them to thermal treatments
and electrical conductivity, low mechanical prop­ erties
that will impart pronounced strengthening.
and excellent workability. Moderate increases in strength
The first step, called heat treatment or solution heat
may be obtained by strain-hardening. Iron and silicon are
treatment, is an elevated-temperature process de­signed to
the major impurities.
put the soluble element or elements in solid solution. This
2xxx series—Copper is the principal alloying element
is followed by rapid quenching, usually in water, which
momentarily “freezes” the structure and for a short time in this group. These alloys require solution heat-treatment
to obtain optimum properties; in the heat treated condition
renders the alloy very workable. It is at this stage that
mechanical properties are similar to, and sometimes exceed,
some fabricators retain this more workable structure by
those of mild steel. In some instances artificial aging is
storing the alloys at be­low freezing temperatures until they
employed to further increase the mechanical properties.
are ready to form them. At room or elevated temperatures
This treatment materially increases yield strength, with
the alloys are not stable after quenching, however, and
attendant loss in elongation; its effect on tensile (ultimate)
precipitation of the constituents from the super-sat­urated
strength is not so great. The alloys in the 2xxx series do not
solution begins. After a period of several days at room tem-
have as good corrosion resistance as most other aluminum
perature, termed aging or room-temper­ature precipita­tion,
alloys, and under certain conditions they may be subject
the alloy is considerably stronger. Many alloys approach a
to intergranular corrosion. Therefore, these alloys in the
stable condition at room tem­perature, but some alloys, par-
form of sheet are usu­ally clad with a high-purity alloy or a
ticularly those contain­ing magnesium and silicon or mag-
nesium and zinc, continue to age-harden for long periods magnesium-silicon alloy of the 6xxx series, which provides
galvanic protection to the core material and thus greatly
of time at room temperature.
increases resistance to corrosion. Alloy 2024 is per­haps the
By heating for a controlled time at slightly elevated tem-
best known and most widely used aircraft alloy.
peratures, even further strengthening is possible and prop-
3xxx series—Manganese is the major alloying ele­
erties are stabilized. This process is called artificial aging
ment of alloys in this group, which are generally non-
or precipitation hardening. By the proper combina­tion of
heat-treatable. Because only a limited percentage of man-
solution heat treatment, quench­ing, cold working and arti-
ganese, up to about 1.5 percent, can be effec­tively added
ficial aging, the highest strengths are obtained.
to aluminum, it is used as a major ele­ment in only a few
clad alloys—The heat-treatable alloys in which cop­per
instances. One of these, however, is the popular 3003,
or zinc are major alloying constituents are less resistant
which is widely used as a general purpose alloy for mod-
to corrosive attack than the majority of non-heat-treatable
erate-strength applications re­quiring good workability.

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 4xxx series—The major alloying element of this group
is silicon, which can be added in sufficient quantities to
cause substantial lowering of the melting point without
producing brittleness in the resulting alloys. For these rea-
sons aluminum-silicon alloys are used in welding wire and
as brazing alloys where a lower melting point than that
of the parent metal is required. Most alloys in this series
are non-heat-treatable, but when used in welding heat-­
treatable alloys they will pick up some of the alloying
constit­uents of the latter and so respond to heat treatment to
a limited extent. The alloys containing appreciable amounts
of silicon become dark grey when anodic oxide finishes
are applied, and hence are in demand for architec­tural
applications.
5xxx series—Magnesium is one of the most effective
and widely used alloying elements for aluminum. When it
is used as the major alloying element or with manganese,
the result is a moderate to high strength non-heat-treatable
alloy. Magnesium is considerably more effective than man-
ganese as a hardener, about 0.8 percent magnesium being
equal to 1.25 percent manganese, and it can be added in
considerably higher quantities. Alloys in this series pos-
sess good welding characteristics and good resistance to
corro­sion in marine atmosphere. However, certain limita­
tions should be placed on the amount of cold work and on
the safe operating temperatures permissible for the higher
magnesium content alloys (over about 3½ percent for oper-
ating temperatures above about 150°F) to avoid suscepti-
bility to stress corrosion.
6xxx series—Alloys in this group contain silicon and
magnesium in approximate proportions to form mag­
nesium silicide, thus making them heat-treatable. The
major alloy in this series is 6061, one of the most versa-
tile of the heat-treatable alloys. Though less strong than
most of the 2xxx or 7xxx alloys, the mag­nesium-silicon (or
magnesium-silicide) alloys possess good formability and
corrosion resistance, with me­dium strength. Alloys in this
heat-treatable group may be formed in the T4 temper (solu-
tion heat-treated but not artificially aged) and then reach
full T6 properties by artificial aging.
7xxx series—Zinc is the major alloying element in
this group, and when coupled with a smaller percent­age
of magnesium results in heat-treatable alloys of very high
strength. Usually other elements such as copper and chro-
mium are also added in small quantities. The out­standing
member of this group is 7075, which is among the highest
strength alloys available and is used in air-frame structures
and for highly stressed parts.

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Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum (ANSI H35.1 / H35.1(M)-2013)
Information Note: The Aluminum Association is the W For codification purposes an alloying element is any element that is
registrar under ANSI H35.1 / H35.1(M) with respect to intentionally added for any purpose other than grain refinement and for
which minimum and maximum limits are specified.
the designation and composition of aluminum alloys and E Standard limits for alloying elements and impurities are expressed
tempers registered in the United States, and is also the reg- to the following places:
istrar under an international accord on the composition and Less than 0.001 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.000X
greater than 0.001 but less than 0.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 0 0 X
designation of registered wrought aluminum alloys. Since greater than 0.01 but less than 0.10 percent
there is no international accord on designation and registra- Unalloyed aluminum made by a refining process . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0XX
tion of tempers for wrought aluminum alloys and wrought   Alloys and unalloyed aluminum not made by a
  refining process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 0 X
aluminum alloy prod­ ucts, reference to ANSI H35.1 / 0.10 through 0.55 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.XX
H35.1(M) properties and characteristics of wrought alumi- (It is customary to express limits of 0.30 percent through 0.55 percent
num alloy tempers registered with the Aluminum Associa- as 0.X0 or 0.X5)
Over 0.55 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.X, X.X, etc.
tion under ANSI H35.1 / H35.1(M) may not always reflect (except that combined Si + Fe limits for 1xxx designations must
actual properties and characteristics associated with the be expressed as 0.XX or 1.XX)
particular aluminum alloy temper. The user may wish to Aluminum, 99.00 percent and greater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1xxx
Aluminum alloys grouped by major alloying elements
confirm that expected properties denoted by specific tem- Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2xxx
per designation(s) are furnished. Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3xxx
NOTE: The user of this Aluminum Standards and Data Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4xxx
Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5xxx
manual should be aware that the alloy and temper desig- Magnesium and silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6xxx
nation systems, as reprinted from ANSI H35.1 / H35.1(M), Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7xxx
are those in effect at the time of this manual’s publication Other element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8xxx
Unused series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9xxx
but are subject to supersession by subsequent revisions of
this ANSI standard as it is updated. The designation assigned shall be in the 1xxx group
whenever the minimum aluminum content is specified as
1. Scope 99.00 percent or higher. The alloy designation in the 2xxx
This standard provides systems for designating wrought through 8xxx groups is determined by the alloy­ing element
aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys, aluminum and (Mg2Si for 6xxx alloys) present in the greatest mean per-
aluminum alloys in the form of cast­ ings and foundry centage, except in cases in which the alloy being registered
ingot, and the tempers in which aluminum and aluminum qualifies as a modification or variation of a previously reg-
alloy wrought products and aluminum alloy castings are istered alloy. If the greatest mean percentage is common to
pro­duced. Specific limits for chemical compositions and more than one alloying element, choice of group shall be
for mechanical and physical properties to which confor- in order of group sequence Cu, Mn, Si, Mg, Mg2Si, Zn or
mance is required are provided by applicable product stan- others.
dards. The last two digits identify the aluminum allor or indi-
NOTE: A numerical designation assigned in confor- cate the aluminum purity. the second digit indicates modi-
mance with this stan­dard should only be used to indicate an fications of the original alloy or impurity limits.
aluminum or an aluminum alloy having chemical composi­ R Standard limits for alloying elements and impurities are expressed in
tion limits identical to those registered with The Alumi­ the following sequence: Silicon; Iron; Copper; Manganese; Magnesium;
num Association and, for wrought aluminum and wrought Chromium; Nickel; Zinc; Titanium (see Note 1); Other (see Note 2) Ele-
ments, Each; Other (see Note 2) Elements, Total; Aluminum (see Note 3).
aluminum alloys, with the signatories of the Declaration of Note 1—Additional specified elements having limits are inserted in alphabeti-
Accord on an International Alloy Designation System for cal order according to their chemical symbols between Titanium and Other
Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys. Elements, Each, or are listed in footnotes.
Note 2—“Other” includes listed elements for which no specific limit is shown
as well as unlisted metallic elements. The producer may analyze samples
2. Wrought Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy for trace elements not specified in the registration or specification. However,
such analysis is not required and may not cover all metallic “other” elements.
Designation System Q W E R q Should any analysis by the producer or the purchaser establish that an “other”
element exceeds the limit of “Each” or that the aggregate of several “other”
A system of four-digit numerical designations is used to elements exceeds the limit of “Total”, the material shall be considered non-
identify wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys. conforming.
The first digit indicates the alloy group as follows: Note 3—Aluminum is specified as minimum for unalloyed aluminum, and as
a remainder for aluminum alloys.
Q Chemical composition limits and designations conforming to this stan- q Individual element limits (i.e. a maximum limit or a range) are required
dard for wrought aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys, and aluminum and for elements having a combined maximum limit in excess of 0.10%. In-
aluminum alloy castings and foundry ingot may be registered with The dividual element limits are not required for elements having a combined
Aluminum Association provided: (1) the aluminum or aluminum alloy is of- maximum limit of 0.10% or less.
fered for sale, (2) the complete chemical composition limits are registered,
and (3) the composition is significantly different from that of any aluminum
or aluminum alloy for which a numerical designation already has been
assigned.

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2.1 Aluminum made by a refining process, when the specified maximum limit is 0.XX,
an observed value or a calculated value greater than 0.005 but less than
0.010% is rounded off and shown as “less than 0.01”.
In the 1xxx group for minimum aluminum purities of
99.00 percent and greater, the last two of the four digits in (b) Addition or deletion of not more than one alloy­
the designation indicate the minimum alu­minum percent­age ing element with limits having an arithmetic mean of not
T. These digits are the same as the two digits to the right more than 0.30 percent or addition or deletion of not more
of the decimal point in the minimum aluminum percentage than one combination of elements ex­pressed as an alloying
when it is expressed to the nearest 0.01 percent. The second element with limits having a combined arithmetic mean of
digit in the designation indicates modifications in impurity not more than 0.40 per­cent.
limits or alloying elements. If the second digit in the desig- (c)  Substitution of one alloying element for another
nation is zero, it indi­cates unalloyed aluminum having natu- element serving the same purpose.
ral impurity limits; integers 1 through 9, which are assigned (d)  Change in limits for impurities expressed singly or
con­secutively as needed, indicate special control of one or as a combination.
more individual impurities or alloying elements. (e)  Change in limits for grain refining elements.
(f )  Maximum iron or silicon limits of 0.12 percent and
2.2 Aluminum Alloys 0.10 percent, or less, respectively, reflecting use of high
purity base metal.
In the 2xxx through 8xxx alloy groups the last two An alloy shall not be registered as a modification if it
of the four digits in the designation have no special sig­ meets the requirements for a variation.
nificance but serve only to identify the different alu­minum
alloys in the group. The second digit in the alloy desig- 2.3 Experimental Alloys
nation indicates original alloy and alloy modifications. If
the second digit in the designation is zero, it indicates the Experimental alloys are also designated in accor­dance
original alloy; integers 1 through 9, which are as­signed with this system, but they are indicated by the prefix X. The
consecutively, indicate alloy modifications. A modification prefix is dropped when the alloy is no longer experi­mental.
of the original alloy is limited to any one or a combination During development and before they are desig­nated as
of the following: experimental, new alloys are identified by serial numbers
(a) Change of not more than the following amounts assigned by their origi­nators. Use of the serial number is
in arithmetic mean of the limits for an individual al­loying discontinued when the X number is assigned.
element or combination of elements expressed as an alloy-
ing element or both. 2.4 Variations
Variations of wrought aluminum and wrought alumi-
Arithmetic Mean of
Limits for Alloying Maximum num alloys registered in accor­dance with this system are
Elements in Original Alloy Change identified by a serial letter after the numerical designation.
Up thru 1.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 The serial letters are assigned in alphabet­ical sequence
Over 1.0 thru 2.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20
Over 2.0 thru 3.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 starting with A but omitting I, O and Q.
Over 3.0 thru 4.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30 A variation has composition limits that are similar but
Over 4.0 thru 5.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 not identical to a modification or an original alloy, with
Over 5.0 thru 6.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40
Over 6.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50 differences such as:
(a) Change of not more than the following amounts in
To determine compliance when maximum and mini­ arithmetic mean of the limits for an individual al­loying
mum limits are specified for a combination of two or more element or combination of elements expressed as an alloy-
elements in one alloy composition, the arithmetic mean of ing element, or both:
such a combination is compared to the sum of the mean
Arithmetic Mean of
values of the same individual elements, or any combina­tion Limits for Alloying
thereof, in another alloy compo­sition. Elements in Original Maximum
Alloy or Modification Change
Up thru 1.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15
T The aluminum content for unalloyed aluminum made by a refining Over 1.0 thru 2.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20
process is the difference between 100.00 percent and the sum of all Over 2.0 thru 3.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25
other metallic elements together with silicon present in amounts of Over 3.0 thru 4.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30
0.0010 percent or more each, expressed to the third decimal before Over 4.0 thru 5.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35
Over 5.0 thru 6.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40
determining the sum, which is rounded to the second decimal before
Over 6.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50
subtracting; for unalloyed aluminum not made by a refining process it is
the difference between 100.00 percent and the sum of all other analyzed
metallic elements together with silicon present in amounts of 0.010 per-
cent or more each, expressed to the second decimal before determining To determine compliance when maximum and mini­
the sum. For unalloyed aluminum made by a refining process, when mum limits are specified for a combination of two or more
the specified maximum limit is 0.0XX, an observed value or a calcu-
elements in one alloy composition, the arithmetic mean of
lated value greater than 0.0005 but less than 0.0010% is rounded off
and shown as “less than 0.001”; for alloys and unalloyed aluminum not such a combination is compared to the sum of the mean

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values of the same individual elements, or any combina­tion Arithmetic Mean of
Limits for Alloying Maximum
thereof, in another alloy compo­sition. Elements in Original Alloy Change
Up thru 1.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15
(b)  Substitution of one alloying element for another el- Over 1.0 thru 2.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20
ement serving the same purpose. Over 2.0 thru 3.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25
Over 3.0 thru 4.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.30
(c)  Change in limits of impurities expressed singly or as Over 4.0 thru 5.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35
a combination except for low iron. Iron maximum of 0.12 Over 5.0 thru 6.0 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40
Over 6.0 percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.50
percent, or less, reflecting high purity base metal, should be
considered as an alloy modification.
To determine compliance when maximum and mini­
(d)  Change in limits on grain refining elements. mum limits are specified for a combination of two or more
(e)  Inclusion of a minimum limit for iron or silicon, or elements in one alloy composition, the arithmetic mean of
both. such a combination is compared to the sum of the mean
values of the same individual elements, or any combina­tion
An alloy shall not be registered as a new alloy or alloy thereof, in another alloy compo­sition.
modification if it meets the requirements for a variation.
(b) Addition or deletion of not more than one alloy­
3. Cast Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy ing element with limits having an arithmetic mean of not
Designation System Q W E R more than 0.30 percent or addition or deletion of not more
than one combination of elements expressed as an alloying
A system of four digit numerical designations is used element with limits having a combined arithmetic mean of
to identify aluminum and aluminum alloys in the form of not more than 0.40 percent.
castings and foundry ingot. The first digit indicates the
alloy group as follows: (c)  Substitution of one alloying element for another ele­
ment serving the same purpose.
Aluminum, 99.00 percent minimum and greater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1xx.x
Aluminum alloys grouped by major alloying elements (d)  Change in limits for impurities expressed singly or
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2xx.x
Silicon, with added copper and/or magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3xx.x
as a combination.
Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4xx.x
Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5xx.x
(e)  Change in limits for grain refining elements.
Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7xx.x
(f )  Iron or silicon maximum limits of 0.12 percent and
Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8xx.x
Other element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9xx.x 0.10 percent, or less, respectively, reflecting use of high
Unused series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6xx.x purity base metal.
The alloy group in the 2xx.x through 9xx.x excluding
6xx.x alloys is determined by the alloying element present 3.1 Aluminum Castings and Ingot
in the greatest mean percentage, except in cases in which
In the 1xx.x group for minimum aluminum purities
the alloy being registered qualified as a modification of a
of 99.00 percent and greater, the second two of the four
previously registered alloy. If the greatest mean percentage
digits in the designation indicate the minimum aluminum
is common to more than one alloying element, the alloy
percentage.% These digits are the same as the two digits to
group will be .deter­mined by the sequence shown above.
the right of the decimal point in the minimum aluminum
The second two digits identify the aluminum alloy percentage when it is expressed to the nearest 0.01 percent.
or indicate the aluminum purity. The last digit, which is The last digit, which is to the right of the decimal point,
separated from the others by a decimal point, indi­cates the indicates the product form: 1xx.0 indicates castings, and
product form: that is, castings or ingot. A modification of 1xx.1 indicates ingot.
the original alloy or impurity limits is indicated by a serial
letter before the numerical des­ignation. The serial letters
3.2 Aluminum Alloy Castings and Ingot
are assigned in alphabet­ical sequence starting with A but
omitting I, O, Q and X, the X being reserved for experi­ In the 2xx.x through 9xx.x alloy groups the second two
mental alloys. of the four digits in the designation have no spe­cial signifi­
cance but serve only to identify the different aluminum
A modification of the original alloy is limited to any one
alloys in the group. The last digit, which is to the right
or a combination of the following:
of the decimal point, indicates the prod­uct form: xxx.0
(a)  Change of not more than the following amounts in indicates castings, xxx.1 indicates in­got that has chemical
the arithmetic mean of the limits for an individual alloying composition limits conforming to 3.2.1, and xxx.2 indi­
element or combination of elements ex­ pressed as an cates ingot that has chemical composition limits that differ
alloying element or both: but fall within the limits of xxx.1 ingot.

For all numbered footnotes, see pages IV-9 - IV-10.

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3.2.1 Limits for Alloying Elements and Impurities 4. Temper Designation System Y
Limits for alloying elements and impurities for xxx.1 The temper designation system is used for all forms of
ingot are the same as for the alloy in the form of castings, wrought and cast aluminum and aluminum alloys except
except for the following: ingot. It is based on the sequences of basic treatments used
to produce the various tempers. The temper designation
Maximum Iron Percentage: follows the alloy designation, the two being separated by a
For All Forms of Castings For Ingot, Fe Shall be At Least hyphen. Basic temper des­ignations consist of letters. Sub­
Up thru 0.15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 less than castings divisions of the basic tempers, where required, are indicated
Over 0.15 thru 0.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 less than castings by one or more digits following the letter. These designate
Over 0.25 thru 0.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 less than castings
Over 0.6 thru 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 less than castings
spe­cific sequences of basic treatments, but only opera­tions
Over 1.0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 less than castings
recognized as significantly influencing the char­acteristics
of the product are indicated. Should some other variation
Minimum Magnesium Percentage*:
For All Forms of Castings For Ingot
of the same sequence of basic opera­tions be applied to the
Less than 0.50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 more than castings
same alloy, resulting in differ­ent characteristics, then addi-
0.50 and greater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 more than castings tional digits are added to the designation.
Maximum Zinc Percentage:
For Die Castings For Ingot 4.1 Basic Temper Designations
Over 0.25 thru 0.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 less than castings F as fabricated. Applies to the products of shaping processes in
Over 0.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 less than castings which no special control over thermal conditions or strain­har­d­
*Applicable only if magnesium is an alloying element (i.e. has a reg- ening is employed. For wrought products, there are no mechani­cal
istered minimum and maximum percentage). property limits.
O annealed. Applies to wrought products that are annealed to obtain
3.2.2  Identifiers for 3xx.x and 4xx.x Foundry the lowest strength temper, and to cast products that are annealed to
improve ductility and dimensional stability. The O may be followed
Ingot containing Structure Modifiers by a digit other than zero.
H strain-hardened (wrought products only). Applies to
One of the applicable suffixes in the table below should products that have their strength increased by strain-hardening,
be added to the registered alloy designation whenever a with or without supplementary thermal treatments to produce
structure modifier is intentionally added to that alloy. some reduction in strength. The H is always followed by two or
more digits.
Chemical Composition
W solution heat-treated. An unstable temper applicable only to
Alloy Structure Limits
alloys that spontaneously age at room temperature after so­lution
Designation Modifying Minimum Maximum heat-treatment. This designation is specific only when the period of
Suffix Element (%) (%) natural aging is indicated; for example: W ½ hr.
N Na 0.003 0.08 T thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than
F, O, or H. Applies to products that are thermally treated, with or
S Sr 0.005 0.08
without supplementary strain-hardening, to produce stable tempers.
C Ca 0.005 0.15 The T is always followed by one or more digits.
P P — 0.060
4.2 Subdivisions of Basic Tempers
(a) The letter suffix follows and is separated from the 4.2.1  Subdivision of H Temper: Strain-hardened
registered foundry ingot designation by a hyphen (e.g.,
“A356.1-S”)
(a)  The first digit following the H indicates the specific
combination of basic operations, as follows:
(b) In cases where more than one modifier is intention-
H1 strain-hardened only. Applies to products that are strain-hard­ened
ally added, only the modifier of greater concentration shall to obtain the desired strength without supplementary thermal treat-
be identified by suffix letter affixed to the registered alloy ment. The number following this designation indicates the degree of
designation. strain-hardening.
(c) Where foundry alloy is sold with a suffix added to its H2 strain-hardened and partially annealed. Applies to products
that are strain-hardened more than the desired final amount and
alloy designation, the modifying element’s concentration is not then reduced in strength to the desired level by partial annealing.
to be included in “Others, Each” or “Others, Total”. For alloys that age-soften at room temperature, the H2 tempers have
(d) It is not intended that these structure modifier iden- the same minimum ultimate tensile strength as the corresponding
H3 tempers. For other alloys, the H2 tempers have the same mini-
tifiers be treated as new alloy registration, nor should these mum ultimate tensile strength as the corresponding H1 tempers and
designations be listed in the Registration Record. slightly higher elongation. The number following this designation
indicates the degree of strain-hardening remaining after the product
has been partially annealed.
3.3 Experimental Alloys
Y Temper designations conforming to this standard for wrought aluminum
Experimental alloys are also designated in accor­dance
and wrought aluminum alloys, and aluminum alloy castings may be regis­tered
with this system, but they are indicated by the prefix X. The with the Aluminum Association provided: (1) the temper is used or is avail­able
prefix is dropped when the alloy is no longer experi­mental. for use by more than one user, (2) mechanical property limits are regis­tered,
During development and before they are desig­nated as (3) the characteristics of the temper are significantly different from those of all
other tempers that have the same sequence of basic treatments and for which
experimental, new alloys are identified by serial numbers designations already have been assigned for the same alloy and product, and
assigned by their origi­nators. Use of the serial number is (4) the following are also registered if characteristics other than mechanical
discontinued when the X number is assigned. properties are considered significant: (a) test methods and limits for the char-
acteristics or (b) the specific practices used to produce the temper.

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H3 
strain-hardened and stabilized. Applies to products that are Tempers between O (annealed) and HX8 are desig­nated
strain-hardened and whose mechanical properties are stabi­lized by numerals 1 through 7.
either by a low temperature thermal treatment or as a result of heat
introduced during fabrication. Stabilization usually improves duc-
—Numeral 4 designates tempers whose ultimate ten-
tility. This designation is applicable only to those alloys that, unless sile strength is approximately midway between that of the
stabilized, gradually age-soften at room temperature. The number O temper and that of the HX8 tempers;
following this designation indicates the degree of strain-hardening —Numeral 2 designates tempers whose ultimate ten-
remaining after the stabilization treatment. sile strength is approximately midway between that of the
H4 
strain-hardened and lacquered or painted. Applies to O temper and that of the HX4 tempers;
products which are strain-hardened and which are subjected
—Numeral 6 designates tempers whose ultimate tensile
to some thermal operation during the subsequent painting or
lacquer­
ing operation. The number following this designa- strength is approximately midway between that of the HX4
tion indicates the degree of strain-hardening remaining after tempers and that of the HX8 tem­pers;
the product has been thermally treated, as part of painting/ —Numerals 1, 3, 5 and 7 designate, similarly, tem­pers
lacquering cure operation. The corresponding H2X or H3X intermediate between those defined above.
mechanical property limits apply.
—Numeral 9 designates tempers whose minimum
ul­timate tensile strength exceeds that of the HX8 tem­pers
(b) The digit following the designation H1, H2, H3, and by 2 ksi or more. (For Metric Units by 10 MPa or more).
H4 indicates the degree of strain-hardening as identi­fied diate (-HX1, -HX3, -HX5, and HX7) tempers, deter-
by the minimum value of the ultimate tensile strength. mined as described above, shall be rounded to the nearest
Numeral 8 has been assigned to the hardest tempers nor- multiple of 0.5 ksi. (For Metric Units when not ending in 0
mally produced. The minimum tensile strength of tempers or 5, shall be rounded to the next higher 0 or 5 MPa.)
HX8 may be determined from Table 1 and is based on the
minimum tensile strength of the alloy in the annealed tem- (c) The third digit,U when used, indicates a var­iation
per. However, temper registrations prior to 1992 that do not of a two-digit temper. It is used when the de­gree of control
conform to the requirements of Table 1 shall not be revised of temper or the mechanical proper­ties or both differ from,
and registrations of intermediate or modified tempers for but are close to, that (or those) for the two-digit H tem-
such alloy/temper systems shall conform to the registration per designation to which it is added, or when some other
requirements that existed prior to 1992. characteristic is significantly affected. (See Appendix for
assigned three-digit H tempers.) NOTE: The minimum
Table 1 ulti­mate tensile strength of a three-digit H temper must be
US Customary Units at least as close to that of the corresponding two-digit H
Minimum tensile strength Increase in tensile strength temper as it is to the adjacent two-digit H tempers. Prod­
in annealed temper to HX8 temper ucts in the H temper whose mechanical properties are
ksi ksi
below H__1 shall be variations of H__1.
up to 6  8
7 to 9  9
10 to 12
13 to 15
10
11
4.2.2  Subdivision of T Temper:
16 to 18 12 Thermally Treated
19 to 24 13
25 to 30 14
31 to 36 15
(a) Numerals 1 through 10 following the T indi­cate
37 to 42 16 specific sequences of basic treatments, as follows:I
43 and over 17
T1 cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process
Metric Units and nat­ urally aged to a substantially stable condition.
Minimum tensile strength Increase in tensile strength Applies to prod­ucts that are not cold worked after cooling from
in annealed temper to HX8 temper an elevated temperature shaping process, or in which the effect of
MPa MPa cold work in flattening or straightening may not be recognized in
mechanical property limits.
up to 40 55
45 to 60 65 T2 cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process,
65 to 80 75 cold worked, and naturally aged to a substantially stable
85 to 100 85 condition. Applies to products that are cold worked to improve
105 to 120 90 strength after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process,
125 to 160 95 or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straight­ening is
165 to 200 100
205 to 240 105
recognized in mechanical property limits.
245 to 280 110
285 and 320 115 U Numerals 1 through 9 may be arbitrarily assigned as the third digit
325 and over 120
and registered with the Aluminum Association for an alloy and product to
indicate a variation of a two-digit H temper (see note Y).
I A period of natural aging at room temperature may occur between or after
the operations listed for the T tempers. Control of this period is exercised when
it is metallurgically important.

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T3 solution heat-treated,O cold worked, and naturally aged to products that are strain-hardened after annealing and
to a substantially stable condition. Applies to products that in which the effect of strain-hardening is recognized in
are cold worked to improve strength after solution heat-treatment,
or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is
the mechanical properties or other characteristics. (See
recognized in mechanical property limits. Appendix for specific additional digits for O tempers.)
T4 solution heat-treated O and naturally aged to a substan­
tially stable condition. Applies to products that are not cold
worked after solution heat-treatment, or in which the effect of A1 Three-Digit H Tempers
cold work in flattening or straightening may not be recognized in
mechanical property limits. (a) The following three-digit H temper designations
T5 cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process
and then artificially aged. Applies to products that are not cold
have been assigned for wrought products in all alloys:
worked after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process, H_11 Applies to products that incur sufficient strain hardening after the
or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straight­ening may final anneal that they fail to qualify as annealed but not so much
not be recognized in mechanical property limits. or so consistent an amount of strain hard­ening that they qualify as
T6 solution heat-treated O and then artificially aged. Applies H_1.
to products that are not cold worked after solution heat-treat­ment, or H112 Applies to products that may acquire some temper from work-
in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening may ing at an elevated temperature and for which there are mechanical
not be recognized in mechanical property limits. property limits.
T7 solution heat-treatedO and overaged/stabilized. Applies
to wrought products that are artificially aged after solution heat- (b) The following three-digit H temper designations have
treatment to carry them beyond a point of maximum strength to been assigned for
provide control of some significant characteristicP. Ap­plies to cast pattern or
products that are artificially aged after solution heat-treatment to embossed fabricated from
provide dimensional and strength stability. sheet
T8 solution heat-treated,O cold worked, and then artificially H114 O temper
aged. Applies to products that are cold worked to improve strength, H124, H224, H324 H11, H21, H31 temper, respectively
or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is H134, H234, H334 H12, H22, H32 temper, respectively
recognized in mechanical property limits. H144, H244, H344 H13, H23, H33 temper, respectively
T9 solution heat-treated,O artificially aged, and then cold H154, H254, H354 H14, H24, H34 temper, respectively
worked. Applies to products that are cold worked to improve H164, H264, H364 H15, H25, H35 temper, respectively
strength. H174, H274, H374 H16, H26, H36 temper, respectively
T10 cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, H184, H284, H384 H17, H27, H37 temper, respectively
cold worked, and then artificially aged. Applies to products H194, H294, H394 H18, H28, H38 temper, respectively
that are cold worked to improve strength, or in which the effect of H195, H295, H395 H19, H29, H39 temper, respectively
cold work in flattening or straightening is recognized in me­chanical
property limits.
(c) The following three-digit H temper designations
have been assigned only for wrought products in the 5xxx
(b) Additional digits,{ the first of which shall not be series, for which the magnesium content is 3% nominal or
zero, may be added to designations T1 through T10 to more:
indicate a variation in treatment that signifi­cantly alters the H116 Applies to products manufactured from alloys in the 5xxx series,
product characteristics that are or would be obtained using for which the magnesium content is 3% nominal or more. Products
are strain hardened at the last operation to specified stable tensile
the basic treatment. (See Appendix for specific additional property limits and meet specified levels of corrosion resistance in
digits for T tempers.) accelerated type corrosion tests. They are suitable for continuous
service at temperature no greater than 150o F (66oC). Corrosion
tests include inter-granular and exfoliation.
4.3  Variations of O Temper: Annealed H1 _8 Applies to products manufactured from alloys in the 5xxx
series, for which the magnesium content is 3% nominal or more.
Products are strain hardened at the last operation to specified
4.3.1 A digit following the O, when used, indicates a stable tensile property limits and are capable of meeting specified
product in the annealed condition having special character­ levels of corrosion resistance in accelerated type corrosion tests
istics. NOTE: As the O temper is not part of the strain- after a thermal treatment that is intended to demonstrate improved
corrosion performance in ambient conditions. They are suitable
hardened (H) series, variations of O temper shall not apply for continuous service at temperature no greater than 150°F
(66°C). Corrosion tests include inter-granular and exfoliation.
O Solution heat treatment is achieved by heating cast or wrought products to a
suitable temperature, holding at that temperature long enough to allow con­stituents H321 Applies to products from alloys in the 5xxx series, for which
to enter into solid solution and cooling rapidly enough to hold the con­stituents in the magnesium content is 3% nominal or more. Products are
solution. Some 6xxx series and some 7xxx series alloys attain the same specified thermally stabilized at the last operation to specified stable tensile
mechanical properties whether furnace solution heat treated or cooled from an
elevated temperature shaping process at a rate rapid enough to hold con­stituents in property limits and meet specified levels of corrosion resistance in
solution. In such cases the temper designa­tions T3, T4, T6, T7, T8, and T9 are used accelerated type corrosion tests. They are suitable for continuous
to apply to either process and are appropriate designations. service at temperatures no greater than 150o F (66oC). Corrosion
P For this purpose, characteristic is something other than mechanical properties. tests include inter-granular and exfoliation.
the test method and limit used to evaluate material for this characteristic are
specified at the time of the temper registration.
{ Additional digits may be arbitrarily assigned and registered with The Aluminum
Association for an alloy and product to indicate a variation of tempers T1 through
T10 even though the temper representing the basic treatment has not been
registered (see note ^). Variations in treatment that do not alter the characteristics
of the product are considered alternate treatments for which additional digits are
not assigned.

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A2 Additional Digits for T Tempers
The following temper designations have been assigned
to wrought products which are artificially overaged to
A2.1 Assigned Additional Digits for Stress- obtain a good compromise among exfoliation corrosion
Relieved Tempers resistance, stress corrosion resistance, fracture toughness,
and tensile strength.
The following specific additional digits have been These designations shall be applied when standardizing
­assigned for stress-relieved tempers of wrought products: new alloy-temper-product combinations.
T79 Very limited overaging to achieve some improved corrosion resis-
A2.1.1 Stress relieved by stretching 2 tance with limited reduction in strength as compared to the T6 Tem-
T_51 Applies to plate and rolled or cold-finished rod or bar, die or ring per.
forgings and rolled rings when stretched the indicated amounts T76 Limited overaged condition to achieve moderate corrosion resis-
after solution heat treatment or after cooling from an elevated tance with some reduction in strength. The T76 temper has lower
temperature shaping process. The products receive no further strength and better corrosion resistance than the T79 temper.
straightening after stretching. T74 Overaged condition to achieve good corrosion resistance with a
Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1½% to 3% permanent set. greater reduction in strength than the T76 temper. The T74 temper
strength and corrosion resistance properties are between those of
Rolled or the T73 and T76 tempers.
Cold-Finished T73 Fully overaged condition to achieve the best corrosion resistance of
Rod and Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% to 3% permanent set. the T7X tempers with a greater reduction in strength than the T74
temper.
Die or Ring
T77 Aged condition which provides strength at or near T6 temper and
Forgings and
corrosion resistance similar to T76 temper.
Rolled Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% to 5% permanent set.

T_510 Applies to extruded rod, bar, profiles (shapes) and tube and to The evolution of material properties from temper T79 to T73 is illus-
drawn tube when stretched the indicated amounts after solution trated in Figure 1.*
heat treatment or after cooling from an elevated temperature
shaping process. These products receive no further straightening
Property Temper T6 T79 T76 T74 T73
after stretching.
Extruded Rod +
Bar, Profiles (Shapes)
and Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% to 3% permanent set. Strength

Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ½% to 3% permanent set. -

+
T_511Applies to extruded rod, bar, profiles (shapes) and tube and to
drawn tube when stretched the indicated amounts after solution Corrosion Resistance
heat treatment or after cooling from an elevated temperature -
shaping process. These products may receive minor straightening
after stretching to comply with standard tolerances.
Figure 1
Extruded Rod,
Bar, Profiles (Shapes)
* The T77 temper does not fall within the continuous progression of the T7X
and Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 % to 3% permanent set.
tempers depicted in Figure 1.
Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ½% % to 3% permanent set.
A2.3 Assigned Temper Designations for
A2.1.2 Stress relieved by compressing 2 Producer/Supplier and Purchaser/User Heat
Treatment
T_52 Applies to products that are stress-relieved by com­pressing after
solution heat treatment or cooling from an elevated temperature
shaping process to produce a per­manent set of 1 percent to 5
percent.
A2.3.1 Temper Designations for Producer/
Supplier Laboratory Demonstration of
Response to Heat Treatment
A2.1.3 Stress relieved by combined stretching
and compressing 2 The following temper designations have been as­signed
for wrought products test material, furnace heat-treated
T_54 Applies to die forgings that are stress relieved by restriking cold in from annealed (O, O1, etc.) or F temper, to demonstrate
the finish die.
re­sponse to heat-treatment.

A2.2 Assigned Additional Digits for T7 Temper T42 Solution heat-treated from annealed or F temper and naturally
aged to a substantially stable condition.
Variations
T62 Solution heat-treated from annealed or F temper and artificially
aged.
2 The same digits (51, 510, 511, 52, 54) may be added to the designation T7_2 Solution heat-treated from annealed or F temper and artificially
overaged to meet the mechanical properties and corrosion
W to indicate unstable solution heat-treated and stress-relieved tempers.
resistance limits of the T7_ temper.

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A2.3.2 Temper Designations for Producer/ A4  Designation of Unregistered Tempers
Supplier Demonstration of Response to
The letter P has been assigned to denote H, T and O
Temper Conversion temper variations that are negotiated between manufac­
Temper designation T_2 shall be used to indicate turer and purchaser. The letter P immedi­ately follows the
wrought product test material, which has undergone fur- temper designation that most nearly pertains. Specific
nace heat-treatment for capability demonstration of tem- examples where such designation may be applied include
per conver­sion. When the purchaser requires capability the following:
demonstra­tions from T-temper, the seller shall note “Capa- (a) The use of the temper is sufficiently limited so as to
bility Demonstration” adjacent to the specified and ending preclude its registration. (Negotiated H temper varia­tions
tempers. Some examples are: were formerly indicated by the third digit zero.)
(a) “T3 to T82 Capability Demonstration for response (b) The test conditions (sampling location, num­ber of
to aging”; samples, test specimen configuration, etc.) are different
(b) “T4 to T62 Capability Demonstration for response from those required for registration with The Aluminum
to aging”; Association.
(c) “T4 to T762 Capability Demonstration for response
to overaging”;
(d) “T6 to T732 Capability Demonstration for response
to overaging”;
(e) “T351 to T42 Capability Demonstration for response
to re-solution heat-treatment”.

A2.3.3 Temper Designation for Purchaser/User

Heat-treatment
Temper designation T_2 should also be applied to
wrought products heat-treated by the purchaser/user, in
accordance with the applicable heat treatment specifica-
tion, to achieve the properties applicable to the final temper.

A3 Assigned O Temper Variations

The following temper designations have been as­signed
for:

A3.1 Wrought Products High Temperature

Annealed to Accentuate Ultrasonic
Response and Provide Dimensional
Stability
O1 Thermally treated at approximately same time and tempera­ture
required for solution heat treatment and slow cooled to room
temperature. Applicable to products that are to be machined
prior to solution heat treatment by the user. Mechanical property
limits are not applicable.

A3.2 Temper Designation for Producer

Laboratory Demonstration of Response
to Annealing
O2 Wrought product test material, furnace annealed from the F
temper, to determine the minimum limits upon which H temper
designations are assigned.

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 Table 1
Comparative Characteristics and Applications
RESISTANCE
TO WELDABILITY Y

Workability (Cold)
CORROSION

Machinability T
SOME

Brazeability Y
ALLOY AND TEMPER APPLICATIONS

Cracking W

Resistance
General Q

Corrosion
OF ALLOYS

Spot and
Stress-

Seam
Gas

Arc
T
1060-O A A A E A A A B Chemical equipment, railroad tank cars
     H12 A A A E A A A A
     H14 A A A D A A A A
     H16 A A B D A A A A
     H18 A A B D A A A A
1100-O A A A E A A A B Sheet metal work, spun hollowware,
     H12 A A A E A A A A fin stock
     H14 A A A D A A A A
     H16 A A B D A A A A
     H18 A A C D A A A A
1350-O A A A E A A A B Electrical conductors
     H12, H111 A A A E A A A A
     H14, H24 A A A D A A A A
     H16, H26 A A B D A A A A
     H18 A A B D A A A A
2011-T3 DE D C A D D D D Screw machine products
     T4, T451 DE D B A D D D D
     T8 D B D A D D D D
2014-O .. .. .. D D D D B Truck frames, aircraft structures
     T3, T4, T451 DE C C B D D B B
     T6, T651, T6510, T6511 D C D B D D B B
2017-T4, T451 DE C C B D D B B Screw machine products, fittings
2018-T61 .. .. .. B D D C B Aircraft engine cylinders, heads and
pistons
2024-O .. .. .. D D D D D Truck wheels, screw machine products,
     T4, T3, T351, T3510, T3511 DE C C B D C B B aircraft structures
     T361 DE C D B D D C B
     T6 D B C B D D C B
     T861, T81, T851, T8510, T8511 D B D B D D C B
     T72 .. .. .. B D D C B
2025-T6 D C .. B D D B B Forgings, aircraft propellers
2036-T4 C .. B C D C B B Auto body panel sheet
2117-T4 C A B C D D B B Rivets
2124-T851 D B D B D D C B Aircraft structures
2218-T61 D C .. .. D D C B Jet engine impellers and rings
     T72 D C .. B D D C B
2219-O .. .. .. .. D D A B Structural uses at high temperatures
     T31, T351, T3510, T3511 DE C C B D A A A (to 600°F)
     T37 DE C D B D A A A High strength weldments
     T81, T851, T8510, T8511 D B D B D A A A
     T87 D B D B D A A A
2618-T61 D C .. B D D C B Aircraft engines
3003-O A A A E A A A B Cooking utensils, chemical equipment,
     H12 A A A E A A A A pressure vessels, sheet metal work,
     H14 A A B D A A A A builder’s hardware, storage tanks
     H16 A A C D A A A A
     H18 A A C D A A A A
     H25 A A B D A A A A
3004-O A A A D B A A B Sheet metal work, storage tanks
     H32 A A B D B A A A
     H34 A A B C B A A A
     H36 A A C C B A A A
     H38 A A C C B A A A
3105-O A A A E A A A B Residential siding, mobile homes, rain
     H12 A A B E A A A A carrying goods, sheet metal work
     H14 A A B D A A A A
     H16 A A C D A A A A
     H18 A A C D A A A A
     H25 A A B D A A A A

For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-20.

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 Table 1
Comparative Characteristics and Applications (Continued)
RESISTANCE
TO WELDABILITY Y

Workability (Cold)
CORROSION

Machinability T
SOME

Brazeability Y
ALLOY AND TEMPER APPLICATIONS

Cracking W

Resistance
General Q

Corrosion
OF ALLOYS

Spot and
Stress-

Seam
Gas

Arc
T
4032-T6 C B .. B D D B C Pistons
5005-O A A A E B A A B Appliances, utensils, architectural,
     H12 A A A E B A A A electrical conductor
     H14 A A B D B A A A
     H16 A A C D B A A A
     H18 A A C D B A A A
     H32 A A A E B A A A
     H34 A A B D B A A A
     H36 A A C D B A A A
     H38 A A C D B A A A
5050-O A A A E B A A B Builder’s hardware, refrigerator trim,
     H32 A A A D B A A A coiled tubes
     H34 A A B D B A A A
     H36 A A C C B A A A
     H38 A A C C B A A A
5052-O A A A D C A A B Sheet metal work, hydraulic tube,
     H32 A A B D C A A A appliances
     H34 A A B C C A A A
     H36 A A C C C A A A
     H38 A A C C C A A A
5056-O AR BR A D D C A B Cable sheathing, rivets for magnesium,
     H111 AR BR A D D C A A screen wire, zipper
     H12, H32 AR BR B D D C A A
     H14, H34 AR BR B C D C A A
     H18, H38 AR CR C C D C A A
     H192 BR DR D B D C A A
     H392 BR DR D B D C A A
5083-O AR AR B D D C A B
H32 I AR AR C D D C A A
     H321 I AR AR C D D C A A
     H111 AR BR C D D C A A Unfired, welded pressure vessels,
     H116 I AR AR C D D C A A marine, auto aircraft cryogenics,
TV towers, drilling rigs, transportation
5086-O AR AR A D D C A B equipment, missile components
    H32 I AR AR B D D C A A
    H34 AR BR B C D C A A
    H36 AR BR C C D C A A
    H111 AR AR B D D C A A
    H116 I AR AR B D D C A A
5154-O AR AR A D D C A B Welded structures, storage tanks,
     H32 AR AR B D D C A A pressure vessels, salt water service
     H34 AR AR B C D C A A
     H36 AR AR C C D C A A
     H38 AR AR C C D C A A
5252-H24 A A B D C A A A Automotive and appliance trim
     H25 A A B C C A A A
     H28 A A C C C A A A
5254-O AR AR A D D C A B Hydrogen peroxide and chemical
     H32 AR AR B D D C A A storage vessels
     H34 AR AR B C D C A A
     H36 AR AR C C D C A A
     H38 AR AR C C D C A A
5454-O A A A D D C A B Welded structures, pressure vessels,
     H32 A A B D D C A A marine service
     H34 A A B C D C A A
     H111 A A B D D C A A
5456-O AR BR B D D C A B
H32 I AR BR C D D C A A High strength welded structures,
     H321 I AR BR C D D C A A pressure vessels, marine applications,
     H116 I AR BR C D D C A A storage tanks
5457-O A A A E B A A B

For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-20.

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 Table 1
Comparative Characteristics and Applications (Concluded)
RESISTANCE
TO WELDABILITY Y

Workability (Cold)
CORROSION

Machinability T
SOME

Brazeability Y
ALLOY AND TEMPER APPLICATIONS

Cracking W

Resistance
General Q

Corrosion
OF ALLOYS

Spot and
Stress-

Seam
Gas

Arc
T
5657-H241 A A A D B A A A Anodized auto and appliance trim
     H25 A A B D B A A A
     H26 A A B D B A A A
     H28 A A C D B A A A
6005-T1, T5 B A .. .. A A A A
Truck,
marine, railroad car
6005A-T1, T5 B A B C A A A A
Extruded profiles, structures, ladders,
6005A-T61 B A C C A A A A construction

6053-O .. .. .. E B A A B Wire and rod for rivets

     T6, T61 A A .. C B A A A
6061-O B A A D A A A B Heavy-duty structures requiring good
     T4, T451, T4510, T4511 B B B C A A A A corrosion resistance, truck and marine,
     T6, T651, T652, T6510, T6511 B A C C A A A A railroad cars, furniture, pipelines
6063-T1 A A B D A A A A Pipe railing, furniture, architectural
     T4 A A B D A A A A extrusions
     T5, T52 A A B C A A A A
     T6 A A C C A A A A
     T83, T831, T832 A A C C A A A A
6066-O C A B D D D B B Forgings and extrusion for welded
     T4, T4510, T4511 C B C C D D B B structures
     T6, T6510, T6511 C B C B D D B B
6070-T4, T4511 B B B C D A A A Heavy duty welded structures, pipelines
     T6 B B C C D A A A
6082-T6, T6511 B A C C A A A A Heavy-duty structures requiring good
corrosion resistance, truck and marine,
railroad cars, furniture, pipelines
6101-T6, T63 A A C C A A A A High strength bus conductors
     T61, T64 A A B D A A A A
6151-T6, T652 .. .. .. .. B .. .. .. Moderate strength, intricate forgings
for machine and auto parts
6201-T81 A A .. C A A A A High strength electric conductor wire
6262-T6, T651, T6510, T6511 B A C B B B B A Screw machine products
     T9 B A D B B B B A
6351-T1 .. .. C C C B A B Extruded profiles, structurals, pipe and
     T4 A .. C C C B A B tube
     T5 A .. C C C B A A
     T6 A .. C C C B A A
6360-T5 A A B C A A A A Architectural extrusion, furniture,
     T6 A A C C A A A A extruded profiles, pipe
6463-T1 A A B D A A A A Extruded architectural and trim sections
     T5 A A B C A A A A
     T6 A A C C A A A A
6951-T42, T62 .. .. .. .. A A A A
7005-T53 .. .. .. .. B C A A
7049-T73, T7352 C B D B D D D B Aircraft forgings
7050-T73510, T73511 C B D B D D D B Aircraft and other structures
     T74 U, T7451 U, T74510 U,
T74511 U, T7452 U, T7651,
T76510, T76511
7075-O .. .. .. D D D D B Aircraft and other structures
     T6, T651, T652, T6510, T6511 CE C D B D D D B
     T73, T7351 C B D B D D D B
7175-T74, T7452, T7454 C B D B D D C B
7475-O .. .. .. .. D D D B Shell Casings
7475-T61, -T651 C C D B D D B B Aircraft & Other
7475-T761, T7351 C B D B D D D B Structures
8017-H12, H22, H221 A A A D A A A A Electrical conductors
8030-H12, H221 A A A E A A A A Electrical conductors
8176-H14, H24 A A A D A A A A Electrical conductors
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-20.

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 Footnotes for Table 1
Q Ratings A through E are relative ratings in decreasing order of merit, Machinability, are relative ratings in decreasing order of merit.
based on exposures to sodium chloride solution by intermittent spraying or Y Ratings A through D for Weldability and Brazeability are relative ratings
immersion. Alloys with A and B ratings can be used in industrial and seacoast defined as follows:
atmospheres without protection. Alloys with C, D and E ratings generally A = Generally weldable by all commercial procedures and methods.
should be protected at least on faying surfaces. B = Weldable with special techniques or for specific applications that
W Stress-corrosion cracking ratings are based on service experience and on justify preliminary trials or testing to develop welding procedure and
laboratory tests of specimens exposed to the 3.5% sodium chloride alternate weld performance.
immersion test. C = Limited weldability because of crack sensitivity or loss in resistance
A = No known instance of failure in service or in laboratory tests. to corrosion and mechanical properties.
B = No known instance of failure in service; limited failures in laboratory D = No commonly used welding methods have been developed.
tests of short transverse specimens. U T74 type tempers, although not previously registered, have appeared in
C= Service failures with sustained tension stress acting in short various literature and specifications as T736 type tempers.
transverse direction relative to grain structure; limited failures in I 5xxx products in the -H116 and H32X tempers have similar properties
laboratory tests of long transverse specimens. and have the same testing requirements, but are produced by different
D = Limited service failures with sustained longitudinal or long transverse practices. The -H116 and -H321 tempers are typically used in marine and
areas. other applications requiring demonstrations of intergranular and exfoliation
These ratings are neither product specific nor test direction specific and corrosion resistance. Products in the -H32 temper have similar tensile
therefore indicate only the general level of stress-corrosion cracking properties and while production methods may be similar, corrosion testing
resistance. For more specific information on certain alloys, see ASTM G64. requirements are different, therefore, -H32 temper products shall not be
E In relatively thick sections the rating would be E. substituted for -H116 or -H321 products.
R This rating may be different for material held at elevated temperature for
long periods.
T Ratings A through D for Workability (cold), and A through E for

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 Table 2
Mechanical Property Limits for Commonly Used
Aluminum Sand Casting Alloys 1
MINIMUM PROPERTIES Typical Brinell
Tensile Strength % Elongation Hardness 4
Alloy Temper 2
Ultimate Yield (0.2% Offset) in 2 inches or 4 500 – kgf load
ksi ( MPa ) ksi ( MPa ) times diameter 10 – mm ball
201.0 T7 60.0 ( 415 ) 50.0 ( 345 ) 3.0 110–140
204.0 T4 45.0 ( 310 ) 28.0 ( 195 ) 6.0 —
208.0 F 19.0 ( 130 ) 12.0 ( 85 ) 1.5 40–70
222.0 0 23.0 ( 160 ) — — — 65–95
222.0 T61 30.0 ( 205 ) — — — 100–130
242.0 0 23.0 ( 160 ) — — — 55–85
242.0 T571 29.0 ( 200 ) — — — 70–100
242.0 T61 32.0 ( 220 ) 20.0 ( 140 ) — 90–120
242.0 T77 24.0 ( 165 ) 13.0 ( 90 ) 1.0 60–90
295.0 T4 29.0 ( 200 ) 13.0 ( 90 ) 6.0 45–75
295.0 T6 32.0 ( 220 ) 20.0 ( 140 ) 3.0 60–90
295.0 T62 36.0 ( 250 ) 28.0 ( 195 ) — 80–110
295.0 T7 29.0 ( 200 ) 16.0 ( 110 ) 3.0 55–85
319.0 F 23.0 ( 160 ) 13.0 ( 90 ) 1.5 55–85
319.0 T5 25.0 ( 170 ) — — — 65–95
319.0 T6 31.0 ( 215 ) 20.0 ( 140 ) 1.5 65–95
328.0 F 25.0 ( 170 ) 14.0 ( 95 ) 1.0 45–75
328.0 T6 34.0 ( 235 ) 21.0 ( 145 ) 1.0 65–95
355.0 T51 25.0 ( 170 ) 18.0 ( 125 ) — 50–80
355.0 T6 32.0 ( 220 ) 20.0 ( 140 ) 2.0 70–105
355.0 T7 35.0 ( 240 ) — — — 70–100
355.0 T71 30.0 ( 205 ) 22.0 ( 150 ) — 60–95
C355.0 T6 35.0 ( 250 ) 25.0 ( 170 ) 2.5 75–105
356.0 F 19.0 ( 130 ) — — 2.0 40–70
356.0 T51 23.0 ( 160 ) 16.0 ( 110 ) — 45–75
356.0 T6 30.0 ( 205 ) 20.0 ( 140 ) 3.0 55–90
356.0 T7 31.0 ( 215 ) 29.0 ( 200 ) — 60–90
356.0 T71 25.0 ( 170 ) 18.0 ( 125 ) 3.0 45–75
A356.0 T6 34.0 ( 235 ) 24.0 ( 165 ) 3.5 70–105
357.0 — — — — — — —
A357.0 — — — — — — —
359.0 — — — — — — —
443.0 F 17.0 ( 115 ) 7.0 ( 50 ) 3.0 25–55
B433.0 F 17.0 ( 115 ) 6.0 ( 40 ) 3.0 25–55
512.0 F 17.0 ( 115 ) 10.0 ( 70 ) — 35–65
514.0 F 22.0 ( 150 ) 9.0 ( 60 ) 6.0 35–65
520.0 T4 5 42.0 ( 290 ) 22.0 ( 150 ) 12.0 60–90
535.0 F or T5 35.0 ( 240 ) 18.0 ( 125 ) 9.0 60–90
705.0 F or T5 30.0 ( 205 ) 17.0 ( 115 ) 5.0 50–80
707.0 T5 33.0 ( 230 ) 22.0 ( 150 ) 2.0 70–100
707.0 T7 37.0 ( 255 ) 30.0 ( 205 ) 1.0 65–95
710.0 F or T5 32.0 ( 220 ) 20.0 ( 140 ) 2.0 60–90
712.0 F or T5 34.0 ( 235 ) 25.0 ( 170 ) 4.0 60–90
713.0 F or T5 32.0 ( 220 ) 22.0 ( 150 ) 3.0 60–90
771.0 T5 42.0 ( 290 ) 38.0 ( 260 ) 1.5 85–115
771.0 T51 32.0 ( 220 ) 27.0 ( 165 ) 3.0 70–100
771.0 T52 36.0 ( 250 ) 30.0 ( 205 ) 1.5 70–100
771.0 T53 36.0 ( 250 ) 27.0 ( 185 ) 1.5 —
771.0 T6 42.0 ( 290 ) 35.0 ( 240 ) 5.0 75–105
771.0 T71 48.0 ( 330 ) 45.0 ( 310 ) 2.0 105–135
850.0 T5 16.0 ( 110 ) — — 5.0 30–60
851.0 T5 17.0 ( 115 ) — — 3.0 30–60
852.0 T5 24.0 ( 165 ) 18.0 ( 125 ) — 45–75
1 Values represent properties obtained from separately cast lest bars and are derived from ASTM B26, Standard Specification for Aluminum-Alloy Sand Castings;
Federal Specification QQ-A-601e, Aluminum Alloy Sand Castings; and Military Specification MIL-A-21180c, Aluminum Alloy Castings, High Strength. Unless
otherwise specified, the tensile strength, yield strength and elongation values of specimens cut from castings shall be not less than 75 percent of the tensile and
yield strength values and not less than 25 percent of the elongation values given above. The customer should keep in mind that (1) some foundries may offer
additional tempers for the above alloys, and (2) foundries are constantly improving casting techniques and, as a result, some may offer minimum properties in
excess of the above. If quality level 4 castings are specified as described in Table 1 of AA-CS-M5-85, no tensile tests shall be specified nor tensile requirements be
met on specimens cut from castings.
2 F indicates “as cast” condition; refer to AA-CS-M11 for recommended times and temperatures of heat treatment for other tempers to achieve properties specified.
3 Footnote no longer in use.
4 Hardness values are given for information only; not required for acceptance.
5 The T4 temper of Alloy 520.0 is unstable; significant room temperature aging occurs within life expectancy of most castings. Elongation may decrease by as
much as 80 percent.

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 Table 3
Mechanical Property Limits for Commonly Used
Permanent Mold Casting Alloys 1
MINIMUM PROPERTIES Typical Brinell
Tensile Strength % Elongation Hardness 3
Alloy Temper 2
Ultimate Yield (0.2% Offset) in 2 inches or 4 500 – kgf load
ksi ( MPa ) ksi ( MPa ) times diameter 10 – mm ball
204.0 T4 48.0 ( 330 ) 29.0 ( 200 ) 8.0 —
208.0 T4 33.0 ( 230 ) 15.0 ( 105 ) 4.5 60–90
208.0 T6 35.0 ( 240 ) 22.0 ( 150 ) 2.0 75–105
208.0 T7 33.0 ( 230 ) 16.0 ( 110 ) 3.0 65–95
222.0 T551 30.0 ( 205 ) — — — 100–130
222.0 T65 40.0 ( 275 ) — — — 125–155
242.0 T571 34.0 ( 230 ) — — — 90–120
242.0 T61 40.0 ( 275 ) — — — 95–125
298.0 T6 35.0 ( 240 ) — — 2.0 75–105
308.0 F 24.0 ( 165 ) — — 2.0 55–85
319.0 F 28.0 ( 195 ) 14.0 ( 95 ) 1.5 70–100
319.0 T6 34.0 ( 235 ) — — 2.0 75–105
332.0 T5 31.0 ( 215 ) — — — 90–120
333.0 F 28.0 ( 195 ) — — — 65–100
333.0 T5 30.0 ( 205 ) — — — 70–106
333.0 T6 35.0 ( 240 ) — — — 65–115
333.0 T7 31.0 ( 215 ) — — — 75–105
336.0 T551 31.0 ( 215 ) — — — 90–120
336.0 T65 40.0 ( 275 ) — — — 110–140
354.0 T61 48.0 ( 330 ) 37.0 ( 255 ) 3.0 —
354.0 T62 52.0 ( 360 ) 42.0 ( 290 ) 2.0 —
355.0 T51 27.0 ( 185 ) — — — 60–90
355.0 T6 37.0 ( 255 ) — — 1.5 75–105
355.0 T62 42.0 ( 290 ) — — — 90–120
355.0 T7 36.0 ( 250 ) — — — 70–100
355.0 T71 34.0 ( 235 ) 27.0 ( 185 ) — 85–95
C355.0 T61 40.0 ( 275 ) 30.0 ( 205 ) 3.0 75–105
356.0 F 21.0 ( 145 ) — — 3.0 40–70
356.0 T51 25.0 ( 170 ) — — — 55–85
356.0 T6 33.0 ( 230 ) 22.0 ( 150 ) 3.0 65–95
356.0 T7 25.0 ( 170 ) — — 3.0 60–90
356.0 T71 25.0 ( 170 ) — — 3.0 60–90
A356.0 T61 37.0 ( 255 ) 26.0 ( 180 ) 5.0 70–100
357.0 T6 45.0 ( 310 ) — — 3.0 75–105
A357.0 T61 45.0 ( 310 ) 36.0 ( 250 ) 3.0 85–115
359.0 T61 45.0 ( 310 ) 34.0 ( 235 ) 4.0 75–105
359.0 T62 47.0 ( 325 ) 38.0 ( 260 ) 3.0 85–115
443.0 F 21.0 ( 145 ) 7.0 ( 50 ) 2.0 30–60
B443.0 F 21.0 ( 145 ) 6.0 ( 40 ) 2.5 30–60
A444.0 T4 20.0 ( 140 ) — — 20.0 —
513.0 F 22.0 ( 150 ) 12.0 ( 85 ) 2.5 45–75
535.0 F 35.0 ( 240 ) 18.0 ( 125 ) 8.0 60–90
705.0 T5 37.0 ( 255 ) 17.0 ( 120 ) 10.0 55–85
707.0 T7 45.0 ( 310 ) 35.0 ( 240 ) 3.0 80–110
711.0 T1 28.0 ( 195 ) 18.0 ( 125 ) 7.0 55–86
713.0 T5 32.0 ( 220 ) 22.0 ( 150 ) 4.0 60–90
850.0 T5 18.0 ( 125 ) — — 8.0 30–60
851.0 T5 17.0 ( 115 ) — — 3.0 30–60
851.0 T6 16.0 ( 125 ) — — 8.0 —
852.0 T5 27.0 ( 185 ) — — 3.0 55–85
1 Values represent properties obtained from separately cast test bars and are derived from ASTM B-108, Standard Specification for Aluminum-Alloy Permanent Mold
Castings; Federal Specification QQ-A-596d, Aluminum Alloy Permanent and Semi-Permanent Mold Castings; and Military Specification MIL-A-21180c, Aluminum
Alloy Castings, High Strength. Unless otherwise specified, the average tensile strength, average yield strength and average elongation values of specimens cut from
castings shall be not less than 75 percent of the tensile strength and yield values and not less than 25 percent of the elongation values given above. The customer
should keep in mind that (1) some foundries may offer additional tempers for the above alloys, and (2) foundries are constantly improving casting techniques and, as a
result, some may offer minimum properties in excess of the above.
2 F indicates “as cast” condition; refer to AA-CS-M11 for recommended times and temperatures of heat treatment for other tempers to achieve properties specified.
3 Hardness values are given for information only; not required for acceptance.

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 Table 4
Mechanical Property Limits of Fastener Alloys Q
Tensile Strength Elongation W Ultimate
Specified
Alloy and ksi min. percent Shearing
Diameter
Temper min. in. Strength
in. Ultimate Yield W 2 in. or 4D E ksi min.
2017-T4 0.063–1.000 55.0 32.0 12 33.0
2024-T42 0.063–0.124 62.0 .. .. 37.0
0.125–1.000 62.0 40.0 10 37.0
2117-T4 0.063–1.000 38.0 18.0 18 26.0
2219-T6 0.063–1.000 55.0 35.0  6 30.0
6053-T61 0.063–1.000 30.0 20.0 14 20.0
6061-T6 0.063–1.000 42.0 35.0 10 25.0
7050-T7 0.063–1.000 70.0 58.0 10 39.0
7075-T6 0.063–1.000 77.0 66.0  7 42.0
7075-T73 0.063–1.000 68.0 56.0 10 41.0

Q Rivet and cold heading wire and rod, and the fasteners produced from it, shall upon proper heat treatment (T4 and T42 tempers) or heat treatment and aging
(T6, T61, T7 and T73 tempers) be capable of developing the properties presented in Table 4. Tensile tests are preferred for the rivet and cold heading wire and
rod, and shear tests for the fasteners made from it.
W The measurement of elongation and yield strength is not required for wire less than 0.125 inch in thickness or diameter.
E D represents specimen diameter.

Table 4M
Mechanical Property Limits of Fastener Alloys Q
SPECIFIED TENSILE STRENGTH ELONGATION W E ULTIMATE
ALLOY AND MPa min percent min
DIAMETER SHEARING STRENGTH
TEMPER
mm ULTIMATE YIELD W 50 mm 5D (5.65 a ) MPa min
2017-T4 1.60–25.00 380 220 12 10 225
2024-T42 1.60–3.15 425 .. .. .. 255
3.15–25.00 425 275 10  9 255
2117-T4 1.60–25.00 260 125 18 16 180
2219-T6 1.60–25.00 380 240  6  5 205
6053-T61 1.60–25.00 205 135 14 12 135
6061-T6 1.60–25.00 290 240 10  9 170
7050-T7 1.60–25.00 485 400 10  9 270
7075-T6 1.60–25.00 530 455  7  6 290
7075-T73 1.60–25.00 470 385 10  9 280
 
Q Rivet and cold heading wire and rod, and the fasteners produced from it, shall upon proper heat treatment (T4 and T42 tempers) or heat treatment and
aging (T6, T61, T7 and T73 tempers) be capable of developing the properties presented in Table 4M. Tensile tests are preferred for the rivet and cold heading
wire and rod, and shear tests for the fasteners made from it.
W The measurement of elongation and yield strength is not required for wire 3.20 mm and less in thickness or diameter.
E Elongations in 50 mm apply to rectangular bar up through 12.50 mm thickness from which a standard rectangular tension test specimen is machined. The 5D
(5.65 A ) requirements, where D and A are the diameter and cross-sectional area, respectively, apply to round specimens tested in full section or to standard
or proportional round machined tension test specimens.

January 2015 IV-23

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 Table 5
Typical Mechanical Properties Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS

ALLOY STRENGTH ELONGATION BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E MODULUS R

AND ksi percent in 2 in. NUMBER SHEARING Limit OF
TEMPER STRENGTH ELASTICITY
1
⁄16 in. 1
⁄2 in.
ULTIMATE YIELD Thick Diameter 500 kg load
Specimen Specimen 10 mm ball ksi ksi ksi × 103
1060-O 10  4 43 . . 19  7  3 10.0
1060-H12 12 11 16 . . 23  8  4 10.0
1060-H14 14 13 12 . . 26  9  5 10.0
1060-H16 16 15  8 . . 30 10 6.5 10.0
1060-H18 19 18  6 . . 35 11 6.5 10.0

N
1100-O 13  5 35 45 23  9  5 10.0
1100-H12 16 15 12 25 28 10  6 10.0
1100-H14 18 17  9 20 32 11  7 10.0
1100-H16 21 20  6 17 38 12  9 10.0

IG
1100-H18 24 22  5 15 44 13  9 10.0
1350-O 12  4 ..   . . T ..  8 .. 10.0
1350-H12 14 12 .. . . ..  9 .. 10.0
1350-H14 16 14 .. . . .. 10 .. 10.0
1350-H16 18 16 .. . . .. 11 .. 10.0
1350-H19
2011-T3
2011-T8
2014-O
2014-T4, T451
2014-T6, T651
27
55
59
27
62
70
24
43
45
14
42
60
..
..
..
..
..
..
   . . Y
15
12
18
20
13
ES ..
95
100
45
105
135
15
32
35
18
38
42
 7
18
18
13
20
18
10.0
10.2
10.2
10.6
10.6
10.6
D
Alclad 2014-O 25 10 21 . . .. 18 .. 10.5
Alclad 2014-T3 63 40 20 . . .. 37 .. 10.5
Alclad 2014-T4, T451 61 37 22 . . .. 37 .. 10.5
Alclad 2014-T6, T651 68 60 10 . . .. 41 .. 10.5
2017-O 26 10 .. 22 45 18 13 10.5
R

2017-T4, T451 62 40 .. 22 105 38 18 10.5

2018-T61 61 46 .. 12 120 39 17 10.8
2024-O 27 11 20 22 47 18 13 10.6
FO

2024-T3 70 50 18 . . 120 41 20 10.6

2024-T4, T351 68 47 20 19 120 41 20 10.6
2024-T361 U 72 57 13 . . 130 42 18 10.6
Alclad 2024-O 26 11 20 . . .. 18 .. 10.6
Alclad 2024-T3 65 45 18 . . .. 40 .. 10.6
Alclad 2024-T4, T351 64 42 19 . . .. 40 .. 10.6
Alclad 2024-T361 U 67 63 11 . . .. 41 .. 10.6
Alclad 2024-T81, T851 65 60  6 . . .. 40 .. 10.6
Alclad 2024-T861 U 70 66  6 . . .. 42 .. 10.6
T

2025-T6 58 37 .. 19 110 35 18 10.4

2036-T4 49 28 24 . . .. ..    18 O 10.3
O

2117-T4 43 24 .. 27 70 28 14 10.3
2124-T851 70 64 ..   8 .. .. .. 10.6
2218-T72 48 37 .. 11 95 30 .. 10.8
N

2219-O 25 11 18 . . .. .. .. 10.6
2219-T42 52 27 20 . . .. .. .. 10.6
2219-T31, T351 52 36 17 . . .. .. .. 10.6
2219-T37 57 46 11 . . .. .. .. 10.6
2219-T62 60 42 10 . . .. .. 15 10.6
2219-T81, T851 66 51 10 . . .. .. 15 10.6
2219-T87 69 57 10 . . .. .. 15 10.6
2618-T61 64 54 .. 10 115 38 18 10.8
3003-O 16  6 30 40 28 11  7 10.0
3003-H12 19 18 10 20 35 12  8 10.0
3003-H14 22 21  8 16 40 14  9 10.0
3003-H16 26 25  5 14 47 15 10 10.0
3003-H18 29 27  4 10 55 16 10 10.0
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-27.

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 Table 5
Typical Mechanical Properties (Continued) Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS

STRENGTH ELONGATION BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E MODULUS R
ALLOY
ksi percent in 2 in. NUMBER SHEARING Limit OF
AND
STRENGTH ELASTICITY
TEMPER 1
⁄16 in. 1
⁄2 in.
ULTIMATE YIELD Thick Diameter 500 kg load
Specimen Specimen 10 mm ball ksi ksi ksi × 103
Alclad 3003-O 16  6 30 40 .. 11 .. 10.0
Alclad 3003-H12 19 18 10 20 .. 12 .. 10.0
Alclad 3003-H14 22 21  8 16 .. 14 .. 10.0
Alclad 3003-H16 26 25  5 14 .. 15 .. 10.0
Alclad 3003-H18 29 27  4 10 .. 16 .. 10.0

N
3004-O 26 10 20 25 45 16 14 10.0
3004-H32 31 25 10 17 52 17 15 10.0
3004-H34 35 29  9 12 63 18 15 10.0
3004-H36 38 33  5  9 70 20 16 10.0

IG
3004-H38 41 36  5  6 77 21 16 10.0
Alclad 3004-O 26 10 20 25 .. 16 .. 10.0
Alclad 3004-H32 31 25 10 17 .. 17 .. 10.0
Alclad 3004-H34 35 29  9 12 .. 18 .. 10.0
Alclad 3004-H36 38 33  5   9 .. 20 .. 10.0
Alclad 3004-H38 41 36  5   6 .. 21 .. 10.0

ES
3105-O 17  8 24 . . .. 12 .. 10.0
3105-H12 22 19  7 . . .. 14 .. 10.0
3105-H14 25 22  5 . . .. 15 .. 10.0
3105-H16 28 25  4 . . .. 16 .. 10.0
3105-H18 31 28  3 . . .. 17 .. 10.0
3105-H22 22 20 11 . . .. 14 .. 10.0
3105-H24 25 22 10 15 .. 10.0
3105-H25
3105-H26
3105-H28
27
28
31
23
24
26
 9
 9
 8
. .
. .
. .
D ..
..
..
15
16
17
..
..
..
10.0
10.0
10.0
4032-T6 55 46 ..   9 120 38 16 11.4
R
5005-O 18  6 25 . . 28 11 .. 10.0
5005-H12 20 19 10 . . .. 14 .. 10.0
5005-H14 23 22  6 . . .. 14 .. 10.0
5005-H16 26 25  5 . . .. 15 .. 10.0
5005-H18 29 28  4 . . .. 16 .. 10.0
FO

5005-H32 20 17 11 . . 36 14 .. 10.0
5005-H34 23 20  8 . . 41 14 .. 10.0
5005-H36 26 24  6 . . 46 15 .. 10.0
5005-H38 29 27  5 . . 51 16 .. 10.0
5050-O 21  8 24 . . 36 15 12 10.0
5050-H32 25 21  9 . . 46 17 13 10.0
5050-H34 28 24  8 . . 53 18 13 10.0
5050-H36 30 26  7 . . 58 19 14 10.0
T

5050-H38 32 29  6 . . 63 20 14 10.0
5052-O 28 13 25 30 47 18 16 10.2
5052-H32 33 28 12 18 60 20 17 10.2
O

5052-H34 38 31 10 14 68 21 18 10.2
5052-H36 40 35  8 10 73 23 19 10.2
5052-H38 42 37  7  8 77 24 20 10.2
5056-O 42 22 .. 35 65 26 20 10.3
N

5056-H18 63 59 .. 10 105 34 22 10.3

5056-H38 60 50 .. 15 100 32 22 10.3
5083-O 42 21 .. 22 .. 25 .. 10.3
5083-H32 { 46 33 .. 16 .. .. 23 10.3
5083-H116 { 46 33 .. 16 .. .. 23 10.3
5083-H321 { 46 33 .. 16 .. .. 23 10.3
5086-O 38 17 22 . . .. 23 .. 10.3
5086-H32 { 42 30 12 . . .. .. .. 10.3
5086-H116 { 42 30 12 . . .. .. .. 10.3
5086-H34 47 37 10 . . .. 27 .. 10.3
5086-H112 39 19 14 . . .. .. .. 10.3
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-27.

January 2015 IV-25

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 Table 5
Typical Mechanical Properties (Continued) Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS

STRENGTH ELONGATION BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E MODULUS R
ALLOY
ksi percent in 2 in. NUMBER SHEARING Limit OF
AND
STRENGTH ELASTICITY
TEMPER 1
⁄16 in. 1
⁄2 in.
ULTIMATE YIELD Thick Diameter 500 kg load
Specimen Specimen 10 mm ball ksi ksi ksi × 103
5154-O 35 17 27 . . 58 22 17 10.2
5154-H32 39 30 15 . . 67 22 18 10.2
5154-H34 42 33 13 . . 73 24 19 10.2
5154-H36 45 36 12 . . 78 26 20 10.2
5154-H38 48 39 10 . . 80 28 21 10.2
5154-H112 35 17 25 . . 63 .. 17 10.2
5252-H25 34 25 11 . . 68 21 .. 10.0

N
5252-H38, H28 41 35  5 . . 75 23 .. 10.0
5254-O 35 17 27 . . 58 22 17 10.2
5254-H32 39 30 15 . . 67 22 18 10.2
5254-H34 42 33 13 . . 73 24 19 10.2

IG
5254-H36 45 36 12 . . 78 26 20 10.2
5254-H38 48 39 10 . . 80 28 21 10.2
5254-H112 35 17 25 . . 63 .. 17 10.2
5454-O 36 17 22 . . 62 23 .. 10.2
5454-H32 40 30 10 . . 73 24 .. 10.2
5454-H34
5454-H111
5454-H112
5456-O
5456-H32 {
5456-H112
5456-H116 {
44
38
36
45
51
45
51
35
26
18
23
37
24
37
10
14
18
..

..
..
. .
. .
. .
24
16
22
16
ES 81
70
62
..
90
..
90
26
23
23
..
30
..
30
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
10.2
10.2
10.2
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
5456-H321 {
D
51 37 .. 16 90 30 .. 10.3
5457-O 19  7 22 . . 32 12 .. 10.0
5457-H25 26 23 12 . . 48 16 .. 10.0
5457-H38, H28 30 27  6 . . 55 18 .. 10.0
5657-H25 23 20 12 . . 40 12 .. 10.0
R

5657-H38, H28 28 24  7 . . 50 15 .. 10.0

6005A-T1 .. .. .. . . .. .. .. ..
6005A-T5 42 38 10 13 90 .. 14 10.0
FO

6005A-T61 45 40 12 17 95 30 14 10.0

6061-O 18  8 25 30 30 12  9 10.0
6061-T4, T451 35 21 22 25 65 24 14 10.0
6061-T6, T651 45 40 12 17 95 30 14 10.0
Alclad 6061-O 17  7 25 . . .. 11 .. 10.0
Alclad 6061-T4, T451 33 19 22 . . .. 22 .. 10.0
Alclad 6061-T6, T651 42 37 12 . . .. 27 .. 10.0
6063-O 13  7 .. . . 25 10  8 10.0
T

6063-T1 22 13 20 . . 42 14  9 10.0
6063-T4 25 13 22 . . .. .. .. 10.0
6063-T5 27 21 12 . . 60 17 10 10.0
O

6063-T6 35 31 12 . . 73 22 10 10.0
6063-T83 37 35  9 . . 82 22 .. 10.0
6063-T831 30 27 10 . . 70 18 .. 10.0
6063-T832 42 39 12 . . 95 27 .. 10.0
N

6066-O 22 12 .. 18 43 14 .. 10.0
6066-T4, T451 52 30 .. 18 90 29 .. 10.0
6066-T6. T651 57 52 .. 12 120 34 16 10.0
6070-T6 55 51 10 . . .. 34 14 10.0
6082-T6, T6511 49 46 12 14 95 31 14 10.0
6101-T6 32 28    15 I . . 71 20 .. 10.0
6262-T9 58 55 .. 10 120 35 13 10.0
6351-T4 36 22 20 . . .. .. .. 10.0
6351-T6 45 41 14 . . 95 29 13 10.0
6360-T5 27 21 12 . . 60 17 10 10.0
6360-T6 35 31 12 . . 73 22 10 10.0
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-27.

IV-26 January 2015

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 Table 5
Typical Mechanical Properties (Concluded) Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

N
TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS
STRENGTH ELONGATION BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E MODULUS R
ALLOY
ksi percent in 2 in. NUMBER SHEARING Limit OF

IG
AND
STRENGTH ELASTICITY
TEMPER 1
⁄16 in. 1
⁄2 in.
ULTIMATE YIELD Thick Diameter 500 kg load
Specimen Specimen 10 mm ball ksi ksi ksi × 103
6463-T1 22 13 20 . . 42 14 10 10.0

ES
6463-T5 27 21 12 . . 60 17 10 10.0
6463-T6 35 31 12 . . 74 22 10 10.0
7049-T73 75 65 .. 12 135 44 .. 10.4
7049-T7352 75 63 .. 11 135 43 .. 10.4
7050-T73510,
   T73511 72 63 .. 12 .. .. .. 10.4
7050-T7451P 76 68 .. 11 .. 44 .. 10.4

D
7050-T7651 80 71 .. 11 .. 47 .. 10.4
7075-O 33 15 17 16 60 22 .. 10.4
7075-T6, T651 83 73 11 11 150 48 23 10.4
Alclad 7075-O 32 14 17 . . .. 22 .. 10.4
Alclad 7075-T6, T651
7175-T74
76
76
67
66
R 11
..
. .
11
..
135
46
42
..
23
10.4
10.4
7475-T61 82 71 11 . . .. .. .. 10.2
FO
7475-T651 85 74 .. 13 .. .. .. 10.4
7475-T7351 72 61 .. 13 .. .. .. 10.4
7475-T761 75 65 12 . . .. .. .. 10.2
7475-T7651 77 67 .. 12 .. .. .. 10.4
Alclad 7475-T61 75 66 11 . . .. .. .. 10.2
Alclad 7475-T761 71 61 12 . . .. .. .. 10.2

8176-H24 17 14 15 . . .. 10 .. 10.0
T

Q The mechanical property limits are listed by major product in the I Based on ¼ in. thick specimen.
O Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens.
“Standards Section” of this manual.
P T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and
O

W The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except 0 temper

material are higher than the specified minimum properties. For 0 temper in some specifications as T73651.
{ 5xxx products in the -H116 and -H32X tempers have similar properties
products typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified
(maximum) values. and have the same testing requirements, but are produced by different
N

E Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the practices. The -H116 and -H321 tempers are typically used in marine and
R.R. Moore type of machine and specimen. other applications requiring demonstrations of intergranular and exfoliation
R Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is corrosion resistance. Products in the -H32 temper have similar tensile
about 2% greater than tension modulus. properties and while production methods may be similar, corrosion testing
T 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 10 inches. requirements are different, therefore, -H32 temper products shall not be
Y 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 1½% in 10 inches. substituted for -H116 or -H321 products.
U Tempers T361 and T861 were formerly designated T36 and T86,
respectively.

January 2015 IV-27

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 Table 5M
Typical Mechanical Properties Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, since These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
in most cases they are averages for various sizes, product loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
forms and methods of manufacture and may not be exactly requirements or used for design purposes.
representative of any particular product or size.

TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS

STRENGTH ELONGATION
ALLOY MPa percent BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E
MODULUS R
AND NUMBER SHEARING LIMIT
in 50 mm in 5D OF
TEMPER STRENGTH
1.60 mm 12.5 mm ELASTICITY
ULTIMATE YIELD 500 kgf load
Thick Diameter MPa  103
10 mm ball MPa MPa
Specimen Specimen
1060-O 70  30 43 .. 19 50 20 69
1060-H12 85  75 16 .. 23 55 30 69
1060-H14 100  90 12 .. 26 60 35 69
1060-H16 115 105  8 .. 30 70 45 69
1060-H18 130 125  6 .. 35 75 45 69
1100-O 90  35 35 42 23 60 35 69

N
1100-H12 110 105 12 22 28 70 40 69
1100-H14 125 115  9 18 32 75 50 69
1100-H16 145 140  6 15 38 85 60 69
1100-H18 165 150  5 13 44 90 60 69

IG
1350-O  85  30 ..   . .T .. 55 .. 69
1350-H12 95 85 .. .. .. 60 .. 69
1350-H14 110 95 .. .. .. 70 .. 69
1350-H16 125 110 .. .. .. 75 .. 69
1350-H19 185 165 ..   . .Y .. 105 50 69
2011-T3
2011-T8
2014-O
2014-T4, T451
2014-T6, T651
Alclad 2014-O
380
405
185
425
485
170
295
310
95
290
415
70
..
..
..
..
..
21
13
10
16
18
11
..
ES  95
100
 45
105
135
..
220
240
125
260
290
125
125
125
90
140
125
..
70
70
73
73
73
73
D
Alclad 2014-T3 435 275 20 .. .. 255 .. 73
Alclad 2014-T4, T451 421 255 22 .. .. 255 .. 73
Alclad 2014-T6, T651 470 415 10 .. .. 285 .. 73
2017-O 180 70 .. 20 45 125 90 73
2017-T4, T451 425 275 .. 20 105 260 125 73
R

2018-T61 420 315 .. 10 120 270 115 74

2024-O 185 75 20 20 47 125 90 73
2024-T3 485 345 18 .. 120 285 140 73
2024-T4, T351 472 325 20 17 120 285 140 73
FO

2024-T361 U 495 395 13 .. 130 290 125 73

Alclad 2024-O 180 75 20 .. .. 125 .. 73
Alclad 2024-T3 450 310 18 .. .. 275 .. 73
Alclad 2024-T4, T351 440 290 19 .. .. 275 .. 73
Alclad 2024-T361 U 460 365 11 .. .. 285 .. 73
Alclad 2024-T81, T851 450 415  6 .. .. 275 .. 73
Alclad 2024-T861 U 485 455  6 .. .. 290 .. 73
2025-T6 400 255 .. 17 110 240 125 72
T

2036-T4 340 195 24 .. .. 205   125 O 71

2117-T4 295 165 .. 24 70 195 95 71
O

2124-T851 485 440 ..  8 .. .. .. 73

2218-T72 330 255 ..  9 95 205 .. 74
2219-O 170 75 18 .. .. .. .. 73
2219-T42 360 185 20 .. .. .. .. 73
N

2219-T31, T351 360 250 17 .. .. .. .. 73

2219-T37 395 315 11 .. .. .. .. 73
2219-T62 415 290 10 .. .. .. 105 73
2219-T81, T851 455 350 10 .. .. .. 105 73
2219-T87 475 395 10 .. .. .. 105 73
2618-T61 440 370 .. 10 115 260 90 73
3003-O 110 40 30 37 28  75 50 69
3003-H12 130 125 10 18 35  85 55 69
3003-H14 150 145 8 14 40 95 60 69
3003-H16 175 170 5 12 47 105 70 69
3003-H18 200 185 4  9 55 110 70 69
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-31.

IV-28 January 2015

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 Table 5M
Typical Mechanical Properties (Continued) Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, since These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
in most cases they are averages for various sizes, product loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
forms and methods of manufacture and may not be exactly requirements or used for design purposes.
representative of any particular product or size.

TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS

STRENGTH ELONGATION
ALLOY MPa percent BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E
MODULUS R
AND NUMBER SHEARING LIMIT
in 50 mm in 5D OF
TEMPER STRENGTH
1.60 mm 12.5 mm ELASTICITY
ULTIMATE YIELD 500 kgf load
Thick Diameter MPa  103
10 mm ball MPa MPa
Specimen Specimen
Alclad 3003-O 110 40 30 37 .. 75 .. 69
Alclad 3003-H12 130 125 10 18 .. 85 .. 69
Alclad 3003-H14 150 145 8 14 .. 95 .. 69
Alclad 3003-H16 175 170 5 12 .. 105 .. 69
Alclad 3003-H18 200 185 4 9 .. 110 .. 69
3004-O 180 70 20 22 45 110 95 69
3004-H32 215 170 10 15 52 115 105 69

N
3004-H34 240 200 9 10 63 125 105 69
3004-H36 260 230 5 8 70 140 110 69
3004-H38 285 250 5 5 77 145 110 69

IG
Alclad 3004-O 180 70 20 22 .. 110 .. 69
Alclad 3004-H32 215 170 10 15 .. 115 .. 69
Alclad 3004-H34 240 200 9 10 .. 125 .. 69
Alclad 3004-H36 260 230 5 8 .. 140 .. 69
Alclad 3004-H38 285 250 5 5 .. 145 .. 69

ES
3105-O 115 55 24 .. .. 85 .. 69
3105-H12 150 130 7 .. .. 95 .. 69
3105-H14 170 150 5 .. .. 105 .. 69
3105-H16 195 170 4 .. .. 110 .. 69
3105-H18 215 195 3 .. .. 115 .. 69
3105-H22 165 140 11 .. .. 95 .. 69
3105-H24 180 150 10 .. .. 105 .. 69
3105-H25 185 160 9 .. .. 105 .. 69
D
3105-H26 195 165 9 .. .. 110 .. 69
3105-H28 205 180 8 .. .. 115 .. 69
4032-T6 380 315 .. 9 120 260 110 79
5005-O 125 40 25 .. 28 75 .. 69
R

5005-H12 140 130 10 .. .. 95 .. 69

5005-H14 160 150 6 .. .. 95 .. 69
5005-H16 180 170 5 .. .. 105 .. 69
5005-H18 200 195 4 .. .. 110 .. 69
FO

5005-H32 140 115 11 .. 36 95 .. 69

5005-H34 160 140 8 .. 41 95 .. 69
5005-H36 180 165 6 .. 46 105 .. 69
5005-H38 200 185 5 .. 51 110 .. 69
5050-O 145 55 24 .. 36 105 85 69
5050-H32 170 145 9 .. 46 115 90 69
5050-H34 190 165 8 .. 53 125 90 69
5050-H36 205 180 7 .. 58 130 95 69
T

5050-H38 220 200 6 .. 63 140 95 69

5052-O 195 90 25 27 47 125 110 70
5052-H32 230 195 12 16 60 140 115 70
O

5052-H34 260 215 10 12 68 145 125 70

5052-H36 275 240 8 9 73 160 130 70
5052-H38 290 255 7 7 77 165 140 70
5056-O 290 150 .. 32 65 180 140 71
N

5056-H18 435 405 .. 9 105 235 150 71

5056-H38 415 345 .. 13 100 220 150 71
5083-O 290 145 .. 20 .. 170 .. 71
5083-H32 { 315 230 .. 14 .. .. 160 71
5083-H116 { 315 230 .. 14 .. .. 160 71
5083-H321 { 315 230 .. 14 .. .. 160 71
5086-O 260 115 22 .. .. 165 .. 71
5086-H32 290 205 12 .. .. .. .. 71
5086-H116 { 290 205 12 .. .. .. .. 71
5086-H34 325 255 10 .. .. 185 .. 71
5086-H112 270 130 14 .. .. .. .. 71

For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-31.

January 2015 IV-29

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 Table 5M
Typical Mechanical Properties (Continued) Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, since These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
in most cases they are averages for various sizes, product loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
forms and methods of manufacture and may not be exactly requirements or used for design purposes.
representative of any particular product or size.

TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS

STRENGTH ELONGATION
ALLOY MPa percent BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E
NUMBER SHEARING LIMIT MODULUS R
AND in 50 mm in 5D OF
TEMPER STRENGTH
1.60 mm 12.5 mm 500 kgf load ELASTICITY
ULTIMATE YIELD
Thick Diameter 10 mm ball MPa MPa MPa  103
Specimen Specimen
5154-O 240 115 27 ..  58 150 115 70
5154-H32 270 205 15 ..  67 150 125 70
5154-H34 290 230 13 ..  73 165 130 70
5154-H36 310 250 12 ..  78 180 140 70
5154-H38 330 270 10 ..  80 195 145 70
5154-H112 240 115 25 ..  63 .. 115 70
5252-H25 235 170 11 ..  68 145 .. 69

N
5252-H38, H28 285 240  5 ..  75 160 .. 69
5254-O 240 115 27 ..  58 150 115 70
5254-H32 270 205 15 ..  67 150 125 70
5254-H34 290 230 13 ..  73 165 130 70

IG
5254-H36 310 250 12 ..  78 180 140 70
5254-H38 330 270 10 ..  80 195 145 70
5254-H112 240 115 25 ..  63 .. 115 70
5454-O 250 115 22 ..  62 160 .. 70
5454-H32 275 205 10 ..  73 165 .. 70
5454-H34
5454-H111
5454-H112
5456-O
5456-H32 {
5456-H112
5456-H116 {
305
260
250
310
350
310
350
240
180
125
160
255
165
255
10
14
18
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
22
14
20
14
ES  81
 70
 62
..
90
..
 90
180
160
160
..
205
..
205
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
70
70
70
71
71
71
71
D
5456-H321 { 350 255 .. 14 90 205 .. 71
5457-O 130  50 22 ..  32  85 .. 69
5457-H25 180 160 12 ..  48 110 .. 69
5457-H38, H28 205 185  6 ..  55 125 .. 69
R

5657-H25 160 140 12 ..  40  95 .. 69

5657-H38, H28 195 165  7 ..  50 105 .. 69
6005A-T1 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
6005A-T5 290 260 10 .. 90 .. 95 69
FO

6005A-T61 310 275 12 .. 95 205 95 69

6061-O 125  55 25 27  30  85  60 69
6061-T4, T451 240 145 22 22  65 165  95 69
6061-T6, T651 310 275 12 15  95 205  95 69
Alclad 6061-O 115  50 25 .. ..  75 .. 69
Alclad 6061-T4, T451 230 130 22 .. .. 150 .. 69
Alclad 6061-T6, T651 290 255 12 .. .. 185 .. 69
6063-O  90  50 .. ..  25  70  55 69
T

6063-T1 150  90 20 ..  42  95  60 69

6063-T4 170  90 22 .. .. .. .. 69
6063-T5 185 145 12 ..  60 115  70 69
O

6063-T6 240 215 12 ..  73 150  70 69

6063-T83 255 240  9 ..  82 150 .. 69
6063-T831 205 185 10 ..  70 125 .. 69
6063-T832 290 270 12 ..  95 185 .. 69
N

6066-O 150  85 .. 16  43  95 .. 69

6066-T4, T451 360 205 .. 16  90 200 .. 69
6066-T6, T651 395 360 .. 10 120 235 110 69
6070-T6 380 350 10 .. .. 235  95 69
6082-T6, T6511 340 315 12 14 95 215 95 69
6101-T6 220 195   15 I ..  71 140 .. 69
6262-T9 400 380 ..  9 120 240  90 69
6351-T4 250 150 20 .. .. .. .. 69
6351-T6 310 285 14 ..  95 200  90 69
6360-T5 185 145 12 .. 60 115 70 69
6360-T6 240 215 12 .. 73 150 70 69
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-31.

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 Table 5M
Typical Mechanical Properties (Concluded) Q W
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, since These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
in most cases they are averages for various sizes, product loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
forms and methods of manufacture and may not be exactly requirements or used for design purposes.
representative of any particular product or size.

TENSION HARDNESS SHEAR FATIGUE MODULUS

STRENGTH ELONGATION

N
ALLOY MPa percent BRINELL ULTIMATE ENDURANCE E
NUMBER SHEARING MODULUS R
AND in 50 mm in 5D LIMIT
STRENGTH OF
TEMPER ELASTICITY
ULTIMATE YIELD 1.60 mm 12.5 mm 500 kgf load
MPa × 103

IG
Thick Diameter 10 mm ball MPa MPa
Specimen Specimen
6463-T1 150 90 20 .. 42 95 70 69
6463-T5 185 145 12 ..  60 115  70 69
6463-T6 240 215 12 ..  74 150  70 69

ES
7049-T73 515 450 .. 10 135 305 .. 72
7049-T7352 515 435 ..  9 135 295 .. 72
7050-T73510,
495 435 .. 11 .. .. .. 72
T73511
525 470 .. 10 .. 305 .. 72
7050-T7451 P
550 490 .. 10 .. 325 .. 72
7050-T7651
7075-O 230 105 17 14  60 150 .. 72

D
7075-T6, T651 570 505 11  9 150 330 160 72
Alclad 7075-O 220  95 17 .. .. 150 .. 72
Alclad 7075-T6, T651 525 460 11 .. .. 315 .. 72
7175-T74 525 455 .. 10 135 290 160 72
7475-T61
7475-T651
565
585
490
510
11
..
R ..
13
..
..
..
..
..
..
70
72
7475-T7351 495 420 .. 13 .. .. .. 72
7475-T761 515 450 12 .. .. .. .. 70
FO
7475-T7651 530 460 .. 12 .. .. .. 72
Alclad 7475-T61 515 455 11 .. .. .. .. 70
Alclad 7475-T761 490 420 12 .. .. .. .. 70
8176-H24 160  95 15 .. ..  70 .. 69

Q The mechanical property limits are listed by major product in the “Stan- U Tempers T361 and T861 were formerly designated T36 and T86,
T

dards Section” of this manual. respectively.

W The indicated typical mechanical properties for all except 0 temper mate- I Based on 6.3 mm. thick specimen.
rial are higher than the specified minimum properties. For 0 temper products O Based on 107 cycles using flexural type testing of sheet specimens.
O

typical ultimate and yield values are slightly lower than specified (maximum) P T7451, although not previously registered, has appeared in literature and
values. in some specifications as T73651.
E Based on 500,000,000 cycles of completely reversed stress using the R.R. { 5xxx products in the -H116 and -H321 tempers have similar properties and
Moore type of machine and specimen. have the same testing requirements, but are produced by different practices.
N

The -H116 and -H321 tempers are typically used in marine and other
R Average of tension and compression moduli. Compression modulus is applications requiring demonstration of intergranular and exfoliation corrosion
about 2% greater than tension modulus. resistance. Products in the -H32 temper have similar tensile properties and
T 1350-O wire will have an elongation of approximately 23% in 250 mm. while production methods may be similar, corrosion testing requirements are
Y 1350-H19 wire will have an elongation of approximately 1½% in 250 mm. different; therefore -H32 temper products shall not be substituted for -H116 or
-H321 products.

January 2015 IV-31

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 Table 6
Typical physical properties—Thermal aND Electrical
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

ELECTRICAL
AVERAGE Q
MELTING THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ELECTRICAL
COEFFICIENT
RANGE W E CONDUCTIVITY AT 68°F RESISTIVITY
OF THERMAL
ALLOY APPROX. TEMPER AT 77°F Percent of International AT 68°F
EXPANSION
Annealed Copper Standard
68° TO 212°F English Equal Equal Ohm—Cir.
°F
per °F Units R Volume Weight Mil/Foot
1060 13.1 1195–1215 O 1625 62 204 17
H18 1600 61 201 17
1100 13.1 1190–1215 O 1540 59 194 18
H18 1510 57 187 18

N
1350 13.2 1195–1215 All 1625 62 204 17
2011 12.7 1005–1190 Y T3 1050 39 123 27
T8 1190 45 142 23

IG
2014 12.8 945–1180 T O 1340 50 159 21
T4 930 34 108 31
T6 1070 40 127 26
2017 13.1 955–1185 T O 1340 50 159 21
T4 930 34 108 31

ES
2018 12.4 945–1180 Y T61 1070 40 127 26
2024 12.9 935–1180 T O 1340 50 160 21
T3, T4, T361 840 30 96 35
T6, T81, T861 1050 38 122 27
2025 12.6 970–1185 T T6 1070 40 128 26
2036 13.0 1030–1200 Y T4 1100 41 135 25
2117 13.2 1030–1200 Y T4 1070 40 130 26
2124 12.7 935–1180 T T851
D 1055 38 122 27
2218 12.4 940–1175 T T72 1070 40 126 26
2219 12.4 1010–1190 T O 1190 44 138 24
T31, T37 780 28 88 37
T6, T81, T87 840 30 94 35
R
2618 12.4 1020–1180 T6 1020 37 120 28
3003 12.9 1190–1210 O 1340 50 163 21
H12 1130 42 137 25
FO

H14 1100 41 134 25

H18 1070 40 130 26
3004 13.3 1165–1210 All 1130 42 137 25
3105 13.1 1175–1210 All 1190 45 148 23
4032 10.8 990–1060 T O 1070 40 132 26
T6 960 35 116 30
4043 12.3 1065–1170 O 1130 42 140 25
4045 11.7 1065–1110 All 1190 45 151 23
T

4343 12.0 1070–1135 All 1250 47 158 25

5005 13.2 1170–1210 All 1390 52 172 20
O

5050 13.2 1155–1205 All 1340 50 165 21

5052 13.2 1125–1200 All 960 35 116 30
5056 13.4 1055–1180 O 810 29 98 36
H38 750 27 91 38
N

5083 13.2 1095–1180 O 810 29 98 36

5086 13.2 1085–1185 All 870 31 104 33
5154 13.3 1100–1190 All 870 32 107 32
5252 13.2 1125–1200 All 960 35 116 30
5254 13.3 1100–1190 All 870 32 107 32
5356 13.4 1060–1175 O 810 29 98 36
5454 13.1 1115–1195 O 930 34 113 31
H38 930 34 113 31
5456 13.3 1055–1180 O 810 29 98 36
5457 13.2 1165–1210 All 1220 46 153 23
5657 13.2 1180–1215 All 1420 54 180 19

6005 13.0 1125-1210 Y T1 1250 47 155 22

T5 1310 49 161 21
6005A 13.0 1110-1200 T1 1220 47 155 22
6005A 13.0 1110-1200 T5 1340 50 165 21
6005A 13.0 1110-1200 T61 1310 49 161 21
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-33.

IV-32 January 2015

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 Table 6
Typical physical properties—Thermal aND Electrical (Concluded)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

ELECTRICAL
AVERAGE Q
MELTING THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ELECTRICAL
COEFFICIENT
RANGE W E CONDUCTIVITY AT 68°F RESISTIVITY
OF THERMAL
ALLOY APPROX. TEMPER AT 77°F Percent of International AT 68°F
EXPANSION
Annealed Copper Standard
68° TO 212°F English Equal Equal Ohm—Cir.
°F
per °F Units R Volume Weight Mil/Foot

6053 12.8 1070–1205 Y O 1190 45 148 23

T4 1070 40 132 26
T6 1130 42 139 25

N
6061 13.1 1080–1205 Y O 1250 47 155 22
T4 1070 40 132 26
T6 1160 43 142 24

IG
6063 13.0 1140–1210 O 1510 58 191 18
T1 1340 50 165 21
T5 1450 55 181 19
T6, T83 1390 53 175 20
6066 12.9 1045–1195 T O 1070 40 132 26

ES
T6 1020 37 122 28
6070 .. 1050–1200 T T6 1190 44 145 24
6082 12.8 1070-1200 T6, T6511 1190 44 145 24
6101 13.0 1150–1210 T6 1510 57 188 18
T61 1540 59 194 18
T63 D 1510 58 191 18
T64 1570 60 198 17
T65 1510 58 191 18
6105 13.0 1110–1200 Y T1 1220 46 151 23
T5 1340 50 165 21
6151 12.9 1090–1200 Y O 1420 54 178 19
R
T4 1130 42 138 25
T6 1190 45 148 23
6201 13.0 1125–1210 Y T81 1420 54 180 19
1080–1205 Y
FO

6262 13.0 T9 1190 44 145 24

6351 13.0 1030–1200 T6 1220 46 151 23
6360 13.0 1140-1210 T5 1300 52 172 20
13.0 T6 1320 53 175 20

6463 13.0 1140–1210 Y T1 1340 50 165 21

T5 1450 55 181 19
T6 1390 53 175 20
6951 13.0 1140–1210 O 1480 56 186 19
T

T6 1370 52 172 20
7049 13.0 890–1175 T73 1070 40 132 26
O

7050 12.8 910–1165 T74 I 1090 41 135 25

7072 13.1 1185–1215 O 1540 59 193 18
7075 13.1 890–1175 U T6 900 33 105 31
7175 13.0 890–1175 U T74 1080 39 124 26
N

7475 12.9 890–1175 T61, T651 960 35 116 30

T76, T761 1020 40 132 26
T7351 1130 42 139 25
8017 13.1 1190–1215 H12, H22 .. 59 193 18
H212 .. 61 200 17
8030 13.1 1190–1215 H221 1600 61 201 17
8176 13.1 1190–1215 H24 61 201 17

Q Coefficient to be multiplied by 10−6. Example: 12.2 × 10−6 = 0.0000122. Y Eutectic melting can be completely eliminated by homogenization.
W Melting ranges shown apply to wrought products of ¼ inch thickness or U Homogenization may raise eutectic melting temperature 20–40°F but
greater. usually does not eliminate eutectic melting.
E Based on typical composition of the indicated alloys. I Although not formerly registered, the literature and some specifications
R English units = btu-in./ft2hr°F. have used T736 as the designation for this temper.
T Eutectic melting is not eliminated by homogenization.

January 2015 IV-33

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 Table 6M
Typical physical properties—Thermal aND Electrical
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, alloys and tempers and should not be specified as engi-
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not neering requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

AVERAGE Q ELECTRICAL
MELTING THERMAL ELECTRICAL
COEFFICIENT CONDUCTIVITY
RANGE W E CONDUCTIVITY RESISTIVITY
OF THERMAL AT 20°C
ALLOY APPROX. TEMPER AT 25°C AT 20°C
EXPANSION MS/m I
20° TO 100°C Equal Equal
°C W/m • K Ohm • mm2/m
per °C Volume Mass
1060 23.6 645–655 O 234 36 118 0.028
H18 230 35 117 0.029
1100 23.6 640–655 O 222 34 113 0.029
H18 218 33 108 0.030
1350 23.6 645–655 All 234 36 118 0.028

N
2011 22.9 540–645 T T3 151 23 71 0.043
T8 172 26 82 0.038
2014 23.0 505–635 R O 193 29 92 0.034
T4 134 20 63 0.050

IG
T6 155 23 74 0.043
2017 23.6 510–640 R O 193 29 92 0.034
T4 134 20 63 0.050
2018 22.3 505–640 T T61 155 23 74 0.043
2024 23.2 500–635 R O 193 29 93 0.034

ES
T3, T4, T361 121 17 56 0.059
T6, T81, T861 151 22 71 0.045
2025 22.7 520–640 R T6 155 23 74 0.043
2036 23.4 555–650 T T4 159 24 78 0.042
2117 23.8 550–650 T T4 155 23 75 0.043
2124 22.9 500–635 R T851 152 22 71 0.045
505–635 R
D
2218 22.3 T72 155 23 73 0.043
2219 22.3 545–645 R O 172 26 80 0.038
T31, T37 113 16 57 0.062
T6, T81, T87 121 17 58 0.059
2618 22.3 550–640 T6 146 21 70 0.048
R
3003 23.2 640–655 O 193 29 92 0.034
H12 163 24 78 0.042
H14 159 24 78 0.042
H18 155 23 74 0.043
FO

3004 23.9 630–655 All 163 24 79 0.042

3105 23.6 635–655 All 172 26 86 0.038

4032 19.4 530–570 R O 155 23 77 0.043
T6 138 20 67 0.050
4043 22.0 575–630 O 163 24 81 0.041
4045 21.1 575–600 All 171 26 88 0.038

4343 21.6 575–615 All 180 27 92 0.037

T

5005 23.8 630–655 All 201 30 100 0.033

5050 23.8 625–650 All 193 29 96 0.034
O

5052 23.8 605–650 All 138 20 67 0.050

5056 24.1 565–640 O 117 17 57 0.059
H38 109 16 53 0.062
N

5083 23.8 580–640 O 117 17 57 0.059

5086 23.8 585–640 All 126 18 60 0.056
5154 23.9 590–645 All 126 19 62 0.053
5252 23.8 605–650 All 138 20 67 0.050
5254 23.9 590–645 All 126 19 62 0.053
5356 24.1 575–635 O 117 17 57 0.059
5454 23.6 600–645 O 134 20 66 0.050
H38 134 20 66 0.050
5456 23.9 570–640 O 117 17 57 0.059
5457 23.8 630–655 All 176 27 89 0.037
5657 23.8 635–655 All 205 31 104 0.032
6005 23.6 605–655 T T1 180 27 90 0.037
T5 188 28 93 0.036
6005A 23.6 600–650 T1 176 27 90 0.037
6005A 23.6 600–650 T5 193 29 96 0.034
6005A 23.6 600–650 T61 188 28 93 0.036
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-35.

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 Table 6M
Typical physical properties—Thermal aND Electrical (Concluded)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, alloys and tempers and should not be specified as engi-
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not neering requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

AVERAGE Q ELECTRICAL
MELTING THERMAL ELECTRICAL
COEFFICIENT CONDUCTIVITY
RANGE W E CONDUCTIVITY RESISTIVITY
OF THERMAL AT 20°C
ALLOY APPROX. TEMPER AT 25°C AT 20°C
EXPANSION MS/m I
20° TO 100°C Equal Equal
°C W/m • K Ohm • mm2/m
per °C Volume Mass
6053 23.0 575–650 T O 172 26 86 0.038
T4 155 23 77 0.042
T6 167 24 81 0.041
6061 23.6 580–650 T O 180 27 90 0.037

N
T4 155 23 77 0.043
T6 167 25 82 0.040
6063 23.4 615–655 O 218 34 111 0.029
T1 193 29 96 0.034

IG
T5 209 32 105 0.031
T6, T83 201 31 102 0.032
6066 23.2 560–645 R O 155 23 77 0.043
T6 146 21 71 0.048
6070 .. 565–650 R T6 172 26 84 0.038

ES
6082 23.0 575-650 T6, T76511 172 26 84 0.040
6101 23.4 620–655 T6 218 33 109 0.030
T61 222 34 113 0.029
T63 218 34 111 0.029
T64 226 35 115 0.029
T65 D 218 34 111 0.029
6105 23.4 600–650 T T1 176 27 88 0.037
T5 193 29 96 0.034
6151 23.2 590–650 T O 205 31 103 0.032
T4 163 24 80 0.042
T6 172 26 86 0.038
R
6201 23.4 610–655 T T81 205 31 104 0.032
6262 23.4 580–650 T T9 172 26 84 0.038
6351 23.4 555–6506 T6 176 27 88 0.038
6360 23.4 615-655 T5 187 30 100 0.033
FO

23.4 T6 189 31 102 0.032

6463 23.4 615–655 T T1 193 29 96 0.034

T5 209 32 105 0.031
T6 201 31 102 0.032
6951 23.4 615–655 O 213 32 108 0.031
T6 197 30 100 0.033
7049 23.4 475–635 T73 155 23 77 0.043
T

7050 23.0 490–630 T74 U 157 24 78 0.042

7072 23.6 640–655 O 222 34 112 0.029
7075 23.6 475–635 Y T6 130 19 61 0.053
O

7175 23.4 475–635 Y T74 157 23 72 0.043

7475 23.2 475–635 T61, T651 138 20 69 0.050
T76, T761 146 23 77 0.043
N

T7351 163 24 81 0.041

8017 23.6 645–655 H12, H22 .. 34 113 0.029
H212 .. 35 117 0.029
8030 23.6 645–655 H221 230 35 117 0.029
8176 23.6 645–655 H24 230 35 117 0.029

Q Coefficient to be multiplied by 10–6. Example: 23.6 × 10–6 = 0.0000236. U Although not formerly registered, the literature and some specifica-
W Melting ranges shown apply to wrought products of 6 mm thickness tions have used T736 as the designation for this temper.
or greater. I MS/m = 0.58 × % IACS.
E Based on typical composition of the indicated alloys.
R Eutectic melting is not eliminated by homogenization.
T Eutectic melting can be completely eliminated by homogenization.
Y Homogenization may raise eutectic melting temperature 10–20°C but
usually does not eliminate eutectic melting.

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 Table 7
Nominal Densities of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
Density and specific gravity are dependent upon These values are not to be converted to the metric.
composition, and variations are discernible from one X.XXX0 and X.XXX5 density values and X.XX0 and
cast to another for most alloys. The nominal values X.XX5 specific gravity values are limited to 99.35
shown below should not be specified as engineering percent or higher purity aluminum.
requirements but are used in calculating typical values
for weight per unit length, weight per unit area,
covering area, etc. The density values are derived from
the metric and subsequently rounded.

Density Specific Density Specific

Alloy Alloy
(lbs/cu. in.) Gravity (lbs/cu. in.) Gravity
1050 .0975 2.705 5252 .096 2.67
1060 .0975 2.705 5254 .096 2.66
1100 .098 2.71 5356 .096 2.64
1145 .0975 2.700 5454 .097 2.69
1200 .098 2.70 5456 .096 2.66
1230 .098 2.70 5457 .097 2.69
1235 .0975 2.705 5554 .097 2.69
1345 .0975 2.705 5556 .096 2.66
1350 .0975 2.705 5654 .096 2.66
2011 .102 2.83 5657 .097 2.69
2014 .101 2.80 6003 .097 2.70
2017 .101 2.79 6005 .097 2.70
2018 .102 2.82 6005A .098 2.70
2024 .100 2.78 6053 .097 2.69
2025 .101 2.81 6061 .098 2.70
2036 .100 2.75 6063 .097 2.70
2117 .099 2.75 6066 .098 2.72
2124 .100 2.78 6070 .098 2.71
2218 .101 2.81 6082 .098 2.70
2219 .103 2.84 6101 .097 2.70
2618 .100 2.76 6105 .097 2.69
3003 .099 2.73 6151 .098 2.71
3004 .098 2.72 6162 .097 2.70
3005 .098 2.73 6201 .097 2.69
3105 .098 2.72 6262 .098 2.72
4032 .097 2.68 6360 .098 2.70
4043 .097 2.69 6351 .098 2.71
4045 .096 2.67 6463 .097 2.69
4047 .096 2.66 6951 .098 2.70
4145 .099 2.74 7005 .100 2.78
4343 .097 2.68 7049 .103 2.84
4643 .097 2.69 7050 .102 2.83
5005 .098 2.70 7072 .098 2.72
5050 .097 2.69 7075 .101 2.81
5052 .097 2.68 7175 .101 2.80
5056 .095 2.64 7475 .101 2.81
5083 .096 2.66 8017 .098 2.71
5086 .096 2.66 8030 .098 2.71
5154 .096 2.66 8176 .098 2.71
5183 .096 2.66

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 Table 8
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

ALLOY AND TEMP. ALLOY AND TEMP.
ksi IN 2 IN., ksi IN 2 IN.,
TEMPER PERCENT TEMPER
°F ULTIMATE YIELD W °F ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT

1100-O –320 25 6 50 2024-T3 –320 85 62 18

–112 15 5.5 43 (Sheet) –112 73 52 17
–18 14 5 40 –18 72 51 17
75 13 5 40 75 70 50 17
212 10 4.6 45 212 66 48 16
300 8 4.2 55 300 55 45 11
400 6 3.5 65 400 27 20 23

N
500 4 2.6 75 500 11 9 55
600 2.9 2 80 600 7.5 6 75
700 2.1 1.6 85 700 5 4 100

1100-H14 –320 30 20 45 2024-T4, T351 –320 84 61 19

IG
–112 20 18 24 (plate) –112 71 49 19
–18 19 17 20 –18 69 47 19
75 18 17 20 75 68 47 19
212 16 15 20 212 63 45 19
300 14 12 23 300 45 36 17

ES
400 10 7.5 26 400 26 19 27
500 4 2.6 75 500 11 9 55
600 2.9 2 80 600 7.5 6 75
700 2.1 1.6 85 700 5 4 100

1100-H18 –320 34 26 30 2024-T6, T651 –320 84 68 11

–112 26 23 16 –112 72 59 10
–118
75
25
24
23
22
15
15
D –18
75
70
69
58
57
10
10
212 21 19 15 212 65 54 10
300 18 14 20 300 45 36 17
400 6 3.5 65 400 26 19 27
500 4 2.6 75 500 11 9 55
R
600 2.9 2 80 600 7.5 6 75
700 2.1 1.6 85 700 5 4 100

2011-T3 75 55 43 15 2024-T81, T851 –320 85 78 8

FO

212 47 34 16 –112 74 69 7
300 28 19 25 –18 73 68 7
400 16 11 35 75 70 65 7
500 6.5 3.8 45 212 66 62 8
600 3.1 1.8 90 300 55 49 11
700 2.3 1.4 125 400 27 20 23
500 11 9 55
2014-T6, T651 –320 84 72 14 600 7.5 6 75
–112 74 65 13 700 5 4 100
T

–18 72 62 13
75 70 60 13 2024-T861 –320 92 85 5
212 63 57 15 –112 81 77 5
O

300 40 35 20 –18 78 74 5
400 16 13 38 75 75 71 5
500 9.5 7.5 52 212 70 67 6
600 6.5 5 65 300 54 48 11
N

700 4.3 3.5 72 400 21 17 28

500 11 9 55
2017-T4, T451 –320 80 53 28 600 7.5 6 75
–112 65 42 24 700 5 4 100
–18 64 41 23
75 62 40 22 2117-T4 –320 56 33 30
212 57 39 18 –112 45 25 29
300 40 30 15 –18 44 24 28
400 16 13 35 75 43 24 27
500 9 7.5 45 212 36 21 16
600 6 5 65 300 30 17 20
700 4.3 3.5 70 400 16 12 35
500 7.5 5.5 55
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-41. 600 4.7 3.3 80
700 2.9 2 110

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 Table 8
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Continued)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

ALLOY AND TEMP. ALLOY AND TEMP.
ksi IN 2 IN., ksi IN 2 IN.,
TEMPER TEMPER
°F ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT °F ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT

2124-T851 –452 102 90 10 3003-H14

–320 35 25 30
–320 86 79 9 –112 24 22 18
–112 76 71 8 –18 22 21 16
–18 73 68 8 75 22 21 16
75 70 64 9 212 21 19 16
212 66 61 9 300 18 16 16
300 54 49 13 400 14 9 20
400 27 20 28 500 7.5 4 60

N
500 11 8 60 600 4 2.4 70
600 7.5 6 75 700 2.8 1.8 70
700 5.5 4.1 100
3003-H18 –320 41 33 23

IG
2218-T61 –320 72 52 15 –112 32 29 11
–112 61 45 14 –18 30 28 10
–18 59 44 13 75 29 27 10
75 59 44 13 212 26 21 10
212 56 42 15 300 23 16 11

ES
300 41 35 17 400 14 9 18
400 22 16 30 500 7.5 4 60
500 10 6 70 600 4 2.4 70
600 5.5 3 85 700 2.8 1.8 70
700 4 2.5 100
3004-O –320 42 13 38
2219-T62 –320 73 49 16 –112 28 11 30
–112 63 44 13 –18 26 10 26
D
–18 60 42 12 75 26 10 25
75 58 40 12 212 26 10 25
212 54 37 14 300 22 10 35
300 45 33 17 400 14 9.5 55
400 34 25 20 500 10 7.5 70
R

500 27 20 21 600 7.5 5 80

600 10 8 40 700 5 3 90
700 4.4 3.7 75
3004-H34 –320 52 34 26
FO

2219-T81, T851 –320 83 61 15 –112 38 30 16

–112 71 54 13 –18 36 29 13
–18 69 52 12 75 35 29 12
75 66 50 12 212 34 29 13
212 60 47 15 300 28 25 22
300 49 40 17 400 21 15 35
400 36 29 20 500 14 7.5 55
500 29 23 21 600 7.5 5 80
600 7 6 55 700 5 3 90
T

700 4.4 3.7 75

3004-H38 –320 58 43 20
2618-T61 –320 78 61 12 –112 44 38 10
O

–12 67 55 11 –18 42 36 7
–18 64 54 10 75 41 36 6
75 64 54 10 212 40 36 7
212 62 54 10 300 31 27 15
N

300 50 44 14 400 22 15 30
400 32 26 24 500 12 7.5 50
500 13 9 50 600 7.5 5 80
600 7.5 4.5 80 700 5 3 90
700 5 3.5 120
4032-T6 –320 66 48 11
3003-O –320 33 8.5 46 –112 58 46 10
–112 20 7 42 –18 56 46 9
–18 17 6.5 41 75 55 46 9
75 16 6 40 212 50 44 9
212 13 5.5 43 300 37 33 9
300 11 5 47 400 13 9 30
400 8.5 4.3 60 500 8 5.5 50
500 6 3.4 65 600 5 3.2 70
600 4 2.4 70 700 3.4 2 90
700 2.8 1.8 70
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-41.

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 Table 8
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Continued)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data re intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

ALLOY AND TEMP. ALLOY AND TEMP.
ksi IN 2 IN., ksi IN 2 IN.,
TEMPER TEMPER
°F ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT °F ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT

5050-O –320 37 10 .. 5083-O –320 59 24 36

–112 22 8.5 .. –112 43 21 30
–18 21 8 .. –18 42 21 27
75 21 8 .. 75 42 21 25
212 21 8 .. 212 40 21 36
300 19 8 .. 300 31 19 50
400 14 7.5 .. 400 22 17 60

N
500 9 6 .. 500 17 11 80
600 6 4.2 .. 600 11 7.5 110
700 3.9 2.6 .. 700 6 4.2 130

IG
5050-H34 –320 44 30 .. 5083-H32 75 46 33 16
–112 30 25 ..
–18 28 24 .. 5086-O –320 55 19 46
75 28 24 .. –112 39 17 35
212 28 24 .. –18 38 17 32
300 25 22 .. 75 38 17 30

ES
400 14 7.5 .. 212 38 17 36
500 9 6 .. 300 29 16 50
600 6 4.2 .. 400 22 15 60
700 3.9 2.6 .. 500 17 11 80
600 11 7.5 110
5050-H38 –320 46 36 .. 700 6 4.2 130
–112 34 30 ..
–18
75
32
32
29
29
..
..
D 5154-O –320
–112
52
36
19
17
46
35
212 31 29 .. –18 35 17 32
300 27 25 .. 75 35 17 30
400 14 7.5 .. 212 35 17 36
500 9 6 .. 300 29 16 50
R
600 6 4.2 .. 400 22 15 60
700 3.9 2.6 .. 500 17 11 80
600 11 7.5 110
5052-O –320 44 16 46 700 6 4.2 130
FO

–112 29 13 35
–18 28 13 32 5254-O –320 52 19 46
75 28 13 30 –112 36 17 35
212 28 13 36 –18 35 17 32
300 23 13 50 75 35 17 30
400 17 11 60 212 35 17 36
500 12 7.5 80 300 29 16 50
600 7.5 5.5 110 400 22 15 60
700 5 3.1 130 500 17 11 80
T

600 11 7.5 110

5052-H34 –320 55 36 28 700 6 4.2 130
–112 40 32 21
O

–18 38 31 18 5454-O –320 54 19 39

75 38 31 16 –112 37 17 30
212 38 31 18 –18 36 17 27
300 30 27 27 75 36 17 25
N

400 24 15 45 212 36 17 31
500 12 7.5 80 300 29 16 50
600 7.5 5.5 110 400 22 15 60
700 5 3.1 130 500 17 11 80
600 11 7.5 110
5052-H38 –320 60 44 25 700 6 4.2 130
–112 44 38 18
–18 42 37 15 5454-H32 –320 59 36 32
75 42 37 14 –112 42 31 23
212 40 36 16 –18 41 30 20
300 34 28 24 75 40 30 18
400 25 15 45 212 39 29 20
500 12 7.5 80 300 32 26 37
600 7.5 5.5 110 400 25 19 45
700 5 3.1 130 500 17 11 80
600 11 7.5 110
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-41. 700 6 4.2 130

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 Table 8
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Continued)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing al-
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, loys and tempers and should not be specified as engineering
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

ALLOY AND TEMP. ALLOY AND TEMP.
ksi IN 2 IN., ksi IN 2 IN.,
TEMPER TEMPER
PERCENT
°F ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT °F ULTIMATE YIELD W
5454-H34 –320 63 41 30 6063-T6 –320 47 36 24
-112 46 36 21 -112 38 33 20
-18 44 35 18 -18 36 32 19
75 44 35 16 75 35 31 18
212 43 34 18 212 31 28 15
300 34 28 32 300 21 20 20
400 26 19 45 400 9 6.5 40
500 17 11 80

N
500 4.5 3.5 75
600 11 7.5 110 600 3.3 2.5 80
700 6 4.2 130 700 2.3 2 105

IG
5456-O -320 62 26 32
-320 76 62 17
-112 46 23 25 6082-T6, T6511 -112 61 52 13
-18 45 23 22
-18 51 49 ..
75 45 23 20
75 49 46 14
212 42 22 31
212 48 45 ..
300 31 20 50
300 48 45 ..

ES
400 22 17 60
400 15 11 ..
500 17 11 80
500 .. .. ..
600 11 7.5 110
600 .. .. ..
700 6 4.2 130
700 .. .. ..
5456-H32 75 51 37 16 6101-T6 -320 43 33 24
-112 36 30 20
D
6005A-T5 75 42 38 10
-18 34 29 19
6005A-T61 75 45 40 12 75 32 28 19
212 28 25 20
6053-T6, T651 75 37 32 13 300 21 19 20
400 10 7 40
R

212 32 28 13
300 25 24 13 500 4.8 3.3 80
400 13 12 25 600 3 2.3 100
500 5.5 4 70 700 2.5 1.8 105
FO

600 4 2.7 80 6151-T6

700 2.9 2 90 -320 57 50 20
-112 50 46 17
-320 60 47 22 -18 49 45 17
6061-T6, T651 -112 49 42 18 75 48 43 17
-18 47 41 17 212 43 40 17
75 45 40 17 300 28 27 20
212 42 38 18 400 14 12 30
300 34 31 20 500 6.5 5 50
600 5 3.9 43
T

400 19 15 28
500 7.5 5 60 700 4 3.2 35
600 4.6 2.7 85 6262-T651 -320 60 47 22
O

700 3 1.8 95
-112 49 42 18
6063-T1 -320 34 16 44 -18 47 41 17
-112 26 15 36 75 45 40 17
212 42 38 18
N

-18 24 14 34
75 22 13 33 300 34 31 20
212 22 14 18 6262-T9
300 21 15 20 -320 74 67 14
400 9 6.5 40 -112 62 58 10
500 4.5 3.5 75 -18 60 56 10
600 3.2 2.5 80 75 58 55 10
700 2.3 2 105 212 53 52 10
300 38 37 14
6063-T5 -320 37 24 28 400 15 13 34
-112 29 22 24 500 8.5 6 48
-18 28 22 23 600 4.6 2.7 85
75 27 21 12 700 3 1.8 95
212 24 20 18
300 20 18 20 6360-T5 75 27 21 12
400 9 6.5 40
500 4.5 3.5 75 6360-T6 75 35 31 12
600 3.2 2.5 80
700 2.3 2 105
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-41.

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 Table 8
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Concluded)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, alloys and tempers and should not be specified as engi-
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not neering requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

TENSILE STRENGTH,
ALLOY AND TEMP. ELONGATION
ksi
TEMPER IN 2 IN.,
°F ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT

7075-T6, -320 102 92 9

T651 -112 90 79 11
-18 86 75 11
75 83 73 11
212 70 65 14
300 31 27 30
400 16 13 55

N
500 11 9 65
600 8 6.5 70
700 6 4.6 70

IG
7075-T73, -320 92 72 14
T7351 -112 79 67 14
-18 76 65 13
75 73 63 13
212 63 58 15

ES
300 31 27 30
400 16 13 55
500 11 9 65
600 8 6.5 70
700 6 4.6 70

7175-T74 -320 106 98 13

-112
-18
90
87
83
80
14
16
D
75 80 73 14
212 72 69 17
300 35 31 30
400 18 13 65
R
7475-T61 Sheet -320 99 87 10
-112 88 79 12
-18 84 75 12
FO

75 80 72 12
212 70 65 14
300 30 26 28
400 14 11 55
500 9.5 7 70
600 6.5 5.5 80
700 5 3.8 85
T

7475-T651 Plate 75 85 74 13

7475-T761 -320 95 82 11
O

Sheet -112 84 73 12
-18 80 70 12
75 76 67 12
212 64 61 14
N

300 30 26 38
400 14 11 55
500 9.5 7 70
600 6.5 5.5 80
700 5 3.8 85

Q These data are based on a limited amount of testing and represent the
lowest strength during 10,000 hours of exposure at testing temperature
under no load; stress applied at 5.000 psi/min to yield strength and then
at strain rate of 0.05 in./in./min to failure. Under some conditions of
temperature and time, the application of heat will adversely affect certain
other properties of some alloys.
W Offset equals 0.2 percent.

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 Table 8M
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, alloys and tempers and should not be specified as engi-
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not neering requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

TEMP. TEMP.
AND MPa IN 50 mm AND MPa IN 50 mm
TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT
1100-O –195 170 41 50 2024-T3 –195 585 425 18
–80 105 38 43 (Sheet) –80 505 360 17
–30 95 34 40 –30 495 350 17
25 90 34 40 25 485 345 17
100 70 32 45 100 455 330 16
150 55 29 55 150 380 310 11
205 41 24 65 205 185 140 23
260 28 18 75 260 75 60 55

N
315 20 14 80 315 50 41 75
370 14 11 85 370 34 28 100

1100-H14 –195 205 140 45 2024-T4, T351 –195 580 420 19

IG
–80 140 125 24 (plate) –80 490 340 19
–30 130 115 20 –30 475 325 19
25 125 115 20 25 470 325 19
100 110 105 20 100 435 310 19
150 95 85 23 150 310 250 17
205 70 50 26 205 180 130

ES
27
260 28 18 75 260 75 60 55
315 20 14 80 315 50 41 75
370 14 11 85 370 34 28 100

1100-H18 –195 235 180 30 2024-T6, T651 –195 580 470 11

–80 180 160 16 –80 495 405 10
–30 170 160 15 –30 485 400 10
D
25 165 150 15 25 475 395 10
100 145 130 15 100 450 370 10
150 125 95 20 150 310 250 17
205 41 24 65 205 180 130 27
260 28 18 75 260 75 60 55
R

315 20 14 80 315 50 41 75
370 14 11 85 370 34 28 100

2011-T3 25 380 295 15 2024-T81, T851 –195 585 540 8

FO

100 325 235 16 –80 510 475 7

150 195 130 25 –30 505 470 7
205 110 75 35 25 485 450 7
260 45 26 45 100 455 425 8
315 21 12 90 150 380 340 11
370 16 10 125 205 185 140 23
260 75 60 55
2014-T6, T651 –195 580 495 14 315 50 41 75
–80 510 450 13 370 34 28 100
T

–30 495 425 13

25 485 415 13 2024-T861 –195 635 585 5
100 435 395 15 –80 560 530 5
O

150 275 240 20 –30 540 510 5

205 110 90 38 25 515 490 5
260 65 50 52 100 485 460 6
315 45 34 65 150 370 330 11
N

370 30 24 72 205 145 115 28

260 75 60 55
2017-T4, T451 –195 550 365 28 315 50 41 75
–80 450 290 24 370 34 28 100
–30 440 285 23
25 425 275 22 2117-T4 –195 385 230 30
100 395 270 18 –80 310 170 29
150 275 205 15 –30 305 165 28
205 110 90 35 25 295 165 27
260 60 50 45 100 250 145 16
315 41 34 65 150 205 115 20
370 30 24 70 205 110 85 35
260 50 38 55
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-46.
315 32 23 80
370 20 14 110

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 Table 8M
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Continued)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, alloys and tempers and should not be specified as engi-
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not neering requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

TEMP. TEMP.
AND MPa IN 50 mm AND MPa IN 50 mm
TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT
2124-T851 –268 705 620 10 3003-H14 –195 240 170 30
–195 595 545 9 –80 165 150 18
–80 525 490 8 –30 150 145 16
–30 505 470 8 25 150 145 16
25 485 440 9 100 145 130 16
100 455 420 9 150 125 110 16
150 370 340 13 205 95 60 20

N
205 185 140 28 260 50 28 60
260 75 55 60 315 28 17 70
315 50 41 75 370 19 12 70
370 38 28 100

IG
3003-H18 –195 285 230 23
2218-T61 –195 495 360 15 –80 220 200 11
–80 420 310 14 –30 205 195 10
–30 405 305 13 25 200 185 10
25 405 305 13 100 180 145 10

ES
100 385 290 15 150 160 110 11
150 285 240 17 205 95 60 18
205 150 110 30 260 50 28 60
260 70 41 70 315 28 17 70
315 38 21 85 370 19 12 70
370 28 17 100
3004-O –195 290 90 38
2219-T62 –195 505 340 16 –80 195 75 30
–80
–30
25
435
415
400
305
290
275
13
12
12
D –30
25
100
180
180
180
70
70
70
26
25
25
100 370 255 14 150 150 70 35
150 310 230 17 205 95 65 55
R
205 235 170 20 260 70 50 70
260 185 140 21 315 50 34 80
315 70 55 40 370 34 21 90
370 30 26 75
FO

3004-H34 –195 360 235 26

2219-T81, T851 –195 570 420 15 –80 260 205 16
–80 490 370 13 –30 250 200 13
–30 475 360 12 25 240 200 12
25 455 345 12 100 235 200 13
100 415 325 15 150 195 170 22
150 340 275 17 205 145 105 35
205 250 200 20 260 95 50 55
160 200 160 21 315 50 34 80
T

315 48 41 55 370 34 21 90
370 30 26 75
3004-H38 –195 400 295 20
O

2618-T61 –195 540 420 12 –80 305 260 10

–80 460 380 11 –30 290 250 7
–30 440 370 10 25 285 250 6
25 440 370 10 100 275 250 7
N

100 425 370 10 150 215 185 15

150 345 305 14 205 150 105 30
205 220 180 24 260 85 50 50
260 90 60 50 315 50 34 80
315 50 31 80 370 34 21 90
370 34 24 120
4032-T6 –195 455 330 11
3003-O –195 230 60 46 –80 400 315 10
–80 140 50 42 –30 385 315 9
–30 115 45 41 25 380 315 9
25 110 41 40 100 345 305 9
100 90 38 43 150 255 230 9
150 75 34 47 205 90 60 30
205 60 30 60 260 55 38 50
260 41 23 65 315 34 22 70
315 28 17 70 370 23 14 90
370 19 12 70
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-46.

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 Table 8M
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Continued)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, since are intended only as a basis for comparing alloys and tempers
in most cases they are averages for various sizes, product and should not be specified as engineering requirements or
forms and methods of manufacture and may not be exactly used for design purposes.
representative of any particular product or size. These data

ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

TEMP. TEMP.
AND MPa IN 50 mm AND MPa IN 50 mm
TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT
5050-O –195 255 70 .. 5083-O –195 405 165 36
–80 150 60 .. –80 295 145 30
–30 145 55 .. –30 290 145 27
25 145 55 .. 25 290 145 25
100 145 55 .. 100 275 145 36
150 130 55 .. 150 215 130 50
205 95 50 .. 205 150 115 60
260 60 41 .. 260 115 75 80

N
315 41 29 .. 315 75 50 110
370 27 18 .. 370 41 29 130

5083-H32 25 315 230 14

IG
5050-H34 –195 305 205 .. 5086-O –195 380 130 46
–80 205 170 .. –80 270 115 35
–30 195 165 .. –30 260 115 32
25 195 165 .. 25 260 115 30
100 195 165 .. 100 260 115 36

ES
150 170 150 .. 150 200 110 50
205 95 50 .. 205 150 105 60
260 60 41 .. 260 115 75 80
315 41 29 .. 315 75 50 110
370 27 18 .. 370 41 29 130

5050-H38 –195 315 250 .. 5154-O –195 360 130 46

D
–80 235 205 .. –80 250 115 35
–30 220 200 .. –30 240 115 32
25 220 200 .. 25 240 115 30
100 215 200 .. 100 240 115 36
150 185 170 .. 150 200 110 50
R

205 95 50 .. 205 150 105 60

260 60 41 .. 260 115 75 80
315 41 29 .. 315 75 50 110
370 27 18 .. 370 41 29 130
FO

5052-O –195 305 110 46 5254-O –195 360 130 46

–80 200 90 35 –80 250 115 35
–30 195 90 32 –30 240 115 32
25 195 90 30 25 240 115 30
100 195 90 36 100 240 115 36
150 160 90 50 150 200 110 50
205 115 75 60 205 150 105 60
260 85 50 80 260 115 75 80
T

315 50 38 110 315 75 50 110

370 34 21 130 370 41 29 130
O

5052-H34 –195 380 250 28 5454-O –195 370 130 39

–80 275 220 21 –80 255 115 30
–30 260 215 18 –30 250 115 27
25 260 215 16 25 250 115 25
N

100 260 215 18 100 250 115 31

150 205 185 27 150 200 110 50
205 165 105 45 205 150 105 60
260 85 50 80 260 115 75 80
315 50 38 110 315 75 50 110
370 34 21 130 370 41 29 130

5052-H38 –195 415 305 25 5454-H32 –195 405 250 32

–80 305 260 18 –80 290 215 23
–30 290 255 15 –30 285 205 20
25 290 255 14 25 275 205 18
100 275 250 16 100 270 200 20
150 235 195 24 150 220 180 37
205 170 105 45 205 170 130 45
260 85 50 80 260 115 75 80
315 50 38 110 315 75 50 110
370 34 21 130 370 41 29 130
For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-46.

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 Table 8M
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Continued)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, alloys and tempers and should not be specified as engi-
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not neering requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

TEMP. TEMP.
AND MPa IN 50 mm AND MPa IN 50 mm
TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT
5454-H34 –195 435 285 30
6063-T6 –195 325 250 24
–80 315 250 21
–80 260 230 20
–30 305 240 18
–30 250 220 19
25 305 240 16
25 240 215 18
100 295 235 18
100 215 195 15
150 235 195 32
150 145 140 20
205 180 130 45
205 60 45 40
260 115 75 80

N
260 31 24 75
315 75 50 110
315 23 17 80
370 41 29 130
370 16 14 105
5456-O –195 425 180 32

IG
–80 315 160 25 6082-T6, T6511 –195 525 425 17
–30 310 160 22 –80 420 360 13
25 310 160 20 –30 350 340 ..
100 290 150 31 25 340 315 14
150 215 140 50 100 330 310 ..
205 150 115 60

ES
150 330 310 ..
260 115 75 80 205 105 75 ..
315 75 50 110 260 .. .. ..
370 41 29 130 315 .. .. ..
370 .. .. ..
5456-H32 25 350 255 14
6101-T6 –195 295 230 24
6005A-T5 260 –80

6005A-T61
25 290
275
10
D –30
250
235
205
200
20
19
25 310 12 25 220 195 19
100 195 170 20
6053-T6, T651 220 150 145 130 20
25 255 13
195 205 70 48 40
100 220 13
R
165 260 33 23 80
150 170 13
85 315 21 16 100
205 90 25
28 370 17 12 105
260 38 70
19
FO

315 28 80
14 6151-T6 -195 395 345 20
370 20 90
-80 345 315 17
6061-T6, T651 325 -30 340 310 17
-195 415 22
290 25 330 295 17
-80 340 18
285 100 295 275 17
-30 325 17
275 150 195 185 20
25 310 17
260 205 95 85 30
100 290 18
215 260 45 34 50
150 235 20
105 43
T

205 130 28 315 34 27

34 370 28 22 35
260 50 60
19
315 32 85
12 -195
O

370 21 95 6262-T651 415 325 22

-80 340 290 18
6063-T1 110 -30 325 285 17
-195 235 44
105 25 310 275 17
-80 180 36
95 100 290 260 18
N

-30 165 34
90 150 235 215 20
25 150 33
95
100 150 18
105 6262-T9 -195 510 460 14
150 145 20
45 -80 425 400 10
205 60 40
24 -30 415 385 10
260 31 75
17 25 400 380 10
315 22 80
14 100 365 360 10
370 16 105
150 260 255 14
6063-T5 165 205 105 90 34
-195 255 28
150 260 60 41 48
-80 200 24
150 315 32 19 85
-30 195 23
145 370 21 12 95
25 185 12
140
100 165 18 6360-T5 25 185
125 145 22
150 140 20
45
205 60 40 6360-T6 25 240 215 18
24
260 31 75
17
315 22 80
14
370 16 105

For all numbered footnotes, see page IV-46.

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 Table 8M
Typical Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures Q (Concluded)
The following typical properties are not guaranteed, These data are intended only as a basis for comparing
since in most cases they are averages for various sizes, alloys and tempers and should not be specified as engi-
product forms and methods of manufacture and may not neering requirements or used for design purposes.
be exactly representative of any particular product or size.

ALLOY TENSILE STRENGTH, ELONGATION

TEMP.
AND MPa IN 50 mm
TEMPER °C ULTIMATE YIELD W PERCENT

7075-T6, –195 705 635 9

T651 –80 620 545 11
–30 595 515 11
25 570 505 11
100 485 450 14
150 215 185 30
205 110 90 55

N
260 75 60 65
315 55 45 70
370 41 32 70

IG
7075-T73, –195 635 495 14
T7351 –80 545 460 14
–30 525 450 13
25 505 435 13
100 435 400 15
150 215 185 30

ES
205 110 90 55
260 75 60 65
315 55 45 70
370 41 32 70

7175-T74 -195 730 675 13

-80 620 570 14
D
-30 600 550 16
25 550 505 14
100 495 475 17
150 240 215 30
205 125 90 65
R
FO

7475-T61 Sheet –195 685 600 10

–80 605 545 12
–30 580 515 12
25 550 495 12
100 485 450 14
150 205 180 28
205 95 75 55
260 65 50 70
315 45 38 80
T

370 34 26 85
O

7475-T651
25 585 510 13
Plate
7475-T761 –195 655 565 11
Sheet 505
N

–80 580 12
–30 550 485 12
25 525 460 12
100 440 420 14
150 205 180 38
205 95 75 55
260 65 50 70
315 45 38 80
370 34 26 85

Q These data are based on a limited amount of testing and represent the
lowest strength during 10,000 hours of exposure at testing temperature
under no load; stress applied at approximately 0.58 MPa/s in to yield
strength and then at strain rate of approximately 0.001mm/mm/s in to
failure. Under some conditions of temperature and time, the applica-
tion of heat will adversely affect certain other properties of some alloys.
W Offset equals 0.2 percent.

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 Aluminum Design Manual

PART V

Section Properties

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 V

Section Properties

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table 1 Nomenclature.............................................................................................................................4
Table 2 Section Designations .................................................................................................................5
Table 3 Weights Per Square Foot ............................................................................................................6
Table 4 Aluminum Association Standard Channels ...............................................................................7
Table 5 American Standard Channels ....................................................................................................8
Table 6 Car and Shipbuilding Channels ...............................................................................................10
Table 7 Canadian Channels ..................................................................................................................11
Table 8 Aluminum Association Standard I Beams ...............................................................................12
Table 9 Wide Flange Beams .................................................................................................................13
Table 10 Wide Flange Beams – Army-Navy Series ...............................................................................14
Table 11 American Standard I Beams ....................................................................................................15
Table 12 Canadian I Beams ....................................................................................................................16
Table 13 Canadian Wide Flange Beams .................................................................................................17
Table 14 Angles – Equal Legs ................................................................................................................18
Table 15 Square End Angles – Equal Legs ............................................................................................20
Table 16 Angles – Unequal Legs............................................................................................................21
Table 17 Square Angles – Unequal Legs ..............................................................................................24
Table 18 Tees ..........................................................................................................................................25
Table 19 Army-Navy and Special Tees...................................................................................................26
Table 20 Zees..........................................................................................................................................27
Table 21 Round Tubes ............................................................................................................................28
Table 22 Pipes.........................................................................................................................................34
Table 23 Square Tubes ............................................................................................................................37
Table 24 Rectangular Tubes....................................................................................................................39
Table 25 Roofing And Siding – Dimensions and Weights .....................................................................42
Table 26 Roofing and Siding – Section Properties .................................................................................43
Table 27 Decimal Equivalents in Inches of Sheet Metal and Wire Gauges ...........................................44
Table 28 Geometric Shapes ....................................................................................................................45

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 Table 1

NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Property Units

A area in2
b width in.
Cw warping constant in6
d depth in.
I moment of inertia in4
J torsion constant in4
r radius of gyration in.
ro polar radius of gyration about the shear center in.
R radius in.
Rb mid-thickness radius of a pipe or tube in.
S elastic section modulus in3
t thickness in.
tf flange thickness in.
tw web thickness in.
Wt weight per unit length lb/ft
X location of the major axis in.
xo x coordinate of shear center in.
Y location of the minor axis in.
yo y coordinate of shear center in.
Z plastic section modulus in3

x and y subscripts denote the axis about which the property is taken.
The x axis is the major axis. The y axis is the minor axis.

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 Table 2

SECTION DESIGNATIONS

Section Designation Example Description

C shapes with flat flanges; includes Canadian
Channels CS Depth × Wt CS 4 × 2.33
Channels
Car and Shipbuilding C shapes; some have flanges with a slope on the
CS Depth × Wt CS 3 × 2.23
Channels inner surface
American Standard C shapes with flanges with a 1:6 slope on the inner
C Depth × Wt C 2 × 1.22
Channels surface
I shapes with flat flanges; includes Canadian
I-Beams I Depth × Wt I 12 × 11.7
I-Beams

American Standard I shapes with flanges with a 1:6 slope on the inner
S Depth × Wt S 10 × 12.1
I-Beams surface

I shapes with a flange width approximately equal to

Wide Flange Beams WF Nominal Depth × Wt WF 12 × 13.8
the depth

Army-Navy Wide Flange I shapes with flat flanges and a radius on the inside
WF(A-N) Depth × Wt WF(A-N) 4 × 4.14
Beams corner of the flanges
L long leg × short leg × L shaped product with a fillet at the junction of the
Angles L3×2×¼
thickness legs and radii on the inside tips of the legs
LS long leg × short leg × L shaped product with small radii at the
Square End Angles LS 3 × 3 × 1/8
thickness corners
Tees T Depth × Width × Wt T 2.50 × 2.50 × 1.91 T shapes
Zees Z Depth × Width × Wt Z 4.00 × 3.19 × 4.32 Z shapes
Rolled product with a rectangular cross
Plates PL Thickness × Width PL 0.375 × 60
section at least 0.25 in. thick
Solid product with a circular cross section at least
Rods RD Diameter RD 0.500
0.375 in. in diameter
Solid product with a square cross section at least
Square Bars SQ Side dimension SQ 4
0.375 in. on a side
Tube in standardized outside diameters and wall
Pipes NPS size × SCH schedule no. NPS 4 × SCH 40
thicknesses
Outside diameter OD × wall
Round Tubes 4 OD × 0.125 WALL Hollow product with a circular cross section
thickness WALL
RT long side × short side × wall Hollow product with a rectangular cross
Rectangular Tubes RT 6 × 4 × ¼
thickness section (including square tube)

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 Table 3

WEIGHTS PER SQUARE FOOT

The weight per square foot for an alloy with density of 0.100 lb/in3 is shown for each thickness. The
weights for other alloys can be calculated using the density given in Part IV Table 7. Commonly used
thicknesses are shown B OLD.

Thickness Weight Thickness Weight Thickness Weight

2 2 2
(in.) (lb/ft ) (in.) (lb/ft ) (in.) (lb/ft )
Decimal Fraction Decimal Fraction Decimal Fraction
.006 0.086 .132 1.90 1.625 1 5/8 23.40
.007 0.101 .140 2.02 1.750 1¾ 25.20
.008 0.115 .150 2.16 1.875 1 7/8 27.00
.009 0.130 .160 2.30 2.000 2 28.80
.010 0.144 .170 2.45 2.125 2 1/8 30.60
.011 0.158 .180 2.59 2.250 2¼ 32.40
.012 0.173 .1875 3/16 2.70 2.375 2 3/8 34.20
.013 0.187 .190 2.74 2.500 2½ 36.00
.014 0.202 .200 2.88 2.625 2 5/8 37.80
.016 1/64 0.230 .212 3.05 2.750 2¾ 39.60
.018 0.259 .224 3.23 2.875 2 7/8 41.40
.019 0.274 .236 3.40 3.000 3 43.20
.020 0.288 .250 ¼ 3.60 3.250 3¼ 46.80
.021 0.302 .266 17/64 3.83 3.500 3½ 50.40
.022 0.317 .281 9/32 4.05 3.750 3¾ 54.00
.024 0.346 .297 19/64 4.28 4.000 4 57.60
.025 0.360 .313 5/16 4.51 4.250 4¼ 61.20
.026 0.374 .328 21/64 4.72 4.500 4½ 64.80
.028 0.403 .344 11/32 4.95 4.750 4¾ 68.40
.030 0.432 .359 23/64 5.17 5.000 5 72.00
.032 0.461 .375 3/8 5.40 5.250 5¼ 75.60
.034 0.490 .391 25/64 5.63 5.500 5½ 79.20
.036 0.518 .406 13/32 5.85 5.750 5¾ 82.80
.038 0.547 .422 27/64 6.08 6.000 6 86.40
.040 0.576 .438 7/16 6.31
.042 0.605 .453 29/64 6.52
.045 0.648 .469 15/32 6.75
.048 0.691 .484 31/64 6.97
.050 0.720 .500 ½ 7.20
.053 0.763 .531 17/32 7.65
.056 0.806 .562 9/16 8.09
.060 0.864 .594 19/32 8.55
.063 1/16 0.907 .625 5/8 9.00
.067 0.965 .656 21/32 9.45
.071 1.02 .688 11/16 9.91
.075 1.08 .719 23/32 10.35
.080 1.15 .750 ¾ 10.80
.085 1.22 .812 13/16 11.69
.090 1.30 .875 7/8 12.60
.095 1.37 .938 15/16 13.51
.100 1.44 1.000 1 14.40
.106 1.53 1.125 1 1/8 16.20
.112 1.61 1.250 1¼ 18.00
.118 1.70 1.375 1 3/8 19.80
.125 1/8 1.80 1.500 1½ 21.60

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 b
Y
x tf

shear tw
center

January 2015
X X d
Table 4 R
ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION STANDARD CHANNELS

Flange Web Fillet Axis X-X Axis Y-Y xo

Y
Designation Depth Width Thickness Thickness Radius Area
d b tf tw R A Ix Sx Zx rx Iy Sy ry x xo Cw J
2 4 3 3 4 3 6 4
in. in. in. in. in. in in in in in. in in in. in. in. in in
CS 2 X 0.577 2.000 1.000 0.130 0.1 30 0.100 0.490 0.288 0.288 0.341 0.766 0.0450 0.0639 0.303 0.296 0.577 0.0324 0.00274
CS 2 X 1.07 2.000 1.250 0.260 0.170 0.150 0.911 0.546 0.546 0.659 0.774 0.139 0.178 0.390 0.471 0.875 0.0894 0.0171
CS 3 X 1.14 3.000 1.500 0.200 0.130 0.250 0.965 1.41 0.940 1.06 1.21 0.217 0.215 0.474 0.494 1.00 0.332 0.00990
CS 3 X 1.60 3.000 1.750 0.260 0.170 0.250 1.36 1.97 1.31 1.51 1.20 0.417 0.368 0.554 0.617 1.22 0.626 0.0246
CS 4 X 1.74 4.000 2.000 0.230 0.150 0.250 1.48 3.91 1.95 2.20 1.63 0.601 0.446 0.638 0.653 1.35 1.65 0.0202
CS 4 X 2.33 4.000 2.250 0.290 0.190 0.250 1.98 5.21 2.60 2.98 1.62 1.02 0.692 0.717 0.775 1.57 2.76 0.0444
CS 5 X 2.21 5.000 2.250 0.260 0.150 0.300 1.88 7.88 3.15 3.53 2.05 0.975 0.642 0.720 0.731 1.53 4.17 0.0314
CS 5 X 3.09 5.0 00 2.750 0.320 0.190 0.300 2.63 11.1 4.45 5.02 2.06 2.05 1.14 0.884 0.955 1.97 8.70 0.0700
CS 6 X 2.83 6.000 2.500 0.290 0.170 0.300 2.41 14.4 4.78 5.39 2.44 1.53 0.896 0.798 0.788 1.66 9.52 0.0495
CS 6 X 4.03 6.000 3.250 0.350 0.210 0.300 3.43 21.0 7.01 7.90 2.48 3.76 1.76 1.05 1.12 2.32 23.1 0.109
CS 7 X 3.21 7.000 2.750 0.290 0.170 0.300 2.73 22.1 6.31 7.10 2.85 2.10 1.10 0.878 0.842 1.81 17.8 0.0552
CS 7 X 4.72 7.000 3.500 0.380 0.210 0.300 4.01 33.8 9.65 10.8 2.90 5.13 2.23 1.13 1.20 2.51 43.0 0.14 7
CS 8 X 4.15 8.000 3.000 0.350 0.190 0.300 3.53 37.4 9.35 10.6 3.26 3.25 1.57 0.959 0.934 1.99 36.0 0.102
CS 8 X 5.79 8.000 3.750 0.410 0.250 0.350 4.92 52.7 13.2 14.9 3.27 7.12 2.82 1.20 1.22 2.57 78.5 0.210
CS 9 X 4.98 9.000 3.250 0.350 0.230 0.350 4.24 54.4 12.1 13.8 3.58 4.40 1.89 1.02 0.928 2.00 62.8 0.127
CS 9 X 6.97 9.000 4.000 0.440 0.290 0.350 5.93 78.3 17.4 19.8 3.63 9.60 3.49 1.27 1.25 2.63 135 0.293
CS 10 X 6.14 10.000 3.500 0.410 0.250 0.350 5.22 83.2 16.6 19.0 3.99 6.33 2.55 1.10 1.02 2. 19 111 0.209
CS 10 X 8.36 10.000 4.250 0.500 0.310 0.400 7.11 116 23.2 26.5 4.04 13.0 4.46 1.35 1.34 2.81 226 0.444
CS 12 X 8.27 12.000 4.000 0.470 0.290 0.400 7.04 160 26.6 30.5 4.77 11.0 3.85 1.25 1.14 2.45 281 0.367
CS 12 X 11.8 12.000 5.000 0.620 0. 350 0.450 10.1 240 39.9 45.4 4.88 25.7 7.59 1.60 1.61 3.39 639 0.948
1
CS 14 x 13.9 14.000 6.000 0.640 0.320 0.450 11.8 401 57.3 64.2 5.82 44.7 11.20 1.94 2.00 4.27 1511 1.188

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
1. New shape; check availability with suppliers.
2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.

V-7
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.
 b

V-8
Y
slope 1:6

tw

d X X
d1 (nominal)
R1
R2

x
Y
Table 5
AMERICAN STANDARD CHANNELS
Average Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Flange Tip Flange Web Fillet Tip y-axis
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Thickness Radius Radius Area Location
d b tf t tw R1 R2 d1 A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry x
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in4 in3 in. in.
C 2 × 1.22 2.000 1.410 0.170 0.273 0.170 0.270 0.100 0.75 1.04 0.622 0.622 0.774 0.172 0.188 0.407 0.49
C 3 × 1.42 3.000 1.410 0.170 0.273 0.170 0.270 0.100 1.75 1.21 1.66 1.10 1.17 0.20 0.20 0.40 0.44
C 3 × 1.73 3.000 1.498 0.170 0.273 0.258 0.270 0.100 1.75 1.47 1.85 1.24 1.12 0.21 0.21 0.41 0.44
C 3 × 2.07 3.000 1.596 0.170 0.273 0.356 0.270 0.100 1.75 1.76 2.07 1.38 1.08 0.31 0.27 0.42 0.46
C 4 × 1.85 4.000 1.580 0.180 0.297 0.180 0.280 0.110 2.75 1.57 3.83 1.92 1.56 0.32 0.28 0.45 0.46
C 4 × 2.16 4.000 1.647 0.180 0.297 0.247 0.280 0.110 2.75 1.84 4.19 2.10 1.51 0.37 0.31 0.45 0.45
C 4 × 2.50 4.000 1.720 0.180 0.297 0.320 0.280 0.110 2.75 2.13 4.58 2.29 1.47 0.43 0.34 0.45 0.46
C 5 × 2.32 5.000 1.750 0.190 0.320 0.190 0.290 0.110 3.75 1.97 7.49 3.00 1.95 0.48 0.38 0.49 0.48
C 5 × 3.11 5.000 1.885 0.190 0.320 0.325 0.290 0.110 3.75 2.64 8.90 3.56 1.83 0.63 0.45 0.49 0.48
C 5 × 3.97 5.000 2.032 0.190 0.320 0.472 0.290 0.110 3.75 3.38 10.4 4.17 1.76 0.81 0.53 0.49 0.51
C 6 × 2.83 6.000 1.920 0.200 0.343 0.200 0.300 0.120 4.50 2.40 13.1 4.37 2.34 0.69 0.49 0.54 0.51
C 6 × 3.00 6.000 1.945 0.200 0.343 0.225 0.300 0.120 4.50 2.55 13.6 4.52 2.31 0.73 0.51 0.54 0.51
C 6 × 3.63 6.000 2.034 0.200 0.343 0.314 0.300 0.120 4.50 3.09 15.2 5.06 2.22 0.87 0.56 0.50 0.50
C 6 × 4.50 6.000 2.157 0.200 0.343 0.438 0.300 0.120 4.50 3.83 17.4 5.80 2.13 1.05 0.64 0.52 0.51
C 7 × 3.54 7.000 2.110 0.210 0.367 0.230 0.310 0.130 5.50 3.01 21.8 6.24 2.69 1.01 0.64 0.58 0.54
C 7 × 4.23 7.000 2.194 0.210 0.367 0.314 0.310 0.130 5.50 3.60 24.2 6.93 2.60 1.17 0.70 0.57 0.52
C 7 × 5.10 7.000 2.299 0.210 0.367 0.419 0.310 0.130 5.50 4.33 27.2 7.78 2.51 1.38 0.78 0.56 0.53
C 7 × 5.96 7.000 2.404 0.210 0.367 0.524 0.310 0.130 5.50 5.07 30.3 8.64 2.44 1.59 0.86 0.56 0.55

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
January 2015
 Table 5
AMERICAN STANDARD CHANNELS (Continued)

January 2015
Average Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Flange Tip Flange Web Fillet Tip y-axis
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Thickness Radius Radius Area Location
d b tf t tw R1 R2 d1 A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry x
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in4 in3 in. in.
C 8 × 4.25 8.000 2.290 0.220 0.390 0.250 0.320 0.130 6.25 3.62 33.9 8.46 3.06 1.40 0.81 0.62 0.56
C 8 × 4.75 8.000 2.343 0.220 0.390 0.303 0.320 0.130 6.25 4.04 36.1 9.03 2.99 1.53 0.85 0.61 0.55
C 8 × 5.62 8.000 2.435 0.220 0.390 0.395 0.320 0.130 6.25 4.78 40.0 10.0 2.90 1.75 0.93 0.61 0.55
C 8 × 6.48 8.000 2.527 0.220 0.390 0.487 0.320 0.130 6.25 5.51 44.0 11.0 2.82 1.98 1.01 0.60 0.57

C 9 × 4.60 9.000 2.430 0.230 0.413 0.230 0.330 0.140 7.25 3.91 47.7 10.6 3.49 1.75 0.96 0.67 0.60
C 9 × 5.19 9.000 2.485 0.230 0.413 0.285 0.330 0.140 7.25 4.41 51.0 11.3 3.40 1.93 1.01 0.66 0.59
C 9 × 6.91 9.000 2.648 0.230 0.413 0.448 0.330 0.140 7.25 5.88 60.9 13.5 3.22 2.42 1.17 0.64 0.58
C 9 × 8.65 9.000 2.812 0.230 0.413 0.612 0.330 0.140 7.25 7.35 70.9 15.8 3.11 2.94 1.34 0.63 0.61

C 10 × 5.28 10.000 2.600 0.240 0.437 0.240 0.340 0.140 8.25 4.49 67.4 13.5 3.87 2.28 1.16 0.71 0.63
C 10 × 6.91 10.000 2.739 0.240 0.437 0.379 0.340 0.140 8.25 5.88 79.0 15.8 3.66 2.81 1.32 0.69 0.61
C 10 × 8.64 10.000 2.886 0.240 0.437 0.526 0.340 0.140 8.25 7.35 91.2 18.2 3.52 3.36 1.48 0.68 0.62
C 10 × 10.4 10.000 3.033 0.240 0.437 0.673 0.340 0.140 8.25 8.82 104 20.7 3.43 3.95 1.66 0.67 0.65

C 12 × 7.41 12.000 2.960 0.280 0.502 0.300 0.380 0.170 10.0 6.30 132 22.0 4.57 3.99 1.76 0.80 0.69
C 12 × 8.64 12.000 3.047 0.280 0.502 0.387 0.380 0.170 10.0 7.35 144 24.1 4.43 4.47 1.89 0.78 0.67
C 12 × 10.4 12.000 3.170 0.280 0.502 0.510 0.380 0.170 10.0 8.82 162 27.0 4.29 5.14 2.06 0.76 0.67
C 12 × 12.1 12.000 3.292 0.280 0.502 0.632 0.380 0.170 10.0 10.3 180 29.9 4.18 5.82 2.24 0.75 0.69

C 15 × 11.7 15.000 3.400 0.400 0.650 0.400 0.500 0.240 12.4 9.96 315 42.0 5.62 8.13 3.11 0.90 0.79
C 15 × 17.3 15.000 3.716 0.400 0.650 0.716 0.500 0.240 12.4 14.7 404 53.8 5.24 11.0 3.78 0.87 0.80

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
V-9
 b

V-10
Y

slope

tw

d X X
d1 (nominal)
R1
R2

x
Y
Table 6
CAR AND SHIPBUILDING CHANNELS
Avg Flange Web Fillet Tip Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Radius Radius Area
d b tf tw Flange R1 R2 d1 A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry x
Designation in. in. in. in. Slope in. in. in. in2 in.4 in.3 in. in.4 in.3 in. in.
CS 3 × 2.23 3.000 2.000 0.320 0.250 1:12.1 0.250 0 1.75 1.90 2.61 1.74 1.17 0.68 0.52 0.60 0.68
CS 3 × 2.70 3.000 2.000 0.375 0.375 0 0.188 0.375 0.875 2.30 2.89 1.92 1.12 0.78 0.59 0.58 0.67

CS 4 × 3.32 4.000 2.500 0.344 0.318 1:34.9 0.375 0.125 2.38 2.82 6.84 3.42 1.56 1.62 0.95 0.76 0.81
CS 5 × 5.82 5.000 2.875 0.562 0.438 1:9.8 0.250 0.094 3.00 4.95 18.1 7.25 1.91 3.57 1.87 0.85 0.96

CS 6 × 5.77 6.000 3.000 0.375 0.500 0 0.375 0.250 4.50 4.91 24.1 8.02 2.21 3.52 1.61 0.85 0.81
CS 6 × 5.93 6.000 3.500 0.442 0.375 1:49.6 0.480 0.420 4.00 5.04 28.2 9.41 2.37 5.58 2.31 1.05 1.09

CS 8 × 6.59 8.000 3.000 0.468 0.380 1:14.43 0.550 0.220 5.75 5.60 54.2 13.5 3.11 4.10 1.88 0.86 0.81
CS 8 × 7.86 8.000 3.500 0.524 0.425 1:28.5 0.525 0.375 5.75 6.68 63.8 15.9 3.09 7.06 2.84 1.03 1.01

CS 10 × 8.58 10.000 3.500 0.544 0.375 1:9 0.625 0.188 7.50 7.30 110 21.9 3.88 7.19 2.80 0.99 0.93
CS 10 × 9.32 10.000 3.563 0.544 0.438 1:9 0.625 0.188 7.50 7.93 115 24.0 3.81 7.73 2.93 0.99 0.92
CS 10 × 10.1 10.000 3.625 0.544 0.500 1:9 0.625 0.188 7.50 8.55 120 24.0 3.75 8.25 3.04 0.98 0.91

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
January 2015
 b
Y
x tf

shear
center tw

Table 7 X X d
CANADIAN CHANNELS R

January 2015
Flange Web Fillet
xo
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Radius Area Axis X-X Axis Y-Y Y

d b tf tw R A Ix Sx Zx rx Iy Sy ry x xo Cw J
2 4 3 3 4 3 6 4
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in in in in in. in in in. in. in. in in
CS 2 X 0.706 2.000 1.500 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.600 0.391 0.391 0.447 0.807 0.137 0.136 0.477 0.493 1.011 0.0938 0.0031
CS 2.25 X 0.86 2.250 1.000 0.188 0.188 0.062 0.730 0.505 0.449 0.553 0.832 0.062 0.090 0.292 0.303 0.534 0.0589 0.0086
CS 3 X 1.48 3.000 1. 500 0.250 0.188 0.312 1.26 1.72 1.15 1.33 1.17 0.268 0.265 0.461 0.489 0.937 0.415 0.021
CS 3 X 1.85 3.000 1.500 0.312 0.250 0.312 1.57 2.03 1.35 1.61 1.14 0.321 0.322 0.452 0.502 0.902 0.501 0.043
CS 3 X 2.18 3.000 2.000 0.312 0.250 0.188 1.86 2.56 1.71 2.03 1.17 0.730 0.568 0.627 0.714 1.362 1.09 0.053
CS 4 X 1.90 4.000 1.620 0.281 0.188 0.375 1.62 3.95 1.98 2.25 1.56 0.396 0.355 0.495 0.504 0.983 1.11 0.032
CS 4 X 2.24 4.000 1.750 0.281 0.250 0.375 1.90 4.41 2.21 2.57 1.52 0.514 0.417 0.520 0.519 0.9 76 1.49 0.044
CS 4 X 2.02 4.000 2.000 0.250 0.188 0.375 1.72 4.36 2.18 2.45 1.59 0.667 0.486 0.623 0.627 1.266 1.84 0.029
CS 4 X 2.53 4.000 2.000 0.312 0.250 0.375 2.15 5.21 2.60 3.01 1.56 0.810 0.595 0.613 0.638 1.229 2.25 0.058
CS 4 X 2.90 4.000 2.500 0.312 0.250 0.375 2.46 6.27 3.14 3.59 1.60 1.52 0.919 0.786 0.842 1.671 4.13 0.068
CS 5 X 2.51 5.000 2.000 0.312 0.188 0.375 2.13 8.45 3.38 3.83 1.99 0.832 0.607 0.625 0.630 1.273 3.59 0.050
CS 5 X 3.11 5.000 2.000 0.343 0.281 0.375 2.64 9.59 3.84 4.50 1.90 0.942 0.669 0.597 0.592 1.122 4.27 0.086
CS 5 x 3.05 5.000 2.500 0.312 0.218 0.437 2.60 10.5 4.18 4.70 2.01 1.60 0.944 0.786 0.801 1.629 6.86 0.066
CS 5 X 3.55 5.000 2.500 0.375 0.250 0.437 3.02 12.0 4.79 5.46 1.99 1.86 1.11 0.784 0.830 1.649 7.89 0.110
CS 6 X 3.60 6.000 2.000 0.375 0.281 0.437 3.06 15.8 5.26 6.16 2.27 1.06 0.740 0.588 0.569 1.078 7.04 0.109
CS 6 X 3.51 6.000 2.500 0.312 0.250 0.437 2.99 16.4 5.47 6.24 2.34 1.74 0.978 0.764 0.719 1.461 11.2 0.079
CS 6 X 6.42 6.000 3.500 0.500 0.37 5 0.437 5.46 30.9 10.3 12.0 2.38 6.62 2.87 1.10 1.19 2.348 40.3 0.380
CS 7 X 3.90 7.000 2.500 0.375 0.218 0.437 3.32 25.8 7.37 8.34 2.79 2.02 1.16 0.781 0.759 1.562 17.3 0.109
CS 7 X 4.61 7.000 3.000 0.375 0.250 0.500 3.92 30.8 8.79 9.89 2.80 3.47 1.67 0.941 0.921 1.901 29.5 0.138
CS 8 X 4.65 8.000 2.750 0.375 0.250 0.437 3.96 39.0 9.74 11.1 3.14 2.83 1.44 0.846 0.781 1.620 32.2 0.134
CS 8 X 5.56 8.000 3.000 0.437 0.281 0.500 4.73 47.3 11.8 13.5 3.16 4.10 1.95 0.931 0.900 1.840 46.1 0.220
CS 10 X 6.23 10.000 3.000 0.437 0.281 0.500 5.29 79.9 16.0 18.4 3.89 4.39 2.01 0.911 0.819 1.701 79.3 0.234
CS 10 X 7.58 10.000 3.500 0.500 0.312 0.562 6.44 101 20.1 22.9 3.95 7.59 3.07 1.09 1.03 2.126 134 0.383
CS 10 X 19.0 10.000 4.000 1.250 0.812 0.500 16.2 223 44 .5 55.2 3.71 23.3 8.94 1.20 1.39 2.375 402 6.547
CS 12 X 10.3 12.000 4.000 0.562 0.375 0.625 8.74 192 32.0 36.8 4.69 13.1 4.56 1.22 1.13 2.329 338 0.665

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.
2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.

V-11
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.
 b

V-12
Y
tf

d X X

tw

Table 8
Y
ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION STANDARD I BEAMS

Axis X-X Axis Y-Y

Designation d bf tf tw R A Ix Sx Zx rx Iy Sy Zy ry Cw J
in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in3 in. in4 in3 in3 in. in6 in4
I 3 x 1.64 3.000 2.500 0.200 0.130 0.250 1.39 2.24 1.49 1.62 1.27 0.522 0.418 0.630 0.613 1.02 0.0192
I 3 x 2.03 3.000 2.500 0.260 0.15 0 0.250 1.73 2.71 1.81 2.01 1.25 0.679 0.543 0.819 0.627 1.27 0.0374
I 4 x 2.31 4.000 3.000 0.230 0.150 0.250 1.96 5.62 2.81 3.07 1.69 1.04 0.691 1.045 0.727 3.68 0.0333
I 4 x 2.79 4.000 3.000 0.290 0.170 0.250 2.38 6.71 3.36 3.72 1.68 1.31 0.872 1.317 0.742 4.50 0.0608
I 5 x 3.70 5.000 3.500 0.320 0.190 0.300 3.15 13.9 5.58 6.14 2.11 2.29 1.31 1.980 0.853 12.5 0.0984
I 6 x 4.03 6.000 4.000 0.290 0.190 0.300 3.43 22.0 7.33 8.02 2.53 3.10 1.55 2.344 0.951 25.3 0.0888
I 6 x 4.69 6.000 4.000 0.350 0.210 0.300 3.99 25.5 8.50 9.38 2.53 3.74 1.87 2.829 0.968 29.8 0.145
I 7 x 5.80 7.000 4.500 0.380 0.230 0.300 4.93 42.9 12.3 13.6 2.95 5.78 2.57 3.889 1.08 63.3 0.206
I 8 x 6.18 8.000 5.000 0.350 0.230 0.300 5.26 59.7 14.9 16.5 3.37 7.30 2.92 4.423 1.18 107 0. 188
I 8 x 7.02 8.000 5.000 0.410 0.250 0.300 5.97 67.8 16.9 18.8 3.37 8.55 3.42 5.181 1.20 123 0.286
I 9 x 8.36 9.000 5.500 0.440 0.270 0.300 7.11 102 22.7 25.2 3.79 12.2 4.44 6.729 1.31 224 0.386
I 10 x 8.65 10.000 6.000 0.410 0.250 0.400 7.35 132 26.4 28.9 4.24 14.8 4.93 7.452 1.42 340 0.360
I 10 x 10.3 10.000 6.000 0.500 0.290 0.400 8.75 156 31.2 34.4 4.22 18.0 6.01 9.095 1.44 407 0.620
I 12 x 11.7 12.000 7.000 0.470 0.290 0.400 9.92 256 42.6 46.8 5.07 26.9 7.69 11.631 1.65 894 0.621
I 12 x 14.3 12 .000 7.000 0.620 0.310 0.400 12.2 317 52.9 58.4 5.11 35.5 10.1 15.319 1.71 1149 1.26
1
I 14 x 16.0 14.000 8.000 0.600 0.300 0.400 13.6 489 69.9 76.6 6.00 51.2 12.8 19.344 1.94 2300 1.31

1. New shape; check availability with suppliers.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

January 2015
 b
Y

R2 slope

January 2015
R1
tw
d X X
d1 (nominal)

Table 9
WIDE FLANGE BEAMS Y

Avg Flange Web Fillet Axis X-X Axis Y-Y

Depth Width Thickness Thickness Radius Tip Radius Area
d b tf tw Flange R1 R2 d1 A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry
Designation in. in. in. in. Slope in. in. in. in2 in.4 in.3 in. in.4 in.3 in.
WF 2 × 1.43 2.000 2.000 0.232 0.188 1:11.4 0.188 0.094 1.13 1.22 0.782 0.782 0.80 0.275 0.275 0.47
WF 4 × 4.76 4.000 4.000 0.370 0.313 1:11.3 0.313 0.145 2.38 4.05 10.8 5.40 1.63 3.52 1.76 0.93
WF 5 × 6.49 5.000 5.000 0.415 0.313 1:13.6 0.313 0.165 3.38 5.52 23.9 9.58 2.08 7.73 3.09 1.18

WF 6 × 4.16 6.000 4.000 0.279 0.230 0 0.250 0 4.88 3.54 21.8 7.25 2.48 2.98 1.49 0.92
WF 6 × 5.40 6.000 6.000 0.269 0.240 0 0.250 0 4.88 4.59 30.2 10.1 2.56 9.69 3.23 1.45
WF 6 × 7.85 6.000 5.930 0.451 0.250 1:15.6 0.313 0.180 4.38 6.68 44.3 14.8 2.57 14.0 4.67 1.45
WF 6 × 8.30 6.000 6.000 0.451 0.313 1:15.6 0.313 0.180 4.38 7.06 45.4 15.1 2.54 14.5 4.83 1.43
WF 6 × 9.18 6.000 6.130 0.451 0.438 1:15.6 0.313 0.180 4.38 7.81 47.6 15.9 2.47 15.5 5.16 1.41

WF 8 × 5.90 8.000 5.250 0.308 0.230 0 0.320 0 6.75 5.02 56.7 14.2 3.36 7.44 2.83 1.22
WF 8 × 8.32 8.000 6.500 0.398 0.245 0 0.400 0 6.38 7.08 84.2 21.0 3.44 18.2 5.61 1.61
WF 8 × 10.7 8.000 8.000 0.433 0.288 0 0.400 0 6.38 9.12 110 27.4 3.47 37.0 9.24 2.01
WF 8 × 11.2 8.000 7.940 0.458 0.313 1:18.9 0.313 0.179 6.25 9.55 113 28.3 3.45 33.9 8.47 1.88
WF 8 × 11.8 8.000 8.000 0.458 0.375 1:18.9 0.313 0.179 6.25 10.1 116 29.0 3.40 34.7 8.68 1.86
WF 8 × 13.0 8.000 8.130 0.458 0.500 1:18.9 0.313 0.179 6.25 11.1 121 30.3 3.31 36.5 9.13 1.82

WF 10 × 11.4 9.750 7.964 0.433 0.292 0 0.500 0 7.88 9.71 171 35.1 4.20 36.5 9.16 1.94
WF 10 × 7.30 9.900 5.750 0.340 0.240 0 0.312 0 8.56 6.21 107 21.6 4.15 10.8 3.75 1.32

WF 12 × 13.8 11.940 8.000 0.516 0.294 0 0.600 0 9.69 11.8 310 51.9 5.13 44.1 11.0 1.94
WF 12 × 18.3 12.060 10.000 0.576 0.345 0 0.600 0 9.69 15.6 426 70.7 5.23 96.1 19.2 2.48

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

V-13
 b

V-14
Y
tf

R2
R1
tw

d X X

d1 (nominal)

Y
Table 10
WIDE FLANGE BEAMS–ARMY-NAVY SERIES
Flange Web Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Thick- Thick- Fillet Tip
Depth Width ness ness Radius Radius Area
d b tf tw R1 R2 d1 A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry Cw J r0
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in4 in3 in. in6 in4 in.
WF(A-N) 2 × 0.928 2.500 2.000 0.125 0.125 0.156 0.125 2.00 0.789 0.831 0.665 1.03 0.155 0.155 0.443 0.235 0.00407 1.12
WF(A-N) 3 × 0.769 3.000 2.000 0.094 0.094 0.156 0.094 2.50 0.654 0.992 0.661 1.23 0.118 0.118 0.426 0.265 0.00189 1.30
WF(A-N) 3 × 1.00 3.000 2.000 0.125 0.125 0.156 0.125 2.50 0.851 1.26 0.841 1.22 0.155 0.155 0.426 0.344 0.00439 1.29
WF(A-N) 4 × 1.14 4.000 2.000 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 3.50 0.969 2.42 1.21 1.58 0.155 0.155 0.400 0.626 0.00505 1.63
WF(A-N) 4 × 1.79 4.000 3.000 0.156 0.156 0.188 0.156 3.25 1.52 4.14 2.07 1.65 0.659 0.439 0.658 2.59 0.0123 1.78
WF(A-N) 4 × 2.35 4.000 3.500 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.188 3.25 2.00 5.52 2.76 1.66 1.26 0.719 0.793 4.88 0.0235 1.84
WF(A-N) 4 × 3.06 4.000 3.500 0.250 0.250 0.188 0.250 3.00 2.60 6.97 3.48 1.64 1.64 0.936 0.793 6.28 0.0547 1.82
WF(A-N) 4 × 4.14 4.000 4.000 0.312 0.312 0.250 0.312 2.75 3.52 9.39 4.70 1.63 3.03 1.51 0.927 11.3 0.115 1.88
WF(A-N) 5 × 5.36 5.000 5.000 0.312 0.312 0.312 0.125 3.75 4.56 19.7 7.86 2.08 6.43 2.57 1.19 35.7 0.146 2.39

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
January 2015
 b
Y
slope 1:6
R2
R1
tw

January 2015
d X X d1 (nominal)

Table 11
AMERICAN STANDARD I-BEAMS Y

Flange Tip Avg Flange Web Fillet Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Thickness Radius Tip Radius Area
d b tf t tw R1 R2 d1 A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in4 in3 in.
S 3 × 1.96 3.000 2.330 0.170 0.260 0.170 0.270 0.100 1.75 1.67 2.52 1.68 1.23 0.46 0.39 0.52
S 3 × 2.59 3.000 2.509 0.170 0.260 0.349 0.270 0.100 1.75 2.21 2.93 1.95 1.15 0.59 0.47 0.52

S 4 × 2.64 4.000 2.660 0.190 0.293 0.190 0.290 0.110 2.75 2.25 6.06 3.03 1.64 0.76 0.57 0.58
S 4 × 3.28 4.000 2.796 0.190 0.293 0.326 0.290 0.110 2.75 2.79 6.79 3.39 1.56 0.90 0.65 0.57

S 5 × 3.43 5.000 3.000 0.210 0.326 0.210 0.310 0.130 3.50 2.92 12.3 4.90 2.05 1.21 0.81 0.64
S 5 × 4.23 5.000 3.137 0.210 0.326 0.347 0.310 0.130 3.50 3.60 13.7 5.48 1.95 1.41 0.90 0.63
S 5 × 5.10 5.000 3.284 0.210 0.326 0.494 0.310 0.130 3.50 4.34 15.2 6.09 1.87 1.66 1.01 0.62

S 6 × 4.30 6.000 3.330 0.230 0.359 0.230 0.330 0.140 4.50 3.66 22.1 7.36 2.46 1.82 1.09 0.71
S 6 × 5.10 6.000 3.443 0.230 0.359 0.343 0.330 0.140 4.50 4.34 24.1 8.04 2.36 2.04 1.19 0.69
S 6 × 5.96 6.000 3.565 0.230 0.359 0.465 0.330 0.140 4.50 5.07 26.3 8.77 2.28 2.31 1.30 0.68

S 7 × 6.05 7.000 3.755 0.250 0.392 0.345 0.350 0.150 5.25 5.15 39.4 11.3 2.77 2.88 1.53 0.75

S 8 × 6.35 8.000 4.000 0.270 0.425 0.270 0.370 0.160 6.25 5.40 57.6 14.4 3.27 3.73 1.86 0.83
S 8 × 7.96 8.000 4.171 0.270 0.425 0.441 0.370 0.160 6.25 6.77 64.9 16.2 3.10 4.31 2.07 0.80
S 8 × 8.81 8.000 4.262 0.270 0.425 0.532 0.370 0.160 6.25 7.49 68.7 17.2 3.03 4.66 2.19 0.79

S 9 × 7.51 9.000 4.330 0.290 0.458 0.290 0.390 0.170 7.00 6.38 85.9 19.1 3.67 5.09 2.35 0.89

S 10 × 8.76 10.000 4.660 0.310 0.491 0.310 0.410 0.190 8.00 7.45 123 24.5 4.07 6.78 2.91 0.95
S 10 × 10.4 10.000 4.797 0.310 0.491 0.447 0.410 0.190 8.00 8.82 135 27.0 3.91 7.50 3.13 0.92
S 10 × 12.1 10.000 4.944 0.310 0.491 0.594 0.410 0.190 8.00 10.3 147 29.4 3.78 8.36 3.38 0.90

S 12 × 11.0 12.000 5.000 0.350 0.544 0.350 0.450 0.210 9.75 9.35 218 36.4 4.83 9.35 3.74 1.00
S 12 × 12.1 12.000 5.078 0.350 0.544 0.428 0.450 0.210 9.75 10.3 229 38.2 4.72 9.87 3.89 0.98
S 12 × 14.1 12.000 5.250 0.460 0.660 0.460 0.560 0.280 9.25 12.0 272 45.4 4.77 13.5 5.16 1.06
S 12 × 15.6 12.000 5.355 0.460 0.660 0.565 0.560 0.280 9.25 13.2 287 47.9 4.66 14.5 5.42 1.05
S 12 × 17.3 12.000 5.477 0.460 0.660 0.687 0.560 0.280 9.25 14.7 305 50.8 4.56 15.7 5.74 1.03

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.
2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

V-15
 b

V-16
Y

tf

d X X
tw

Table 12 Y
CANADIAN I-BEAMS
Flange Web Fillet Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Radius Area
d b tf tw R A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry Cw J r0
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in4 in3 in. in6 in4 in.
I 3 × 2.16 3.000 2.500 0.250 0.188 0.375 1.84 2.78 1.85 1.23 0.657 0.525 0.597 1.24 0.017 1.37

I 4 × 2.68 4.000 3.000 0.250 0.188 0.375 2.28 6.28 3.14 1.66 1.13 0.754 0.705 3.98 0.017 1.80

I 5 × 4.05 5.000 3.500 0.312 0.250 0.437 3.44 14.5 5.79 2.05 2.24 1.28 0.808 12.3 0.036 2.20

I 6 × 3.92 6.000 3.000 0.312 0.250 0.375 3.34 19.2 6.40 2.40 1.42 0.945 0.652 11.5 0.026 2.49
I 6 × 4.82 6.000 3.500 0.375 0.250 0.438 4.10 24.9 8.28 2.46 2.70 1.54 0.811 21.3 0.043 2.59
I 6 × 5.46 6.000 4.000 0.375 0.281 0.437 4.64 28.2 9.40 2.47 4.02 2.01 0.931 31.8 0.048 2.64

I 7 × 5.79 7.000 4.000 0.375 0.281 0.438 4.92 40.2 11.5 2.86 4.02 2.01 0.904 44.1 0.048 3.00

I 8 × 6.12 8.000 4.000 0.375 0.281 0.437 5.20 54.6 13.6 3.24 4.02 2.01 0.880 58.5 0.048 3.36
I 8 × 8.77 8.000 5.000 0.500 0.312 0.562 7.46 82.4 20.6 3.32 10.5 4.18 1.18 147 0.116 3.53

I 10 × 9.83 10.000 5.000 0.500 0.343 0.562 8.36 139 27.8 4.08 10.5 4.19 1.12 236 0.127 4.23
I 10 × 11.3 10.000 6.000 0.500 0.375 0.562 9.65 163 32.7 4.12 18.1 6.02 1.37 408 0.140 4.34

I 12 × 12.5 12.000 5.500 0.625 0.375 0.625 10.6 252 42.0 4.88 15.7 5.70 1.22 513 0.193 5.03
I 12 × 15.5 12.000 6.500 0.625 0.437 0.625 13.2 317 52.9 4.91 28.7 8.84 1.48 929 0.245 5.13

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
January 2015
 b

Y tf

January 2015
R

d X X

tw

Y
Table 13
CANADIAN WIDE FLANGE BEAMS
Flange Web Fillet Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Depth Width Thickness Thickness Radius Area
d b tf tw R A Ix Sx rx Iy Sy ry Cw J r0
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in4 in3 in. in6 in4 in.
WF 4 × 4.12 4.000 4.000 0.312 0.250 0.437 3.50 9.72 4.86 1.67 3.34 1.67 0.977 11.4 0.036 1.93

WF 6 × 7.61 6.000 6.000 0.375 0.312 0.625 6.47 41.5 13.8 2.53 13.5 4.52 1.45 107 0.117 2.91
WF 6 × 9.66 6.000 6.000 0.500 0.375 0.625 8.21 51.2 17.1 2.50 18.1 6.02 1.48 137 0.176 2.91

WF 8 × 13.1 8.000 8.000 0.500 0.375 0.750 11.1 129 32.2 3.40 42.8 10.7 1.96 601 0.267 3.93

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
V-17
 x Y

V-18
t
R2

Z
d 45°
R1
X X
y
t
Y Z
Table 14 b
ANGLES – EQUAL LEGS
Fillet Axis X-X, Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Depth Width Thickness Radius Tip Radius Area
d b t R1 R2 Weight A Ix , Iy Sx , Sy rx , ry x, y Iz rz
Designation in. in. in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in.
L 1 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 1/8 1.500 1.500 0.125 0.188 0.125 0.42 0.360 0.0745 0.0684 0.455 0.411 0.0282 0.280
L 1 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 1/4 1.500 1.500 0.250 0.188 0.125 0.81 0.688 0.135 0.130 0.444 0.461 0.0556 0.284

L 1 3/4 × 1 3/4 × 1/8 1.750 1.750 0.125 0.188 0.125 0.50 0.423 0.121 0.0948 0.535 0.473 0.0462 0.330
L 1 3/4 × 1 3/4 × 1/4 1.750 1.750 0.250 0.188 0.125 0.96 0.813 0.223 0.182 0.523 0.524 0.0904 0.333
L 1 3/4 × 1 3/4 × 3/8 1.750 1.750 0.375 0.188 0.125 1.38 1.17 0.306 0.259 0.511 0.570 0.132 0.336

L 2 × 2 × 1/8 2.000 2.000 0.125 0.250 0.125 0.58 0.491 0.185 0.126 0.613 0.531 0.071 0.381
L 2 × 2 × 3/16 2.000 2.000 0.188 0.250 0.125 0.85 0.723 0.268 0.186 0.608 0.560 0.106 0.382
L 2 × 2 × 1/4 2.000 2.000 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.11 0.944 0.342 0.242 0.602 0.585 0.138 0.382
L 2 × 2 × 5/16 2.000 2.000 0.312 0.250 0.125 1.36 1.16 0.410 0.295 0.595 0.609 0.169 0.383
L 2 × 2 × 3/8 2.000 2.000 0.375 0.250 0.125 1.61 1.37 0.474 0.346 0.589 0.632 0.201 0.383

L 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 1/8 2.500 2.500 0.125 0.250 0.125 0.72 0.616 0.369 0.200 0.774 0.655 0.143 0.483
L 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 3/16 2.500 2.500 0.188 0.250 0.125 1.07 0.911 0.539 0.297 0.769 0.684 0.213 0.484
L 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 1/4 2.500 2.500 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.40 1.19 0.695 0.388 0.763 0.710 0.278 0.483
L 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 5/16 2.500 2.500 0.312 0.250 0.125 1.73 1.47 0.839 0.475 0.756 0.734 0.341 0.482
L 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 3/8 2.500 2.500 0.375 0.250 0.125 2.05 1.74 0.976 0.560 0.749 0.757 0.403 0.481
L 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 1/2 2.500 2.500 0.500 0.250 0.125 2.65 2.26 1.22 0.718 0.735 0.802 0.525 0.482

L 3 × 3 × 3/16 3.000 3.000 0.188 0.312 0.250 1.28 1.09 0.908 0.412 0.914 0.797 0.332 0.553
L 3 × 3 × 1/4 3.000 3.000 0.250 0.312 0.250 1.68 1.43 1.19 0.547 0.912 0.826 0.450 0.560
L 3 × 3 × 5/16 3.000 3.000 0.312 0.312 0.250 2.08 1.77 1.45 0.677 0.907 0.852 0.563 0.564
L 3 × 3 × 3/8 3.000 3.000 0.375 0.312 0.250 2.47 2.10 1.71 0.804 0.901 0.877 0.674 0.566
L 3 × 3 × 1/2 3.000 3.000 0.500 0.312 0.250 3.23 2.74 2.17 1.04 0.889 0.924 0.888 0.569

L 3 1/2 × 3 1/2 × 1/4 3.500 3.500 0.250 0.375 0.250 1.99 1.69 1.94 0.758 1.07 0.947 0.739 0.661

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
L 3 1/2 × 3 1/2 × 5/16 3.500 3.500 0.313 0.375 0.250 2.47 2.10 2.38 0.942 1.07 0.974 0.924 0.664
L 3 1/2 × 3 1/2 × 3/8 3.500 3.500 0.375 0.375 0.250 2.93 2.49 2.79 1.12 1.06 1.00 1.10 0.665

January 2015
L 3 1/2 × 3 1/2 × 1/2 3.500 3.500 0.500 0.375 0.250 3.83 3.25 3.57 1.45 1.05 1.05 1.45 0.667
 Table 14
ANGLES – EQUAL LEGS (Continued)

January 2015
Fillet Axis X-X, Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Depth Width Thickness Radius Tip Radius Area
d b t R1 R2 Weight A Ix , Iy Sx , Sy rx , ry x, y Iz rz
Designation in. in. in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in.
L 4 × 4 × 1/4 4.000 4.000 0.250 0.375 0.250 2.28 1.94 2.94 1.00 1.23 1.07 1.13 0.762
L 4 × 4 × 5/16 4.000 4.000 0.313 0.375 0.250 2.83 2.41 3.62 1.25 1.23 1.10 1.41 0.765
L 4 × 4 × 3/8 4.000 4.000 0.375 0.375 0.250 3.37 2.86 4.26 1.48 1.22 1.12 1.68 0.766
L 4 × 4 × 7/16 4.000 4.000 0.438 0.375 0.250 3.90 3.32 4.89 1.71 1.21 1.15 1.95 0.766
L 4 × 4 × 1/2 4.000 4.000 0.500 0.375 0.250 4.41 3.75 5.47 1.93 1.21 1.17 2.20 0.766
L 4 × 4 × 9/16 4.000 4.000 0.563 0.375 0.250 4.93 4.19 6.04 2.15 1.20 1.20 2.46 0.766
L 4 × 4 × 5/8 4.000 4.000 0.625 0.375 0.250 5.42 4.61 6.57 2.36 1.19 1.22 2.71 0.766
L 4 × 4 × 11/16 4.000 4.000 0.688 0.375 0.250 5.92 5.03 7.09 2.57 1.19 1.24 2.96 0.767
L 4 × 4 × 3/4 4.000 4.000 0.750 0.375 0.250 6.40 5.44 7.58 2.77 1.18 1.27 3.21 0.768

L 5 × 5 × 3/8 5.000 5.000 0.375 0.500 0.375 4.24 3.60 8.40 2.31 1.53 1.36 3.19 0.941
L 5 × 5 × 7/16 5.000 5.000 0.438 0.500 0.375 4.92 4.18 9.69 2.68 1.52 1.39 3.73 0.945
L 5 × 5 × 1/2 5.000 5.000 0.500 0.500 0.375 5.58 4.74 10.9 3.04 1.52 1.41 4.25 0.947
L 5 × 5 × 9/16 5.000 5.000 0.563 0.500 0.375 6.24 5.31 12.1 3.40 1.51 1.44 4.77 0.948
L 5 × 5 × 5/8 5.000 5.000 0.625 0.500 0.375 6.88 5.85 13.3 3.75 1.50 1.46 5.28 0.949
L 5 × 5 × 3/4 5.000 5.000 0.750 0.500 0.375 8.15 6.93 15.4 4.42 1.49 1.51 6.27 0.951

L 6 × 6 × 3/8 6.000 6.000 0.375 0.500 0.375 5.12 4.35 14.9 3.39 1.85 1.61 5.69 1.14
L 6 × 6 × 7/16 6.000 6.000 0.438 0.500 0.375 5.95 5.06 17.2 3.94 1.84 1.64 6.65 1.15
L 6 × 6 × 1/2 6.000 6.000 0.500 0.500 0.375 6.75 5.74 19.4 4.48 1.84 1.66 7.58 1.15
L 6 × 6 × 5/8 6.000 6.000 0.625 0.500 0.375 8.35 7.10 23.7 5.52 1.83 1.71 9.39 1.15
L 6 × 6 × 3/4 6.000 6.000 0.750 0.500 0.375 9.91 8.43 27.7 6.53 1.81 1.76 11.1 1.15
L 8 × 8 × 1/2 8.000 8.000 0.500 0.625 0.375 9.14 7.77 47.8 8.18 2.48 2.16 18.8 1.55
L 8 × 8 × 5/8 8.000 8.000 0.625 0.625 0.375 11.3 9.63 58.6 10.1 2.47 2.21 23.2 1.55
L 8 × 8 × 3/4 8.000 8.000 0.750 0.625 0.375 13.5 11.5 68.9 12.0 2.45 2.26 27.5 1.55
L8×8×1 8.000 8.000 1.000 0.625 0.375 17.7 15.0 88.2 15.6 2.42 2.35 35.9 1.55

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
V-19
 x Y
t

d 45°
t
X X
y
t

Y Z
b

Table 15
SQUARE END ANGLES – EQUAL LEGS
Depth Width Thickness Area Axis X-X, Y-Y Axis Z-Z
d b t Weight A I x , Iy Sx , Sy rx , ry x, y Iz rz
Designation in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in.
LS 1 × 1 × 1/8 1.000 1.000 0.125 0.28 0.234 0.0217 0.0309 0.304 0.296 0.00896 0.196
LS 1 × 1 × 3/16 1.000 1.000 0.188 0.40 0.341 0.0300 0.0440 0.297 0.318 0.0129 0.195
LS 1 × 1 × 1/4 1.000 1.000 0.250 0.51 0.438 0.0369 0.0558 0.290 0.339 0.0168 0.196

LS 1 1/4 × 1 1/4 × 1/8 1.250 1.250 0.125 0.35 0.297 0.0439 0.0493 0.385 0.359 0.0179 0.246
LS 1 1/4 × 1 1/4 × 3/16 1.250 1.250 0.188 0.51 0.435 0.0616 0.0709 0.377 0.381 0.0258 0.244
LS 1 1/4 × 1 1/4 × 1/4 1.250 1.250 0.250 0.66 0.563 0.0767 0.0905 0.369 0.403 0.0333 0.243

LS 1 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 1/8 1.500 1.500 0.125 0.42 0.359 0.0778 0.0721 0.465 0.421 0.0315 0.296
LS 1 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 3/16 1.500 1.500 0.188 0.62 0.529 0.110 0.104 0.457 0.444 0.0455 0.293
LS 1 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 1/4 1.500 1.500 0.250 0.81 0.688 0.139 0.134 0.449 0.466 0.0586 0.292

LS 1 3/4 × 1 3/4 × 1/8 1.750 1.750 0.125 0.50 0.422 0.126 0.099 0.546 0.484 0.0507 0.347
LS 1 3/4 × 1 3/4 × 3/16 1.750 1.750 0.188 0.73 0.623 0.179 0.144 0.537 0.507 0.0734 0.343
LS 1 3/4 × 1 3/4 × 1/4 1.750 1.750 0.250 0.96 0.813 0.227 0.186 0.529 0.529 0.0947 0.341

LS 2 × 2 × 1/8 2.000 2.000 0.125 0.57 0.484 0.190 0.131 0.626 0.546 0.0766 0.398
LS 2 × 2 × 3/16 2.000 2.000 0.188 0.84 0.717 0.273 0.191 0.617 0.569 0.111 0.394
LS 2 × 2 × 1/4 2.000 2.000 0.250 1.10 0.938 0.348 0.247 0.609 0.592 0.143 0.391

LS 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 1/8 2.500 2.500 0.125 0.72 0.609 0.378 0.207 0.787 0.671 0.152 0.499
LS 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 3/16 2.500 2.500 0.188 1.06 0.905 0.548 0.303 0.778 0.695 0.222 0.495
LS 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 1/4 2.500 2.500 0.250 1.40 1.19 0.703 0.394 0.769 0.717 0.287 0.491
LS 2 1/2 × 2 1/2 × 5/16 2.500 2.500 0.312 1.72 1.46 0.847 0.481 0.761 0.739 0.350 0.489

LS 3 × 3 × 1/8 3.000 3.000 0.125 0.86 0.734 0.661 0.300 0.949 0.797 0.265 0.601
LS 3 × 3 × 3/16 3.000 3.000 0.188 1.28 1.09 0.964 0.442 0.939 0.820 0.388 0.596
LS 3 × 3 × 1/4 3.000 3.000 0.250 1.69 1.44 1.24 0.577 0.930 0.842 0.504 0.592
LS 3 × 3 × 5/16 3.000 3.000 0.312 2.09 1.77 1.51 0.706 0.922 0.865 0.616 0.589

LS 3 1/2 × 3 1/2 × 1/8 3.500 3.500 0.125 1.01 0.859 1.06 0.411 1.11 0.922 0.425 0.703

LS 4 × 4 × 1/8 4.000 4.000 0.125 1.16 0.984 1.59 0.539 1.27 1.05 0.638 0.805
LS 4 × 4 × 1/4 4.000 4.000 0.250 2.28 1.94 3.04 1.05 1.25 1.09 1.22 0.795

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

V-20 January 2015

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 January 2015
Table 16
ANGLES – UNEQUAL LEGS
Thick- Fillet Tip Axis X-X Axis Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Depth Width ness Radius Radius Area
d b t R1 R2 Weight A Ix Sx rx y Iy Sy ry x Iz rz Į
Designation in. in. in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in3 in. in. in4 in. deg
L 1 3/4 × 1 1/4 × 1/8 1.750 1.250 0.125 0.188 0.125 0.42 0.360 0.109 0.0901 0.549 0.544 0.0460 0.0484 0.357 0.300 0.0238 0.257 27.12
L 1 3/4 × 1 1/4 × 3/16 1.750 1.250 0.188 0.188 0.125 0.62 0.530 0.157 0.133 0.544 0.572 0.0659 0.0713 0.353 0.326 0.0355 0.259 26.61
L 1 3/4 × 1 1/4 × 1/4 1.750 1.250 0.250 0.188 0.125 0.81 0.688 0.199 0.172 0.537 0.596 0.0830 0.0921 0.347 0.349 0.0465 0.260 26.09
L 2 × 1 × 3/16 2.000 1.000 0.188 0.188 0.125 0.62 0.530 0.211 0.166 0.631 0.728 0.0351 0.0459 0.257 0.236 0.0223 0.205 14.62
L 2 × 1 1/4 × 1/8 2.000 1.250 0.125 0.188 0.125 0.46 0.392 0.158 0.117 0.635 0.649 0.0477 0.0492 0.349 0.281 0.0265 0.260 21.87
L 2 × 1 1/4 × 1/4 2.000 1.250 0.250 0.188 0.125 0.88 0.751 0.291 0.224 0.623 0.702 0.0862 0.0937 0.339 0.330 0.0515 0.262 20.83
L 2 × 1 1/2 × 1/8 2.000 1.500 0.125 0.188 0.125 0.50 0.423 0.168 0.120 0.630 0.605 0.0810 0.0710 0.438 0.360 0.0407 0.310 29.38
L 2 × 1 1/2 × 3/16 2.000 1.500 0.188 0.188 0.125 0.73 0.624 0.243 0.178 0.625 0.633 0.117 0.105 0.433 0.386 0.0606 0.312 29.00
L 2 × 1 1/2 × 1/4 2.000 1.500 0.250 0.188 0.125 0.96 0.813 0.311 0.231 0.618 0.657 0.148 0.136 0.427 0.410 0.0792 0.312 28.62
L 2 × 1 1/2 × 3/8 2.000 1.500 0.375 0.188 0.125 1.38 1.17 0.428 0.330 0.604 0.704 0.202 0.193 0.415 0.455 0.116 0.314 27.74
L 2 × 1 3/4 × 1/4 2.000 1.750 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.04 0.882 0.328 0.237 0.610 0.617 0.233 0.185 0.514 0.494 0.109 0.352 36.91
L 2 1/4 × 1 1/2 × 1/4 2.250 1.500 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.04 0.882 0.435 0.292 0.702 0.758 0.153 0.138 0.417 0.389 0.0877 0.315 23.46
L 2 1/2 × 1 1/4 × 1/8 2.500 1.250 0.125 0.188 0.094 0.54 0.457 0.298 0.182 0.807 0.867 0.0515 0.0516 0.336 0.252 0.0320 0.265 15.16
L 2 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 1/8 2.500 1.500 0.125 0.250 0.125 0.58 0.491 0.314 0.186 0.800 0.806 0.0860 0.0728 0.418 0.320 0.0492 0.316 20.43
L 2 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 3/16 2.500 1.500 0.188 0.250 0.125 0.85 0.723 0.457 0.275 0.794 0.838 0.124 0.108 0.414 0.347 0.0727 0.317 20.07
L 2 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 1/4 2.500 1.500 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.11 0.944 0.586 0.358 0.787 0.864 0.158 0.140 0.408 0.372 0.0946 0.316 19.70
L 2 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 5/16 2.500 1.500 0.312 0.250 0.125 1.36 1.16 0.705 0.437 0.780 0.889 0.188 0.170 0.403 0.395 0.116 0.316 19.29
L 2 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 3/8 2.500 1.500 0.375 0.250 0.125 1.61 1.37 0.816 0.514 0.773 0.914 0.216 0.200 0.398 0.419 0.137 0.316 18.84
L 2 1/2 × 2 × 1/8 2.500 2.000 0.125 0.250 0.125 0.65 0.554 0.345 0.194 0.789 0.722 0.197 0.129 0.596 0.478 0.0955 0.415 32.51
L 2 1/2 × 2 × 3/16 2.500 2.000 0.188 0.250 0.125 0.96 0.817 0.503 0.288 0.784 0.752 0.286 0.191 0.592 0.506 0.142 0.416 32.30
L 2 1/2 × 2 × 1/4 2.500 2.000 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.26 1.07 0.646 0.375 0.778 0.778 0.366 0.249 0.585 0.531 0.185 0.416 32.09
L 2 1/2 × 2 × 5/16 2.500 2.000 0.312 0.250 0.125 1.54 1.31 0.780 0.459 0.770 0.802 0.440 0.304 0.579 0.555 0.226 0.415 31.85
L 2 1/2 × 2 × 3/8 2.500 2.000 0.375 0.250 0.125 1.83 1.55 0.905 0.541 0.763 0.826 0.509 0.358 0.572 0.578 0.267 0.415 31.59
L 3 × 1 1/2 × 1/4 3.000 1.500 0.250 0.312 0.125 1.27 1.08 0.980 0.510 0.954 1.08 0.165 0.142 0.391 0.343 0.106 0.313 14.59
L 3 × 2 × 3/16 3.000 2.000 0.188 0.312 0.188 1.07 0.910 0.821 0.400 0.949 0.947 0.292 0.190 0.567 0.459 0.158 0.416 24.25

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L 3 × 2 × 1/4 3.000 2.000 0.250 0.312 0.188 1.40 1.19 1.06 0.526 0.944 0.976 0.377 0.249 0.562 0.485 0.209 0.418 23.95
L 3 × 2 × 5/16 3.000 2.000 0.312 0.312 0.188 1.73 1.47 1.29 0.647 0.938 1.00 0.456 0.306 0.557 0.510 0.257 0.419 23.64
L 3 × 2 × 3/8 3.000 2.000 0.375 0.312 0.188 2.05 1.74 1.51 0.765 0.931 1.03 0.529 0.361 0.551 0.534 0.305 0.419 23.32
L 3 × 2 × 1/2 3.000 2.000 0.500 0.312 0.188 2.65 2.26 1.90 0.987 0.918 1.08 0.659 0.464 0.541 0.580 0.399 0.421 22.61

V-21
 t
R2

V-22
Z Y
x
Į
d
R1 X
X
y

Y Z t
b
Table 16
ANGLES – UNEQUAL LEGS (Continued)
Thick- Fillet Tip Axis X-X Axis Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Depth Width ness Radius Radius Area
d b t R1 R2 Weight A Ix Sx rx y Iy Sy ry x Iz rz Į
Designation in. in. in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in3 in. in. in4 in. deg
L 3 × 2 1/2 × 1/4 3.000 2.500 0.250 0.312 0.250 1.54 1.31 1.12 0.532 0.927 0.893 0.704 0.380 0.734 0.647 0.323 0.497 34.65
L 3 × 2 1/2 × 5/16 3.000 2.500 0.312 0.312 0.250 1.90 1.61 1.37 0.659 0.922 0.919 0.859 0.470 0.730 0.672 0.404 0.500 34.45
L 3 × 2 1/2 × 3/8 3.000 2.500 0.375 0.312 0.250 2.25 1.92 1.61 0.782 0.916 0.944 1.01 0.557 0.724 0.697 0.484 0.503 34.25
L 3 1/2 × 3 × 1/4 3.500 3.000 0.250 0.375 0.250 1.84 1.57 1.85 0.742 1.09 1.01 1.25 0.559 0.893 0.767 0.562 0.599 36.17
L 3 1/2 × 3 × 5/16 3.500 3.000 0.312 0.375 0.250 2.27 1.93 2.26 0.918 1.08 1.04 1.53 0.692 0.888 0.793 0.701 0.602 36.04
L 3 1/2 × 3 × 3/8 3.500 3.000 0.375 0.375 0.250 2.71 2.30 2.66 1.09 1.08 1.07 1.79 0.822 0.883 0.819 0.838 0.603 35.90
L 3 1/2 × 3 × 1/2 3.500 3.000 0.500 0.375 0.250 3.53 3.00 3.39 1.42 1.06 1.11 2.28 1.07 0.871 0.867 1.10 0.605 35.63
L 4 × 3 × 1/4 4.000 3.000 0.250 0.375 0.250 1.99 1.69 2.69 0.963 1.26 1.21 1.30 0.568 0.875 0.719 0.651 0.620 29.39
L 4 × 3 × 5/16 4.000 3.000 0.312 0.375 0.250 2.46 2.09 3.29 1.19 1.26 1.24 1.59 0.703 0.871 0.746 0.810 0.623 29.19
L 4 × 3 × 3/8 4.000 3.000 0.375 0.375 0.250 2.93 2.49 3.88 1.42 1.25 1.27 1.86 0.836 0.865 0.771 0.967 0.624 29.00
L 4 × 3 × 7/16 4.000 3.000 0.438 0.375 0.250 3.38 2.88 4.44 1.64 1.24 1.29 2.13 0.964 0.859 0.796 1.12 0.624 28.81
L 4 × 3 × 1/2 4.000 3.000 0.500 0.375 0.250 3.83 3.25 4.97 1.85 1.24 1.31 2.37 1.09 0.853 0.819 1.27 0.624 28.62
L 4 × 3 × 5/8 4.000 3.000 0.625 0.375 0.250 4.69 3.99 5.96 2.26 1.22 1.36 2.82 1.32 0.841 0.866 1.56 0.625 28.20
L 4 × 3 1/2 × 5/16 4.000 3.500 0.312 0.375 0.312 2.62 2.23 3.41 1.20 1.24 1.16 2.43 0.938 1.04 0.913 1.06 0.691 37.33
L 4 × 3 1/2 × 3/8 4.000 3.500 0.375 0.375 0.312 3.13 2.66 4.03 1.43 1.23 1.19 2.87 1.12 1.04 0.940 1.28 0.694 37.22
L 4 × 3 1/2 × 1/2 4.000 3.500 0.500 0.375 0.312 4.10 3.49 5.18 1.88 1.22 1.24 3.68 1.46 1.03 0.989 1.70 0.698 37.00
L 5 × 3 × 1/4 5.000 3.000 0.250 0.375 0.312 2.26 1.93 4.90 1.45 1.60 1.62 1.34 0.567 0.834 0.639 0.739 0.620 20.79
L 5 × 3 × 5/16 5.000 3.000 0.312 0.375 0.312 2.81 2.39 6.05 1.81 1.59 1.65 1.65 0.706 0.831 0.666 0.930 0.624 20.54
L 5 × 3 × 3/8 5.000 3.000 0.375 0.375 0.312 3.35 2.85 7.17 2.16 1.59 1.68 1.95 0.843 0.827 0.692 1.12 0.626 20.31
L 5 × 3 × 1/2 5.000 3.000 0.500 0.375 0.312 4.40 3.74 9.26 2.83 1.57 1.73 2.49 1.10 0.816 0.742 1.47 0.628 19.86

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
January 2015
 t
R2
Z Y
x
Į
d

January 2015
R1 X
X
y

Y Z t
Table 16 b
ANGLES – UNEQUAL LEGS (Continued)
Thick- Fillet Tip Axis X-X Axis Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Depth Width ness Radius Radius Area
d b t R1 R2 Weight A Ix Sx rx y Iy Sy ry x Iz rz Į
esignation in. in. in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in3 in. in. in4 in. deg
5 × 3 1/2 × 5/16 5.000 3.500 0.312 0.438 0.312 3.00 2.55 6.39 1.86 1.58 1.56 2.59 0.965 1.01 0.819 1.35 0.728 26.32
5 × 3 1/2 × 3/8 5.000 3.500 0.375 0.438 0.312 3.58 3.05 7.58 2.22 1.58 1.59 3.06 1.15 1.00 0.846 1.63 0.731 26.13
5 × 3 1/2 × 1/2 5.000 3.500 0.500 0.438 0.312 4.70 4.00 9.79 2.91 1.56 1.64 3.93 1.51 0.991 0.895 2.14 0.732 25.78
5 × 3 1/2 × 5/8 5.000 3.500 0.625 0.438 0.312 5.79 4.92 11.8 3.57 1.55 1.69 4.72 1.84 0.979 0.943 2.64 0.733 25.41
6 × 3 x 3/8 6.000 3.000 0.375 0.500 0.375 3.80 3.23 11.8 3.03 1.91 2.11 1.99 0.842 0.786 0.630 1.21 0.612 15.24
6 × 3 1/2 × 5/16 6.000 3.500 0.312 0.500 0.312 3.39 2.88 10.6 2.64 1.92 1.97 2.71 0.985 0.971 0.746 1.56 0.736 19.61
6 × 3 1/2 × 3/8 6.000 3.500 0.375 0.500 0.312 4.04 3.43 12.6 3.16 1.92 2.00 3.21 1.18 0.967 0.773 1.87 0.738 19.43
6 × 3 1/2 × 1/2 6.000 3.500 0.500 0.500 0.312 5.31 4.51 16.4 4.15 1.90 2.06 4.12 1.54 0.956 0.823 2.46 0.738 19.10
6 × 3 1/2 × 5/8 6.000 3.500 0.625 0.500 0.312 6.54 5.56 19.8 5.10 1.89 2.11 4.96 1.89 0.944 0.872 3.02 0.737 18.75
6 × 4 × 3/8 6.000 4.000 0.375 0.500 0.375 4.24 3.60 13.0 3.19 1.90 1.91 4.66 1.51 1.14 0.920 2.50 0.834 24.33
6 × 4 × 7/16 6.000 4.000 0.438 0.500 0.375 4.92 4.18 15.1 3.70 1.90 1.93 5.37 1.76 1.13 0.947 2.92 0.836 24.16
6 × 4 × 1/2 6.000 4.000 0.500 0.500 0.375 5.58 4.74 17.0 4.20 1.89 1.96 6.03 1.99 1.13 0.972 3.33 0.838 24.00
6 × 4 × 5/8 6.000 4.000 0.625 0.500 0.375 6.88 5.85 20.7 5.18 1.88 2.01 7.30 2.45 1.12 1.02 4.12 0.839 23.68
6 × 4 × 3/4 6.000 4.000 0.750 0.500 0.375 8.15 6.93 24.1 6.12 1.87 2.06 8.46 2.89 1.10 1.07 4.88 0.839 23.35
7 × 4 × 1/2 7.000 4.000 0.500 0.500 0.375 6.17 5.24 26.1 5.66 2.23 2.39 6.28 2.03 1.09 0.903 3.71 0.842 18.70
8 × 6 × 5/8 8.000 6.000 0.625 0.500 0.312 9.84 8.37 53.6 9.74 2.53 2.50 26.0 5.78 1.76 1.51 13.6 1.275 29.07
8 × 6 × 11/16 8.000 6.000 0.688 0.500 0.375 10.8 9.15 58.1 10.6 2.52 2.52 28.`0 6.27 1.75 1.53 14.7 1.266 29.03
8 × 6 × 3/4 8.000 6.000 0.750 0.500 0.375 11.7 9.93 62.6 11.5 2.51 2.55 30.2 6.79 1.74 1.55 15.9 1.265 28.94

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
V-23
 Y
t x

V-24
Z
Į
d
X X
t y
Table 17
SQUARE END ANGLES – UNEQUAL LEGS Y Z t
b
Thick- Axis X-X Axis Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Depth Width ness Area
d b t Weight A Ix Sx rx y Iy Sy ry x Iz rz Į
Designation in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in3 in. in. in4 in. deg
LS 1 × 3/4 × 1/8 1.000 0.750 0.125 0.24 0.203 0.0197 0.0295 0.312 0.332 0.00947 0.0174 0.216 0.207 0.00519 0.160 28.49
LS 1 1/4 × 1 × 1/8 1.250 1.000 0.125 0.31 0.266 0.0408 0.0477 0.392 0.393 0.0233 0.0318 0.296 0.268 0.0119 0.212 32.05
LS 1 1/2 × 3/4 × 1/8 1.500 0.750 0.125 0.31 0.266 0.0613 0.0644 0.480 0.548 0.0105 0.0183 0.199 0.173 0.00683 0.160 14.62
LS 1 1/2 × 1 × 1/8 1.500 1.000 0.125 0.35 0.297 0.0679 0.0677 0.478 0.497 0.0245 0.0325 0.287 0.247 0.0140 0.217 23.77
LS 1 1/2 × 1 × 3/16 1.500 1.000 0.188 0.51 0.435 0.0959 0.0979 0.470 0.520 0.0340 0.0465 0.280 0.270 0.0201 0.215 23.18
LS 1 1/2 × 1 1/4 × 1/8 1.500 1.250 0.125 0.39 0.328 0.0733 0.0702 0.473 0.455 0.0465 0.0505 0.376 0.330 0.0228 0.264 34.37
LS 1 3/4 × 1 × 1/8 1.750 1.000 0.125 0.39 0.328 0.104 0.0909 0.563 0.604 0.0255 0.0331 0.279 0.229 0.0156 0.218 18.50
LS 2 × 1 × 1/8 2.000 1.000 0.125 0.42 0.359 0.150 0.117 0.647 0.715 0.0263 0.0335 0.271 0.215 0.0168 0.216 14.95
LS 2 × 1 × 3/16 2.000 1.000 0.188 0.62 0.529 0.215 0.170 0.638 0.738 0.0366 0.0481 0.263 0.238 0.0240 0.213 14.45
LS 2 × 1 1/2 × 1/8 2.000 1.500 0.125 0.50 0.422 0.173 0.125 0.641 0.618 0.0847 0.0748 0.448 0.368 0.0447 0.326 29.16
LS 2 × 1 1/2 × 3/16 2.000 1.500 0.188 0.73 0.623 0.248 0.183 0.632 0.641 0.120 0.108 0.439 0.391 0.0645 0.322 28.84
LS 2 1/2 × 1 × 1/8 2.500 1.000 0.125 0.50 0.422 0.277 0.178 0.811 0.942 0.0276 0.0342 0.256 0.192 0.0187 0.210 10.54
LS 2 1/2 × 1 1/2 × 1/8 2.500 1.500 0.125 0.57 0.484 0.319 0.191 0.812 0.829 0.0899 0.0767 0.431 0.329 0.0532 0.331 20.36
LS 2 1/2 × 2 × 1/8 2.500 2.000 0.125 0.64 0.547 0.352 0.200 0.802 0.741 0.203 0.135 0.609 0.491 0.102 0.432 32.46
LS 2 1/2 × 2 × 3/16 2.500 2.000 0.188 0.95 0.811 0.510 0.294 0.793 0.764 0.292 0.197 0.600 0.514 0.148 0.427 32.26
LS 3 × 1 × 1/8 3.000 1.000 0.125 0.57 0.484 0.456 0.250 0.971 1.18 0.0286 0.0347 0.243 0.175 0.0201 0.204 7.94
LS 3 × 2 × 1/8 3.000 2.000 0.125 0.72 0.609 0.580 0.282 0.975 0.947 0.213 0.137 0.592 0.447 0.120 0.444 24.28
LS 3 × 2 × 1/4 3.000 2.000 0.250 1.40 1.19 1.09 0.542 0.957 0.993 0.392 0.260 0.574 0.493 0.225 0.435 23.77
LS 3 × 2 × 3/8 3.000 2.000 0.375 2.04 1.73 1.53 0.781 0.940 1.04 0.543 0.371 0.559 0.539 0.320 0.430 23.18
LS 3 × 2 1/2 × 1/4 3.000 2.500 0.250 1.54 1.31 1.17 0.561 0.945 0.911 0.743 0.404 0.753 0.661 0.366 0.528 34.37
LS 3 1/2 × 1 1/4 × 1/8 3.500 1.250 0.125 0.68 0.578 0.750 0.347 1.14 1.34 0.0570 0.0550 0.314 0.215 0.0392 0.261 8.98
LS 4 × 2 × 1/8 4.000 2.000 0.125 0.86 0.734 1.27 0.484 1.31 1.38 0.229 0.141 0.558 0.382 0.144 0.442 15.40
LS 4 × 2 × 1/4 4.000 2.000 0.250 1.69 1.44 2.41 0.936 1.29 1.43 0.421 0.268 0.541 0.429 0.269 0.432 14.95
LS 4 × 3 × 1/8 4.000 3.000 0.125 1.01 0.859 1.45 0.517 1.30 1.19 0.719 0.311 0.914 0.690 0.376 0.661 29.45
LS 5 × 3 × 1/8 5.000 3.000 0.125 1.16 0.984 2.66 0.784 1.64 1.61 0.762 0.319 0.880 0.610 0.447 0.674 20.67
LS 5 × 3 × 1/4 5.000 3.000 0.250 2.28 1.94 5.11 1.53 1.62 1.66 1.44 0.614 0.861 0.657 0.851 0.663 20.36
LS 5 × 4 × 1/8 5.000 4.000 0.125 1.30 1.11 2.92 0.820 1.62 1.44 1.70 0.554 1.24 0.936 0.847 0.874 32.63
LS 5 ¼ × 2 ¼ × 1/8 5.250 2.250 0.125 1.08 0.922 2.75 0.817 1.73 1.89 0.340 0.183 0.607 0.387 0.223 0.491 12.17

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.
2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.

January 2015
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.
 b
Y t t1

y
R1
X X

d t2

t
Table 18 Y
TEES
Designation Thickness Area Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Td × b × Wt t t1 t2 R1 A Ix Sx rx y Iy Sy ry
in. in. lb/ft in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in. in4 in3 in.
T 1.00 × 1.00 × 0.31 0.125 0.156 0.156 0.125 0.27 0.023 0.032 0.293 0.292 0.011 0.023 0.206
T 1.25 × 1.50 × 0.44 0.125 0.156 0.156 0.125 0.37 0.049 0.053 0.363 0.326 0.038 0.051 0.319
T 1.25 × 1.50 × 0.62 0.188 0.219 0.219 0.125 0.52 0.067 0.075 0.359 0.352 0.056 0.075 0.328
T 1.50 × 1.50 × 0.68 0.188 0.219 0.219 0.188 0.58 0.114 0.108 0.433 0.437 0.056 0.075 0.312
T 1.50 × 1.50 × 0.87 0.250 0.281 0.281 0.188 0.74 0.142 0.137 0.438 0.464 0.075 0.100 0.319
T 2.00 × 1.50 × 0.86 0.188 0.250 0.250 0.188 0.73 0.269 0.195 0.606 0.624 0.060 0.080 0.286

T 2.00 × 2.00 × 1.26 0.250 0.313 0.313 0.250 1.07 0.37 0.26 0.59 0.58 0.18 0.18 0.41
T 2.00 × 2.00 × 1.50 0.313 0.375 0.375 0.250 1.28 0.43 0.31 0.58 0.61 0.23 0.23 0.42
T 2.25 × 2.25 × 1.42 0.250 0.313 0.313 0.250 1.21 0.53 0.33 0.66 0.64 0.26 0.23 0.46
T 1.25 × 2.50 × 1.00 0.188 0.313 0.218 0.188 0.85 0.08 0.09 0.31 0.30 0.285 0.22 0.57
T 2.25 × 2.50 × 1.91 0.313 0.375 0.375 0.250 1.62 0.89 0.50 0.74 0.73 0.44 0.35 0.52

T 3.00 × 2.50 × 2.11 0.313 0.375 0.375 0.250 1.80 1.49 0.72 0.91 0.92 0.44 0.35 0.50
T 2.50 × 3.00 × 2.13 0.313 0.375 0.375 0.313 1.81 0.94 0.51 0.72 0.68 0.75 0.50 0.65
T 3.00 × 3.00 × 2.72 0.375 0.438 0.438 0.313 2.31 1.83 0.86 0.89 0.88 0.90 0.60 0.63
T 2.00 × 4.00 × 2.70 0.375 0.438 0.438 0.250 2.30 0.60 0.40 0.51 0.48 2.10 1.05 0.96
T 3.00 × 4.00 × 2.76 0.313 0.375 0.375 0.375 2.34 1.72 0.77 0.86 0.75 1.77 0.89 0.87

T 4.00 × 4.00 × 3.74 0.375 0.438 0.438 0.500 3.18 4.56 1.58 1.20 1.11 2.12 1.06 0.82
T 5.00 × 4.00 × 4.22 0.375 0.438 0.438 0.500 3.59 8.56 2.43 1.54 1.48 2.13 1.06 0.77
T 5.00 × 4.00 × 5.41 0.500 0.563 0.563 0.500 4.60 10.8 3.14 1.54 1.54 2.83 1.42 0.79
T 3.00 × 4.50 × 2.96 0.313 0.375 0.375 0.375 2.52 1.78 0.78 0.84 0.71 2.52 1.12 1.00
T 3.00 × 5.00 × 4.02 0.375 0.625 0.438 0.375 3.42 2.37 1.06 0.83 0.76 4.13 1.65 1.10

T 1.00 × 1.13 × 0.16 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.094 0.13 0.013 0.017 0.31 0.25 0.007 0.013 0.24
T 1.13 × 1.50 × 0.19 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.16 0.018 0.021 0.34 0.26 0.017 0.023 0.33
T 1.50 × 1.50 × 0.063 0.187 0.187 0.187 0.187 0.54 0.11 0.10 0.45 0.44 0.054 0.072 0.32
T 1.25 × 1.75 × 0.37 0.109 0.109 0.109 0.062 0.32 0.043 0.045 0.37 0.30 0.049 0.056 0.39

T 3.00 × 2.00 × 0.55 0.094 0.094 0.094 0.157 0.47 0.45 0.22 0.98 0.92 0.063 0.063 0.37
T 1.50 × 2.00 × 0.75 0.187 0.187 0.187 0.187 0.64 0.12 0.11 0.44 0.39 0.13 0.13 0.45
T 2.00 × 2.00 × 1.13 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.96 0.35 0.25 0.60 0.59 0.17 0.17 0.42
T 2.50 × 2.50 × 1.77 0.312 0.312 0.312 0.312 1.51 0.86 0.49 0.76 0.74 0.42 0.33 0.53

T 3.00 × 3.00 × 2.55 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 2.17 1.78 0.84 0.91 0.89 0.86 0.58 0.63
T 2.50 × 4.00 × 2.32 0.312 0.312 0.312 0.312 1.98 0.93 0.49 0.69 0.60 1.68 0.84 0.92
T 4.00 × 4.00 × 3.43 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 2.92 4.40 1.54 1.23 1.14 2.03 1.01 0.83
T 3.00 × 5.00 × 3.43 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 2.92 2.06 0.90 0.84 0.72 3.93 1.57 1.16

T 10.00 × 6.50 × 10.54 0.500 0.625 0.500 0.625 8.92 89.7 12.7 3.17 2.95 14.4 4.44 1.27

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.
4. Use t = 0.625 for flange and t = 0.500 for web.

January 2015 V-25

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 b
Y tf

R1 R1 y
X X

R1
ts 2
Y

Table 19
ARMY – NAVY AND SPECIAL TEES
Stem Flange Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Designation Thickness Thickness Area
T(A-N) d × b × Wt ts tf A R1 Ix Sx rx y Iy Sy ry
in. in. lb/ft in. in. in2 in. in4 in3 in. in. in4 in3 in.
T(A-N) 1.25 × 1.50 × 0.384 0.125 0.125 0.326 0.125 0.045 0.049 0.371 0.327 0.032 0.043 0.314
T(A-N) 1.63 × 1.75 × 0.476 0.125 0.125 0.405 0.125 0.100 0.83 0.496 0.434 0.052 0.059 0.357
T(A-N) 1.00 × 2.00 × 0.421 0.125 0.125 0.358 0.125 0.025 0.032 0.266 0.212 0.078 0.078 0.466
T(A-N) 1.75 × 2.00 × 0.531 0.125 0.125 0.451 0.125 0.128 0.098 0.532 0.451 0.078 0.078 0.415
T(A-N) 1.25 × 2.50 × 0.652 0.156 0.156 0.554 0.125 0.062 0.063 0.333 0.265 0.188 0.151 0.583
T(A-N) 2.00 × 2.50 × 0.789 0.156 0.156 0.671 0.125 0.241 0.161 0.599 0.500 0.189 0.151 0.530

T(A-N) 2.00 × 3.00 × 0.881 0.156 0.156 0.749 0.125 0.254 0.164 0.582 0.456 0.330 0.220 0.663
T(A-N) 2.50 × 3.00 × 1.17 0.188 0.188 0.995 0.188 0.565 0.302 0.753 0.632 0.393 0.262 0.629
T(A-N) 3.00 × 4.00 × 1.50 0.188 0.188 1.28 0.188 1.03 0.448 0.897 0.708 0.947 0.474 0.861
T(A-N) 4.00 × 4.00 × 2.27 0.250 0.250 1.93 0.250 2.98 1.02 1.24 1.08 1.24 0.619 0.801
T(A-N) 5.00 × 4.00 × 2.57 0.250 0.250 2.18 0.250 5.54 1.57 1.59 1.47 1.24 0.620 0.754

T(A-N) 3.00 × 6.00 × 3.24 0.3124 0.312 2.75 0.3124 1.83 0.77 0.81 0.62 5.63 1.88 1.43
T(A-N) 4.00 × 6.00 × 3.88 0.3754 0.313 3.30 0.3134 4.78 1.59 1.20 1.00 5.65 1.88 1.31
T(A-N) 4.00 × 6.00 × 4.79 0.3754 0.450 4.07 0.3124 5.02 1.61 1.11 0.88 8.12 2.71 1.41
T(A-N) 7.50 × 7.50 × 9.46 0. 5004 0.750 8.04 0.6254 40.3 7.28 2.24 1.96 13.6 4.53 1.30
T(A-N) 7.50 × 7.50 × 14.4 1.134 0.750 12.3 0.6254 69.3 14.5 2.38 2.71 14.4 4.80 1.08
T(A-N) 6.00 × 8.00 × 11.2 0.5004 0.860 9.56 0.5004 22.9 4.82 1.55 1.24 36.8 9.19 1.96

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.
4. Both flange and stem of these shapes have square ends. Fillet radius R1 applies only to juncture of stem and flange.

V-26 January 2015

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 b
Z Y

R2

January 2015
R1
t

d X X

Į
Y Z
Table 20
ZEES
Fillet Tip Axis X-X Axis Y-Y Axis Z-Z
Depth Width Thickness Radius Radius Area
d b t R1 R2 A lx Sx rx ly Sy ry lz rz Į
Designation in. in. in. in. in. in2 in4 in3 in. in4 in3 in. in4 in. deg
Z 1 3/4 × 1 3/4 × 1.09 1.750 1.750 0.188 0.188 0.125 0.925 0.447 0.511 0.695 0.553 0.334 0.773 0.101 0.330 48.82

Z 2 × 1.25 × 0.922 2.000 1.250 0.188 0.188 0.125 0.784 0.459 0.459 0.765 0.186 0.161 0.488 0.0630 0.284 29.20
Z 2 3/8 × 1 1/4 × 1.00 2.375 1.250 0.188 0.188 0.125 0.854 0.695 0.586 0.902 0.187 0.161 0.467 0.0820 0.310 23.20

Z 3 × 2 11/16 × 2.33 3.000 2.688 0.250 0.312 0.250 1.98 2.89 1.92 1.21 2.64 1.03 1.15 0.590 0.545 43.40
Z 3 × 2 11/16 × 3.38 3.000 2.688 0.375 0.312 0.250 2.87 3.86 2.57 1.16 3.76 1.50 1.14 0.820 0.534 44.52

Z 4 × 3 1/16 × 2.85 4.000 3.062 0.250 0.312 0.250 2.42 6.31 3.16 1.61 4.01 1.36 1.29 1.08 0.668 36.78
Z 4 1/16 × 3 1/8 × 3.57 4.062 3.125 0.312 0.312 0.250 3.04 7.96 3.92 1.62 5.23 1.76 1.31 1.39 0.676 37.40
Z 4 1/8 × 3 3/16 × 4.32 4.125 3.188 0.375 0.312 0.250 3.67 9.66 4.69 1.62 6.54 2.18 1.33 1.72 0.684 37.92
Z 4 × 3 1/16 × 4.78 4.000 3.062 0.438 0.312 0.250 4.07 9.69 4.84 1.54 6.53 2.30 1.27 1.74 0.654 37.83
Z 4 1/8 × 3 3/16 × 6.22 4.125 3.188 0.563 0.312 0.250 5.29 12.8 6.19 1.55 9.06 3.12 1.31 2.41 0.675 38.68

Z 5 × 3 1/4 × 4.01 5.000 3.250 0.312 0.312 0.250 3.41 13.4 5.36 1.98 5.93 1.92 1.32 1.89 0.745 30.67
Z 5 1/16 × 3 5/16 × 4.84 5.062 3.312 0.375 0.312 0.250 4.12 16.2 6.41 1.99 7.40 2.37 1.34 2.33 0.752 31.13
Z 5 × 3 1/4 × 6.19 5.000 3.250 0.500 0.312 0.250 5.26 19.2 7.69 1.91 8.82 2.94 1.29 2.82 0.732 31.15

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

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V-27
 Table 21

ROUND TUBES
Rb

Designation ID Weight A I S Z r J Rb/t

2 4 3 3 4
in. in. in. lb/ft in in in in in. in -
1.500 OD x 0.062 WALL 1.376 0.329 0.280 0.0725 0.097 0.128 0.509 0.145 11.6
1.500 OD x 0.094 WALL 1.312 0.488 0.415 0.103 0.137 0.186 0.498 0.205 7.5
1.500 OD x 0.125 WALL 1.250 0.635 0.540 0.129 0.172 0.237 0.488 0.255 5.5
1.500 OD x 0.156 WALL 1.188 0.775 0.659 0.151 0.201 0.283 0.478 0.297 4.3
1.500 OD x 0.188 WALL 1.124 0.911 0.775 0.170 0.227 0.326 0.469 0.333 3.5
1.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 1.000 1.15 0.982 0.199 0.266 0.396 0.451 0.383 2.5
1.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 0.750 1.56 1.33 0.233 0.311 0.492 0.419 0.419 1.5
1.625 OD x 0.125 WALL 1.375 0.693 0.589 0.167 0.205 0.282 0.532 0.331 6.0
1.625 OD x 0.188 WALL 1.249 0.998 0.849 0.223 0.274 0.390 0.512 0.438 3.8
1.625 OD x 0.250 WALL 1.125 1.27 1.08 0.264 0.324 0.478 0.494 0.510 2.8
1.750 OD x 0.125 WALL 1.500 0.750 0.638 0.212 0.242 0.331 0.576 0.421 6.5
1.750 OD x 0.188 WALL 1.374 1.08 0.923 0.285 0.326 0.461 0.556 0.563 4.2
1.750 OD x 0.250 WALL 1.250 1.39 1.18 0.341 0.389 0.568 0.538 0.663 3.0
1.750 OD x 0.375 WALL 1.000 1.90 1.62 0.411 0.470 0.727 0.504 0.766 1.8
1.875 OD x 0.125 WALL 1.625 0.808 0.687 0.264 0.282 0.383 0.620 0.526 7.0
1.875 OD x 0.188 WALL 1.499 1.17 0.996 0.359 0.383 0.537 0.600 0.709 4.5
1.875 OD x 0.250 WALL 1.375 1.50 1.28 0.431 0.460 0.665 0.581 0.843 3.3
1.875 OD x 0.375 WALL 1.125 2.08 1.77 0.528 0.563 0.861 0.547 0.994 2.0
2.000 OD x 0.125 WALL 1.750 0.866 0.736 0.325 0.325 0.440 0.664 0.647 7.5
2.000 OD x 0.188 WALL 1.624 1.26 1.07 0.444 0.444 0.619 0.644 0.878 4.8
2.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 1.500 1.62 1.37 0.537 0.537 0.771 0.625 1.05 3.5
2.000 OD x 0.312 WALL 1.376 1.95 1.65 0.609 0.609 0.899 0.607 1.18 2.7
2.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 1.250 2.25 1.91 0.666 0.666 1.01 0.590 1.26 2.2
2.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 1.000 2.77 2.36 0.736 0.736 1.17 0.559 1.33 1.5
2.250 OD x 0.125 WALL 2.000 0.981 0.834 0.473 0.420 0.565 0.753 0.942 8.5
2.250 OD x 0.188 WALL 1.874 1.43 1.22 0.653 0.580 0.802 0.732 1.29 5.5
2.250 OD x 0.250 WALL 1.750 1.85 1.57 0.798 0.709 1.01 0.713 1.57 4.0
2.250 OD x 0.312 WALL 1.626 2.23 1.90 0.915 0.813 1.18 0.694 1.78 3.1
2.250 OD x 0.375 WALL 1.500 2.60 2.21 1.01 0.897 1.34 0.676 1.94 2.5
2.250 OD x 0.500 WALL 1.250 3.23 2.75 1.14 1.01 1.57 0.643 2.10 1.8

V-28 January 2015

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 Table 21

ROUND TUBES (Continued)

Rb

Designation ID Weight A I S Z r J Rb/t

2 4 3 3 4
in. in. in. lb/ft in in in in in. in -
2.375 OD x 0.188 WALL 1.999 1.52 1.29 0.778 0.655 0.901 0.776 1.54 5.8
2.375 OD x 0.250 WALL 1.875 1.96 1.67 0.955 0.804 1.13 0.756 1.88 4.3
2.375 OD x 0.375 WALL 1.625 2.77 2.36 1.22 1.03 1.52 0.719 2.36 2.7
2.375 OD x 0.500 WALL 1.375 3.46 2.95 1.39 1.17 1.80 0.686 2.59 1.9
2.500 OD x 0.125 WALL 2.250 1.10 0.933 0.659 0.528 0.706 0.841 1.32 9.5
2.500 OD x 0.188 WALL 2.124 1.61 1.37 0.918 0.735 1.01 0.820 1.82 6.1
2.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 2.000 2.08 1.77 1.13 0.906 1.27 0.800 2.24 4.5
2.500 OD x 0.312 WALL 1.876 2.52 2.14 1.31 1.05 1.50 0.781 2.57 3.5
2.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 1.750 2.94 2.50 1.46 1.17 1.71 0.763 2.83 2.8
2.500 OD x 0.500 WALL 1.500 3.69 3.14 1.67 1.34 2.04 0.729 3.14 2.0
2.500 OD x 0.625 WALL 1.250 4.33 3.68 1.80 1.44 2.28 0.699 3.24 1.5
2.500 OD x 0.750 WALL 1.000 4.85 4.12 1.87 1.49 2.44 0.673 3.16 1.2
2.625 OD x 0.250 WALL 2.125 2.19 1.87 1.33 1.01 1.42 0.844 2.63 4.8
2.750 OD x 0.125 WALL 2.500 1.21 1.03 0.890 0.647 0.862 0.929 1.78 10.5
2.750 OD x 0.188 WALL 2.374 1.78 1.51 1.25 0.908 1.24 0.908 2.48 6.8
2.750 OD x 0.250 WALL 2.250 2.31 1.96 1.55 1.13 1.57 0.888 3.07 5.0
2.750 OD x 0.312 WALL 2.126 2.81 2.39 1.80 1.31 1.86 0.869 3.55 3.9
2.750 OD x 0.375 WALL 2.000 3.29 2.80 2.02 1.47 2.13 0.850 3.95 3.2
2.750 OD x 0.500 WALL 1.750 4.16 3.53 2.35 1.71 2.57 0.815 4.47 2.3
2.750 OD x 0.625 WALL 1.500 4.91 4.17 2.56 1.86 2.90 0.783 4.71 1.7
2.750 OD x 0.750 WALL 1.250 5.54 4.71 2.69 1.95 3.14 0.755 4.71 1.3
2.875 OD x 0.250 WALL 2.375 2.42 2.06 1.79 1.25 1.73 0.932 3.55 5.3
2.875 OD x 0.500 WALL 1.875 4.39 3.73 2.75 1.91 2.86 0.858 5.26 2.4
3.000 OD x 0.125 WALL 2.750 1.33 1.13 1.17 0.779 1.03 1.02 2.33 11.5
3.000 OD x 0.188 WALL 2.624 1.95 1.66 1.65 1.10 1.49 0.996 3.28 7.5
3.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 2.500 2.54 2.16 2.06 1.37 1.90 0.976 4.08 5.5
3.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 2.250 3.64 3.09 2.72 1.81 2.60 0.938 5.33 3.5
3.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 2.000 4.62 3.93 3.19 2.13 3.17 0.901 6.14 2.5
3.000 OD x 0.625 WALL 1.750 5.48 4.66 3.52 2.34 3.61 0.868 6.58 1.9
3.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 1.500 6.23 5.30 3.73 2.49 3.94 0.839 6.71 1.5
3.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 1.000 7.39 6.28 3.93 2.62 4.33 0.791 6.28 1.0
3.250 OD x 0.250 WALL 2.750 2.77 2.36 2.67 1.64 2.26 1.06 5.30 6.0
3.250 OD x 0.375 WALL 2.500 3.98 3.39 3.56 2.19 3.12 1.03 7.00 3.8
3.250 OD x 0.500 WALL 2.250 5.08 4.32 4.22 2.60 3.82 0.988 8.17 2.8

January 2015 V-29

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 Table 21

ROUND TUBES (Continued)

Rb

Designation ID Weight A I S Z r J Rb/t

in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in3 in. in4 -
3.500 OD x 0.125 WALL 3.250 1.56 1.33 1.89 1.08 1.42 1.19 3.77 13.5
3.500 OD x 0.188 WALL 3.124 2.30 1.96 2.69 1.54 2.06 1.17 5.36 8.8
3.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 3.000 3.00 2.55 3.39 1.94 2.65 1.15 6.74 6.5
3.500 OD x 0.312 WALL 2.876 3.67 3.12 4.01 2.29 3.18 1.13 7.94 5.1
3.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 2.750 4.33 3.68 4.56 2.61 3.68 1.11 8.99 4.2
3.500 OD x 0.500 WALL 2.500 5.54 4.71 5.45 3.11 4.54 1.08 10.6 3.0
3.500 OD x 0.750 WALL 2.000 7.62 6.48 6.58 3.76 5.81 1.01 12.3 1.8
3.750 OD x 0.125 WALL 3.500 1.67 1.42 2.34 1.25 1.64 1.28 4.68 14.5
3.750 OD x 0.188 WALL 3.374 2.47 2.10 3.35 1.78 2.39 1.26 6.67 9.5
3.750 OD x 0.250 WALL 3.250 3.23 2.75 4.23 2.26 3.07 1.24 8.42 7.0
3.750 OD x 0.375 WALL 3.000 4.68 3.98 5.73 3.06 4.29 1.20 11.3 4.5
3.750 OD x 0.500 WALL 2.750 6.00 5.11 6.90 3.68 5.32 1.16 13.5 3.3
4.000 OD x 0.125 WALL 3.750 1.79 1.52 2.86 1.43 1.88 1.37 5.71 15.5
4.000 OD x 0.188 WALL 3.624 2.65 2.25 4.10 2.05 2.73 1.35 8.18 10.1
4.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 3.500 3.46 2.95 5.20 2.60 3.52 1.33 10.4 7.5
4.000 OD x 0.312 WALL 3.376 4.25 3.61 6.19 3.09 4.25 1.31 12.3 5.9
4.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 3.250 5.02 4.27 7.09 3.54 4.95 1.29 14.0 4.8
4.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 3.000 6.47 5.50 8.59 4.30 6.17 1.25 16.8 3.5
4.000 OD x 0.625 WALL 2.750 7.79 6.63 9.76 4.88 7.20 1.21 18.9 2.7
4.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 2.500 9.01 7.66 10.6 5.32 8.06 1.18 20.2 2.2
4.250 OD x 0.125 WALL 4.000 1.90 1.62 3.45 1.62 2.13 1.46 6.89 16.5
4.250 OD x 0.250 WALL 3.750 3.69 3.14 6.31 2.97 4.01 1.42 12.6 8.0
4.250 OD x 0.375 WALL 3.500 5.37 4.57 8.65 4.07 5.65 1.38 17.1 5.2
4.250 OD x 0.500 WALL 3.250 6.93 5.89 10.5 4.96 7.07 1.34 20.7 3.8
4.500 OD x 0.125 WALL 4.250 2.02 1.72 4.11 1.83 2.39 1.55 8.22 17.5
4.500 OD x 0.188 WALL 4.124 2.99 2.55 5.93 2.64 3.50 1.53 11.8 11.5
4.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 4.000 3.93 3.34 7.56 3.36 4.52 1.51 15.1 8.5
4.500 OD x 0.312 WALL 3.876 4.83 4.10 9.05 4.02 5.48 1.48 18.0 6.7
4.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 3.750 5.71 4.86 10.4 4.63 6.40 1.46 20.7 5.5
4.500 OD x 0.500 WALL 3.500 7.39 6.28 12.8 5.67 8.04 1.43 25.1 4.0
4.500 OD x 0.625 WALL 3.250 8.95 7.61 14.7 6.51 9.47 1.39 28.6 3.1
4.500 OD x 0.750 WALL 3.000 10.4 8.84 16.2 7.18 10.7 1.35 31.1 2.5
4.500 OD x 1.000 WALL 2.500 12.9 11.0 18.2 8.09 12.6 1.29 33.7 1.8

V-30 January 2015

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 Table 21

ROUND TUBES (Continued)

Rb

Designation ID Weight A I S Z r J Rb/t

in. in. in. lb/ft in2 in4 in3 in3 in. in4 -
4.750 OD x 0.125 WALL 4.500 2.14 1.82 4.86 2.05 2.67 1.64 9.71 18.5
4.750 OD x 0.188 WALL 4.374 3.17 2.69 7.02 2.96 3.91 1.61 14.0 12.1
4.750 OD x 0.250 WALL 4.250 4.16 3.53 8.97 3.78 5.07 1.59 17.9 9.0
4.750 OD x 0.375 WALL 4.000 6.06 5.15 12.4 5.23 7.20 1.55 24.7 5.8
4.750 OD x 0.500 WALL 3.750 7.85 6.68 15.3 6.43 9.07 1.51 30.1 4.3
5.000 OD x 0.125 WALL 4.750 2.25 1.91 5.69 2.28 2.97 1.72 11.4 19.5
5.000 OD x 0.188 WALL 4.624 3.34 2.84 8.24 3.30 4.36 1.70 16.5 12.8
5.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 4.500 4.39 3.73 10.6 4.22 5.65 1.68 21.0 9.5
5.000 OD x 0.312 WALL 4.376 5.40 4.60 12.7 5.07 6.87 1.66 25.2 7.5
5.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 4.250 6.41 5.45 14.7 5.87 8.04 1.64 29.1 6.2
5.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 4.000 8.31 7.07 18.1 7.25 10.2 1.60 35.8 4.5
5.000 OD x 0.625 WALL 3.750 10.1 8.59 21.0 8.39 12.0 1.56 41.1 3.5
5.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 3.500 11.8 10.0 23.3 9.33 13.7 1.53 45.2 2.8
5.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 3.000 14.8 12.6 26.7 10.7 16.3 1.46 50.3 2.0
5.500 OD x 0.125 WALL 5.250 2.48 2.11 7.63 2.77 3.61 1.90 15.2 21.5
5.500 OD x 0.188 WALL 5.124 3.69 3.14 11.1 4.03 5.31 1.88 22.1 14.1
5.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 5.000 4.85 4.12 14.2 5.18 6.90 1.86 28.4 10.5
5.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 4.750 7.10 6.04 19.9 7.25 9.87 1.82 39.6 6.8
5.500 OD x 0.500 WALL 4.500 9.24 7.85 24.8 9.01 12.5 1.78 49.1 5.0
5.500 OD x 0.750 WALL 4.000 13.2 11.2 32.4 11.8 17.1 1.70 63.1 3.2
5.500 OD x 1.000 WALL 3.500 16.6 14.1 37.6 13.7 20.6 1.63 71.6 2.3
6.000 OD x 0.125 WALL 5.750 2.71 2.31 9.96 3.32 4.32 2.08 19.9 23.5
6.000 OD x 0.188 WALL 5.624 4.04 3.43 14.5 4.84 6.35 2.06 29.0 15.5
6.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 5.500 5.31 4.52 18.7 6.23 8.27 2.03 37.3 11.5
6.000 OD x 0.312 WALL 5.376 6.56 5.58 22.6 7.54 10.1 2.01 45.1 9.1
6.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 5.250 7.79 6.63 26.3 8.78 11.9 1.99 52.4 7.5
6.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 5.000 10.2 8.64 32.9 11.0 15.2 1.95 65.3 5.5
6.000 OD x 0.625 WALL 4.750 12.4 10.6 38.6 12.9 18.1 1.91 76.2 4.3
6.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 4.500 14.5 12.4 43.5 14.5 20.8 1.88 85.2 3.5
6.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 4.000 18.5 15.7 51.1 17.0 25.3 1.80 98.2 2.5
6.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 6.000 5.77 4.91 24.0 7.39 9.77 2.21 47.9 12.5
6.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 5.750 8.49 7.22 34.0 10.5 14.1 2.17 67.7 8.2
6.500 OD x 0.500 WALL 5.500 11.1 9.42 42.7 13.1 18.0 2.13 84.8 6.0
6.500 OD x 0.750 WALL 5.000 15.9 13.5 56.9 17.5 24.9 2.05 112 3.8

January 2015 V-31

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 Table 21

ROUND TUBES (Continued)

Rb

Designation ID Weight A I S Z r J Rb/t

2 4 3 3 4
in. in. in. lb/ft in in in in in. in -
6.750 OD x 0.500 WALL 5.750 11.5 9.82 48.2 14.3 19.6 2.22 95.9 6.3
6.750 OD x 0.750 WALL 5.250 16.6 14.1 64.6 19.1 27.1 2.14 127 4.0
7.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 6.500 6.23 5.30 30.2 8.64 11.4 2.39 60.4 13.5
7.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 6.250 9.18 7.80 43.0 12.3 16.5 2.35 85.6 8.8
7.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 6.000 12.0 10.2 54.2 15.5 21.2 2.30 108 6.5
7.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 5.500 17.3 14.7 72.9 20.8 29.4 2.23 144 4.2
7.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 5.000 22.2 18.8 87.2 24.9 36.3 2.15 170 3.0
7.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 7.000 6.70 5.69 37.5 9.99 13.1 2.56 74.8 14.5
7.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 6.750 9.87 8.39 53.4 14.2 19.1 2.52 107 9.5
7.500 OD x 0.500 WALL 6.500 12.9 11.0 67.7 18.1 24.5 2.48 135 7.0
8.000 OD x 0.125 WALL 7.750 3.64 3.09 24.0 5.99 7.75 2.78 47.9 31.5
8.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 7.500 7.16 6.09 45.7 11.4 15.0 2.74 91.4 15.5
8.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 7.250 10.6 8.98 65.4 16.4 21.8 2.70 131 10.2
8.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 7.000 13.9 11.8 83.2 20.8 28.2 2.66 166 7.5
8.000 OD x 0.625 WALL 6.750 17.0 14.5 99.2 24.8 34.1 2.62 197 5.9
8.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 6.500 20.1 17.1 113 28.4 39.6 2.58 224 4.8
8.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 6.000 25.9 22.0 137 34.4 49.3 2.50 269 3.5
8.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 8.000 7.62 6.48 55.2 13.0 17.0 2.92 110 16.5
9.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 8.500 8.08 6.87 65.8 14.6 19.1 3.09 132 17.5
9.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 8.250 11.9 10.2 94.7 21.0 27.9 3.05 189 11.5
9.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 8.000 15.7 13.4 121 26.9 36.2 3.01 241 8.5
10.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 9.500 9.01 7.66 91.1 18.2 23.8 3.45 182 19.5
10.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 9.250 13.3 11.3 132 26.3 34.8 3.41 263 12.8
10.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 9.000 17.5 14.9 169 33.8 45.2 3.36 337 9.5
10.000 OD x 0.625 WALL 8.750 21.6 18.4 203 40.6 55.0 3.32 404 7.5
10.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 8.500 25.6 21.8 235 46.9 64.3 3.28 466 6.2
10.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 8.000 33.3 28.3 290 58.0 81.3 3.20 573 4.5
10.500 OD x 0.250 WALL 10.000 9.47 8.05 106 20.1 26.3 3.63 211 20.5
10.500 OD x 0.375 WALL 9.750 14.0 11.9 153 29.2 38.5 3.58 306 13.5
10.500 OD x 0.500 WALL 9.500 18.5 15.7 197 37.5 50.0 3.54 393 10.0
10.500 OD x 0.750 WALL 9.000 27.0 23.0 275 52.3 71.4 3.46 546 6.5

V-32 January 2015

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 Table 21

ROUND TUBES (Continued)

Rb

Designation ID Weight A I S Z r J Rb/t

2 4 3 3 4
in. in. in. lb/ft in in in in in. in -
11.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 10.250 14.7 12.5 177 32.2 42.4 3.76 353 14.2
11.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 10.000 19.4 16.5 228 41.4 55.2 3.72 455 10.5
11.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 9.500 28.4 24.2 319 58.0 78.9 3.63 634 6.8
11.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 9.000 36.9 31.4 397 72.1 100 3.55 785 5.0
12.000 OD x 0.250 WALL 11.500 10.9 9.23 159 26.6 34.5 4.16 319 23.5
12.000 OD x 0.375 WALL 11.250 16.1 13.7 232 38.6 50.7 4.11 463 15.5
12.000 OD x 0.500 WALL 11.000 21.2 18.1 299 49.9 66.2 4.07 597 11.5
12.000 OD x 0.750 WALL 10.500 31.2 26.5 421 70.2 95.1 3.99 839 7.5
12.000 OD x 1.000 WALL 10.000 40.6 34.6 527 87.8 121 3.91 1045 5.5

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.
4. Tube is produced by several methods. Seamless tube is usually required for applications with internal pressure.

January 2015 V-33

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 Table 22
Rb
PIPES

Nominal Sched. Outside Inside Wall Area

Pipe No. Diameter Diameter Thickness A Weight I S Z r J Rb /t
2 4 3 3 4
Size in. in. in. in lb/ft in in in in. in -
1/8 40 0.405 0.269 0.068 0.0720 0.085 0.0011 0.0053 0.00783 0.122 0.00204 2.48
80 0.405 0.215 0.095 0.0925 0.109 0.0012 0.0060 0.00942 0.115 0.00222 1.63
1/4 40 0.540 0.364 0.088 0.125 0.147 0.0033 0.012 0.0182 0.163 0.00638 2.57
80 0.540 0.302 0.119 0.157 0.185 0.0038 0.014 0.0217 0.155 0.00697 1.77
3/8 40 0.675 0.493 0.091 0.167 0.196 0.0073 0.022 0.0313 0.209 0.0142 3.21
80 0.675 0.423 0.126 0.217 0.256 0.0086 0.026 0.0386 0.199 0.0164 2.18
1/2 5 0.840 0.710 0.065 0.158 0.186 0.012 0.028 0.0391 0.275 0.0238 5.96
10 0.840 0.674 0.083 0.197 0.232 0.014 0.034 0.0478 0.269 0.0283 4.56
40 0.840 0.622 0.109 0.250 0.294 0.017 0.041 0.0587 0.261 0.0334 3.35
80 0.840 0.546 0.147 0.320 0.376 0.020 0.048 0.0717 0.250 0.0384 2.36
160 0.840 0.464 0.188 0.385 0.453 0.022 0.053 0.0821 0.240 0.0409 1.73
3/4 5 1.050 0.920 0.065 0.201 0.237 0.025 0.047 0.0632 0.349 0.0488 7.58
10 1.050 0.884 0.083 0.252 0.297 0.030 0.057 0.0778 0.343 0.0589 5.83
40 1.050 0.824 0.113 0.333 0.391 0.037 0.071 0.0997 0.334 0.0730 4.15
80 1.050 0.742 0.154 0.433 0.51 0 0.045 0.085 0.125 0.321 0.0870 2.91
160 1.050 0.612 0.219 0.572 0.672 0.053 0.101 0.155 0.304 0.0987 1.90
1 5 1.315 1.185 0.065 0.255 0.300 0.050 0.076 0.102 0.443 0.100 9.62
10 1.315 1.097 0.109 0.413 0.486 0.076 0.115 0.159 0.428 0.150 5.53
40 1.315 1.049 0.133 0.494 0.581 0.087 0.133 0.187 0.421 0.173 4.44
80 1.315 0.957 0.179 0.639 0.751 0.106 0.161 0.233 0.407 0.206 3.17
160 1.315 0.815 0.250 0.836 0.984 0.125 0.190 0.289 0.387 0.237 2.13
1 1/4 5 1.660 1.530 0.065 0.326 0.383 0.104 0.125 0.165 0.564 0.207 12.3
10 1.660 1.442 0.109 0.531 0.625 0.160 0.193 0.263 0.550 0.319 7.11
40 1.660 1.380 0.140 0.669 0.786 0.195 0.235 0.324 0.540 0.386 5.43
80 1.660 1.278 0.191 0.881 1.04 0.242 0.291 0.414 0.524 0.476 3.85
160 1.660 1.160 0.250 1.11 1.30 0.284 0.342 0.502 0.506 0.550 2.82
1 1/2 5 1.900 1.770 0.065 0.375 0.441 0.158 0.166 0.219 0.649 0.315 14.1
10 1.900 1.682 0.109 0.613 0.721 0.247 0.260 0.350 0.634 0.492 8.2
40 1.900 1.610 0.145 0.799 0.940 0.310 0.326 0.448 0.623 0.616 6.1
80 1.900 1.500 0.200 1.07 1.26 0.391 0.412 0.581 0.605 0.772 4.3
160 1.900 1.338 0.281 1.43 1.68 0.482 0.508 0.744 0.581 0.937 2.9

V-34 January 2015

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 Table 22
Rb
PIPES (Continued)

Nominal Sched. Outside Inside Wall Area

Pipe No. Diameter Diameter Thickness A Weight I S Z r J Rb /t
2 4 3 3 4
Size in. in. in. in lb/ft in in in in. in -
2 5 2.375 2.245 0.065 0.472 0.555 0.315 0.265 0.347 0.817 0.629 17.8
10 2.375 2.157 0.109 0.776 0.913 0.499 0.420 0.5 60 0.802 1.00 10.4
40 2.375 2.067 0.154 1.07 1.26 0.666 0.561 0.761 0.787 1.33 7.2
80 2.375 1.939 0.218 1.48 1.74 0.868 0.731 1.02 0.766 1.72 4.9
160 2.375 1.687 0.344 2.19 2.58 1.16 0.980 1.43 0.728 2.26 3.0
2 1/2 5 2.875 2.709 0.083 0.728 0.856 0. 710 0.494 0.647 0.988 1.42 16.8
10 2.875 2.635 0.120 1.04 1.22 0.987 0.687 0.911 0.975 1.97 11.5
40 2.875 2.469 0.203 1.70 2.00 1.53 1.06 1.45 0.947 3.04 6.6
80 2.875 2.323 0.276 2.25 2.65 1.92 1.34 1.87 0.924 3.81 4.7
160 2.875 2.125 0.375 2.95 3. 46 2.35 1.64 2.36 0.894 4.60 3.3
3 5 3.500 3.334 0.083 0.891 1.05 1.30 0.744 0.969 1.21 2.60 20.6
10 3.500 3.260 0.120 1.27 1.50 1.82 1.04 1.37 1.20 3.64 14.1
40 3.500 3.068 0.216 2.23 2.62 3.02 1.72 2.33 1.16 6.01 7.6
80 3.500 2.900 0.300 3.02 3.55 3.89 2.23 3.08 1.14 7.72 5.3
160 3.500 2.624 0.438 4.21 4.95 5.04 2.88 4.13 1.09 9.88 3.5
3 1/2 5 4.000 3.834 0.083 1.02 1.20 1.96 0.98 1.27 1.39 3.92 23.6
10 4.000 3.760 0.120 1.46 1.72 2.76 1.38 1.81 1.37 5.51 16.2
40 4.000 3.548 0.226 2.68 3.15 4.79 2.39 3.22 1.34 9.54 8.3
80 4.000 3.364 0.318 3.68 4.33 6.28 3.14 4.32 1.31 12.5 5.8
4 5 4.500 4.334 0.083 1.15 1.35 2.81 1.25 1.62 1.56 5.62 26.6
10 4.500 4.260 0.120 1.65 1.94 3.96 1.76 2.30 1.55 7.92 18.3
40 4.500 4.026 0.237 3.17 3.73 7.23 3.21 4.31 1.51 14.4 9.0
80 4.500 3.826 0.337 4.41 5.18 9.61 4.27 5.85 1.48 19.1 6.2
120 4.500 3.624 0.438 5.59 6.57 11.7 5.18 7.25 1.44 23.1 4.6
160 4.500 3.438 0.531 6.62 7.79 13.3 5.90 8.41 1.42 26.1 3.7
5 5 5.563 5.345 0.109 1.87 2.20 6.95 2.50 3. 24 1.93 13.9 25.0
10 5.563 5.295 0.134 2.29 2.69 8.43 3.03 3.95 1.92 16.8 20.3
40 5.563 5.047 0.258 4.30 5.06 15.2 5.45 7.27 1.88 30.3 10.3
80 5.563 4.813 0.375 6.11 7.19 20.7 7.43 10.1 1.84 41.1 6.9
120 5.563 4.563 0.500 7.95 9.35 25.7 9.25 12.9 1.80 51.0 5.1
160 5.563 4.313 0.625 9.70 11.4 30.0 10.8 15.3 1.76 59.1 4.0

January 2015 V-35

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 Table 22
Rb
PIPES (Continued)

Nominal Sched. Outside Inside Wall Area

Pipe No. Diameter Diameter Thickness A Weight I S Z r J Rb /t
2 4 3 3 4
Size in. in. in. in lb/ft in in in in. in -
6 5 6.625 6.407 0.109 2.23 2.62 11.8 3.58 4.63 2.30 23.7 29.9
10 6.625 6.357 0.134 2.73 3.21 14.4 4.35 5.65 2.30 28.8 24.2
40 6.625 6.065 0.280 5.58 6.56 28.1 8.50 11.3 2.25 56.2 11.3
80 6.625 5.761 0.432 8.40 9.88 40.5 12.2 16.6 2.19 80.6 7.2
120 6.625 5.501 0.562 10.7 12.6 49.6 15.0 20.7 2.15 98.4 5.4
160 6.625 5.187 0.719 13.3 15.7 59.0 17.8 25.2 2.10 116 4.1
8 5 8.625 8.407 0.109 2.92 3.43 26.4 6.13 7.91 3.01 52.9 39 .1
10 8.625 8.329 0.148 3.94 4.64 35.4 8.21 10.6 3.00 70.8 28.6
20 8.625 8.125 0.250 6.58 7.74 57.7 13.4 17.5 2.96 115 16.8
30 8.625 8.071 0.277 7.26 8.54 63.4 14.7 19.3 2.95 127 15.1
40 8.625 7.981 0.322 8.40 9.88 72.5 16.8 22.2 2.94 145 12.9
60 8.625 7.813 0.406 10.5 12.3 88.7 20.6 27.4 2.91 177 10.1
80 8.625 7.625 0.500 12.8 15.0 106 24.5 33.0 2.88 211 8.1
100 8.625 7.437 0.594 15.0 17.6 121 28.2 38.4 2.85 242 6.8
120 8.625 7.187 0.719 17.9 21.0 141 32.6 45.1 2.81 279 5.5
140 8.625 7.00 1 0.812 19.9 23.4 154 35.6 49.7 2.78 304 4.8
160 8.625 6.813 0.906 22.0 25.8 166 38.5 54.2 2.75 327 4.3
10 5 10.750 10.482 0.134 4.47 5.26 63.0 11.7 15.1 3.75 126 39.6
10 10.750 10.420 0.165 5.49 6.45 76.9 14.3 18.5 3.74 154 32.1
20 10.750 10.250 0. 250 8.25 9.70 114 21.2 27.6 3.71 227 21.0
30 10.750 10.136 0.307 10.1 11.8 137 25.6 33.5 3.69 275 17.0
40 10.750 10.020 0.365 11.9 14.0 161 29.9 39.4 3.67 321 14.2
60 10.750 9.750 0.500 16.1 18.9 212 39.4 52.6 3.63 423 10.3
80 10.750 9.562 0.594 19 .0 22.3 245 45.6 61.3 3.60 489 8.5
100 10.750 9.312 0.719 22.7 26.6 286 53.3 72.5 3.56 570 7.0
12 5 12.750 12.438 0.156 6.17 7.26 122 19.2 24.7 4.45 245 40.4
10 12.750 12.390 0.180 7.11 8.36 140 22.0 28.4 4.44 281 34.9
20 12.750 12.250 0.250 9.82 11 .5 192 30.1 39.1 4.42 383 25.0
30 12.750 12.090 0.330 12.9 15.1 248 39.0 50.9 4.39 497 18.8
40 12.750 11.938 0.406 15.7 18.5 300 47.1 61.9 4.37 600 15.2
60 12.750 11.626 0.562 21.5 25.3 400 62.8 83.5 4.31 799 10.8
80 12.750 11.374 0.688 26.1 30.7 476 74.6 100 4.27 948 8.8

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers, especially for shaded sizes.
2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.
4. Sizes are in accordance with ASME B36.10M and B36.19M

V-36 January 2015

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 Table 23

SQUARE TUBES Y

d X X

Y
d

Designation d t Wt/ft A I x, I y Sx , S y r x , ry J Zx, Zy b/t

2 4 3 4 3
in. in. lb/ft in in in in. in in -
RT 1 x 1 x 0.065 1.000 0.065 0.286 0.243 0.0356 0.0712 0.383 0.0531 0.0854 13.4
RT 1 x 1 x 0.0 95 1.000 0.095 0.404 0.344 0.0475 0.0949 0.371 0.0704 0.117 8.5
RT 1 x 1 x 0.125 1.000 0.125 0.515 0.438 0.0570 0.114 0.361 0.0837 0.145 6.0

RT 1.25 x 1.25 x 0.065 1.250 0.065 0.362 0.308 0.0723 0.116 0.485 0.108 0.137 17.2
RT 1.25 x 1.25 x 0.095 1.250 0.095 0.516 0.439 0.0982 0.157 0.473 0.146 0.191 11.2
RT 1.25 x 1.25 x 0.125 1.250 0.125 0.662 0.563 0.120 0.192 0.462 0.178 0.238 8.0

RT 1.375 x 1.375 x 0.125 1.375 0.125 0.735 0.625 0.164 0.239 0.513 0.244 0.294 9.0

RT 1.5 x 1.5 x 0.065 1.500 0.065 0.439 0.373 0.128 0.171 0.586 0.192 0.201 21.1
RT 1.5 x 1.5 x 0.078 1.500 0.078 0.522 0.444 0.150 0.200 0.581 0.224 0.237 17.2
RT 1.5 x 1.5 x 0.095 1.500 0.095 0.628 0.534 0.176 0.235 0.575 0.263 0.282 13.8
RT 1.5 x 1.5 x 0.125 1.500 0.125 0.809 0.688 0.218 0.291 0.564 0.325 0.355 10.0
RT 1.5 x 1.5 x 0.25 1.500 0.250 1.47 1.25 0.339 0.451 0.520 0.488 0.594 4.0

RT 1.75 x 1.75 x 0.125 1.750 0.125 0.956 0.813 0.360 0.411 0.665 0.536 0.496 12.0

RT 2 x 2 x 0.095 2.000 0.095 0.851 0.724 0.439 0.439 0.779 0.657 0.518 19.1
RT 2 x 2 x 0.125 2.000 0.125 1.10 0.938 0.552 0.552 0.767 0.824 0.660 14.0
RT 2 x 2 x 0.156 2.000 0.156 1.35 1.15 0.657 0.657 0.755 0.978 0.798 10.8
RT 2 x 2 x 0.188 2.000 0.188 1. 60 1.36 0.754 0.754 0.744 1.12 0.929 8.6
RT 2 x 2 x 0.25 2.000 0.250 2.06 1.75 0.911 0.911 0.722 1.34 1.16 6.0

RT 2.25 x 2.25 x 0.125 2.250 0.125 1.25 1.06 0.802 0.713 0.869 1.20 0.848 16.0

RT 2.5 x 2.5 x 0.125 2.500 0.125 1.40 1.19 1.12 0.896 0.971 1.67 1.06 18.0
RT 2.5 x 2.5 x 0.188 2.500 0.188 2.04 1.74 1.56 1.25 0.947 2.32 1.51 11.3
RT 2.5 x 2.5 x 0.25 2.500 0.250 2.65 2.25 1.92 1.54 0.924 2.85 1.91 8.0

January 2015 V-37

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 Table 23

SQUARE TUBES (Continued)

Y

d X X

Y
d

Designation d t Wt/ft A I x, I y Sx , S y r x , ry J Zx, Zy b/t

2 4 3 4 3
in. in. lb/ft in in in in. in in -
RT 2.75 x 2.75 x 0.125 2.750 0.125 1.54 1.31 1.51 1.10 1.07 2.26 1.29 20.0
RT 2.75 x 2.75 x 0.188 2.750 0.188 2.27 1.93 2.12 1.54 1.05 3.16 1.85 12.6

RT 3 x 3 x 0.095 3.000 0.095 1.30 1.10 1.55 1.04 1.19 2.33 1.20 29.6
RT 3 x 3 x 0.125 3.000 0.125 1.69 1.44 1.98 1.32 1.17 2.97 1.55 22.0
RT 3 x 3 x 0.188 3.000 0.188 2.49 2.11 2.80 1.87 1.15 4.18 2.23 14.0
RT 3 x 3 x 0.25 3.000 0.250 3.23 2.75 3.49 2.33 1.13 5.20 2.84 10.0
RT 3 x 3 x 0.375 3.000 0.375 4.63 3.94 4.61 3.08 1.08 6.78 3.90 6.0

RT 3.5 x 3.5 x 0.125 3.500 0.125 1.98 1.69 3.21 1.83 1.38 4.81 2.14 26.0
RT 3.5 x 3.5 x 0.25 3.500 0.250 3.82 3.25 5.76 3.29 1.33 8.58 3.97 12.0
RT 3.5 x 3.5 x 0.375 3.500 0.375 5.51 4.69 7.74 4.42 1.28 11.4 5.52 7.3

RT 4 x 4 x 0.125 4.000 0.125 2.28 1.94 4.85 2.43 1.58 7.27 2.82 30.0
RT 4 x 4 x 0.188 4.000 0.188 3.37 2.87 6.96 3.48 1.56 10.4 4.10 19.3
RT 4 x 4 x 0.25 4.000 0.250 4.41 3.75 8.83 4.41 1.53 13.2 5.28 14.0
RT 4 x 4 x 0.375 4.000 0.375 6.39 5.44 12.0 6.02 1.49 17.9 7.42 8.7
RT 4 x 4 x 0.5 4.000 0.500 8.23 7.00 14.6 7.29 1. 44 21.4 9.25 6.0

RT 5 x 5 x 0.125 5.000 0.125 2.87 2.44 9.66 3.86 1.99 14.5 4.46 38.0
RT 5 x 5 x 0.188 5.000 0.188 4.26 3.62 14.0 5.59 1.97 20.9 6.53 24.6
RT 5 x 5 x 0.25 5.000 0.250 5.59 4.75 17.9 7.16 1.94 26.8 8.47 18.0
RT 5 x 5 x 0.375 5.000 0.375 8.16 6.94 24.9 9.96 1.89 37.1 12.1 11.3

RT 6 x 6 x 0.125 6.000 0.125 3.45 2.94 16.9 5.64 2.40 25.3 6.47 46.0
RT 6 x 6 x 0.188 6.000 0.188 5.14 4.37 24.6 8.21 2.37 36.9 9.53 29.9
RT 6 x 6 x 0.25 6.000 0.250 6.76 5.75 31.7 10.6 2.3 5 47.5 12.4 22.0
RT 6 x 6 x 0.375 6.000 0.375 9.92 8.44 44.7 14.9 2.30 66.7 17.8 14.0
RT 6 x 6 x 0.5 6.000 0.500 12.9 11.0 55.9 18.6 2.25 83.2 22.8 10.0

RT 8 x 8 x 0.188 8.000 0.188 6.91 5.87 59.8 14.9 3.19 89.6 17.2 40.6
RT 8 x 8 x 0.25 8. 000 0.250 9.11 7.75 77.7 19.4 3.17 116 22.5 30.0
RT 8 x 8 x 0.375 8.000 0.375 13.5 11.4 111 27.8 3.12 166 32.7 19.3
RT 8 x 8 x 0.5 8.000 0.500 17.6 15.0 141 35.3 3.07 211 42.3 14.0

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

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 Table 24

RECTANGULAR TUBES
Y

d X X

Y
b

Axis X-X Axis Y-Y

Depth Width
Designation d b t Weight A Ix Sx Zx rx Iy Sy Zy ry J
2 4 3 3 4 3 3 4
RT d x b x t in. in. in. lb/ft in in in in in. in in in in. in
RT 1 1/2 x 1 x 1/8 1.5 1 0.125 0.662 0.563 0.159 0.212 0.270 0.532 0.0811 0.162 0.199 0.380 0.161

RT 1 3/4 x 1 1/2 x 1/8 1.75 1.5 0.125 0.882 0.750 0.318 0.364 0.445 0.652 0.248 0.331 0.398 0.575 0.416

RT 2 x 1 x 1/8 2 1 0.125 0.809 0.688 0.332 0.332 0.426 0.695 0.105 0.210 0.254 0.391 0.245
RT 2 x 1 1/4 x 1/8 2 1.25 0.125 0.882 0.750 0.387 0.387 0.484 0.718 0.180 0.288 0.344 0.489 0.371
RT 2 x 1 1/2 x 1/8 2 1.5 0.125 0.956 0.813 0.442 0.442 0.543 0.737 0.278 0.370 0.441 0.585 0.511
RT 2 x 1 1/2 x 1/4 2 1.5 0.250 1.76 1.50 0.719 0.719 0.938 0.692 0.438 0.583 0.750 0.540 0.798
RT 2 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 2 1.75 0.125 1.03 0.875 0.497 0.497 0.602 0.753 0.401 0.458 0.547 0.677 0.663

RT 2 1/4 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 2.25 1.75 0.125 1.10 0.938 0.661 0.588 0.715 0.840 0.442 0.506 0.598 0.687 0.795

RT 2 1/2 x 1 x 1/8 2.5 1 0.125 0.956 0.813 0.590 0.472 0.613 0.852 0.129 0.258 0.309 0.399 0.332
RT 2 1/2 x 1 1/4 x 1/8 2.5 1.25 0.125 1.03 0.875 0.678 0.543 0.688 0.881 0.219 0.351 0.414 0.501 0.510
RT 2 1/2 x 1 1/2 x 1/8 2.5 1.5 0.125 1.10 0.938 0.767 0.613 0.762 0.904 0.337 0.449 0.527 0.599 0.711
RT 2 1/2 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 2.5 1.75 0.125 1.18 1.00 0.855 0.684 0.836 0.925 0.484 0.553 0.648 0.696 0.931

RT 2 3/4 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 2.75 1.75 0.125 1.25 1.06 1.08 0.785 0.965 1.01 0.525 0.6 00 0.699 0.703 1.07

RT 3 x 1 x 1/8 3 1 0.125 1.10 0.938 0.950 0.633 0.832 1.01 0.153 0.307 0.363 0.404 0.422
RT 3 x 1 1/4 x 1/8 3 1.25 0.125 1.18 1.00 1.08 0.720 0.922 1.04 0.259 0.415 0.484 0.509 0.654
RT 3 x 1 1/2 x 1/8 3 1.5 0.125 1.2 5 1.06 1.21 0.806 1.01 1.07 0.396 0.528 0.613 0.611 0.919
RT 3 x 1 1/2 x 3/16 3 1.5 0.188 1.82 1.55 1.68 1.12 1.44 1.04 0.533 0.711 0.859 0.586 1.24
RT 3 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 3 1.75 0.125 1.32 1.13 1.34 0.892 1.10 1.09 0.566 0.647 0.750 0.710 1.21
RT 3 x 2 x 1 /8 3 2 0.125 1.40 1.19 1.47 0.978 1.19 1.11 0.772 0.77 0.895 0.806 1.53
RT 3 x 2 x 1/4 3 2 0.250 2.65 2.25 2.55 1.70 2.16 1.06 1.30 1.30 1.59 0.759 2.57

RT 3 1/2 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 3.5 1.75 0.125 1.47 1.25 1.96 1.12 1.40 1.25 0.649 0.742 0.8 52 0.721 1.50

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 Table 24

RECTANGULAR TUBES (Continued)

Y

d X X

Y
b

Axis X-X Axis Y-Y

Depth Width

Designation d b t Weight A Ix Sx Zx rx Iy Sy Zy ry J
2 4 3 3 4 3 3 4
RT d x b x t in. in. in. lb/ft in in in in in. in in in in. in

RT 4 x 1 x 1/8 4 1 0.125 1.40 1.19 2.04 1.02 1.36 1.31 0.201 0.403 0.473 0.412 0.605
RT 4 x 1 1/2 x 1/8 4 1.5 0.125 1.54 1.31 2.51 1.25 1.61 1.38 0.515 0.686 0.785 0.626 1.35
RT 4 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 4 1.75 0.125 1.62 1.38 2.74 1.37 1.73 1.41 0.732 0.836 0.953 0.730 1.80
RT 4 x 2 x 1/8 4 2 0.125 1.69 1.44 2.98 1.49 1.85 1.44 0.992 0.992 1.13 0.831 2.30
RT 4 x 2 x 3/16 4 2 0.188 2.49 2.11 4.23 2.11 2.67 1.41 1.37 1.37 1.61 0.806 3.19
RT 4 x 2 x 1/4 4 2 0.250 3.23 2.75 5.31 2.65 3.41 1.39 1.68 1.68 2.03 0.782 3.92
RT 4 x 2 1/2 x 1/8 4 2.5 0.125 1.84 1.56 3.45 1.72 2.09 1.48 1.65 1.32 1.50 1.03 3.39
RT 4 x 3 x 1/8 4 3 0.125 1.98 1.69 3.92 1.96 2.33 1.52 2.50 1.67 1.91 1.22 4.60
RT 4 x 3 x 3/16 4 3 0.188 2.93 2.49 5.59 2.80 3.38 1.50 3.54 2.36 2.76 1.19 6.52
RT 4 x 3 x 1/4 4 3 0.250 3.82 3.25 7.07 3.53 4.34 1.47 4.44 2.96 3.53 1.17 8.18
RT 4 x 3 x 3/8 4 3 0.375 5.51 4.69 9.56 4.78 6.06 1.43 5.92 3.94 4.89 1.12 10.9
RT 4 x 3 x 1/2 4 3 0.500 7.06 6.00 11.5 5.75 7.50 1.38 7.00 4.6 7 6.00 1.08 12.8

RT 4 1/2 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 4.5 1.75 0.125 1.76 1.50 3.69 1.64 2.09 1.57 0.814 0.931 1.05 0.737 2.11

RT 5 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 5 1.75 0.125 1.91 1.63 4.83 1.93 2.48 1.72 0.897 1.03 1.16 0.743 2.41
RT 5 x 1 3/4 x 3/ 16 5 1.75 0.188 2.82 2.40 6.91 2.76 3.59 1.70 1.23 1.41 1.65 0.717 3.33
RT 5 x 2 x 1/8 5 2 0.125 1.98 1.69 5.20 2.08 2.63 1.76 1.21 1.21 1.36 0.847 3.09
RT 5 x 2 x 3/16 5 2 0.188 2.93 2.49 7.45 2.98 3.82 1.73 1.68 1.68 1.95 0.822 4.32
RT 5 x 2 x 1/4 5 2 0.250 3.82 3.25 9.44 3.78 4.91 1.70 2.07 2.07 2.47 0.798 5.32
RT 5 x 2 1/2 x 1/8 5 2.5 0.125 2.13 1.81 5.95 2.38 2.93 1.81 2.00 1.60 1.80 1.05 4.62
RT 5 x 3 x 1/8 5 3 0.125 2.28 1.94 6.69 2.68 3.24 1.86 3.02 2.01 2.27 1.25 6.34
RT 5 x 3 x 3/16 5 3 0.18 8 3.37 2.87 9.63 3.85 4.72 1.83 4.29 2.86 3.29 1.22 9.03
RT 5 x 3 x 1/4 5 3 0.250 4.41 3.75 12.3 4.91 6.09 1.81 5.39 3.59 4.22 1.20 11.4
RT 5 x 4 x 1/4 5 4 0.250 5.00 4.25 15.1 6.04 7.28 1.88 10.6 5.29 6.22 1.58 18.7

RT 6 x 1 1/2 x 1/8 6 1.5 0.125 2.13 1.81 7.20 2.40 3.17 1.99 0.752 1.00 1.13 0.644 2.25
RT 6 x 1 3/4 x 1/8 6 1.75 0.125 2.21 1.88 7.74 2.58 3.35 2.03 1.06 1.21 1.36 0.753 3.04
RT 6 x 2 x 1/8 6 2 0.125 2.28 1.94 8.28 2.76 3.54 2.07 1.43 1.43 1.60 0.860 3.91
RT 6 x 2 x 3/16 6 2 0.188 3.37 2.87 11.9 3.98 5.16 2.04 1.99 1.99 2.29 0.834 5.47
RT 6 x 2 x 1/4 6 2 0.250 4.41 3.75 15.2 5.07 6.66 2.01 2.45 2.45 2.91 0.809 6.75
RT 6 x 3 x 1/8 6 3 0.125 2.57 2.19 10.4 3.48 4.27 2.18 3.53 2.36 2.63 1.27 8.15

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 Table 24

RECTANGULAR TUBES (Continued)

Y

d X X

Y
b

Axis X-X Axis Y-Y

Depth Width

Designation d b t Weight A Ix Sx Zx rx Iy Sy Zy ry J
2 4 3 3 4 3 3 4
RT d x b x t in. in. in. lb/ft in in in in in. in in in in. in

RT 6 x 3 x 3/16 6 3 0.188 3.81 3.24 15.1 5.03 6.25 2.16 5.03 3.35 3.82 1.25 11.6
RT 6 x 4 x 1/8 6 4 0.125 2.87 2.44 12.6 4.20 5.00 2.27 6.73 3.37 3.79 1.66 13.3
RT 6 x 4 x 3/16 6 4 0.188 4.26 3.62 18.3 6.09 7.34 2.25 9.69 4.85 5.53 1.64 19.2
RT 6 x 4 x 1/4 6 4 0.250 5.59 4.75 23 .5 7.82 9.53 2.22 12.3 6.17 7.16 1.61 24.5
RT 6 x 4 x 1/2 6 4 0.500 10.6 9.00 40.8 13.6 17.3 2.13 20.8 10.4 12.8 1.52 41.2

RT 8 x 2 x 1/8 8 2 0.125 2.87 2.44 17.5 4.36 5.72 2.68 1.87 1.87 2.07 0.876 5.59
RT 8 x 3 x 1/4 8 3 0.250 6.17 5.2 5 40.1 10.0 12.8 2.76 8.23 5.49 6.28 1.25 21.6
RT 8 x 4 x 3/16 8 4 0.188 5.14 4.37 36.8 9.21 11.3 2.90 12.4 6.21 6.97 1.69 28.7
RT 8 x 4 x 1/4 8 4 0.250 6.76 5.75 47.6 11.9 14.8 2.88 15.9 7.93 9.03 1.66 36.7
RT 8 x 4 x 3/8 8 4 0.375 9.92 8.44 67.5 16.9 21.3 2.83 21.9 11.0 12.9 1.61 50.9
RT 8 x 4 x 1/2 8 4 0.500 12.9 11.0 84.9 21.2 27.3 2.78 26.9 13.5 16.3 1.56 62.6
RT 8 x 5 x 3/8 8 5 0.375 10.8 9.19 78.4 19.6 24.2 2.92 37.0 14.8 17.3 2.01 76.1

1. Users are encouraged to check availability with suppliers.

2. Dimensional tolerances are given in Aluminum Standards and Data.
3. Weights are for 6061 with a density of 0.098 lb/in3.

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 Table 25

ROOFING AND SIDING – DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS

Corrugated Roofing
A
B

Corrugated Siding
A
C

Ribbed Siding
A
B
3
18

V-Beam Roofing and Siding

A
B
C

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 Table 26

ROOFING AND SIDING – SECTION PROPERTIES

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 Table 27

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS IN INCHES OF SHEET METAL AND WIRE GAUGES

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 Table 28
GEOMETRIC SHAPES

SQUARE SQUARE
2
d A=d A = d2
d4 d4
I = I =

d
d
d 12 12
2
d3 2d3
X X d S= X X S= = 0.1179d 3
6 12
d
d 2 d
r = = 0.2887d r = = 0.2887d
12 12

HOLLOW SQUARE RECTANGLE

d1 A = d12 – d22 b A = bd
4 4 bd 3
d2 d1 – d2 I = 12
I =
12
d1 d bd 2
4
– 4 2 S=6
2
S = d1 d2
X X d2 d1 6d1 X X d d
2 2
r = = 0.2887d
d 1 + d2
12
r = 2
12 Z = bd
4

RECTANGLE RECTANGLE
b A = bd b
A = bd
d2 2
I =A c bd 3
d 12 I =
2 3
d
d
d
2 c
X X
X X

TRIANGLE TRIANGLE
bd
A= 2
bd
2d A=
3 bd 3 2
d I = 36 d
bd 3
X X I =
d3 d 12
r = = 0.2357d
18 X X
b b

ELLIPSE
bd
A=
4
d2
bd 3
I =
X X d 64
bd 2
S=
32
b d
r =
4

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 Table 28
GEOMETRIC SHAPES (Continued)

I-BEAM A = 2btf (d – 2tf )tw

tf
2
tw btf 3 d – tf
Ix = (d – 2tf ) 3 2 btf
d tw 12 12 2
2
X Xd J = 2btf 3 (d – 2tf)tw3 3
tf (d – tf )2b3 Iy d 2
Cw =
24 4
b
Zx = btf (d – tf ) (d/2 – tf ) 2 tw

HOLLOW A = 2t(d + b – 2t )
RECTANGLE (bd 3 – (b – 2t)(d – 2t)3)
Ix =
12
(bd 3 – (b – 2t)(d – 2t)3)
Sx =
6d
X X d
rx = bd 3 – (b – 2t)(d – 2t)3
24t(d + b – 2t)
t
t J = 2t(d – t)2(b – t)2/(d + b – 2t)
b
Zx = bt(d – t) + 2t(d/2 – t)2

CHANNEL A = 2btf (d – 2tf )tw

b
2
tw btf 3 d – tf
tf Ix = (d – 2tf )3 2 btf
12 12 2
d tw
2 2btf 3 (d – 2tf)tw3
J =
3
X X
3
d tf b (d – tf )2 (3btf 2tw(d – tf ))
Cw =
12(6btf (d – tf ) tw)

Zx = btf (d – tf ) (d/2 – tf )2 tw

CIRCLE
d2 R d
A = R2 = r = =
d 4 2 4
2 R 4
X X d
4
I = R =
d4
J  R d4
4 64 2 32
3
3 d3
Z = 4R d3
S= R =
4 32 3 6

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 Table 28
GEOMETRIC SHAPES (Continued)

HALF CIRCULAR
CIRCLE FILLET
x
R2 d2 A = (tan ș – ș)R 2
X
A= =
X 2d 2 8
R
3 tan2 ș sin ș
d I = 0.1098R 4 = 0.0069d 4 x = sec ș – R
3(tan ș – ș)
ș

ș R

PARABOLA HALF COMPLEMENT OF

PARABOLA HALF PARABOLA
Y bd
A = 4bd Y A = 2bd Y x A=
3
x 3 3
X Xd x X X
6d 3d
x = 6d X Xd x =
10
y x =
10
b b 10
Y y Y
b b 3b b b 3b
Y y = y =
8 4

HOLLOW CIRCLE (d12 – d22 ) (R 12 + R 22 ) (d12 + d22 )

A= (R 12 – R 22 ) = r = =
4 4 16
d1
2 R2 R1
(R 14 – R 24) (d14 – d24) t(R 1 + R 2) 3
X X d2 d1 I = = J =
4 64 4

(R 14 – R 24) (d14 – d24) (d13 – d2 3)

S = = Z =
4R1 32d1 6

na2 cot ș nR12 sin 2ș

REGULAR POLYGON A= = = nR22 tan ș
4 2
a a
x1 = R 1 = , x 2 = R2 =
x1 2 R2 2 sin ș 2 tan ș
R1
1 1 x2 A(6R12 – a2 ) A(12R22 + a2 )
I1 – 1 = I2 – 2 = =
a ș 2
24 48
A(6R12 – a2 ) , S A(12R22 + a2 )
S1 – 1 = 2–2=
n = Number of Sides 24R1 48R2
180º
a = 2 R12 – R22 , ș = n 6R 12 – a2 12R22 + a2
r1 – 1 = , r2 – 2 =
24 48

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 Table 28
GEOMETRIC SHAPES (Continued)

ș b
a a´
C
r C

c
x

b y
a a´
Į

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 Table 28
GEOMETRIC SHAPES (Continued)

ANGLE Z Y
x
W

c
d
Į

X X

W
Y
Z t
t
a

Z-Z axis is axis of minimum I

b 2 + ct d 2 + at
x= y=
2b + c  2b + c 
3 3 3 3
t d − y  + by 3 − a y − t  t b − x  + dx 3 − cx − t 
Ix = Iy =
3 3
abcdt § 2K ·
K= D = 1 / 2 tan −1 ¨ ¸
4b + c  ¨ Iy − Ix ¸
© ¹
I z = I x sin 2 D + I y cos 2 D + K sin 2D
Ix + Iy = Iw + Iz
I w = I x cos 2 D + I y sin 2 D − K sin 2D
xo = x − t / 2 yo = y − t / 2
wo = y o sin D + x o cos D z o = y o cos D − x o sin D
b' = d − t / 2 d' = b −t / 2

@  
2 4 4
y −  y o − b '
C1 =
xo
2
>
2 2
y o −  y o − b ' + o
4
y
3
3
>3 3
+ o x o − x o − d ' + yo d ' @
@  
2 4 4
x −  x o − d '
y
>
2
C 2 = o x o −  x o − d ' + o
2
2

4
x 3
>
3 3
+ o yo −  yo − b' + x o b'
3
@
t C1 cos D − C 2 sin D 
Ew = − 2zo
Iw

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 Aluminum Design Manual

PART VI

Design Aids

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 VI
Design Aids
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Bucking Constants
Table 1-1 Bucking Constants (unwelded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1-2 Buckling Constants (welded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1-3 Resistance and Safety Factors in the Specification for Aluminum Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1-4 Member Nominal Strengths in the Specification for Aluminum Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1-5 Stresses Corresponding to Nominal Strengths F in the Specification for Aluminum Structures . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1-6 Elements In Uniform Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1-7 Elements In Flexural Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Allowable Stresses for Building-Type Structures

Table 2-1 1100-H14 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2-2 3003-H14 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2-3 3003-H16 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2-4 Alclad 3004-H34 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2-5 5005-H14 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2-6 5005-H32 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2-7 5005-H34 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2-8 5050-H34 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2-9 5052-H32 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2-10 5052-H34 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2-11 5052-H36 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2-12 5083-H116, -H32, -H321 Sheet and Plate (0.188 to 1.500 in. thick). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2-13 5086-H34 Sheet and Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2-14 5086-H116 Sheet and Plate, 5086-H32 Drawn Tube, Sheet and Plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2-15 5454-H32 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2-16 5454-H34 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2-17 6005A-T61 Extrusions (up through 1.000 in. thick) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2-18 6061-T6 Sheet, -T651 Plate (up through 4.000 in. thick), 6061-T6 Rolled or
Cold Finished Rod and Bar, 6061-T6 Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2-19 6061-T6, -T6510, -T6511 Extrusions, Pipe, 6351-T5 Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2-20 6063-T5 Extrusions (up through 0.500 in. thick), 6063-T52 Extrusions (up through 1.000 in. thick) . . . . . . . 39
2-21 6063-T6 Extrusions and Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2-22 6082-T6, -T6511 Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2-23 6351-T6 Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2-24 7005-T53 Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2-1W 1100-H14 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2-2W 3003-H14 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2-3W 3003-H16 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2-4W Alclad 3004-H34 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2-5W 5005-H14 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2-6W 5005-H32 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2-7W 5005-H34 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2-8W 5050-H34 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2-9W 5052-H32 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2-10W 5052-H34 Sheet, Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2-11W 5052-H36 Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2-12W 5083-H116, -H32, -H321 Sheet and Plate (0.188 to 1.500 in. thick) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

January 2015 VI-3

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 2-13W 5086-H34 Sheet and Plate, Drawn Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2-14W 5086-H116 Sheet and Plate, 5086-H32 Drawn Tube, Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2-15W 5454-H32 Sheet and Plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2-16W 5454-H34 Sheet and Plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2-17W 6005A-T61 Extrusions (up through 1.000 in. thick) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2-18W 6061-T6 -T651, -T6510, -T6511
All Products welded with 4043, 5554, 5654 and > 0.375 in. thick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2-19W 6061-T6, -T651, -T6510, -T6511
All Products welded with 5183, 5356, or 5556, or welded with 4043, 5554, or 5654 and ≤ 0.375 in. thick . . 62
2-20W 6063-T5 Extrusions (up through 0.500 in. thick), 6063-T52
Extrusions (up through 1.000 in. thick) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2-21W 6063-T6 Extrusions and Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2-22W 6082-T6, -T6511 Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2-23W 6351-T6 Extrusions welded with 4043, 5554, 5654 and > 0.375 in. thick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2-24W 7005-T53 Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Bending
Table 3-1 Recommended Minimum Bend Radii for 90 O Cold Bends, Sheet and Plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3-2 Recommended Minimum Inside Radii for 180 O Cold Bends, Wire and Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3-3 Sheet Thickness for 180 O Cold Bending (Metal to Metal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3-4 Developed Length of Material for 90 O Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Allowable Loads
Table 4-1 Beam Allowable Uniform Loads: Aluminum Association Standard Channels, Alloy 6061-T6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4-2 Beam Allowable Uniform Loads: Aluminum Association Standard I-Beams, Alloy 6061-T6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4-3 Allowable Loads on Aluminum Tread Plate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4-4 Maximum Spans: Corrugated and V-Beam Roofing and Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4-5 Maximum Spans: Ribbed Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Fasteners
Table 5-1 Nominal Tensile And Single Shear Strengths for 2024-T4 and 7075-T73 Machine Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5-2 Nominal Single Shear Strengths for 2024-T4 And 7075-T73 Type AB and B Sheet Metal Screws . . . . . . . . . 80
5-3 Nominal Tensile and Single Shear Strengths for 2024-T4 and 7075-T73 Bolts And Cap Screws . . . . . . . . . . 80
5-4 Bolt Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5-5 Nut Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5-6 Internal Thread Stripping Area for Class 2B UNC Threads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Welds
Table 6-1 Tensile Strength of CJP Groove Welds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6-2 Tensile Strength of PJP Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6-3 Shear Strength of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Beam Formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

VI-4 July 2015

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
 Table 1-1
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (UNWELDED)
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

January 2015
1060 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 11 9 8.1 8.8 0.032 184.1 10.2 0.040 171.0 10.2 0.278 705 13.6 0.061 148.6 15.3 0.653 185.4 6.9 0.022 207.9
H12 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 10 4 3.6 3.8 0.009 280.0 4.3 0.011 263.0 4.4 0.090 1370 5.7 0.017 229.0 6.6 0.212 325.1 2.9 0.006 320.3
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 12 10 9 9.9 0.038 174.3 11.5 0.047 161.6 11.4 0.321 635 15.2 0.072 140.4 17.1 0.756 172.3 7.8 0.026 196.4
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 12 10 9 9.9 0.038 174.3 11.5 0.047 161.6 11.4 0.321 635 15.2 0.072 140.4 17.1 0.756 172.3 7.8 0.026 196.4
1100 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 14 11 9.9 10.9 0.044 165.8 12.7 0.055 153.5 12.6 0.367 578 16.8 0.084 133.3 18.9 0.863 161.3 8.6 0.031 186.6
H12 B210, drawn tube 0.014 0.500 14 11 9.9 10.9 0.044 165.8 12.7 0.055 153.5 12.6 0.367 578 16.8 0.084 133.3 18.9 0.863 161.3 8.6 0.031 186.6
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 16 14 12.6 14.0 0.064 146.1 16.5 0.081 134.9 16.2 0.513 459 21.8 0.124 117.1 24.3 1.207 136.4 11.1 0.045 163.8
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.014 0.500 16 14 12.6 14.0 0.064 146.1 16.5 0.081 134.9 16.2 0.513 459 21.8 0.124 117.1 24.3 1.207 136.4 11.1 0.045 163.8
2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.040 0.249 66 58 58 67.3 0.550 50.2 77.6 0.680 46.8 73.0 3.137 89.0 117.2 1.547 50.5 109.5 8.977 39.1 47.0 0.321 60.1
T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.250 2.000 67 59 59 68.6 0.565 49.8 79.1 0.700 46.3 74.3 3.212 87.6 119.5 1.592 50.0 111.5 9.193 38.6 47.9 0.330 59.5
T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion – 0.499 60 53 53 61.1 0.476 52.7 70.4 0.588 49.1 66.5 2.768 96.7 106.0 1.330 53.1 99.7 7.922 41.6 42.7 0.277 63.1
T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 0.125 8.000 65 55 55 63.6 0.505 51.7 73.3 0.624 48.1 69.1 2.914 93.5 110.5 1.415 52.1 103.6 8.339 40.5 44.4 0.294 61.8
T6 B210, drawn tube 0.018 0.500 65 55 55 63.6 0.505 51.7 73.3 0.624 48.1 69.1 2.914 93.5 110.5 1.415 52.1 103.6 8.339 40.5 44.4 0.294 61.8
Alclad 2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.040 0.050 63 55 55 63.6 0.505 51.7 73.3 0.624 48.1 69.1 2.914 93.5 110.5 1.415 52.1 103.6 8.339 40.5 44.4 0.294 61.8
T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.051 0.124 64 57 57 66.1 0.534 50.7 76.2 0.661 47.2 71.7 3.062 90.5 115.0 1.502 51.0 107.5 8.763 39.5 46.2 0.312 60.6
T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.250 0.499 64 57 57 66.1 0.534 50.7 76.2 0.661 47.2 71.7 3.062 90.5 115.0 1.502 51.0 107.5 8.763 39.5 46.2 0.312 60.6
3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 17 12 10.8 11.9 0.050 158.4 13.9 0.063 146.5 13.8 0.414 533 18.5 0.097 127.2 20.7 0.974 151.8 9.4 0.035 178.1
H12 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 17 12 10.8 11.9 0.050 158.4 13.9 0.063 146.5 13.8 0.414 533 18.5 0.097 127.2 20.7 0.974 151.8 9.4 0.035 178.1
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 20 17 15.3 17.2 0.087 131.9 20.3 0.111 121.4 19.9 0.672 382 27.0 0.171 105.3 29.8 1.582 119.1 13.8 0.062 147.5
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 20 17 15.3 17.2 0.087 131.9 20.3 0.111 121.4 19.9 0.672 382 27.0 0.171 105.3 29.8 1.582 119.1 13.8 0.062 147.5
H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 24 21 18.9 21.5 0.121 118.0 25.5 0.157 108.3 24.8 0.903 312 33.9 0.241 93.9 37.2 2.125 102.8 17.3 0.088 131.5
H16 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 24 21 18.9 21.5 0.121 118.0 25.5 0.157 108.3 24.8 0.903 312 33.9 0.241 93.9 37.2 2.125 102.8 17.3 0.088 131.5
H18 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 27 24 21.6 24.8 0.150 109.9 29.5 0.195 100.7 28.5 1.088 274 39.3 0.300 87.3 42.7 2.561 93.6 20.0 0.109 122.2
H18 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 27 24 21.6 24.8 0.150 109.9 29.5 0.195 100.7 28.5 1.088 274 39.3 0.300 87.3 42.7 2.561 93.6 20.0 0.109 122.2
Alclad 3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 16 11 9.9 10.9 0.044 165.8 12.7 0.055 153.5 12.6 0.367 578 16.8 0.084 133.3 18.9 0.863 161.3 8.6 0.031 186.6
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 19 16 14.4 16.1 0.079 136.2 19.0 0.101 125.5 18.6 0.618 405 25.2 0.155 108.9 28.0 1.454 124.3 12.9 0.056 152.4
H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 23 20 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 16.4 0.081 135.0
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 19 16 14.4 16.1 0.079 136.2 19.0 0.101 125.5 18.6 0.618 405 25.2 0.155 108.9 28.0 1.454 124.3 12.9 0.056 152.4
H18 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 26 23 20.7 23.7 0.140 112.4 28.2 0.182 103.1 27.3 1.026 285 37.5 0.280 89.3 40.9 2.413 96.5 19.1 0.102 125.1
3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 28 21 18.9 21.5 0.121 118.0 25.5 0.157 108.3 24.8 0.903 312 33.9 0.241 93.9 37.2 2.125 102.8 17.3 0.088 131.5
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 32 25 22.5 25.9 0.160 107.5 30.9 0.209 98.5 29.7 1.152 263 41.1 0.321 85.3 44.6 2.711 91.0 21.0 0.117 119.5
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 35 28 25.2 29.2 0.192 101.2 34.9 0.251 92.6 33.5 1.350 236 46.5 0.387 80.2 50.3 3.177 84.1 23.7 0.141 112.3
H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 38 31 27.9 32.6 0.226 95.9 39.0 0.297 87.6 37.3 1.557 213 52.0 0.457 75.8 55.9 3.664 78.3 26.5 0.167 106.2
Alclad 3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 27 20 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 16.4 0.081 135.0

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 31 24 21.6 24.8 0.150 109.9 29.5 0.195 100.7 28.5 1.088 274 39.3 0.300 87.3 42.7 2.561 93.6 20.0 0.109 122.2
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 34 27 24.3 28.1 0.181 103.2 33.6 0.237 94.4 32.2 1.283 244 44.7 0.364 81.8 48.4 3.020 86.2 22.8 0.133 114.6

VI-5
3005 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.016 0.080 26 22 19.8 22.6 0.131 115.1 26.8 0.169 105.6 26.0 0.964 298 35.7 0.260 91.5 39.0 2.268 99.5 18.2 0.095 128.2
 Table 1-1

VI-6
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (UNWELDED) (continued)
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

H28 B209, sheet & plate 0.016 0.080 31 27 24.3 28.1 0.181 103.2 33.6 0.237 94.4 32.2 1.283 244 44.7 0.364 81.8 48.4 3.020 86.2 22.8 0.133 114.6
3105 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.013 0.080 23 19 17.1 19.3 0.104 124.4 22.9 0.133 114.3 22.3 0.785 343 30.4 0.205 99.2 33.5 1.848 110.2 15.5 0.075 138.8
5005 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 18 14 12.6 14.0 0.064 146.1 16.5 0.081 134.9 16.2 0.513 459 21.8 0.124 117.1 24.3 1.207 136.4 11.1 0.045 163.8
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 21 17 15.3 17.2 0.087 131.9 20.3 0.111 121.4 19.9 0.672 382 27.0 0.171 105.3 29.8 1.582 119.1 13.8 0.062 147.5
H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 24 20 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 16.4 0.081 135.0
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 17 12 10.8 11.9 0.050 158.4 13.9 0.063 146.5 13.8 0.414 533 18.5 0.097 127.2 20.7 0.974 151.8 9.4 0.035 178.1
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 20 15 13.5 15.1 0.071 140.9 17.7 0.091 129.9 17.4 0.565 430 23.5 0.139 112.8 26.1 1.329 130.0 12.0 0.051 157.8
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 23 18 16.2 18.3 0.095 128.0 21.6 0.122 117.7 21.1 0.728 361 28.7 0.187 102.1 31.6 1.714 114.5 14.6 0.068 143.0
5050 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 0.249 22 16 14.4 16.1 0.079 136.2 19.0 0.101 125.5 18.6 0.618 405 25.2 0.155 108.9 28.0 1.454 124.3 12.9 0.056 152.4
H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 22 16 14.4 16.1 0.079 136.2 19.0 0.101 125.5 18.6 0.618 405 25.2 0.155 108.9 28.0 1.454 124.3 12.9 0.056 152.4
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 0.249 25 20 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 16.4 0.081 135.0
H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 25 20 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 16.4 0.081 135.0
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 27 22 19.8 22.6 0.131 115.1 26.8 0.169 105.6 26.0 0.964 298 35.7 0.260 91.5 39.0 2.268 99.5 18.2 0.095 128.2
5052 O B209, sheet & plate 0.006 3.000 25 9.5 9.5 10.4 0.041 169.4 12.1 0.052 157.0 12.1 0.346 603 16.1 0.079 136.3 18.1 0.815 166.0 7.3 0.024 201.9
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 31 23 20.7 23.7 0.140 112.4 28.2 0.182 103.1 27.3 1.026 285 37.5 0.280 89.3 40.9 2.413 96.5 19.1 0.102 125.1
H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 31 23 20.7 23.7 0.140 112.4 28.2 0.182 103.1 27.3 1.026 285 37.5 0.280 89.3 40.9 2.413 96.5 19.1 0.102 125.1
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 34 26 23.4 27.0 0.171 105.3 32.2 0.223 96.4 31.0 1.217 253 42.9 0.342 83.5 46.5 2.864 88.5 21.9 0.125 117.0
H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 34 26 23.4 27.0 0.171 105.3 32.2 0.223 96.4 31.0 1.217 253 42.9 0.342 83.5 46.5 2.864 88.5 21.9 0.125 117.0
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 37 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
5083 O B221, extrusion – 2.999 39 16 16 18.0 0.093 128.9 21.3 0.120 118.5 20.8 0.716 366 28.3 0.184 102.8 31.2 1.684 115.5 12.9 0.056 152.4
H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 39 16 14.4 16.1 0.079 136.2 19.0 0.101 125.5 18.6 0.618 405 25.2 0.155 108.9 28.0 1.454 124.3 12.9 0.056 152.4
O B209, sheet & plate 0.051 1.500 40 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 40 24 21.6 24.8 0.150 109.9 29.5 0.195 100.7 28.5 1.088 274 39.3 0.300 87.3 42.7 2.561 93.6 20.0 0.109 122.2
H111 B247, forging – 4.000 42 22 19.8 22.6 0.131 115.1 26.8 0.169 105.6 26.0 0.964 298 35.7 0.260 91.5 39.0 2.268 99.5 18.2 0.095 128.2
H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 44 31 27.9 32.6 0.226 95.9 39.0 0.297 87.6 37.3 1.557 213 52.0 0.457 75.8 55.9 3.664 78.3 26.5 0.167 106.2
H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 44 31 27.9 32.6 0.226 95.9 39.0 0.297 87.6 37.3 1.557 213 52.0 0.457 75.8 55.9 3.664 78.3 26.5 0.167 106.2
H32 B209, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 44 31 27.9 32.6 0.226 95.9 39.0 0.297 87.6 37.3 1.557 213 52.0 0.457 75.8 55.9 3.664 78.3 26.5 0.167 106.2
H321 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
5086 O B221, extrusion – 2.999 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 35 14 12.6 14.0 0.064 146.1 16.5 0.081 134.9 16.2 0.513 459 21.8 0.124 117.1 24.3 1.207 136.4 11.1 0.045 163.8
O B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 36 21 18.9 21.5 0.121 118.0 25.5 0.157 108.3 24.8 0.903 312 33.9 0.241 93.9 37.2 2.125 102.8 17.3 0.088 131.5
H112 B209, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 36 18 16.2 18.3 0.095 128.0 21.6 0.122 117.7 21.1 0.728 361 28.7 0.187 102.1 31.6 1.714 114.5 14.6 0.068 143.0

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H112 B209, sheet & plate 0.500 1.000 35 16 14.4 16.1 0.079 136.2 19.0 0.101 125.5 18.6 0.618 405 25.2 0.155 108.9 28.0 1.454 124.3 12.9 0.056 152.4
H112 B209, sheet & plate 1.001 2.000 35 14 12.6 14.0 0.064 146.1 16.5 0.081 134.9 16.2 0.513 459 21.8 0.124 117.1 24.3 1.207 136.4 11.1 0.045 163.8

January 2015
H112 B209, sheet & plate 2.001 3.000 34 14 12.6 14.0 0.064 146.1 16.5 0.081 134.9 16.2 0.513 459 21.8 0.124 117.1 24.3 1.207 136.4 11.1 0.045 163.8
 Table 1-1
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (UNWELDED) (continued)
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

January 2015
H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 2.000 40 28 25.2 29.2 0.192 101.2 34.9 0.251 92.6 33.5 1.350 236 46.5 0.387 80.2 50.3 3.177 84.1 23.7 0.141 112.3
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 40 28 25.2 29.2 0.192 101.2 34.9 0.251 92.6 33.5 1.350 236 46.5 0.387 80.2 50.3 3.177 84.1 23.7 0.141 112.3
H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 40 28 25.2 29.2 0.192 101.2 34.9 0.251 92.6 33.5 1.350 236 46.5 0.387 80.2 50.3 3.177 84.1 23.7 0.141 112.3
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 44 34 30.6 36.0 0.263 91.2 43.2 0.346 83.2 41.1 1.772 195 57.6 0.533 72.1 61.6 4.170 73.4 29.4 0.194 100.9
H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 44 34 30.6 36.0 0.263 91.2 43.2 0.346 83.2 41.1 1.772 195 57.6 0.533 72.1 61.6 4.170 73.4 29.4 0.194 100.9
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 2.000 40 28 25.2 29.2 0.192 101.2 34.9 0.251 92.6 33.5 1.350 236 46.5 0.387 80.2 50.3 3.177 84.1 23.7 0.141 112.3
5154 H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 45 35 31.5 37.1 0.275 89.8 44.6 0.363 81.9 42.3 1.846 189 59.5 0.559 70.9 63.5 4.343 71.9 30.3 0.203 99.3
O B221, extrusion – 2.999 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 31 12 10.8 11.9 0.050 158.4 13.9 0.063 146.5 13.8 0.414 533 18.5 0.097 127.2 20.7 0.974 151.8 9.4 0.035 178.1
O B209, sheet & plate 0.020 3.000 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 33 19 17.1 19.3 0.104 124.4 22.9 0.133 114.3 22.3 0.785 343 30.4 0.205 99.2 33.5 1.848 110.2 15.5 0.075 138.8
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 36 26 23.4 27.0 0.171 105.3 32.2 0.223 96.4 31.0 1.217 253 42.9 0.342 83.5 46.5 2.864 88.5 21.9 0.125 117.0
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 1.000 39 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
5456 O B209, sheet & plate 0.051 1.500 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 1.250 46 33 29.7 34.8 0.250 92.7 41.8 0.329 84.6 39.8 1.700 201 55.7 0.507 73.3 59.7 3.999 74.9 28.4 0.185 102.6
H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.251 1.500 44 31 27.9 32.6 0.226 95.9 39.0 0.297 87.6 37.3 1.557 213 52.0 0.457 75.8 55.9 3.664 78.3 26.5 0.167 106.2
H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 46 33 29.7 34.8 0.250 92.7 41.8 0.329 84.6 39.8 1.700 201 55.7 0.507 73.3 59.7 3.999 74.9 28.4 0.185 102.6
5456 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.500 1.500 44 31 27.9 32.6 0.226 95.9 39.0 0.297 87.6 37.3 1.557 213 52.0 0.457 75.8 55.9 3.664 78.3 26.5 0.167 106.2
H32 B209, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 46 33 29.7 34.8 0.250 92.7 41.8 0.329 84.6 39.8 1.700 201 55.7 0.507 73.3 59.7 3.999 74.9 28.4 0.185 102.6
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.500 1.500 44 31 27.9 32.6 0.226 95.9 39.0 0.297 87.6 37.3 1.557 213 52.0 0.457 75.8 55.9 3.664 78.3 26.5 0.167 106.2
H321 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 29 26.1 30.3 0.203 99.4 36.3 0.266 90.8 34.8 1.418 228 48.4 0.410 78.7 52.1 3.337 82.0 24.7 0.149 110.2
6005 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
6005A T61 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
6061 T6, T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.010 4.000 42 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6 B632, tread plate 0.100 0.625 42 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 0.125 8.000 42 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6 B210, drawn tube 0.025 0.500 42 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6 B241, pipe & tube All 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6 B429, pipe & tube All 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6 B247, forging – 4.000 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6 B308, std structural profile 0.062 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
6063 T5 B221, extrusion – 0.500 22 16 16 17.3 0.072 98.9 19.5 0.086 93.3 19.2 0.529 275 28.3 0.184 102.8 28.8 1.513 95.2 11.8 0.040 120.0
T5 B221, extrusion 0.501 1.000 21 15 15 16.2 0.065 102.3 18.2 0.077 96.5 18.0 0.484 290 26.4 0.165 106.5 26.9 1.384 99.5 11.0 0.036 124.1
T52 B221, extrusion – 1.000 22 16 16 17.3 0.072 98.9 19.5 0.086 93.3 19.2 0.529 275 28.3 0.184 102.8 28.8 1.513 95.2 11.8 0.040 120.0

VI-7
 Table 1-1
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (UNWELDED) (continued)

VI-8
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

T6 B221, extrusion – 1.000 30 25 25 27.6 0.145 78.4 31.4 0.175 73.5 30.5 0.978 189 46.1 0.382 80.6 45.7 2.800 70.0 19.0 0.082 94.6
T6 B241, pipe & tube – 1.000 30 25 25 27.6 0.145 78.4 31.4 0.175 73.5 30.5 0.978 189 46.1 0.382 80.6 45.7 2.800 70.0 19.0 0.082 94.6
T6 B429, pipe & tube – 1.000 30 25 25 27.6 0.145 78.4 31.4 0.175 73.5 30.5 0.978 189 46.1 0.382 80.6 45.7 2.800 70.0 19.0 0.082 94.6
6066 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 50 45 45 51.4 0.366 57.5 59.0 0.451 53.7 56.1 2.206 112 88.3 1.011 58.2 84.1 6.313 46.6 35.7 0.212 68.9
6070 T6 B221, extrusion – 2.999 48 45 45 51.4 0.366 57.5 59.0 0.451 53.7 56.1 2.206 112 88.3 1.011 58.2 84.1 6.313 46.6 35.7 0.212 68.9
6082 T6, T6511 B221, extrusion 0.200 6.000 45 38 38 42.9 0.280 62.9 49.2 0.343 58.8 47.0 1.745 131 73.2 0.763 63.9 70.6 4.995 52.4 29.8 0.162 75.5
6105 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
6351 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 38 35 35 39.4 0.246 65.7 45.0 0.300 61.4 43.2 1.558 141 66.8 0.666 66.9 64.8 4.458 55.4 27.2 0.141 78.9
T6 B221, extrusion – 0.749 42 37 37 41.7 0.268 63.8 47.8 0.329 59.6 45.8 1.682 134 71.1 0.730 64.9 68.6 4.814 53.3 28.9 0.155 76.6
6463 T6 B221, extrusion – 0.500 30 25 25 27.6 0.145 78.4 31.4 0.175 73.5 30.5 0.978 189 46.1 0.382 80.6 45.7 2.800 70.0 19.0 0.082 94.6
7005 T53 B221, extrusion – 0.750 50 44 44 50.2 0.353 58.2 57.6 0.435 54.3 54.8 2.138 115 86.1 0.974 58.9 82.2 6.120 47.3 34.9 0.205 69.8

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
January 2015
 Table 1-2
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (WELDED)
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

January 2015
1060 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 8 2.5 2.5 2.6 0.005 337.6 2.9 0.006 318.7 3.0 0.055 1800 3.9 0.009 277.6 4.5 0.128 418.2 1.8 0.003 410.5
H12 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 8.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 0.005 337.6 2.9 0.006 318.7 3.0 0.055 1800 3.9 0.009 277.6 4.5 0.128 418.2 1.8 0.003 410.5
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 8 2.5 2.5 2.6 0.005 337.6 2.9 0.006 318.7 3.0 0.055 1800 3.9 0.009 277.6 4.5 0.128 418.2 1.8 0.003 410.5
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 8.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 0.005 337.6 2.9 0.006 318.7 3.0 0.055 1800 3.9 0.009 277.6 4.5 0.128 418.2 1.8 0.003 410.5
1100 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 11 3.5 3.5 3.7 0.009 284.1 4.2 0.010 267.0 4.3 0.087 1390 5.5 0.016 232.4 6.4 0.204 331.5 2.5 0.005 343.7
H12 B210, drawn tube 0.014 0.500 11 3.5 3.5 3.7 0.009 284.1 4.2 0.010 267.0 4.3 0.087 1390 5.5 0.016 232.4 6.4 0.204 331.5 2.5 0.005 343.7
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 11 3.5 3.5 3.7 0.009 284.1 4.2 0.010 267.0 4.3 0.087 1390 5.5 0.016 232.4 6.4 0.204 331.5 2.5 0.005 343.7
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.014 0.500 11 3.5 3.5 3.7 0.009 284.1 4.2 0.010 267.0 4.3 0.087 1390 5.5 0.016 232.4 6.4 0.204 331.5 2.5 0.005 343.7
2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.040 0.249 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.250 2.000 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion – 0.499 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 0.125 8.000 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
T6 B210, drawn tube 0.018 0.500 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Alclad 2014 T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.040 0.050 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
T6 B209, sheet & plate 0.051 0.124 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.250 0.499 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H12 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H16 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H18 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H18 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 14 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
Alclad 3003 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 13 4.5 4.5 4.8 0.013 249.6 5.5 0.016 233.8 5.6 0.123 1150 7.2 0.024 203.4 8.3 0.289 278.7 3.3 0.007 300.9
H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 13 4.5 4.5 4.8 0.013 249.6 5.5 0.016 233.8 5.6 0.123 1150 7.2 0.024 203.4 8.3 0.289 278.7 3.3 0.007 300.9
H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 13 4.5 4.5 4.8 0.013 249.6 5.5 0.016 233.8 5.6 0.123 1150 7.2 0.024 203.4 8.3 0.289 278.7 3.3 0.007 300.9
H14 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 13 4.5 4.5 4.8 0.013 249.6 5.5 0.016 233.8 5.6 0.123 1150 7.2 0.024 203.4 8.3 0.289 278.7 3.3 0.007 300.9
H18 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 13 4.5 4.5 4.8 0.013 249.6 5.5 0.016 233.8 5.6 0.123 1150 7.2 0.024 203.4 8.3 0.289 278.7 3.3 0.007 300.9
3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 22 8.5 8.5 9.3 0.034 179.5 10.8 0.043 166.6 10.8 0.297 672 14.3 0.066 144.8 16.1 0.698 179.3 6.5 0.020 214.4
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 22 8.5 8.5 9.3 0.034 179.5 10.8 0.043 166.6 10.8 0.297 672 14.3 0.066 144.8 16.1 0.698 179.3 6.5 0.020 214.4
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 22 8.5 8.5 9.3 0.034 179.5 10.8 0.043 166.6 10.8 0.297 672 14.3 0.066 144.8 16.1 0.698 179.3 6.5 0.020 214.4
H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 22 8.5 8.5 9.3 0.034 179.5 10.8 0.043 166.6 10.8 0.297 672 14.3 0.066 144.8 16.1 0.698 179.3 6.5 0.020 214.4
Alclad 3004 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 21 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 714 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 21 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 714 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 21 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 714 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4

VI-9
 Table 1-2
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (WELDED) (continued)

VI-10
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

3005 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.016 0.080 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

H28 B209, sheet & plate 0.016 0.080 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
3105 H25 B209, sheet & plate 0.013 0.080 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
5005 H12 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 15 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
5005 H14 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 15 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H16 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 15 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 15 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 15 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 15 5 5 5.4 0.015 236.4 6.1 0.018 221.1 6.2 0.142 1066 8.1 0.028 192.3 9.3 0.335 259.1 3.7 0.009 284.5
5050 H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 0.249 18 6 6 6.5 0.020 215.2 7.4 0.025 200.6 7.5 0.183 920 9.8 0.038 174.5 11.2 0.431 228.3 4.5 0.012 258.2
H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 18 6 6 6.5 0.020 215.2 7.4 0.025 200.6 7.5 0.183 920 9.8 0.038 174.5 11.2 0.431 228.3 4.5 0.012 258.2
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 0.249 18 6 6 6.5 0.020 215.2 7.4 0.025 200.6 7.5 0.183 920 9.8 0.038 174.5 11.2 0.431 228.3 4.5 0.012 258.2
H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.500 18 6 6 6.5 0.020 215.2 7.4 0.025 200.6 7.5 0.183 920 9.8 0.038 174.5 11.2 0.431 228.3 4.5 0.012 258.2
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 18 6 6 6.5 0.020 215.2 7.4 0.025 200.6 7.5 0.183 920 9.8 0.038 174.5 11.2 0.431 228.3 4.5 0.012 258.2
5052 O B209, sheet & plate 0.006 3.000 25 9.5 9.5 10.4 0.041 169.4 12.1 0.052 157.0 12.1 0.346 602 16.1 0.079 136.3 18.1 0.815 166.0 7.3 0.024 201.9
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.017 2.000 25 9.5 9.5 10.4 0.041 169.4 12.1 0.052 157.0 12.1 0.346 602 16.1 0.079 136.3 18.1 0.815 166.0 7.3 0.024 201.9
H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 25 10 10 11.0 0.044 164.9 12.8 0.056 152.7 12.7 0.372 573 17.0 0.086 132.6 19.1 0.875 160.2 7.8 0.026 196.4
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 25 9.5 9.5 10.4 0.041 169.4 12.1 0.052 157.0 12.1 0.346 602 16.1 0.079 136.3 18.1 0.815 166.0 7.3 0.024 201.9
H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 25 10 10 11.0 0.044 164.9 12.8 0.056 152.7 12.7 0.372 573 17.0 0.086 132.6 19.1 0.875 160.2 7.8 0.026 196.4
H36 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.162 25 9.5 9.5 10.4 0.041 169.4 12.1 0.052 157.0 12.1 0.346 602 16.1 0.079 136.3 18.1 0.815 166.0 7.3 0.024 201.9
5083 O B221, extrusion – 2.999 39 16 16 18.0 0.093 128.9 21.3 0.120 118.5 20.8 0.716 366 28.3 0.184 102.8 31.2 1.684 115.5 12.9 0.056 152.4
H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 39 16 16 18.0 0.093 128.9 21.3 0.120 118.5 20.8 0.716 366 28.3 0.184 102.8 31.2 1.684 115.5 12.9 0.056 152.4
O B209, sheet & plate 0.051 1.500 40 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 39 16 16 18.0 0.093 128.9 21.3 0.120 118.5 20.8 0.716 366 28.3 0.184 102.8 31.2 1.684 115.5 12.9 0.056 152.4
H111 B247, forging – 4.000 38 16 16 18.0 0.093 128.9 21.3 0.120 118.5 20.8 0.716 366 28.3 0.184 102.8 31.2 1.684 115.5 12.9 0.056 152.4
H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 40 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 39 17 17 19.2 0.103 124.8 22.7 0.132 114.7 22.2 0.779 345 30.2 0.203 99.5 33.3 1.833 110.7 13.8 0.062 147.5
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 40 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
H32 B209, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 39 17 17 19.2 0.103 124.8 22.7 0.132 114.7 22.2 0.779 345 30.2 0.203 99.5 33.3 1.833 110.7 13.8 0.062 147.5
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.125 1.500 40 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
H321 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 39 17 17 19.2 0.103 124.8 22.7 0.132 114.7 22.2 0.779 345 30.2 0.203 99.5 33.3 1.833 110.7 13.8 0.062 147.5
5086 O B221, extrusion – 2.999 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
O B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
H112 B209, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H112 B209, sheet & plate 0.500 1.000 34 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8

January 2015
 Table 1-2
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (WELDED) (continued)
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

January 2015
H112 B209, sheet & plate 1.001 2.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H112 B209, sheet & plate 2.001 3.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 2.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H32 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.009 1.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H34 B210, drawn tube 0.010 0.450 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 2.000 35 14 14 15.7 0.075 138.3 18.4 0.096 127.4 18.1 0.594 416 24.5 0.148 110.6 27.1 1.398 126.7 11.1 0.045 163.8
5154 H38 B209, sheet & plate 0.006 0.128 30 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
O B221, extrusion – 2.999 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
5454 H112 B221, extrusion – 2.999 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
O B209, sheet & plate 0.020 3.000 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
H111 B221, extrusion – 2.999 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 2.000 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
H34 B209, sheet & plate 0.020 1.000 31 12 12 13.3 0.059 149.9 15.6 0.075 138.5 15.4 0.479 481 20.7 0.115 120.2 23.1 1.128 141.1 9.4 0.035 178.1
5456 O B209, sheet & plate 0.051 1.500 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H116 B928, sheet & plate 0.063 1.250 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.251 1.500 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H116 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H32 B209, sheet & plate 0.500 1.500 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H32 B209, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.188 0.499 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H321 B928, sheet & plate 0.500 1.500 42 19 19 21.6 0.123 117.7 25.7 0.158 108.0 24.9 0.910 310 34.1 0.243 93.6 37.4 2.141 102.4 15.5 0.075 138.8
H321 B928, sheet & plate 1.501 3.000 41 18 18 20.4 0.112 121.1 24.2 0.145 111.2 23.5 0.844 327 32.2 0.223 96.4 35.3 1.985 106.3 14.6 0.068 143.0
6005 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 24 13 13 14.5 0.067 143.7 17.0 0.086 132.6 16.8 0.536 446 22.6 0.131 115.1 25.1 1.261 133.4 10.3 0.040 170.5
6005A T61 B221, extrusion – 1.000 24 13 13 14.5 0.067 143.7 17.0 0.086 132.6 16.8 0.536 446 22.6 0.131 115.1 25.1 1.261 133.4 10.3 0.040 170.5
6061 T6, T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.010 4.000 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6, T651 B209, sheet & plate 0.010 4.000 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6 B632, tread plate 0.100 0.625 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6 B632, tread plate 0.100 0.625 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 0.125 8.000 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6

Licensed to Jessie Young. ANSI store order # X_557306. Downloaded 12/17/2018. Single user license only. Copying and networking prohibited.
T6, T651 B211, bar, rod, & wire 0.125 8.000 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6 B210, drawn tube 0.025 0.500 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6 B210, drawn tube 0.025 0.500 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8

VI-11
 Table 1-2
BUCKLING CONSTANTS (WELDED) (continued)

VI-12
ASTM Thickness
Specification Inches Ftu Fty Fcy Bc Dc Cc Bp Dp Cp Bt Dt Ct Bbr Dbr Cbr Btb Dtb Ctb Bs Ds Cs
Alloy Temper Product* From To ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi ksi

T6 B241, pipe & tube All 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6 B241, pipe & tube All 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6 B429, pipe & tube All 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6 B429, pipe & tube All 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6 B247, forging – 4.000 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6 B247, forging – 4.000 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6 B308, std structural profile 0.062 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6 B308, std structural profile 0.062 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
6063 T5 B221, extrusion – 0.500 17 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 717 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4
T5 B221, extrusion 0.501 1.000 17 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 717 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4
T52 B221, extrusion – 1.000 17 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 717 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4
T6 B221, extrusion – 1.000 17 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 717 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4
T6 B241, pipe & tube – 1.000 17 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 717 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4
T6 B429, pipe & tube – 1.000 17 8 8 8.7 0.031 185.3 10.1 0.039 172.1 10.1 0.273 717 13.4 0.060 149.6 15.1 0.642 187.0 6.1 0.018 221.4
6066 T6, T6510, T6511 B221, extrusion All – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
6070 T6 B221, extrusion – 2.999 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
6082 T6, T6511 B221, extrusion 0.200 6.000 28 16 16 18.0 0.093 128.9 21.3 0.120 118.5 20.8 0.716 366 28.3 0.184 102.8 31.2 1.684 115.5 12.9 0.056 152.4
6105 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
6351 T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T5 B221, extrusion – 1.000 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
T6 B221, extrusion – 0.749 24 11 11 12.2 0.052 156.9 14.2 0.065 145.1 14.1 0.425 523 18.9 0.100 126.0 21.1 0.999 149.9 8.6 0.031 186.6
T6 B221, extrusion – 0.749 24 15 15 16.8 0.084 133.3 19.9 0.108 122.7 19.5 0.654 389 26.4 0.165 106.5 29.2 1.539 120.8 12.0 0.051 157.8
6463 T6 B221, extrusion – 0.500 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
7005 T53 B221, extrusion – 0.750 40 24 24 27.7 0.178 103.9 33.1 0.232 95.1 31.8 1.261 247 44.1 0.357 82.4 47.7 2.968 87.0 20.0 0.109 122.2

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January 2015
 Table 1-3
RESISTANCE AND SAFETY FACTORS IN THE
SPECIFICATION FOR ALUMINUM STRUCTURES

f Ω Ω Specification
Limit State building building bridge Section

Members:

axial tension: rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20 D.1

axial tension: yield 0.90 1.65 1.85 D.1
axial compression 0.90 1.65 1.85 E.1
flexure: rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20 F.1
flexure: other limit states 0.90 1.65 1.85 F.1
shear: rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20 G.1
shear: other limit states 0.90 1.65 1.85 G.1
torsion: rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20 H.2
torsion: other limit states 0.90 1.65 1.85 H.2

Connections:

welds 0.75 1.95 2.20 J.2

bolt tension 0.65 2.34 2.64 J.3.4
bearing of bolts or rivets 0.75 1.95 2.20 J.3.6, J.4.6
slip-critical bolt shear and tension 0.75 2.00 2.24 J.3.7.4
slip-critical bolt slip (standard size
and short-slotted holes perpendicular
to the direction of the load) 1.00 1.50 1.68 J.3.7.5
slip-critical bolt slip (oversized and
short-slotted holes parallel to the
direction of the load) 0.85 1.76 1.97 J.3.7.5
slip-critical bolt slip (long-slotted holes) 0.70 2.14 2.40 J.3.7.5
bolt shear; rivet shear 0.65 2.34 2.64 J.3.5, J.4.5
screwed connection tension 0.50 3.00 3.50 J.5.4
screwed connection shear 0.50 3.00 3.50 J.5.5
pin bearing 0.75 1.95 2.20 J.6.5
pin rupture from shear or flexure 0.65 2.34 2.64 J.6.4
pin yielding from shear or flexure 0.90 1.65 1.85 J.6.4
shear yielding of connectors 1.00 1.50 1.68 J.7.2a
shear rupture of connectors 0.75 1.95 2.20 J.7.2b
block shear rupture 0.75 1.95 2.20 J.7.3
bearing on flat surfaces 0.75 1.95 2.20 J.8
web crippling 0.75 1.95 2.20 J.9.1
braces 0.75 2.00* 2.00* 6.1

*3.0 for nodal torsional bracing of beams

January 2015 VI-13

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January 2015
 Table 1-6
ELEMENTS IN UNIFORM COMPRESSION

flat or one intermediate other

Section Example
curved? edge stiffener? edge

buckling axis
B.5.4.1
elastic flat supported no free
buckling

buckling axis

B.5.4.1
post
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buckling

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flat supported no supported

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 Table 1-7
ELEMENTS IN FLEXURAL COMPRESSION

flat or one intermediate other

Section
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bending axis

B.5.5.1 flat supported no supported

bending axis

tension edge compression

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compression side

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Allowable Stresses for Building-Type Structures
Tables 2-1 through 2-24 and 2-1W through 2-24W

1. These tables provide allowable stresses F/Ω for building-type structures determined in accordance
with the Specification for Aluminum Structures.

2. For tubes with circumferential welds, these tables apply for Rb /t < 20.

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January 2015 VI-25

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January 2015 VI-27

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 Table 3-1
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM BEND RADII FOR 90° COLD BENDS,
SHEET AND PLATE ! @ # $ %
RADII FOR VARIOUS THICKNESSES EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THICKNESS “t”
Alloy Temper
1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1
⁄64 in. ⁄32 in. ⁄16 in. ⁄8 in. ⁄16 in. ⁄4 in. ⁄8 in. ⁄2 in.
1
O 0 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t
1
H12 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t
1100 H14 0 0 0 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t
1
H16 0 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t
H18 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t 41⁄2t
1
O 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 21⁄2t 4t
2014 T3 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 5t 6t 7t
T4 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 5t 6t 7t
T6 3t 4t 4t 5t 6t 8t 81⁄2t 91⁄2t
1
O 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 21⁄2t 4t
T3 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 5t 6t 7t 71⁄2t
2024 T361Y 3t 4t 5t 6t 6t 8t 81⁄2t 91⁄2t
T4 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 5t 6t 7t 71⁄2t
T81 41⁄2t 51⁄2t 6t 71⁄2t 8t 9t 10t 101⁄2t
T861Y 5t 6t 7t 81⁄2t 91⁄2t 10t 111⁄2t 111⁄2t
2036 T4 .. 1t 1t .. .. .. .. ..
1
O 0 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t
1
H12 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t
3003 H14 0 0 0 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t
1
H16 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
H18 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 31⁄2t 41⁄2t 51⁄2t 61⁄2t
1
O 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 1t 11⁄2t
1
H32 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t
3004 H34 0 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t
H36 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t 41⁄2t
H38 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 51⁄2t 61⁄2t
1 1 1
3105 H25 ⁄2t ⁄2t ⁄2t .. .. .. .. ..
1
O 0 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t
1
H12 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t
H14 0 0 0 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t
1
H16 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
5005 H18 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 31⁄2t 41⁄2t 51⁄2t 61⁄2t
1
H32 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t
H34 0 0 0 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t
1
H36 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
H38 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 31⁄2t 41⁄2t 51⁄2t 61⁄2t

Q The radii listed are the minimum recommended for bending sheets and plates without fracturing in a standard press
brake with air bend dies. Other types of bending operations may require larger radii or permit smaller radii. The mini-
mum permissible radii will also vary with the design and condition of the tooling.
W Alclad sheet in the heat-treatable alloys can be bent over slightly smaller radii than the corresponding tempers of the
bare alloy.
E Heat-treatable alloys can be formed over appreciably smaller radii immediately after solution heat treatment.
R The H112 temper (applicable to non-heat treatable alloys) is supplied in the as-fabricated condition without special
property control but usually can be formed over radii applicable to the H14 (or H34) temper or smaller.
T The reference test method is ASTM E290.
Y Tempers T361 and T861 formerly designated T36 and T86, respectively.

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 Table 3-1
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM BEND RADII FOR 90° COLD BENDS,
SHEET AND PLATE ! @ # $ % (Continued)
RADII FOR VARIOUS THICKNESSES EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF THICKNESS “t”
Alloy Temper
1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1
⁄64 in. ⁄32 in. ⁄16 in. ⁄8 in. ⁄16 in. ⁄4 in. ⁄8 in. ⁄2 in.
1 1
O 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 1 ⁄2t 11⁄2t
H32 0 0 0 1t 1t 11⁄2t .. ..
H34 0 0 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t .. ..
5050 H36 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t .. ..
H38 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t .. ..
1
O 0 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t
H32 0 0 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t
5052 H34 0 1t 11⁄2t 2t 2t 21⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t
H36 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t 41⁄2t
H38 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 51⁄2t 61⁄2t
1
5083 O .. .. ⁄2t 1t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t
H32 .. .. 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t
H321 .. .. 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t
1
O 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t
1
5086 H32 0 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t
1
H34 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
H36 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t 41⁄2t 5t
1
O 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t
1
H32 0 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 31⁄2t
1
5154 H34 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
H36 1t 11⁄2t 2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t 41⁄2t 5t
H38 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 5t 61⁄2t 61⁄2t
5252 H25 0 0 1t 2t .. .. .. ..
H28 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t .. .. .. ..
1
O 0 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t
1
H32 0 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 31⁄2t
1
5254 H34 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
H36 1t 11⁄2t 2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t 41⁄2t 5t
H38 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t 5t 5t 61⁄2t 61⁄2t
1
O 0 ⁄2t 1t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t
1 1
5454 H32 ⁄2t ⁄2t 1t 2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 4t
1
H34 ⁄2t 1t 11⁄2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
5456 O .. .. 1t 1t 11⁄2t 11⁄2t 2t 2t
H32 .. .. .. 2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t
H321 .. .. .. 2t 2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t

5457 O 0 0 0 .. .. .. .. ..
5657 H25 0 0 0 1t .. .. .. ..
H28 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t .. .. .. ..
O 0 0 0 1t 1t 1t 11⁄2t 2t
6061 T4 0 0 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 4t
T6 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 3t 31⁄2t 41⁄2t 5t
7050 T7 .. .. .. .. .. 8t 9t 91⁄2t
O 0 0 .. .. .. .. .. ..
7072 H14 0 0 .. .. .. .. .. ..
H18 1t 1t .. .. .. .. .. ..
7075 O 0 0 1t 1t 11⁄2t 21⁄2t 31⁄2t 4t
T6 3t 4t 5t 6t 6t 8t 9t 91⁄2t

Q The radii listed are the minimum recommended for bending sheets and plates without fracturing in a standard press
brake with air bend dies. Other types of bending operations may require larger radii or permit smaller radii. The mini-
mum permissible radii will also vary with the design and condition of the tooling.
W Alclad sheet in the heat-treatable alloys can be bent over slightly smaller radii than the corresponding tempers of the
bare alloy.
E Heat-treatable alloys can be formed over appreciably smaller radii immediately after solution heat treatment.
R The H112 temper (applicable to non-heat treatable alloys) is supplied in the as-fabricated condition without special
property control but usually can be formed over radii applicable to the H14 (or H34) temper or smaller.
T The reference test method is ASTM E290.
Y Tempers T361 and T861 formerly designated T36 and T86, respectively.

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 Table 3-2
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM INSIDE RADII FOR 180° COLD BENDS,
WIRE AND ROD*

Table 3-3
SHEET THICKNESS FOR 180° COLD BENDING (METAL TO METAL)

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 DEVELOPED LENGTH OF MATERIAL FOR 90° BENDS*
Table 3-4

*Developed Length = (Length Before Bending) - (Sum of the Flat Lengths)

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 DEVELOPED LENGTH OF MATERIAL FOR 90° BENDS* (Continued)
Table 3-4

*Developed Length = (Length Before Bending) - (Sum of the Flat Lengths)

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 Table 4-1
BEAM ALLOWABLE UNIFORM LOADS
Aluminum Association Standard Channels, ALLOY 6061-T6
,
Depth Wt span (ft)

in. lb/ft 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
4.43 2.22 1.48
2 0.577 0.03 0.14 0.31
3.90 1.63 0.94
8.56 4.28 2.85
2 1.07 0.03 0.14 0.31
7.97 3.59 2.21
13.77 6.89 4.59 3.44 2.75
3 1.14 0.02 0.09 0.20 0.35 0.54
13.06 5.72 3.40 2.29 1.54
19.59 9.80 6.53 4.90 3.92
3 1.60 0.02 0.09 0.20 0.35 0.55
18.93 8.51 5.19 3.60 2.68
28.63 14.32 9.54 7.16 5.73 4.77 4.09
4 1.74 0.02 0.07 0.15 0.26 0.41 0.59 0.80
28.09 12.63 7.61 5.18 3.79 2.72 1.92
38.66 19.33 12.89 9.67 7.73 6.44 5.52
4 2.33 0.02 0.07 0.15 0.26 0.41 0.60 0.81
38.34 17.50 10.72 7.45 5.56 4.34 3.49
22.90 15.27 11.45 9.16 7.63 6.54 5.73
5 2.21 0.05 0.12 0.21 0.32 0.47 0.63 0.83
20.68 12.54 8.58 6.27 4.69 3.26 2.39
32.62 21.74 16.31 13.05 10.87 9.32 8.15
5 3.09 0.05 0.12 0.21 0.33 0.47 0.64 0.84
30.49 18.87 13.18 9.87 7.72 6.23 5.14
23.33 17.50 14.00 11.67 10.00 8.75 7.78 7.00
6 2.83 0.10 0.17 0.27 0.39 0.53 0.69 0.88 1.08
19.64 13.50 9.91 7.59 5.49 3.99 3.03 2.39
33.76 25.32 20.26 16.88 14.47 12.66 11.25 10.13
6 4.03 0.10 0.17 0.27 0.39 0.53 0.69 0.87 1.07
30.67 21.58 16.23 12.74 10.31 8.54 7.17 5.62
29.95 22.46 17.97 14.98 12.84 11.23 9.98 8.99 8.17 7.49
7 3.21 0.08 0.14 0.23 0.33 0.44 0.58 0.73 0.91 1.10 1.30
26.45 18.25 13.42 10.28 7.69 5.50 4.12 3.20 2.56 2.09
34.76 27.81 23.17 19.86 17.38 15.45 13.90 12.64 11.59
7 4.72 0.15 0.23 0.33 0.45 0.59 0.74 0.92 1.11 1.32
30.10 22.68 17.82 14.43 11.94 10.05 8.02 6.43 5.27
34.30 27.44 22.86 19.60 17.15 15.24 13.72 12.47 11.43 10.55 9.80
8 4.15 0.13 0.20 0.29 0.40 0.52 0.66 0.82 0.99 1.18 1.38 1.60
27.91 20.69 15.98 12.69 9.51 7.11 5.51 4.39 3.59 2.99 2.53
47.86 38.29 31.91 27.35 23.93 21.27 19.15 17.41 15.95 14.73 13.68
8 5.79 0.13 0.20 0.29 0.40 0.52 0.66 0.81 0.98 1.17 1.37 1.59
41.96 31.69 24.96 20.24 16.77 14.13 11.83 9.43 7.69 6.40 5.40
35.17 29.31 25.12 21.98 19.54 17.58 15.99 14.65 13.53 12.56 11.72
9 4.98 0.18 0.26 0.35 0.46 0.58 0.72 0.87 1.04 1.22 1.41 1.62
27.65 21.40 17.02 13.53 10.01 7.69 6.09 4.94 4.09 3.44 2.93
51.17 42.64 36.55 31.98 28.43 25.58 23.26 21.32 19.68 18.27 17.06
9 6.97 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.47 0.59 0.73 0.88 1.05 1.23 1.43 1.64
42.85 33.81 27.45 22.77 19.20 16.41 13.46 10.94 9.06 7.63 6.52
41.20 35.32 30.90 27.47 24.72 22.48 20.60 19.02 17.66 16.48 15.45 14.54
10 6.14 0.24 0.32 0.42 0.54 0.66 0.80 0.95 1.12 1.30 1.49 1.69 1.91
30.45 24.38 19.91 15.70 12.04 9.52 7.71 6.37 5.35 4.56 3.94 3.43
57.31 49.13 42.99 38.21 34.39 31.26 28.66 26.45 24.56 22.93 21.49 20.23
10 8.36 0.24 0.32 0.42 0.53 0.66 0.80 0.95 1.12 1.29 1.49 1.69 1.91
45.98 37.46 31.17 26.37 22.60 19.57 15.97 13.20 11.10 9.47 8.17 7.13
56.70 49.61 44.10 39.69 36.08 33.07 30.53 28.35 26.46 24.81 23.35 22.05 20.89 19.84 18.90
12 8.27 0.27 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.67 0.80 0.93 1.08 1.24 1.41 1.60 1.79 1.99 2.21 2.44
41.38 34.05 28.45 23.21 18.19 14.61 11.99 10.01 8.48 7.28 6.32 5.53 4.89 4.35 3.90
84.28 73.74 65.55 58.99 53.63 49.16 45.38 42.14 39.33 36.87 34.70 32.77 31.05 29.50 28.09
12 11.8 0.27 0.35 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.79 0.93 1.07 1.23 1.40 1.58 1.77 1.98 2.19 2.41
67.86 56.89 48.47 41.84 36.50 32.12 28.48 23.97 20.35 17.50 15.21 13.35 11.81 10.53 9.44
116.60 102.03 90.69 81.62 74.20 68.02 62.79 58.30 54.41 51.01 48.01 45.35 42.96 40.81 38.87
14 13.9 0.22 0.29 0.37 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.77 0.89 1.02 1.16 1.31 1.47 1.64 1.81 2.00
100.92 85.07 72.85 63.16 55.32 48.87 43.47 38.91 34.45 29.34 25.27 21.99 19.31 17.09 15.24
Notes
1. Load is applied at beam’s neutral axis on a simply supported single span braced against twisting at supports.
2. Building-type structure.
3. For each beam size, first line is total load for laterally braced beam, second line is deflection for laterally braced beam,
and third line is total load for beam not laterally braced.

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 Table 4-2
BEAM ALLOWABLE UNIFORM LOADS
Aluminum Association Standard I Beams, ALLOY 6061-T6
Depth Wt span (ft)
in. lb/ft 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
21.05 10.52 7.02 5.26 4.21
3 1.64 0.02 0.08 0.19 0.33 0.52
20.74 9.42 5.75 3.99 2.97
26.11 13.06 8.70 6.53 5.22
3 2.03 0.02 0.09 0.19 0.34 0.54
25.75 11.76 7.25 5.09 3.83
39.88 19.94 13.29 9.97 7.98 6.65 5.70
4 2.31 0.02 0.06 0.14 0.25 0.40 0.57 0.77
39.88 18.31 11.23 7.78 5.77 4.48 3.37
48.46 24.23 16.15 12.11 9.69 8.08 6.92
4 2.79 0.02 0.06 0.14 0.26 0.40 0.58 0.79
48.46 22.30 13.76 9.61 7.21 5.65 4.57
39.95 26.63 19.97 15.98 13.32 11.41 9.99
5 3.70 0.05 0.12 0.20 0.32 0.46 0.63 0.82
37.57 23.32 16.35 12.27 9.63 7.79 6.45
34.73 26.05 20.84 17.37 14.88 13.02 11.58 10.42
6 4.03 0.09 0.17 0.26 0.38 0.52 0.68 0.85 1.06
31.01 21.74 16.27 12.70 10.21 8.23 6.19 4.83
40.66 30.50 24.40 20.33 17.43 15.25 13.55 12.20
6 4.69 0.10 0.17 0.27 0.38 0.52 0.68 0.86 1.07
36.41 25.62 19.27 15.13 12.25 10.14 8.20 6.44
44.04 35.23 29.36 25.17 22.02 19.57 17.62 16.01 14.68
7 5.80 0.15 0.23 0.33 0.45 0.59 0.74 0.91 1.11 1.32
37.93 28.63 22.55 18.29 15.16 12.78 10.17 8.14 6.66
53.43 42.74 35.62 30.53 26.71 23.75 21.37 19.43 17.81 16.44 15.26
8 6.18 0.13 0.20 0.29 0.39 0.51 0.65 0.80 0.96 1.15 1.35 1.56
46.78 35.35 27.82 22.52 18.62 15.63 12.48 9.85 7.96 6.57 5.52
60.99 48.80 40.66 34.85 30.50 27.11 24.40 22.18 20.33 18.77 17.43
8 7.02 0.13 0.20 0.29 0.39 0.51 0.65 0.80 0.97 1.15 1.35 1.57
53.56 40.57 32.03 26.03 21.62 18.25 15.59 12.38 10.07 8.35 7.04
65.40 54.50 46.71 40.87 36.33 32.70 29.73 27.25 25.15 23.36 21.80
9 8.36 0.18 0.26 0.35 0.46 0.58 0.71 0.86 1.03 1.21 1.40 1.61
55.64 44.09 35.94 29.93 25.33 21.71 18.32 14.81 12.22 10.25 8.73
62.49 53.56 46.87 41.66 37.49 34.08 31.24 28.84 26.78 25.00 23.43 22.05
10 8.65 0.23 0.31 0.40 0.51 0.63 0.77 0.91 1.07 1.24 1.42 1.62 1.83
51.77 42.30 35.27 29.87 25.61 22.16 17.73 14.48 12.05 10.17 8.70 7.53
74.42 63.79 55.81 49.61 44.65 40.59 37.21 34.35 31.89 29.77 27.91 26.27
10 10.3 0.23 0.31 0.41 0.52 0.64 0.77 0.92 1.08 1.25 1.43 1.63 1.84
61.98 50.79 42.50 36.15 31.15 27.12 23.43 19.28 16.14 13.71 11.80 10.26
86.86 76.00 67.56 60.80 55.27 50.67 46.77 43.43 40.53 38.00 35.76 33.78 32.00 30.40 28.95
12 11.7 0.26 0.34 0.43 0.53 0.64 0.76 0.89 1.04 1.19 1.35 1.53 1.71 1.91 2.12 2.33
71.63 60.08 51.17 44.12 38.41 33.71 28.84 23.80 19.96 16.96 14.58 12.67 11.10 9.81 8.73
108.31 94.77 84.24 75.82 68.93 63.18 58.32 54.16 50.55 47.39 44.60 42.12 39.90 37.91 36.10
12 14.3 0.26 0.34 0.43 0.53 0.64 0.77 0.90 1.04 1.20 1.36 1.54 1.73 1.92 2.13 2.35
90.43 76.15 65.16 56.48 49.47 43.70 38.89 34.62 29.25 25.04 21.67 18.95 16.71 14.84 13.28
142.18 124.41 110.59 99.53 90.48 82.94 76.56 71.09 66.35 62.20 58.55 55.29 52.38 49.76 47.39
14 16.0 0.22 0.29 0.37 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.77 0.89 1.02 1.16 1.31 1.47 1.64 1.81 2.00
122.35 103.32 88.62 76.95 67.48 59.66 53.12 47.57 42.29 35.82 30.70 26.60 23.26 20.50 18.21

Notes
1. Load is applied at beam’s neutral axis on a simply supported single span braced against twisting at supports.
2. Building-type structure.
3. For each beam size, first line is total load for laterally braced beam, second line is deflection for laterally braced beam, and
third line is total load for beam not laterally braced.

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 Table 4-3
2
ALLOWABLE LOADS (LB/FT ) ON ASTM B632 6061-T6 ALUMINUM TREAD PLATE

Thickness Long span Short span

in. 1’-0” 1’-6” 2’-0” 2’-6” 3’-0” 3’-6” 4’-0”
0.188 1’-0” 833
1’-6” 440 247
2’-0” 333 151 104
2’-6” 300 117 70 53
3’-0” 277 99 55 38 31
3’-6” 270 92 47 31 23 19
4’-0” 264 87 42 26 19 15 13
infinity 260 77 33 17 10 6 4
0.250 1’-0” 1975
1’-6” 1043 585
2’-0” 790 358 247
2’-6” 711 276 166 126
3’-0” 657 234 130 91 73
3’-6” 641 217 111 73 55 46
4’-0” 626 206 99 62 45 36 31
infinity 617 183 77 39 23 14 10
0.375 1’-0” 6664
1’-6” 3519 1975
2’-0” 2666 1208 833
2’-6” 2401 933 560 427
3’-0” 2216 790 440 307 247
3’-6” 2164 733 376 246 185 155
4’-0” 2114 696 333 209 151 121 104
infinity 2082 617 260 133 77 49 33
0.500 1’-0” 15797
1’-6” 8341 4681
2’-0” 6319 2865 1975
2’-6” 5691 2212 1326 1011
3’-0” 5254 1872 1043 729 585
3’-6” 5129 1737 892 583 439 368
4’-0” 5010 1650 790 495 358 286 247
infinity 4936 1462 617 316 183 115 77
Allowable loads in this table are calculated using Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 6th edition, Table
26, Case 1a assuming that deflections are limited to the short span divided by 150, all plate edges are sim-
ply supported, the allowable flexural stress is 29 ksi, and the plate is uniformly loaded.

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 Table 4-4
MAXIMUM SPANS (IN.)
Corrugated And V-Beam Roofing And Siding

Design Load Number of Equal Spans

(psf) One Two Three
Strength Deflection Strength Deflection Strength Deflection
Corrugated Roofing and Siding - 0.024” thick
20 79 61 79 – 88 76
25 70 57 70 – 79 70
30 64 54 64 – 72 66
35 60 51 60 – 67 63
40 56 49 56 – 63 60
45 53 47 53 – 59 58
50 50 45 50 – 56 56
Corrugated Roofing and Siding - 0.032” thick
20 92 67 92 90 102 83
25 82 63 82 – 92 77
30 75 59 75 – 84 73
35 70 56 70 – 78 69
40 65 54 65 – 73 66
45 62 52 62 – 69 64
50 58 50 58 – 65 62
V-Beam Roofing and Siding - 0.032” thick, 4 7/8” Pitch
20 128 110 128 – 144 136
25 115 102 115 – 129 127
30 105 97 105 – 118 –
35 98 92 98 – 109 –
40 92 88 92 – 102 –
45 86 85 86 – 97 –
50 82 82 82 – 92 –
55 78 – 78 – 87 –
60 75 – 75 – 84 –
V-Beam Roofing and Siding - 0.040” thick, 4 7/8” Pitch
20 150 118 150 – 167 146
25 134 110 134 – 150 136
30 123 104 123 – 137 128
35 114 99 114 – 127 122
40 107 94 107 – 119 117
45 101 91 101 – 113 112
50 96 88 96 – 107 –
55 91 85 91 – 102 –
60 87 83 87 – 98 –
Notes
1. Maximum spans are calculated in accordance with the Specification for Aluminum Structures for allowable
strength design of building-type structures.
2. Material is Alclad 3004-H151, -H261, or -H361 (which are stucco embossed tempers) or Alclad 3004-H16.
Dimensions are given in Part V Table 25 and section properties are given in Part V Table 26.
3. The deflection limit is 1/60 of the span.

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 Table 4-4
MAXIMUM SPANS (IN.) (Continued)
Corrugated And V-Beam Roofing And Siding
Design Load Number of Equal Spans
(psf) One Two Three
Strength Deflection Strength Deflection Strength Deflection
V-Beam Roofing and Siding - 0.050” thick, 4 7/8” Pitch
20 171 127 171 170 191 157
25 154 118 154 – 172 146
30 141 111 141 – 158 138
35 131 106 131 – 146 131
40 122 102 122 – 137 125
45 116 98 116 – 129 121
50 110 94 110 – 123 117
55 105 92 105 – 117 113
60 100 89 100 – 112 110
V-Beam Roofing and Siding - 0.032” thick, 5 1/3” Pitch
20 128 114 128 – 143 141
25 115 106 115 – 129 –
30 105 100 105 – 118 –
35 98 95 98 – 109 –
40 91 91 91 – 102 –
45 86 – 86 – 96 –
50 82 – 82 – 91 –
55 78 – 78 – 87 –
60 75 – 75 – 84 –
V-Beam Roofing and Siding - 0.040” thick, 5 1/3” Pitch
20 153 123 153 – 171 151
25 137 114 137 – 154 141
30 126 108 126 – 141 133
35 117 102 117 – 130 126
40 109 98 109 – 122 121
45 103 94 103 – 115 –
50 98 91 98 – 110 –
55 93 88 93 – 104 –
60 90 86 90 – 100 –
V-Beam Roofing and Siding - 0.050” thick, 5 1/3” Pitch
20 176 132 176 176 197 163
25 158 123 158 – 177 151
30 145 116 145 – 162 143
35 134 110 134 – 150 136
40 126 105 126 – 141 130
45 119 101 119 – 133 125
50 113 98 113 – 126 121
55 108 95 108 – 120 117
60 103 92 103 – 115 114
Notes
1. Maximum spans are calculated in accordance with the Specification for Aluminum Structures for allowable strength
design of building-type structures.
2. Material is Alclad 3004-H151, -H261, or -H361 (which are stucco embossed tempers) or Alclad 3004-H16.
Dimensions are given in Part V Table 25 and section properties are given in Part V Table 26.
3. The deflection limit is 1/60 of the span.

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 Table 4-5
MAXIMUM SPANS (IN.) COMMERCIAL RIBBED SIDING

( )
Design Number of Equal Spans
Load One Two Three
(psf) Str1 Str2 Defl1 Defl2 Str1 Str2 Defl1 Defl2 Str1 Str2 Defl1 Defl2
Ribbed Siding - 0.032” thick, 4” Pitch
20 98 101 85 101 98 – 113 110 106
25 88 91 79 91 88 – 101 98 98
30 80 83 75 83 80 – 93 90 93
35 75 77 71 77 75 – 86 83 –
40 70 72 68 72 70 – 80 78 –
45 66 68 66 68 66 – 76 74 –
50 63 64 63 64 63 – 72 70 –
Ribbed Siding - 0.040” thick, 4” Pitch
20 118 120 92 120 118 – 134 132 113
25 106 107 85 107 106 – 120 118 105
30 97 98 80 98 97 – 110 108 99
35 90 91 76 91 90 – 102 100 94
40 84 85 73 85 84 – 95 94 90
45 79 80 70 80 79 – 90 89 87
50 75 76 68 76 75 – 85 84 84
Ribbed Siding - 0.032” thick, 8” Pitch
20 62 77 74 – 77 62 – – 78 69 – –
25 56 69 – – 69 56 – – 70 62 – –
30 51 63 – – 63 51 – – 64 57 – –
35 47 59 – – 59 47 – – 59 53 – –
40 44 55 – – 55 44 – – 55 49 – –
45 42 52 – – 52 42 – – 52 47 – –
50 40 49 – – 49 40 – – 49 44 – –
Ribbed Siding - 0.040” thick, 8” Pitch
20 75 91 80 84 91 75 – – 94 84 – –
25 67 82 74 79 82 67 – – 84 75 – –
30 62 75 70 74 75 62 – – 77 69 – –
35 57 69 67 – 69 57 – – 71 64 – –
40 54 65 64 – 65 54 – – 67 60 – –
45 51 61 – – 61 51 – – 63 56 – –
50 48 58 – – 58 48 – – 60 54 – –
Notes
1. Wide flat is on loaded side; load is toward neutral axis.
2. Narrow flat is on loaded side; load is toward neutral axis.
3. Maximum spans are calculated in accordance with the Specification for Aluminum Structures for allowable
strength design of building-type structures.
4. Material is Alclad 3004-H151, -H261, or -H361 (which are stucco embossed tempers) or Alclad 3004-H16.
Dimensions are given in Part V Table 25 and section properties are given in Part V Table 26.
5. The deflection limit is 1/60 of the span.

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 Table 5-1
NOMINAL TENSILE AND SINGLE SHEAR STRENGTHS
FOR 2024-T4 AND 7075-T73 MACHINE SCREWS

Basic Nominal Tensile Strength (lb) Shear Strength (lb)

Major Minor
Nominal Diameter Threads/in. Diameter
Size D (in.) n (in.) 2024-T4 7075-T73 2024-T4 7075-T73
4 0.112 40 UNC 0.0822 329 361 196 218
4 0.112 48 UNF 0.0872 370 406 221 245
5 0.125 40 UNC 0.0952 442 484 264 292
5 0.125 44 UNF 0.0979 467 512 279 309
6 0.138 32 UNC 0.1008 495 542 295 327
6 0.138 40 UNF 0.1082 570 626 340 377
8 0.164 32 UNC 0.1268 783 858 467 518
8 0.164 36 UNF 0.1309 835 915 498 552
10 0.190 24 UNC 0.1404 960 1050 573 635
10 0.190 32 UNF 0.1528 1140 1250 678 752
12 0.216 24 UNC 0.1664 1350 1480 804 891
12 0.216 28 UNF 0.1735 1470 1610 874 969
1/4 0.250 20 UNC 0.1905 1770 1940 1050 1170
1/4 0.250 28 UNF 0.2075 2100 2300 1250 1390
5/16 0.3125 18 UNC 0.2463 2950 3240 1760 1950
5/16 0.3125 24 UNF 0.2629 3360 3690 2010 2230
3/8 0.375 16 UNC 0.3006 4400 4820 2630 2910
3/8 0.375 24 UNF 0.3254 5160 5650 3080 3410
Notes
1. UNC = Unified National Course Thread Series; UNF = Unified National Fine Thread Series
2. Area at root of threads Ar is used to compute strengths using the nominal minor diameter for external threads
(Class 2A) given in ASME B1.1-1989; Ar = (p/4)(D – 1.191/n)2
3. Obtain available strengths by dividing the strengths in this table by the appropriate safety factor or multiplying by
the appropriate resistance factor (see Part I).
4. Strengths in this table are computed using:
for 2024-T4, Ftu = 62 ksi and Fsu = 37 ksi;
for 7075-T73, Ftu = 68 ksi and Fsu = 41 ksi.

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 Table 5-2
NOMINAL SINGLE SHEAR STRENGTHS FOR 2024-T4
AND 7075-T73 TYPE AB AND B SHEET METAL SCREWS

Nominal Shear Strength (lb)

Size 2024-T4 7075-T73
4 195 216
5 235 260
6 285 316
7 345 382
8 391 433
10 529 586
12 716 793
14 995 1100
Notes
1. Obtain available strengths by dividing the strengths in this table by the appropriate safety factor or multiplying
by the appropriate resistance factor (see Part I).
2. Strengths in this table are computed using:
for 2024-T4, Fsu = 37 ksi;
for 7075-T73, Fsu = 41 ksi.

Table 5-3
NOMINAL TENSILE AND SINGLE SHEAR STRENGTHS
FOR 2024-T4 AND 7075-T73 BOLTS AND CAP SCREWS

Basic Tensile Strength (lb) Single Shear Strength (lb)

Major Threads in Shear No Threads in Shear
Nominal Diameter Threads/in. Plane Plane
Size D (in.) n 2024-T4 7075-T73 2024-T4 7075-T73 2024-T4 7075-T73
10 0.190 24 960 1050 573 635 1050 1160
1/4 0.250 20 1770 1940 1050 1170 1820 2010
5/16 0.3125 18 2950 3240 1760 1950 2840 3140
3/8 0.375 16 4400 4820 2630 2910 4090 4530
1/2 0.500 13 8120 8910 4850 5370 7260 8050
5/8 0.625 11 13,000 14,300 7760 8600 11,400 12,600
3/4 0.750 10 19,400 21,300 11,600 12,800 16,300 18,100
7/8 0.875 9 26,900 29,500 16,000 17,800 22,200 24,700
1 1.000 8 35,300 38,700 21,100 23,300 29,100 32,200
Notes
1. Class 2A external threads, UNC (Unified National Course Thread Series)
2. Area at root of threads Ar is used to compute strengths for tension and single shear with threads in shear
plane using the nominal minor diameter for external threads (Class 2A) given in ASME B1.1-1989;
Ar = (p/4)(D – 1.191/n)2. Area of basic major diameter (p/4)D 2 is used to compute strengths for single
shear with no threads in shear plane.
3. Obtain available strengths by dividing the strengths in this table by the appropriate safety factor or multiplying
by the appropriate resistance factor (see Part I).
4. Strengths in this table are computed using:
for 2024-T4, Ftu = 62 ksi and Fsu = 37 ksi;
for 7075-T73, Ftu = 68 ksi and Fsu = 41 ksi.

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 Table 5-4
BOLT DIMENSIONS

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 Table 5-4
BOLT DIMENSIONS (Continued)

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 Table 5-5
NUT DIMENSIONS

Table 5-6
INTERNAL THREAD STRIPPING AREA FOR CLASS 2B UNC THREADS
Nominal Size Nominal Internal Thread
Threads/in. Diameter (in.) Stripping Area
Asn (in2/in. of
engagement)
8-32 0.164 0.334
10-24 0.190 0.401
12-24 0.216 0.458
¼ - 20 0.250 0.539
5/16

18 0.3125 0.682
3/8 - 16 0.375 0.828

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 Table 6-1
TENSILE STRENGTH OF CJP GROOVE WELDS (KSI)

Filler
1100 2319 4043 4047 5183 5356 5554 5556 5654
Base Metal Ftuw 11 35 24 25 40 35 31 42 30
1060 8 8 8 8
1100 11 11 11 11
2219 35 35
3003 14 11 14 14
Alclad 3003 13 11 13 13
3004 22 22 22 22
Alclad 3004 21 21 21 21
5005 15 15 15 15 15 15
5050 18 18 18 18 18 18
5052 25 25 25 25
4
5083 40 40 40
5
5086 35 35 35 35
5154 30 30 30 30 30
5454 31 31 31 31 31
4
5456 42 40 42
6005A 24 24 24 24 24 24
6061 24 24 24 24 24 24
6063 17 17 17 17 17 17
6082 28 24 25 28 28 28
6351 24 24 24 24 24 24
7005 40 40 35 40

Notes
1. Tensile ultimate strength = Ftuw
2. Strengths are for the base metal welded to itself.
3. Bold values indicate the filler governs the joint strength.
4. Sheet and plate up through 1.500 in. thick.
5. Sheet and plate up through 2.000 in. thick.

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 Table 6-2
TENSILE STRENGTH OF PJP GROOVE WELDS (KSI)

Filler
1100 2319 4043 4047 5183 5356 5554 5556 5654
Base Metal Ftuw 11 35 24 25 40 35 31 42 30
1060 8 4.8 4.8 4.8
1100 11 6.6 6.6 6.6
2219 35 21.0
3003 14 6.6 8.4 8.4
Alclad 3003 13 6.6 7.8 7.8
3004 22 13.2 13.2 13.2
Alclad 3004 21 12.6 12.6 12.6
5005 15 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0
5050 18 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8 10.8
5052 25 15.0 15.0 15.0
4
5083 40 24.0 24.0
5
5086 35 21.0 21.0 21.0
5154 30 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0
5454 31 18.6 18.6 18.6 18.6
4
5456 42 24.0 25.2
6005A 24 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4
6061 24 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4
6063 17 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
6082 28 14.4 15.0 16.8 16.8 16.8
6351 24 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4
7005 40 24.0 21.0 24.0

Notes
1. Tensile ultimate strength = Ftuw
2. Strengths are for the base metal welded to itself.
3. Bold values indicate the filler governs the joint strength.
4. Sheet and plate up through 1.500 in. thick.
5. Sheet and plate up through 2.000 in. thick.

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 Table 6-3
SHEAR STRENGTH OF FILLET WELDS (KSI)

Filler
1100 2319 4043 4047 5183 5356 5554 5556 5654
Base Metal Ftuw 11 35 24 25 40 35 31 42 30
1060 8 5.6 6.8 6.8
1100 11 5.6 9.3 9.3
2219 35 17.9
3003 14 5.6 11.9 11.9
Alclad 3003 13 5.6 11.0 11.0
3004 22 18.7 17.9 18.7
Alclad 3004 21 17.8 17.8 17.8
5005 15 12.2 12.7 12.7 12.7 12.7
5050 18 12.2 12.8 15.3 15.3 15.3
5052 25 20.4 17.9 21.2
4
5083 40 20.4 21.4
5
5086 35 20.4 17.9 21.4
5154 30 20.4 17.9 21.4 15.3
5454 31 20.4 17.9 15.8 21.4
4
5456 42 20.4 21.4
6005A 24 12.2 12.8 20.4 17.9 20.4
6061 24 12.2 12.8 20.4 17.9 20.4
6063 17 12.2 12.8 14.4 14.4 14.4
6082 28 12.2 12.8 20.4 17.9 21.4
6351 24 12.2 12.8 20.4 17.9 20.4
7005 40 20.4 17.9 21.4

Notes
1. Tensile ultimate strength = Ftuw
2. Strengths are for the base metal welded to itself.
3. Bold values indicate the filler governs the joint strength.
4. Sheet and plate up through 1.500 in. thick.
5. Sheet and plate up through 2.000 in. thick.

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 BEAM FORMULAS

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 Aluminum Design Manual

Part VII

Illustrative Examples

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 VII
Illustrative Examples

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Example Type of Member Type of Load Page VII-

1 Rod Tension, axial 6
2 Bar, rectangular Tension, axial 7
3 I beam Flexure, Shear 8
4 Tube, square Flexure 10
5 Tube, round Flexure 12
6 Plate Flexure 13
7 Rivets Bearing 15
8 Pin Bearing 16
9 I beam Compression, axial 18
10 Box section, latticed Compression, axial 20
11 Wide flange section Compression, axial 22
12 Tube, square Compression, axial 24
13 Tube, square with stiffeners Compression, axial 26
14 Tube, round Compression, axial 27
15 I beam Flexure 28
16 Girder, welded Flexure 30
17 Girder, welded, transverse stiffeners Flexure 34
18 Tube, round Flexure 36
19 Bar, rectangular Flexure 38
20 Tube, rectangular Flexure 40
21 I beam Flexure 42
22 Unsymmetric shape Flexure 44
23 Channel Flexure 46
24 Welded beam Flexure 48
25 Welded beam, stiffened web Flexure 49
26 I beam Shear 51
27 Welded connection Shear 53
28 Curtainwall beam Flexure 55
29 Formed sheet Flexure, shear 62
30 Tapping screw connection Shear, tension 66
31 I beam Flexure 67

This part of the Design Manual ilustrates the use of Part I, the Specification for Aluminum Structures. Terms and symbols used in
Part VII are consistent with those used in the Specification for Aluminum Structures, which should be consulted for their defini-
tions. References in Part VII to section and table numbers are to the section and table numbers in the Specification for Alumi-
num Structures.

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 CORRELATION OF SPECIFICATION SECTIONS AND ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Section Main Other
Type of Stress Type of Member and Element Number Examples Examples
ELEMENTS IN UNIFORM Flat elements supported on one edge B.5.4.1 10, 11, 21 3, 9, 13 16, 22,
COMPRESSION 23, 26
Flat elements supported on both edges B.5.4.2 12, 22 4, 9, 11, 20,
24, 29
Pipes and round tubes B.5.4.5 14 12
ELEMENTS IN FLEXURE Flat elements supported on tension B.5.5.2 23
edge, compression edge free
Flat elements supported on both edges B.5.5.1 24 3, 16, 20, 21,
22, 23
Flat elements supported on both edges B.5.5.3 25
and with a longitudinal stiffener
TENSION, axial Tension members D.2 1 2
COMPRESSION, axial Columns E.2 9 10. 11, 12, 14
FLEXURE Open shapes F.2, F.3, F.4 15, 16 3, 21, 22, 23,
26, 28
Round tubes F.2, F.3, F.4 18 5
Bar F.2, F.4 19 6
Closed shapes F.2, F.3, F.4 20 4
SHEAR Flat elements supported on both edges G.2 26 3, 4, 15, 20,
21, 22, 23
BEARING On rivets J.4.6 7
On flat surfaces and pins J.8 8

In the following examples, widths of elements are conservatively calculated ignoring the effect of corner fillets. For example,
in example 3 the flange element width b, used to calculate the allowable stress in the flange of I 5  3.70, is calculated from the
face of the web as shown in Figure i

3.50

b
0.19 b = 3.50 – 0.19 = 1.65
2

Figure i

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 Example 1
ROD IN AXIAL TENSION
Illustrating Section D.2

Tensile Load 4.5 kips

Extruded Round Rod of Alloy 6061-T6

Figure 1

GIVEN: From Part V, Table 28, the required diameter for A = 0.231 in2:
1. Tensile load: 4.50 k. πD 2/4 = 0.231 in2
2. Alloy: 6061-T6.
3. Structure type: building. 4A 4 ( 0 .231 )
D= = = 0.542
π π
REQUIRED: A 3/4 in. diameter rod has a minor diameter of 0.642 in. at the
Diameter of smallest standard rod that will safely resist the net section (at the threads), so use D = 3/4 in.
load.

SOLUTION: NOTE: Long slender members have little resistance to lat-

eral loads. Therefore, tension members with large slender-
From Part VI Table 2-19, Section D.2: Allowable tensile
ness ratios L/r should be avoided unless such members can
stress: The net section allowable stress is less than the gross
also resist vibration and lateral loads such as wind, dead
section allowable stress and the net section is less than the
load, and the weight of workmen and equipment.
gross section, so only the net section needs to be considered.

F / Ω = 19.5 ksi on the net section

Given load P = 4.50 k

P
Required area A = = (4.5 k)/(19.5 k/in2) = 0.231 in2
F/Ω

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 Example 2
RECTANGULAR BAR IN AXIAL TENSION
Illustrating Section D.2

Tensile Load 1.20 kips

Tension Strap of Alloy 5052-H36

1”

Figure 2

GIVEN: Reading Fty from Table A.3.3 as 29 ksi, the required gross
area is
1. Tensile load: 1.20 k.
2. Alloy: 5052-H36.
Ag = Pn  t /Fty = (1.20 k)(1.65)/(29 k/in2) = 0.0683 in2
3. Structure type: building.
The required thickness for 1.00 in. width is
REQUIRED:
Thickness of a 1 in. wide bar which will safely resist the t = 0.0683 in2/(1.00 in.) = 0.0683 in.
load. Assume that the ends of the bar are connected so that
the net section is sufficiently large that it does not govern From Part V, Table 3, the minimum standard thickness
the tensile strength of the bar.  0.0683 in. is t = 0.071 in.

SOLUTION:
From Section D.2, the allowable tensile strength for yield-
ing in the gross section is

Pn = Fty Ag /Ω t = 1.20k

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 Example 3
I-BEAM IN FLEXURE AND SHEAR
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3, and G.2

Uniform Load 4.5 kips/ft

I-beam of Alloy 6061-T6

4'-0''

4'-0''

4'-0''

4'-0''

Figure 3

GIVEN: For building-type structures, Section F.1 gives a safety

factor of 1.95 for the rupture limit state and 1.65 for all other
1. Uniform load of 4.50 k/ft including dead load.
limit states.
2. Beam length 16 ft with continuous lateral support.
3. Vertical support spacing 4 ft o.c. (first support at
The allowable yield moment given in Section F.2 is Mnp /Ω
end of beam).
= ZFcy /Ω; using Fcy = 35 ksi (see Tables A.3.1 and A.3.3),
4. Alloy: 6061-T6.
Ω = 1.65, and setting the allowable yield moment equal to
5. Structure type: building.
the required moment:
REQUIRED: ZFcy /Ω = Z(35 k/in2)/1.65 = 92.6 in-k
Size of lightest Aluminum Association standard I-beam that
will safely support the load. gives Z = 4.36 in3.

SOLUTION: The allowable moment for the limit state of rupture given
in Section F.2 is Mnu /Ω = Z Ftu /k t /Ω; using Ftu = 38 ksi
From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 43 continuous beam of
and k t = 1.0 (see Table A.3.3), Ω = 1.95, and setting the
four equal spans, uniformly distributed load:
allowable moment equal to the required moment:
Load w = (4.50 k/ft)( ft /12 in.) = 0.375 k /in.
Z Ftu /k t /Ω = Z(38 k/in2)/1.0/1.95 = 92.6 in-k
The maximum required bending moment is
gives Z = 4.75 in3. Since this exceeds the plastic modulus
M = –168 wL2/1568 = –168(0.375 k/in)(48 in)2/1568 required for the yield limit state, use Z = 4.75 in3 to select
= –92.6 in-k a trial beam. The smallest Aluminum Association standard
I beam for which Z > 4.75 in3 is an I 5 × 3.70, for which
The negative sign for the bending moment M indicates
Z = 6.14 in3.
that the top flange of the beam is in tension. The point of
maximum stress is at the first interior support.

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Now check the beam for local buckling according to Sec- From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 43, continuous beam of
tion F.3. four equal spans.
a) The flange is in uniform compression, so the strength is V = 17wL /28 =17(0.375 k/in.)(48 in.)/28 = 10.9 k,
given in Section B.5.4. Section B.5.4.1 addresses flat maximum web shear
elements supported on one edge; from Part VI, Table 2-19
The required web area is
b/t = (3.50 – 0.19)/[(2)(0.32)] = 5.2 < 6.7 = λ1 so
F/ = 21.2 ksi A = V/(Fs /Ω) = (10.9 k)/(12.7 k/in2) = 0.86 in2
b) The web is in flexure so the strength is given by (The above is an approximate method. See example 26.)
Section B.5.5.1, flat elements in flexure supported on
both edges. Since the beam is symmetric about the bending For I 5 × 3.70
axis, cc = - co, and m = 0.65.
Aw = dtw = (5.00) 0.19
b/t = (5.00 – 2(0.32))/0.19 = 22.9 < λ1 = 49.3, so
= 0.95 in2 > 0.86 in2
F/Ω = 27.6 ksi
The I 5 × 3.70 is therefore the lightest satisfactory beam.
For an I 5 × 3.70, with a section modulus S = 5.58 in , the 3

stress in the flange is NOTES: The building code should be checked to see if
analysis for other loading conditions (such as alternate span
f = M/S = (92.6 in-k)/(5.58 in3) = 16.6 ksi < 21.2 ksi loading) is required in addition to the load addressed above.
Generally, the use of the formula M = ± wL2 /8 satisfies all
so the I 5 × 3.70 is acceptable for local buckling using the building code requirements for uniformly loaded beams
limiting element method (Section F.3.3). supported on both ends.
If holes will be drilled in the flange at or near
Web shear is addressed by Section G.2, flat webs supported points of high tensile stress, it may be necessary to use a
on both edges. larger beam. This may be determined by multiplying the
b/t = 22.9 < 35.3 = λ1, so Fs /Ω = 12.7 ksi, allowable shear computed flange stress at the section under consideration
stress by the ratio of the gross area of the flange to the net area
of the flange and comparing the result with the allowable
stress.
Web crippling at supports should be checked; see
Example 4.

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 Example 4
SQUARE TUBE IN FLEXURE AND SHEAR
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3.3, G.2, and J.9.1

1.50 kips

3'' Square Beam of Alloy 6063-T6

40''

Figure 4

GIVEN: The allowable moment for the limit state of rupture given in
Section F.2 is Mnu /Ω = Z Ftu /kt /Ω; using Ftu = 30 ksi and
1. Concentrated load of 1.50 k including dead load,
kt = 1.0 (see Table A.3.3), Ω = 1.95, and setting the allowable
applied at mid span.
moment equal to the required moment:
2. Span 40 in., simply supported
3. Alloy: 6063-T6 Z Ftu /kt /Ω = Z(30 k/in2)/1.0/1.95 = 15.0 in-k
4. Structure type: building
gives Z = 0.98 in3. Since the plastic modulus required for
REQUIRED: the yield limit state exceeds the plastic modulus required for
the rupture limit state, use Z = 0.99 in3 to select a trial beam.
Thickness of a standard 3 in. square tube that will safely sup-
The smallest square tube shown in Part V, Table 23 for which
port the load.
Z > 0.99 in3 is 3 x 3 x 0.095, for which Z = 1.20 in3, and for
which
SOLUTION:
From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 1, a simply supported Mnp = ZFcy = (1.20 in3)(25 k/in2) = 30 in-k
beam with a concentrated load P at the center, the maximum Now check the beam for local buckling according to
moment = M = PL/4 = (1.5 k)(40 in.)/4 = 15.0 in-k Section F.3.
The available flexural strength of members is the least of the a) The flange is in uniform compression, so its strength is
available strengths for the limit states of yielding, rupture, given in Section B.5.4. Section B.5.4.2 addresses flat ele-
local buckling, and lateral-torsional buckling. For building- ments supported on both edges; from Part VI, Table 2-21
type structures, Section F.1 gives a safety factor of 1.95 for
the rupture limit state and 1.65 for all other limit states. b/t = (3 - 2(0.095))/0.095 = 29.6 < λ2 = 39,
so Fc /Ω = 19.0 – 0.170(29.6) = 14.0 ksi
The allowable yield moment given in Section F.2 is Mnp /Ω b) The web is in flexure, so its strength is given by Section
= ZFcy /Ω; using Fcy = 25 ksi (see Tables A.3.1 and A.3.3), B.5.5.1, flat elements in flexure supported on both edg-
Ω = 1.65, and setting the allowable yield moment equal to the es. Since the beam is symmetric about the bending axis,
required moment: cc = - co, and m = 0.65.
ZFcy /Ω = Z(25 k/in2)/1.65 = 15.0 in-k b/t = (3-2(0.095))/0.095 = 29.6 < λ1, = 34.7,
so Fb/Ω = 22.7 ksi
gives Z = 0.99 in3.

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For a 3  3  0.095 tube, with a section modulus S = 1.04 in3, Approximate web shear stress
the stress in the flange is
fs = V/A = (0.75 k)/(0.534 in2) = 1.4 k/in2 < 9.1 k/in2
3
f = M/S = (15.0 in-k)/(1.04 in ) = 14.4 ksi
(See example 26 for a discussion of the accuracy of this
Using the weighted average method to determine the allow- method.)
able moment for the limit state of local buckling (Section
F.3.1): Use 3 in.  0.095 in. hollow square tubing.

Mnlb = Fc If /ccf + Fb Iw /ccw NOTES: A lighter tube in 6061-T6 alloy would be satisfacto-
ry structurally; however, for architectural uses, 6063-T6 may
If = 2[dt3/12 + dt(d/2 – t/2) 2] = 1.203 in4 be preferred because of its superior finishing characteristics.
Iw = 2t(d – 2t)3/12 = 0.351 in4 The supports and load point of Figure 4 are shown as
sharp, a condition seldom used in actual practice but used
The allowable moment for local buckling is here to define the span length more clearly. In an actual in-
stallation, the forces on the beam will be distributed over
Mnlb /Ω = (14.0 k/in2)(1.203 in4)/(3/2 – 0.095/2)in.
a distance N, which must be large enough to prevent local
+ (22.7 k/in2)(0.351 in4)/(3/2 – 0.095)in. = 17.3 in-k
crippling of the webs.
For lateral-torsional buckling, the slenderness is determined Section J.9.1 addresses Crippling of Flat Webs. From Tables
using Section F.4.2.3: A.3.1 and A.3.3, Fcy = 25 ksi, E = 10,100 ksi

Lb Sxc (40)(1.04) Ri = 0 for extruded shapes

λ = 2.3 = 2.3 = 10.8
C b Iy J (1) (1.55)(2.33)
t = 0.095 in., θ = 90°, Try N = 0.10 in.
From Section F.4
The allowable reaction Rn /Ω for concentrated forces
⎛ l⎞ 2
E lSxc applied at a distance from the member end that is less than
Mnmb =Mnp ⎜⎜1 – ⎟⎟ + the member depth divided by 2 is
⎝ Cc ⎠ Cc3
2 Rn /Ω = (1.2Cwa)(N + Cw 2) /[(Cwb)(Ω)]
⎛ 10.8 ⎞ (10,100)10.8(1.04)
= 30 ⎜1 − ⎟ +
⎝ 78 ⎠ 78 3 where
=17.1 in-k
Cwa = t 2 sinθ(0.46Fcy + 0.02 EFcy )
The allowable moment is the least of the allowable moments
for yielding (Mnp /Ω = Z Fcy /Ω = (1.2)(25)/1.65 = 18.2), = (0.095)2 sin 90° (0.46 (25) + 0.02) (10,100)(25)
rupture (Mnu /Ω = ZFtu /Ω = (1.2)(30)/1.95 = 18.5), local
= 0.194 k
buckling (17.3) and lateral-torsional buckling (17.1), which
is 17.1 in-k. Cwb = Cw3 + Ri (1 – cosθ)
Since the allowable moment (17.1 in-k) is greater than the Cw3 = 0.4 in.
required moment (15.0 in-k), a 3 × 3 × 0.095 tube is satisfac-
tory for flexure. Cwb = 0.4 + 0(1 – cos 90) = 0.4 in.

For shear in the web, Part VI Beam Formulas Case 1 gives Cw2 = 1.3 in.

V = P/2 = (1.5 k)/2 = 0.75 k So

From Part VI, Table 2-21, Section G.2 gives the allowable Rn / Ω = (1.2)(0.194)(0.10 + 1.3)/[(0.4)(1.95)]
shear stress.
Rn /Ω = 0.419 k allowable, per web.
b/t = 29.6 < 38.7 = λ1, so Fs /Ω = 9.1 ksi
For two webs the end reaction per web is
Area of webs, A = 2(0.095)(3.00 – 2(0.095)) = 0.534 in2
V/2 = 0.75/2 = 0.375 k

0.375 k < 0.419 k; therefore a bearing length of 0.10 in.

is satisfactory

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 Example 5
WELDED PIPE IN FLEXURE AND SHEAR
Illustrating Sections B.5.5.4, F.2, and F.4

GIVEN: Lb S xc (42)(1.064)
l = 2.3 5 2.3
1. 42 in. tall pipe, laterally braced at the top Cb I y J (1) (1.53)(3.04)
2. Alloy: 6061-T6
3. Transversely welded all around its base with 5356 filler = 10.5 < 133 = Cc , so
4. 200 lb lateral load applied at top of pipe
⎛ λ ⎞ π E λ Sxc
2
5. Structure type: building Mnmb =Mnp ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ +
⎝ Cc ⎠ C c3
REQUIRED: 2
10.5 π (10,100)(10.5)(1.064)
= 21.8(1 − )+
Size of standard pipe to safely resist the load. 133 1333
= 20.6 in-k
SOLUTION:
Flexure: The available moment for the limit state of lateral-torsional
buckling is
The required moment at the base of the pipe is
Mnmb / Ω = (20.6 in-k)/(1.65) = 12.5 in-k
Mr = PL = (0.2 k)(42 in.) = 8.4 in-k.
The allowable moment is the least of these four limit states =
Try an NPS 2 1/2 schedule 40 pipe, for which S = 1.06 in3, 12.5 in-k and is greater than the required moment of 8.4 in-k,
Z = 1.45 in3, J = 3.04 in4, A = 1.70 in2 and Iy = 1.53 in4. From so an NPS 2 1/2 schedule 40 is satisfactory for flexure.
Table A.3.3, the welded tensile yield strength Ftyw is 15 ksi
and welded tensile ultimate strength Ftuw is 24 ksi. For welded Shear:
6061, Fcyw = Ftyw = 15 ksi.
The required shear is Vr = 0.2 k. In the weld-affected zone
From Section F.2, the moment for the limit state of yielding for 6061-T6, according to Tables A.3.1 and A.3.3 the shear
is the lesser of ultimate strength is Fsuw = 0.6 Ftuw = 0.6(24 ksi) = 14.4 ksi and
the shear yield strength is 0.6(15 ksi) = 9 ksi. In accordance
Mnp = ZFcyw = (1.45 in3)(15 k/in2) = 21.8 in-k and 1.5SFtyw = with Section G.4:
(1.5)(1.064 in3)(15 k/in2) = 23.9 in-k, which is 21.8 in-k.
For the limit state of shear rupture, the shear strength is
The available moment at the base of the pipe for the limit
state of yielding is Vn = Fsuw Awz / 2 = (14.4 k/in2)(1.70 in2)/2 = 12.2 k

Mnp / Ω = ZFcyw / Ω = (21.8 in-k)/1.65 = 13.2 in-k. For the limit state of shear rupture, available shear strength is

From Section F.2, the available moment at the base of the pipe Vn /Ω = (12.2 k)/1.95 = 6.3 k
for the limit state of rupture is
For the limit state of shear yielding and shear buckling,
Mnu / Ω = ZFtuw /Ω = (1.45 in3)(24 k/in2)/1.95 = 17.8 in-k.
λ 1 = (1.3Bs – Fsy) /(1.63Ds)
Checking local buckling using Section B.5.5.4 and Table = (1.3(12.0) – 9)) / [1.63(0.051)]
2-19W, = 79.4
5/8 1/ 4 1/ 4
⎛R ⎞ ⎛L ⎞ 5/8 ⎛ 42 ⎞
Rb = (2.875” – 0.203”)/2 = 1.336”, λ = 2.9 ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜⎜ v ⎟⎟ = 2.9 (6.6 ) ⎜ ⎟
Rb /t = 1.336/0.203 = 6.6 < 121 = Ctb, so ⎝ t ⎠ ⎝ Rb ⎠ ⎝1.336 ⎠
Fc / Ω = 17.7 – 0.9(6.6) 0.5 = 15.4 ksi;
= 22.3 < 79.4, so Fs = Fsy = 0.6(15 ksi) = 9 ksi
and the available moment at the base of the pipe for the limit
state of local buckling is The allowable shear strength for the limit state of shear yield-
ing and shear buckling is
MnLB /Ω = (15.4 ksi)(1.064 in3) = 16.4 in-k.
Vn / Ω = Fs Ag / 2/Ω = (9 k/in2)(1.70 in2) /2/1.65 = 4.6 k
For the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling, in accordance
with Section F.4 use welded strengths to determine the buck- The lesser of the allowable shear strengths is 4.6 k > 0.2 k;
ling constants since the handrail is a cantilever and has a therefore, an NPS 2 1/2 schedule 40 is satisfactory for shear.
transverse weld. The slenderness from Section F.4.2.3 is

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 Example 6
PLATE IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Section F.2

Plate of Alloy 6061-T6

P = 0.400 kips

Supports

Figure 6

GIVEN: The allowable yield moment Mnp /Ω given in Section F.2

is the lesser of 1.5SFty / Ω and ZFty /Ω; using Fty = 35 ksi
1. Load 0.400 k, along a line at the center of a plate.
(see Table A.3.3), Ω = 1.65, and setting the allowable yield
2. Plate: 24 in. wide, spanning 36 in.
moment equal to the required moment:
3. Alloy: 6061-T6
4. Structure type: building ZFty /Ω = Z(35 k/in2)/1.65 = 3.60 in-k

REQUIRED: gives Z = 0.170 in3.

Minimum standard thickness to support the load safely and
without deflecting more than 3/8 in.
1.5SFty /Ω = 1.5S(35 k/in2)/1.65 = 3.60 in-k
SOLUTION:
gives S = 0.113 in3.
From Part VI, Beam Formulas Case 1, simply supported
beam, concentrated load P at center The allowable moment for the limit state of rupture given
in Section F.2 is Mnu /Ω = Z Ftu/kt /Ω; using Ftu = 38 ksi and
M = PL/4 = (0.4)(36)/4 = 3.60 in-k
kt = 1.0 (see Table A.3.3), Ω = 1.95, and setting the allow-
The required section modulus is able moment equal to the required moment:

S = M/(F/Ω) = 3.6/27.6 = 0.130 in3 ZFtu /kt /Ω = Z(42 k/in2)/1.0/1.95 = 3.60 in-k

For building-type structures, Section F.1 gives a safety gives Z = 0.167 in3.
factor of 1.95 for the rupture limit state and 1.65 for all other
limit states.

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For a rectangle, the section modulus S = bt 2/6. Setting the where v = Poisson’s ratio, given in Table A.3.1 as 0.33.
section modulus equal to the required section modulus, and
using b = 24 in. gives From Part V Table 28 the moment of inertia for a
rectangle is
24t2/6 = 0.113 in3, for which t1 = 0.168 in.
I = bt23 /12
2
For a rectangle, the plastic modulus Z = bt /4. Setting the
plastic modulus equal to the required plastic modulus, and Section L.3 requires that bending deflections be determined
using b = 24 in. gives using the compression modulus of elasticity from Table
A.3.1, in which E = 10,100 ksi
24t 2/4 = 0.170 in3, for which t1 = 0.168 in.
Combining the equations for I and Δ,
Deflection
PL3 (1 − ν 2 ) (0.4)36 3 (1 − 0.33 2 )
From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 1 t2 = 3 = 3 = 0.36 in.
4bE 4(24)(10,100)(0.375)
Deflection = PL3/(48EI)
based on limiting deflection to 0.375 in..
A correction is required for plates because individual
fi bers are restricted in the way they can change shape in Since t2 > t1 deflection controls; use 3/8 in. thick plate.
the direction perpendicular to the stress. They can change
in vertical dimension but not in horizontal dimension. The NOTES: The rails supporting the plate are assumed to have
correction is: been checked structurally to see that they will safely support
the load. They should be fastened to the plate at intervals to
PL3 (1 − ν 2 ) prevent spreading.
Deflection = Δ =
48 EI
The loading and deflection limits in this example differ from
those for Part VI Table 4-3.

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 Example 7
BEARING ON RIVETS
Illustrating Section J.4

0.063" Sheet, SOLUTION:

of Alloy 5052-H36
The rivet spacing meets the requirements of Section J.4.2
because it exceeds 3 times the rivet diameter (3(3/16) =
9/16 < 3).

The hole diameter meets the requirements of Section J.4.1

because it is no more than 4% greater than the rivet diameter
(0.191/(3/16) = 1.02)

Table A.3.8 gives the shear ultimate strength of a 2117-T4

rivet as 26 ksi. Section J.4.5 gives the rivet’s allowable shear
strength as

Rn /Ω = πDh2 Fsu /(4Ω)

= π (0.191 in.)2 (26 k/in2)/(4(2.34)) = 0.32 k

The allowable shear per inch is

(0.32 k)/(3 in.) = 0.11 k/in. > 0.09 k/in.

Table A.3.3 gives the tensile ultimate strength of 5052-H36

as 37 ksi. Section J.4.6 gives the rivet’s allowable bearing as

3/16" Dia. Rivets, of Alloy 2117-T3 Rn /Ω = de t Ftu / Ω = (3 in.)(0.063 in.)(37 k/in2)/1.95

3" o.c. and With o.375" Edge Distance = 3.59 k but shall not exceed

2Dh t Ftu / Ω = 2(0.191 in.)(0.063 in.)(37 k/in2) /1.95

Figure 7 = 0.46 k

The allowable bearing per inch is

(0.46 k)/(3 in.) = 0.15 k/in. > 0.09 k/in.
GIVEN:
Since both bearing and shear are satisfactory, the connection
1. Rivets: 3/16 in. diameter, cold-driven, 2117-T4 before will adequately resist the shear load.
driving, spaced 3 in. on centers, edge distance 0.375 in.,
in a 0.191 in. hole.
2. Sheet: 0.063 in., 5052-H36 alloy.
3. Corner post extrusion considerably thicker than the
sheet and with equivalent unit bearing strength.
4. Load: 0.090 k/in. shear.
5. Structure type: building

REQUIRED:
Check the strength of the connection.

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 Example 8
BEARING ON A PIN
Illustrating Section J.6.5

Figure 8

GIVEN: From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 6

1. Beam: Hollow rectangular tube 4 in. × 6 in. with wall Simply supported beam, uniformly distributed load,
thickness 0.080 in.
2. End supports: Aluminum Association standard channel R = W/2 = (1.2 k)/2 = 0.6 k
CS5 × 2.21.
3. Beam load: 1.20 k uniformly distributed. A = (0.6 k)/(15 k/in2) = 0.04 in2,
4. Pin: 6061-T6 rod required bearing area
5. Beam and end support alloy: 6063-T5.
The bearing area on the pin is the diameter of the pin times
6. Structure type: building
the length in bearing.
REQUIRED: D = A/(2t) = (0.04)/(2(0.080)) = 0.25 in. = diameter re-
The minimum pin size for the end connection. quired, based on the bearing stress in the beam wall.

SOLUTION: Determine the pin diameter based on bending of the pin.

From Part VI Table 2-20
Section J.6.5: bearing on pins
F / Ω = 15 ksi

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 From Part V Table 4, the clearance between flanges of the For 6061-T6 rod, Fty = 35 ksi, and Ftu = 42 ksi. Per Section
5 in. channel is: J.6.4b), the allowable pin moment is the lesser of

C = 5.00 – 2(0.26) = 4.48 in. Mn /Ω = πD 3Fty /21.3/Ωy = π (7/16 in.)3(35 k/in2)/21.3/1.65

= 0.262 in-k > 0.195 in-k = Mr = required moment.
Assuming the beam is at the bottom of the supporting chan-
nel, the lever arm for bending is the net clearance plus half Mn /Ω = πD 3Ftu /21.3/Ωu = π(7/16 in.)3(42 k/in2)/21.3/1.95
the wall thicknesses of the adjacent bearing surfaces. = 0.266 in-k

L = (4.48 – 4.00) + 0.080/2 + 0.26/2 = 0.65 in. Section J.6.4c) addresses combined shear and flexure:
3
A conservative assumption to determine pin bending is that ⎛ Vr ⎞ ⎛M ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟ ≤ 1.0
half of the connection load is transferred at the top of the
⎝ Vc ⎠ ⎝ Mc ⎠
beam.
3
M = LR/2 = (0.65)(0.6/2) = 0.195 in-k ⎛ 0.3 ⎞ ⎛ 0.195 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 0.75 ≤ 1.0
⎝ 1.76 ⎠ ⎝ 0.262 ⎠
Try a 7/16 in. diameter pin:

For 6061-T6 rod, Fsy = 0.6 Fty = 0.6(35 ksi) = 21 ksi, The 7/16 in. diameter is greater than the diameter based
and Fsu = 0.6 Ftu = 0.6 (38 ksi) = 22.8 ksi. Per Section on bearing, therefore the required diameter is 7/16 in.
J.6.4a), the allowable pin shear is the lesser of
NOTES: For cases in which the bearing load on a pin is
Vn / Ω = πD 2 Fsy /4/Ωy = π(7/16 in.)2(21 k/in2)/4/1.65 = 1.91 k toward the edge of the member, the effect of edge distance
on the allowable bearing should be considered as required
Vn / Ω = πD 2 Fsu /4/Ωu = π(7/16 in.)2(22.8 k/in2)/4/1.95 in Section J.6.5.
= 1.76 k > 0.3 k = Vr = required shear

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 Example 9
I BEAM IN AXIAL COMPRESSION
Illustrating Sections E.1, E.2, E.3, and E.4

SOLUTION:
From Part V Table 8 the section properties of an 8 in. × 6.18-
lb/ft I-beam (I 8 × 6.18) are:

A = 5.26 in2, rx = 3.37 in., d = 8.00 in., bf = 5.00 in.,

tf = 0.35 in., tw = 0.23 in., Ix = 59.7 in4, Iy = 7.3 in4,
Cw = 107 in6, J = 0.188 in4

Chapter E addresses columns. Section E.1 requires that the

allowable compressive strength is the least of the limit states
of member buckling, local buckling, and the interaction be-
tween member buckling and local buckling, and establishes
Ωc = 1.65 for building structures. Allowable stresses for
6061-T6 given in Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.

a) Member buckling is addressed in Section E.2. For flex-

ural buckling, Section E.2.1 gives the slenderness as

kL/r = (1)(8)(12)/3.37 = 28.5 < λ2 = 66, so

Fc / Ω = 0.00047 λ 2 – 0.232λ + 25.2

Fc / Ω = 0.00047(28.5)2 – 0.232(28.5) + 25.2 = 19.0 ksi

The member buckling stress is

Fc = (19.0)(1.65) = 31.3 ksi

The allowable axial compressive strength for member

buckling is Pn = (F/Ω )Ag = (19.0)(5.26) = 99.9 k

Section E.2.2a) addresses torsional buckling for doubly

symmetric members. Assuming the ends are fixed against
torsion:
⎛ 2 EC w ⎞ 1
Fe = ⎜⎜ 2
+ GJ⎟⎟
⎝ (k z Lz ) ⎠ Ix + Iy
⎛ 2 (10,100)(107) ⎞ 1
= ⎜⎜ 2
+ (3800)(0.188)⎟⎟ = 79.8 ksi
⎝ [( 0 . 5)(96 )] ⎠ 59 . 7 + 7.3

E 10,100
Figure 9 λ= π =π = 35.3
Fe 79.8

GIVEN: The largest slenderness ratio is for torsional buckling with

λ = 35.3 < λ2 = 66, so
1. Aluminum Association Standard I-beam I 8 × 6.18
2. Length: 8 ft Fc /  = 0.00047λ2 – 0.232λ + 25.2
3. End conditions: pinned
4. Laterally supported to resist buckling about the weak axis Fc /  = 0.00047(35.3)2 – 0.232(35.3) + 25.2 = 17.6 ksi
5. Alloy: 6061-T6
6. Structure type: building
The member buckling stress is Fc = (17.6)(1.65) = 29.0 ksi
REQUIRED:
The allowable axial compressive strength.

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The allowable axial compressive strength for member buck- The weighted average allowable local buckling strength is
ling is Pn = (F/Ω)Ag = (17.6)(5.26) = 92.6 k
Pn /  = (21.1)(3.34) + (18.1)(1.679) + (35/1.65)(2)(0.23)
b) Local buckling is addressed in Section E.3. (0.35)) = 104.3 k

Local buckling of the flange (a flat element with one edge c) The interaction between member buckling and local buck-
supported) is addressed in Section B.5.4.1. The slenderness ling is addressed in Section E.4. Elastic buckling stresses
is are given in Section B.5.6.

b/t = (5.00 – 0.23)/(2 × 0.35) = 6.8 The elastic buckling stress of the flange (a flat element with
one edge supported) for the slenderness of 6.8 determined
The slenderness is between λ1 = 6.7 and λ2 = 10.5, so in b) above is
Fc / Ω = 27.3 – 0.91(6.8) = 21.1 ksi 2
E 2
(10,100)
Fcr = = = 86.2 ksi
The area of the flanges = (5.0 b /t ) 2
(5.0(6.8))2
Af = 2(5.00 – 0.23)(0.35) = 3.34 in2
The elastic buckling stress of the web (a flat element with
Local buckling of the web (a flat element with both edges both edges supported) for the slenderness of 31.7 deter-
supported) is addressed in Section B.5.4.2. The slenderness mined in b) above is
is
π2 E π 2 (10,100)
Fcr = = = 38.7 ksi > 29.0 ksi =
b/t = (8.00 – 2(0.35))/0.23 = 31.7 (1.6 b / t )2 (1.6(31.7) )2
The slenderness is between λ1 = 20.8 and λ2 = 33, so member buckling stress; therefore, the strength is not re-
duced by interaction between member and local buckling.
Fc / Ω = 27.3 – 0.291(31.7) = 18.1 ksi
The allowable axial compressive strength is the lesser of
The area of the web = 92.6 k and 104.3 k, which is 92.6 k.
Aw = (8.00 - 2(0.35))(0.23) = 1.679 in2

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 Example 10
CORNER ANGLE OF A LATTICED BOX COLUMN
Illustrating Sections E.1, E.2, E.3, and E.4

REQUIRED:
Allowable axial compressive strength of a corner angle be-
tween lattice points.

SOLUTION:
From Part V, Table 14, the section properties of the 4 in. × 4
in. × 3/8 in. angle are

A = 2.86 in.2, rx = ry = 1.22 in., rz = 0.766 in., Ix = Iy = 4.26 in4

The warping constant Cw is approximately 0 for an angle.

The torsional constant is

J = (1/3)(0.375)3(4 + 3.625) = 0.134 in4

xo , yo = coordinates of the shear center with respect to the

centroid

xo = yo = 1.12 – 0.5(3/8) = 0.9325 in.

Chapter E addresses columns. Section E.1 requires that the

allowable compressive strength is the least of the limit states
of member buckling, local buckling, and the interaction be-
tween member buckling and local buckling, and establishes
Ωc = 1.65 for building structures. Allowable stresses for
6061-T6 given in Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.

a) Member buckling is addressed in Section E.2. Section

E.2.2 addresses flexural-torsional buckling for unsymmetric
shapes such as an angle. The elastic buckling stress Fe is the
lowest root of the equation

(Fe – Fex)(Fe – Fey)(Fe – Fez) – Fe2(Fe – Fey)(xo /ro) 2

– Fe2(Fe – Fex)(yo /ro) 2 = 0

where

2 2 Ix + I y
ro2 = x0 + y0 + = 2(0.9325) 2 + 2(4.26)/2.86 = 4.72 in2
Figure 10 Ag
π2 E
Fex = Fey = 2 = π2(10,100)/(27/1.22)2 = 203.5 ksi
⎛ kx L x ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ rx ⎠
GIVEN:
1 ⎛ π 2 ECw ⎞ (3 / 8)(10,100)(0.134)
1. Latticed box section column Fez = ⎜⎜GJ + ⎟= = 37.6 ksi
(k z L z ) 2 ⎟⎠
2
2. Corner components: 4 in. × 4 in. × 3/8 in. angle Ag ro ⎝ (2.86)(4.72)
3. Alloy: 6061-T6
4. Spacing of lattice points: 27 in. center to center
5. Connection of lattice: Riveted
6. Structure type: building Solving for Fe by trial and error, Fe = 34.9 ksi.

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 The elastic buckling stress of the leg (a flat element with
E 10,100 one edge supported) for the slenderness of 9.7 determined
λ= = = 53.4 < λ 2 = 66, so
Fe 34.9 in b) above is
2 2
E (10,100)
Fc / Ω = 0.00047λ2 – 0.232λ + 25.2 Fcr = = = 42.4 ksi > 23.3 ksi = member
(5.0 b / t ) 2
(5.0(9.7) )2
Fc / Ω = 0.00047(53.4)2 – 0.232(53.4) + 25.2 = 14.2 ksi buckling stress; therefore, the strength is not reduced by
The member buckling stress is Fc = (14.2)(1.65) = 23.3 ksi interaction between member and local buckling.

The allowable axial compressive strength for member buck- The allowable axial compressive strength is the lesser of
ling is Pn /Ω = (F/Ω )Ag = (14.2)(2.86) = 40.6 k 40.5 k and 52.9 k, which is 40.5 k.

b) Local buckling is addressed in Section E.3. Local buck- NOTES: The allowable axial compressive strength of the
ling of the angle leg (a flat element with one edge support- latticed column must also be determined for full length
ed) is addressed in Section B.5.4.1. The slenderness is buckling resistance in accordance with Section E.2. The al-
lowable strength is the lesser of this strength and four times
b/t = (4.00 – 0.375)/0.375 = 9.7 the allowable strength of the corner angle computed above,
whichever is smaller.
The slenderness is between λ1 = 6.7 and λ2 = 12, so
The lattice diagonals brace the corner angles and must have
Fc / Ω = 27.3 – 0.91(9.7) = 18.5 ksi adequate stiffness and strength to meet the requirements of
Appendix 6.
The allowable axial compressive strength for local
buckling is
Pn /Ω = (F/Ω)Ag = (18.5)(2.86) = 52.9 k

c) The interaction between member buckling and local buck-

ling is addressed in Section E.4. Elastic buckling stresses
are given in Section B.5.6.

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 Example 11
WIDE FLANGE COLUMN
Illustrating Sections E.1, E.2, E.3, and E.4
Chapter E addresses columns. Section E.1 requires that
the allowable compressive strength is the least of the limit
states of member buckling, local buckling, and the inter-
action between member buckling and local buckling, and
establishes Ωc = 1.65 for building structures. Allowable
stresses for 6061-T6 given in Part VI Table 2-19 are used
below.

a) Member buckling is addressed in Section E.2. For flex-

ural buckling, Section E.2.1 gives the slenderness as

kL/r = (1)(42)/0.793 = 53.0

For torsional buckling of doubly symmetric shapes, Section

E.2.2a) gives the elastic buckling stress Fe as

⎛ π 2 EC w ⎞ 1
Fe = ⎜⎜ 2
+ GJ⎟⎟
⎝ (k z Lz ) ⎠ x Iy
I +
⎛π2 (10,100)(6.28) ⎞ 1
= ⎜⎜ +(3800)(0.0547)⎟⎟ = 65.4 ksi
⎝ 42 2
⎠ 6.97+1.64

E 10,100
λ= π =π = 39.0
Fe 65.4

The largest slenderness ratio is for flexural buckling with

λ = 53.0 < λ2 = 66, so

Fc / Ω = 0.00047λ 2 – 0.232λ + 25.2

Figure 11 Fc / Ω = 0.00047(53.0)2 – 0.232(53.0) + 25.2 = 14.2 ksi

The member buckling stress is

GIVEN: Fc = (14.2)(1.65) = 23.5 ksi

1. Column section: 4 in. × 3.50 in. × 3.06 lb/ft Army-Navy The allowable axial compressive strength for member
wide flange section. (WF (A-N) 4 × 3.06) buckling is Pn /Ω = (F/Ω) Ag = (14.2)(2.60) = 37.0 k
2. Length: 42 in.
3. End conditions: pinned. b) Local buckling is addressed in Section E.3.
4. Alloy: 6061-T6.
Local buckling of the flange (a flat element with one edge
5. Structure type: building
supported) is addressed in Section B.5.4.1. The slender-
ness is
REQUIRED:
Allowable axial compressive strength. b/t = (3.50 – 0.25)/(2 × 0.25) = 6.5 < 6.7 = λ1,
so Fc /  = 21.2 ksi
SOLUTION:
Local buckling of the web (a flat element with both edges
From Part V, Table 10, the section properties of WF (A-N)
supported) is addressed in Section B.5.4.2. The slender-
4 × 3.06 are
ness is
A = 2.60 in2, b = 3.50 in., t = 0.250 in., rx = 1.64 in.,
b/t = (4.00 – 2(0.25))/0.25 = 14 < 20.8 = λ1, so
ry = 0.793 in. , Ix = 6.97 in4, Iy = 1.64 in4, Cw = 6.28 in6,
J = 0.0547 in4 Fc / Ω = 21.2 ksi

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 The weighted average allowable local buckling strength is The elastic buckling stress of the flange (a flat element with
one edge supported) for the slenderness of 6.5 determined
Pn / Ω = (21.2)(2.60) = 55.1 k in b) above is
c) The interaction between member buckling and local buck-
π 2E π 2 (10,100)
ling is addressed in Section E.4. Elastic buckling stresses Fcr = = = 94.4 ksi > 23.5 ksi
are given in Section B.5.6. (5.0 b /t )2 (5.0 (6.5))2
The elastic buckling stress of the web (a flat element with = member buckling stress; therefore, the strength is
both edges supported) for the slenderness of 14 determined not reduced by interaction between member and local
in b) above is buckling.

The allowable axial compressive strength is the lesser of

π2 E π 2 (10,100)
Fcr = = = 199 ksi 37.0 k and 55.1 k, which is 37.0 k.
(1.6 b / t ) 2 (1.6(14) )2

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 Example 12
SQUARE TUBE COLUMN
Illustrating Sections E.1, E.2, E.3, and E.4
Chapter E addresses columns. Section E.1 requires that the
allowable compressive strength is the least of the limit states
of member buckling, local buckling, and the interaction be-
tween member buckling and local buckling, and establishes
Ωc = 1.65 for building structures. Allowable stresses for
3003-H14 given in Part VI Table 2-2 are used below.

a) Member buckling is addressed in Section E.2. For

flexural buckling, Section E.2.1 gives the slenderness as

kL/r = (1)(48)/1.61 = 29.8 < λ2 = 132, so

Fc / Ω = 0.00007λ2 – 0.068λ + 10.7

Fc / Ω = 0.00007(29.8)2 – 0.068(29.8) + 10.7 = 8.7 ksi

The member buckling stress is Fc = (8.7)(1.65) = 14.4 ksi

The allowable axial compressive strength for member

buckling is Pn / = (F/)Ag = (8.7)(0.992) = 8.6 k

b) Local buckling is addressed in Section E.3.

Figure 12 Local buckling of a side (a flat element with both edges
supported) is addressed in Section B.5.4.2. The slender-
ness is
GIVEN: b/t = (4.00 – 2(0.063))/0.063 = 61.5 > 57 = λ2, so
1. 4 in. square tube column formed with lock-seam from
Fc /  = 350/(61.5) = 5.7 ksi
0.063 in. sheet.
2. Length: 48 in. The weighted average allowable local buckling strength is
3. End conditions: pinned.
4. Alloy: 3003-H14. Fc Ag /  = (5.7)(0.992) = 5.6 k
5. Structure type: building
c) The interaction between member buckling and local
REQUIRED: buckling is addressed in Section E.4. Elastic buckling
stresses are given in Section B.5.6.
Allowable axial compressive strength.
The elastic buckling stress of a side (a flat element with both
SOLUTION: edges supported) for the slenderness of 61.5 determined in
From Part V, Table 28, hollow square section properties are b) above is
2 2
A = 42 – (4.00 – (0.063)2)2 E (10,100)
Fcr = = = 10.3 ksi < 14.4 ksi =
(1.6 b / t ) 2
(1.6(61.5) )2
= 0.992 in2
member buckling stress; therefore, the allowable strength
2 2
cannot exceed:
d1 + d 2 4 2 + (4 − 0.063(2)) 2
r= = = 1.61 in. 1/ 3 2/3
12 12 ⎛ 0.85π 2 E ⎞ Fcr Ag
Pn / Ω = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ (kL / r )2 ⎟ Ω
NOTE: This method assumes sharp corners, whereas the ⎝ ⎠
1/ 3
actual corners of roll formed sections are rounded. Where ⎛ 0.85π 2 (10,100) ⎞ 10.3 2 / 3 (0.992)
= ⎜⎜ ⎟ =13.0 k
the corner radius is small in comparison with the width of
the section, this method is sufficiently accurate for practical ⎝ (29.8)2 ⎟⎠ 1.65
purposes.

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 The allowable axial compressive strength is the least of as an open section and would be subject to flexural torsional
8.7 k, 5.6 k, and 13.0 k, which is 5.6 k. buckling. From Part VI, Table 3-1, 0.063 in. thick 3003-H14
is satisfactory for a zero bend radius.
NOTES: The area of the lockseam is generally small
and can be neglected. However, the seam must resist If the corner radii are large, they should be checked using
longitudinal slippage, otherwise the shape would be classed Section B.5.4.5.

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 Example 13
COLUMN WITH INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS
Illustrating Section B.5.4.4
The element thickness t = 0.1 in.
See
detail Properties As and Io are calculated from Part V, Table 28:
0.1" (typical) In = bn dn3/12, where bn is the width and dn is the height

An = area of an element

Yn = vertical distance from bottom fiber to the centroid of

8" (typical) the element

n bn dn An Yn AYn AYn2 In
1 3.95 0.1 0.395 1.05 0.4147 0.4355 0.0003
1" (typical)
2 0.1 1.0 0.1 0.5 0.05 0.025 0.0083
3.85" 3.85" Totals 0.495 0.4647 0.4605 0.0086
0.1"
Σ AnYn 0.4647
3.95" c= = = 0.9389 in.
Σ An 0.495
0.1" Io = (AnYn2) – c2An + In

Neutral Axis 1.0" Io = 0.4605 – (0.9389)2 (0.495) + (0.0086) = 0.03275

(1.0)(0.1)
1+
0.1" 3.85 (3.85)(0.1)
Detail λs = (4.62)
0.1 10.67(0.03275)
1+ 1+
Figure 13 3.85(0.1) 3

λs = 61.4 < 66 = λ2

F1 /Ω = 23.9 – 0.149 (61.4) = 14.8 ksi

GIVEN:
Check the flat elements on either side of the stiffener:
1. An 8 in. square tube column, with 0.10 in. thick walls
3.85
and 0.10 in. thick by 1 in. long stiffeners at the middle b/t = = 38.5 > 33 = λ2
0.1
of each side.
2. Alloy: 6061-T6 extrusion. from Section B.5.4.2
3. Structure type: building
F2 /Ω = 580/38.5 = 15.1 ksi > 14.8 ksi = F1
REQUIRED: So Fc / Ω = F1 /Ω = 14.8 ksi
Allowable local buckling compressive stress.

SOLUTION:
Section B.5.4.4 addresses uniform compression of flat ele-
ments supported on both edges and with an intermediate
stiffener.

The moment of inertia Io used in Section B.5.4.4 is of the

area shown in the detail of Figure 13.

The area width is 3.85 + 0.1 = 3.95 in.

The element width b = 3.85 in.

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 Example 14
ROUND TUBE COLUMN
Illustrating Sections E.1, E.2, and E.3

SOLUTION:
From Part V, Table 21, round tubes, the radius of gyration
r of 6 in. OD tubes ranges from 1.80 in. to 2.08 in.. Select
from the table the trial wall thickness of 0.188 in. for which
A = 3.43 in2 and r = 2.06 in.

Chapter E addresses columns. Section E.1 establishes

Ωc = 1.65 for building structures. Allowable stresses for
6061-T6 given in Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.

a) Member buckling is addressed in Section E.2. For flex-

ural buckling, Section E.2.1 gives the slenderness as

kL/r = (1)(18)/2.06 = 8.7 < λ1 = 17.8, so

Fc / Ω = 21.2 ksi

The allowable axial compressive strength for member

buckling is (F/Ω) Ag = (21.2)(3.43) = 72.7 k > 40 k

b) Local buckling is addressed in Section E.3.

Local buckling of round tubes is addressed in Section

B.5.4.5. The slenderness is

Rb/t = (6.0 – 0.188)/2/0.188 = 15.5 < 27.6 = λ1,

so Fc / Ω = 21.2 ksi

The weighted average allowable local buckling strength

is

Ag Fc / Ω = (21.2)(3.43) = 72.7 k > 40 k

The wall thickness t = 0.188 in. is satisfactory.

Figure 14

GIVEN:
1. Shape: Round tube, 6 in. OD (outside diameter).
2. Load: 40 k, concentric.
3. Length: 18 in.
4. Alloy: 6061-T6.
5. End Conditions: pinned.
6. Structure type: building

REQUIRED:
The wall thickness of a standard tube that has an allowable
axial compressive strength of at least 40 k.

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 Example 15
I-BEAM IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3, F.4, and G.2

Figure 15

GIVEN: a) Section F.2 addresses yielding. The allowable moment

for the yield limit state is the lesser of
1. Section: Aluminum Association Standard I-beam
I5 × 3.70 Mnp/Ω = ZFcy /Ω
2. Beam length: 16 ft. with lateral supports at vertical = (6.14 in3)(35 k/in2)/1.65 = 130.2 in-k
supports only.
3. Vertical support spacing 4 ft. o.c. (first support at end Mnp/Ω = 1.5SxFty / Ω
of beam). = 1.5(5.58 in3)(35 k/in2)/1.65 = 177.5 in-k
4. Alloy: 6061-T6.
5. Structure type: building which is 130.5 in-k, so Mnp = (130.5 in-k)(1.65) = 215.3 in-k

b) Section F. 2 addresses rupture. The allowable moment for

REQUIRED:
the rupture limit state is:
Allowable uniform load that can be applied to the bottom
flange. Mnu/Ω = ZFtu /kt /Ω
= (6.15 in3)(38 k/in2)/1.0/1.95 = 119.8 in-k
SOLUTION:
c) Section F.3 addresses local buckling
Part V, Table 8, gives the section properties:
Section B.5.4.1 addresses the flange; b/t = 5.2 < 6.7 = λ1, so
Sx = 5.58 in3, b = 3.5 in., tw = 0.19 in., tf = 0.32 in., ry = 0.853 Fc / Ω = 21.2 ksi
in., Iy = 2.29 in4, J = 0.0984 in4, Cw = 12.5 in6, Z = 6.14 in3,
Ix = 13.9 in4 Section B.5.5.1 addresses the web; b/t = 22.9 < 33.1 = λ1, so
Fb / Ω = 31.8 ksi
The flange’s slenderness ratio is
b/t = (3.5 – 0.19)/2/0.32 = 5.2 Using the weighted average method given in Section F.3.1,

The web’s slenderness ratio is Mnlb = Fc If /ccf + Fb Iw /ccw

b/t = (5.0 – 2(0.32))/0.19 = 22.9
The moment of inertia of the web is
Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile Iw = tw(d – 2tf)3/12 = 0.19(5 – 2(0.320))3/12 = 1.31 in4.
rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of
building-type structures. Section G.2 addresses the shear The moment of inertia of the flanges is
strength of flat webs. Allowable stresses for 6061-T6 given If = Ix – Iw = 13.9 – 1.31 = 12.6 in4.
in Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.
Mnlb / Ω = (21.2)(12.6)/(5/2 – 0.32/2) + 31.8(1.31)/(5/2 –
0.32) = 133.3 in-k

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d) Section F.4 addresses lateral-torsional buckling. Section f) Section G.2 addresses web shear
Lb
F.4.2.1 gives the slenderness ratio as , where rye b/t = 22.9 < λ1 = 35.3, so Fs / Ω = 12.7 ksi
rye Cb
A = dtw = (5.00)(0.19) = 0.95 in2 = area of web
may be taken as 1.2ry. Section F.4.1 allows the bending V = AFs / Ω = 0.95(12.7) = 12.1 k, allowable shear
coefficient Cb to be conservatively taken as 1.
Lb 48 From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 43, the maximum shear
= = 46.9 < λ2 = Cc = 66, so is
1.2ry 1.2(0.853)
17wL
V= , which can be written
⎛ λ ⎞ π 2E λ S xc 28
Mnmb = Mnp ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ +
⎝ Cc ⎠ Cc3
28V
2 w= , when w is unknown.
⎛ 46.9 ⎞ π (10,100)(46.9)(5.58) 17 L
= 215.3 ⎜1 − ⎟ +
⎝ 66 ⎠ 66 3
28(12.1)
= 153.0 in-k w= = 0.415 k/in. = allowable distributed load for
17(48)
shear
Mnmb / Ω = 153.0/1.65= 92.8 in-k
Using the smaller of the loads for flexure and shear, the
The lateral-torsional buckling stress allowable uniform load is 0.382 k/in.
Fb = Mnmb /Sx = (153.0 in-k)/(5.58 in3) = 27.4 ksi
NOTES: Example 3 notes also apply to this example.
e) Section F.4.3 addresses interaction between local buck-
ling and lateral-torsional buckling. A more accurate flexural strength can be determined by
using Section F.4.2 to compute rye. For shapes symmetric
The flange’s elastic buckling stress given in Section B.5.6 is about the bending axis and where the load acts downward
on the bottom flange (away from the beam’s shear center),
π2 E π 2 (10,100)
Fcr = 2
= = 147 ksi > 27.4 ksi Section F.4.2.1b) gives:
(5.0 b/ t ) (5.0(5.2)) 2
I y ⎡d d 2 C w 0.038 JLb
2 ⎤
Because the flange’s elastic buckling stress is not less than rye = ⎢ + + + ⎥
Sx ⎢ 4 16 I y Iy ⎥
the beam’s lateral-torsional buckling stress, the beam’s ⎣ ⎦
flexural capacity is not limited by the interaction between
local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling. 2.29 ⎡ 5 5 2 12.5 0.038(0.0984)(48) 2 ⎤
= ⎢ + + + ⎥
5.58 ⎢⎣ 4 16 2.29 2.29 ⎥⎦
The least of these allowable moments is for lateral-torsional
buckling; therefore, Mn / Ω = 92.8 in-k.
= 1.36 in.
From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 43, continuous beam
of four equal spans with a uniformly distributed load, the rye may be used in place of 1.2ry = 1.024 in. to compute the
maximum moment is lateral-torsional buckling strength.

− 168 wL2
M =
1568
Rewriting to solve for w,
1568M 1568(92.8)
w= = = 0.376 k/in. =
168 L2 168(48) 2
allowable distributed load for flexure

The section is symmetric about its X axis; therefore,

the allowable positive moment is equal to the allowable
negative moment. Thus, the minus sign for w may be
removed.

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 Example 16
WELDED GIRDER IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3, and F.4
The height of the centroid of the section
ΣAnYn 1248
ct = = = 27.1 in.
ΣAn 46.0
Ix = (AnY 2n) – ct2 An + In = 20,132 in4

For the compression flange,

cc = 50.0 – 27.1= 22.9 in.

The section modulus for compression is

Sc = Ix /cc = 20,132/22.9 = 879 in3

The section modulus for tension is

St = Ix/ct = 20,132/27.1 = 743 in3

Iy = [(1)(16)3 + (1)(12)3 +(48)(0.375)3]/12 = 485.5 in4

Figure 16 Iyc = (1)(16)3 /12 = 341.3 in4

Iyt = (1)(12)3 /12 = 144.0 in4

GIVEN:
1. Welded girder, see Figure 16 α = 1/(Iyc /Iyt + 1)
2. Lateral support spacing: compression flange, 10 ft o.c.
α = 1/(341.3/144 +1) = 0.297
3. Alloy: 5456-H321
4. Structure type: bridge J = [(16)(1)3 + (12)(1)3 +(48)(0.375)3]/3 = 10.2 in4
5. Number of load cycles: 500,000
6. Load applied downward on the compression flange. Cw = d f 2 Iycα = (49)2(341.3) (0.297) = 243,400 in6

REQUIRED: The distance from the centroid to the shear center is yo

Allowable moment with the top flange in compression. yo = -(cc – ttf /2) + αdf = -(22.9 – ½) + 0.297(49) = -7.85 in.
(above the centroid)
SOLUTION:
⎞ ⎡ ⎛ Iy ⎤
2
⎛ 2 I yc ⎞
βx = 0.9d f ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜
To compute section properties, see Part V, Table 28. ⎟ ⎥
⎟
The moment of inertia of a rectangle about its centroid is ⎝ Iy ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ Ix ⎠ ⎥
⎦

In = bn dn 3 /12 = 0.9(49) (2(341.3/485.5) – 1)(1 – (485.5/20132)2)

= 17.9 in.
where bn is the width and dn, is the height.
For the portion of the cross section outside the weld-affect-
An = area of an element ed zone, Table A.3.3 gives mechanical properties for 5456-
H321 plate. The web is 3/8 in. thick plate (with Ftu = 46 ksi)
Yn = vertical distance from bottom fiber to centroid of
and the flange is 1 in. thick plate (with Ftu = 44 ksi). For
element
design, conservatively use the mechanical properties of the
n bn dn An Yn AYn AYn2 In flange throughout the section:
1 16.0 1.00 16.0 49.5 792 39204 1 E = 10,100 ksi , Ftu = 44 ksi,
2 0.375 48.0 18.0 25.0 450 11250 3456 Fty = 31 ksi, Fcy = 0.9(31) = 27.9 ksi

3 12.0 1.00 12.0 0.5 6 3 1

Totals 46.0 1248 50457 3458

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From Part VI, Table 1-1, the buckling constants for the 27.9(16 – 2.375)(1) = 380.1 k (compressive yield force in
unwelded material are unwelded part of flange)

Bc = 32.6 Bp = 39.0 Bbr = 52.0 19(2.375)(1) = 45.1 k (compressive yield force in welded
Dc = 0.226 Dp = 0.297 Dbr = 0.457 part of flange)
Cc = 95.9 Cp = 87.6 Cbr = 75.8
(19)(1)(0.375) = 7.1 k (compressive yield force in welded
From Table B.4.3, k1 = 0.50, k2 = 2.04 part of web)

For the portion of the cross section in the weld-affected 27.9(50 – 2 – y)(0.375) = 502.2 k – 10.46y
zone, Table A.3.3 gives mechanical properties for 5456-
H321 plate: The sum of the above is 934.5 k – 10.46y.

E = 10,100 ksi , Ftu = 42 ksi , Fty = 19 ksi, Fcy = 19 ksi The tensile yield force is the sum of:

From Part VI, Table 1-2, the buckling constants for the weld 27.9(12 – 2.375)(1) = 268.5 k (tensile yield force in unweld-
affected material are ed part of flange)

Bc = 21.6 Bp = 25.7 Bbr = 34.1 19(2.375)(1) = 45.1 k (tensile yield force in welded part of
Dc = 0.123 Dp = 0.158 Dbr = 0.243 flange)
Cc = 117.7 Cp = 108 Cbr = 93.6
(19)(1)(0.375) = 7.1 k (tensile yield force in welded part of
From Table B.4.3, k1 = 0.50, k2 = 2.04 web)

Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 2.20 on tensile rup- 27.9(y – 2)(0.375) = -20.9 k + 10.46y (tensile yield force in
ture and 1.85 on all other limit states for flexure of bridge- unwelded part of flange)
type structures.
The sum is 299.8 k + 10.46y.
a) Section F.2 addresses the yield and rupture limit states.
Setting the compressive yield force equal to the tensile yield
The plastic neutral axis is located by equating the com-
force,
pressive yield force on the compression side of the plastic
neutral axis and the tensile yield force on the tensile side of 934.5 – 10.46y = 299.8 + 10.46y, y = 634.7/20.92 = 30.33”
the plastic neutral axis. Conservatively use the compressive
yield stress Fcy for both the compressive and tensile yield The yield strength moment Mnp is determined by summing
stresses. the moments in each zone about the plastic neutral axis as
tabulated below:
Designating the distance from the bottom of the section to
the plastic neutral axis as y, the compressive yield force is
the sum of:
Table of Yield Strength Moments
Flange F Welded W Fy w t A=wt Fy A ybar ybar-y Fy A(ybar-y)
or or 2 2
Web W C or T Unwelded U k/in. in. in. in k in. in. in.-k

F C U 27.9 13.625 1 13.63 380.1 49.5 19.16 7,283

F C W 19 2.375 1 2.38 45.1 49.5 19.16 865

W C W 19 1 0.375 0.38 7.1 48.5 18.16 129
W C U 27.9 17.66 0.375 6.62 184.8 39.17 8.83 1,631

617.2
F T U 27.9 9.625 1 9.63 268.5 0.5 29.84 8,013

F T W 19 2.375 1 2.38 45.1 0.5 29.84 1,347

W T W 19 1 0.375 0.38 7.1 1.5 28.84 205
W T U 27.9 28.34 0.375 10.63 296.5 16.17 14.17 4,202

617.3
Mnp = 23,676

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The allowable moment for the yield limit state is Mnp/ = Fcf = Fco (1 – Awz /Ag) + Fcw Awz /Ag
23,676/1.85 = 12,800 in-k.
The gross area of the compression flange is
Since the weld affected area on the compression side of the
neutral axis is same as on the tension side of the neutral axis, Ag = 16(1) = 16 in2
the location of the plastic neutral axis is the same if no part
The weld-affected area of the compression flange is
of the beam were weld affected, all of the beam were weld
affected, or part of the beam is weld affected. Thus the Awz = 2.375 in2
plastic section modulus can be calculated as
Fc f /Ω = [Fco (1 – Awz /Ag) + Fcw Awz /Ag] / Ω
Z = (16”)(1”)(49.5” – 30.33”) + (0.375”)(49” – 30.33”)2/2 +
(12”)(1”)(30.33” – 0.5”) + (0.375”)(30.33” – 1”)2/2 Fcf /Ω = [14.8(1 – 2.375 /16) + 10.3 (2.375) /16]
= 14.1 ksi
Z = 891 in3
Section B.5.5.1 addresses the web.
The yield limit state moment if no part of the section were
weld-affected is The slenderness ratio of the web is

Mnpo = ZFcy = (891 in3)(27.9 k/in2) = 24,870 in-k; Mnpo/ = b/t = (50 – 2)/0.375 = 128
24,870/1.85 = 13,440 in-k
cc = -22.9 +1 = -21.9
The yield limit state moment if all of the section were weld-
affected is co = 27.1 – 1 = 26.9

Mnpw = ZFcyw = (891 in3)(19 k/in2) = 16,930 in-k; Mnpo/ = co /cc = 26.9/-21.9 = -1.23
16,930/1.85 = 9,150 in-k
m = 1.3/(1 – co /cc) = 1.3/(1 – (-1.23)) = 0.58
The rupture limit state moment is determined using the
For the unwelded portion of the web
welded tensile strength of 42 ksi:
k1 Bbr 0.5(52.0)
Mnuw = ZFtu = (891 in3)(42 k/in2) = 37,420 in-k; Mnpo/ = λ2 = = = 98.1
37,420/2.20 = 17,010 in-k mDbr (0.58)(0.457)

b) Section F.3 addresses local buckling. b/t = 128 > 98.1 = λ2, so
k 2 Bbr E 2.04 (52.0)(10,100)
Section B.5.4.1 addresses the flange. The slenderness Fbo = = = 19.9 ksi
ratio of the compression flange is mb / t (0.58)(128)

b/t = (16 – 3/8)/2/1 = 7.8 Fbo / Ω = 19.9/1.85 = 10.8 ksi

For the unwelded portion of the flange For the welded portion of the web
λ1 = (Bp – Fcy)/(5.0Dp) = (39.0 – 27.9)/(5.0(0.297)) = 7.5 k1 Bbr 0.5(34.1)
λ2 = = = 121
mDbr (0.58)(0.243)
k1 Bp 0.50(39.0)
λ2 = = = 13.1
5.0 Dp 5.0(0.297) b/t = 128 > 121 = λ2, so

λ1 = 7.5 < b/t = 7.8 < 13.1 = λ1 , so k 2 Bbr E 2.04 (34.1)(10,100)

Fbo = = = 16.1 ksi
Fco = Bp – 5.0Dp b/t = 39.0 – 5.0(0.297)(7.8) = 27.4 ksi mb / t (0.58)(128)
Fco / Ω = (27.4 ksi)/1.85 = 14.8 ksi
Fbw / Ω = 16.1/1.85 = 8.7 ksi
For the welded portion of the flange
Section B.5.5 provides the strength of the web in
λ1 = (Bp – Fcy)/(5.0Dp) = (25.7 – 19)/(5.0(0.158)) = 8.5 compression as
b/t = 7.8 < 8.5 = λ1 , so Fb = Fbo (1 – Awzc /Agc) + Fbw Awzc /Agc
Fcw / Ω = Fcyw /Ω = (19 ksi)/1.85 = 10.3 ksi
The gross area of the web in compression is
Section B.5.4 provides the strength of the compression
flange as Ag = 0.375(22.9 – 1) = 8.21 in2

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 The weld-affected area of the web in compression is For a beam with no portion weld-affected:

Awz = (1)(0.375) = 0.375 in2 λ = 25.8 < 95.9 = Cc , so

Fb /Ω = [Fbo (1 – Awzc /Agc) + Fbw Awzc /Agc ] / Ω ⎛ λ ⎞ π 2 E λ Sxc

Mnmb = M np ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ +
⎝ Cc ⎠ Cc3
Fb /Ω = [10.8(1 – 0.375 /8.21) + 8.7 (0.375) /8.21]
2
= 10.7 ksi ⎛ 25.8 ⎞ π (10,100)(25.8)(879)
= 24,970 ⎜1 − ⎟+
⎝ 95.9 ⎠ 95.9 3
Section F.3.1 provides the weighted average strength of
the elements. = 20,740 in-k
The moment of inertia of the flanges is Fb = Mnmb /Sx = (20,740 in-k)/(879 in3) = 23.6 k/in2
If = (12)(1)3/12 + (16)(1)3/12 + (16)(1)(22.9 – 0.5)2 + (12) For a beam entirely weld-affected:
(1)(27.1 – 0.5)2 = 16,521 in4
λ = 25.8 < 117.7 = Cc, so
The moment of inertia of the web is
⎛ λ ⎞ π 2 E λ Sxc
Iw = (0.375)(48)3/12 + (0.375)(48)(27.1 – 25)2 = 3535 in4 Mnmb = M np ⎜1 − ⎟⎟ +
⎜ C Cc3
⎝ c ⎠
Mnlb = Fcf If /ccf + Fcw Iw /ccw 2
⎛ 25.8 ⎞ π (10,100)(25.8)(879
= 17.005 ⎜1 − ⎟+
Mnc /Ω = (14.1)(16521)/(22.9 – 0.5) + ⎝ 95.9 ⎠ 95.9 3
(10.7)(3535)/(22.9 – 1) = 12,130 in-k
= 14,940 in-k
c) Section F.4 addresses lateral-torsional buckling. To de-
Fb = Mnmb/Sx = (14,940 in-k)/(879 in3) = 17.0 k/in2
Lb
termine the slenderness ratio λ = , Section F.1.1
ry Cb Section F.4 provides the lateral-torsional buckling strength
of longitudinally welded beams as
allows the bending coefficient Cb to be conservatively
taken as 1. Mn = Mno (1 – Awz /Af) + Mnw (Awz /Af )
Since the compression flange is larger than the tension where
flange, Section F.4.2.2 does not apply. Section F.4.2.5
applies to any beam, so using it: Awz = (1 + 0.375 + 1)(1) + (1)(0.375) = 2.75 in2

Cb π 2EI y ⎡ 2 0.038 JLb

2
Cw ⎤ Af = (16)(1) + (22.9/3 – 1)(0.375) = 18.5 in2
Me = 2
⎢U + U + + ⎥
Lb ⎢ Iy Iy ⎥ Mnmb = 20,740(1 – 2.75/18.5) + 14,940(2.75/18.5)
⎣ ⎦
= 19,880 in-k

Conservatively assume Cb = 1. Mnmb /Ω = 19,880/1.85 = 10,740 in-k

U = C1g0 – C2 β x /2. Section F.4.2.5 permits C1 and C2 to The lateral-torsional buckling stress Fb = Mnmb / Sc
be taken as 0.5, so
Fb =(19,880 in-k /879 in3) = 22.6 k/in2
U = 0.5(27.1 + 7.85) – 0.5(17.9)/2 = 13.0 in.
d) Section F.4.3 addresses interaction between local
(1) π 2(10,100)(485.5) buckling and lateral-torsional buckling.
Me = ×
(120) 2
The flange’s slenderness ratio is
⎡ 0.038(10.2)(120) 2 243,400 ⎤
⎢13.0 + (13.0) 2 + + ⎥ b/t = (16 – 0.375)/2/1 = 7.8
⎢⎣ 485.5 485.5 ⎥
⎦
The flange’s elastic buckling stress given in Section B.5.6
= 131,400 in-k
is
ES xc (10100)(879) π2 E π 2 (10,100)
λ= π =π = 25.8 Fcr = = = 65.5 ksi > 22.6 ksi
Me 131400 (5.0 b /t ) 2 (5.0(7.8)) 2

Lb 120 Because the flange’s elastic buckling stress is not less than
= = 32.5 < λ2 = 1.2Cc = 1.2(103) = 124
ry 3.69

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 the beam’s lateral-torsional buckling stress, the beam’s The tensile moment for fatigue Mf for the tensile stress
flexural capacity is not limited by the interaction between range is
local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling.
Mf = S rd Sw = (8.6 k/in2)(771 in3) = 6630 in-k
The allowable moments are:
If variable amplitude loading occurred, an equivalent
For yielding: Mnp / Ω =12,800 in-k stress range would be calculated to compare to the allow-
For rupture: Mnu / Ω =17,010 in-k able stress range. For example, if the loading were
For lateral-torsional buckling: Mn / Ω =10,740 in-k
For local buckling: Mn / Ω = 12,130 in-k 100,000 cycles 9.5 ksi stress range
50,000 cycles 10.0 ksi stress range
The least of these is 10,740 in-k from lateral-torsional 350,000 cycles 7.1 ksi stress range
________________________________________
buckling.
500,000 cycles at various stress ranges
Allowable moment based on fatigue per Appendix 3
Section 3.3 provides the equivalent stress range Sre for
Figure 3.1 detail 4 is similar to this example. Table 3.1 variable amplitude loading:
indicates that this detail is fatigue category B. Section 3.2
Sre = [(100/500)9.54.84 + (50/500)10.04.84 +
requires that for constant amplitude loading the applied
(350/500)7.14.84]1/4.84 = 8.2 ksi < 8.6 ksi
stress range Sra be less than the allowable stress range S rd :
So this variable amplitude loading does not exceed the
Sra < S rd = Cf N -1/m
allowable stress range.
For category B, Table 3.2 gives Cf = 130 ksi and m =
Selection of allowable moment
4.84, so
Comparing the allowable static (10,390 in-k) and fatigue
S rd = (130 ksi)/(500,000)1/4.84 = 8.6 ksi
(6630 in-k) moments, the allowable moment is 6630 in-k
Assuming that there is no load reversal, the maximum from fatigue.
stress equals the stress range. The section modulus cor-
NOTES: If the shape of the moment diagram is known
responding to the weld on the tension flange is
the lateral-torsional buckling strength could be deter-
Sw = 20,132/(27.1 – 1.0) = 771 in3 mined more precisely by using the bending coefficient Cb
computed according to Section F.4.1.2.

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 Example 17
WELDED BEAM SUBJECT TO FATIGUE
Illustrating Sections 3.1 and 3.2

Figure 17
GIVEN: for the number of cycles, N = 500,000,
1. Welded girder, see Figure 17 Srd = (130)(500,000) –1/4.84 = 8.6 ksi
2. Lateral support spacing: compression flange, 10 ft o.c.
3. Alloy: 5456-H321 The section modulus, Sw corresponding to the weld
4. Structure type: bridge location on the tension flange is:
5. Number of load cycles: 500,000
6. Load applied downward on the compression flange. Sw = 20,132/(27.1 – 1.0) = 771 in3

The allowable moment range for fatigue ΔM is calculated

REQUIRED:
for a tensile stress range at the web.
Allowable moment range for fatigue loading of the beams
shown in Figure 17. ΔM = Srd Sw = 8.6 (771) = 6630 in-k

SOLUTION: If variable amplitude loading occurred, an equivalent stress

range would be calculated and compared to the allowable
a) Beam with no transverse brackets
stress range. For example, if the loading were
Specification Figure 3.1 Example 4 is a girder with continu-
100,000 cycles 9.5 ksi stress range
ous welds attaching web and flange, similar to that shown in
50,000 cycles 10.0 ksi stress range
Figure 17a. The stress category is selected from Table 3.1.
350,000 cycles 7.1 ksi stress range
The category for a built-up member (see general condition ________________________________________
in left column) with continuous weld parallel to the direc- 500,000 cycles at various stress ranges
tion of stress for example numbers 3, 4, and 5 (right col-
Section 3.3 requires that the equivalent stress range Sre
umn) is B.
shall not exceed the allowable stress range Srd
Section 3.2 requires for constant amplitude loading that the
Sre = [(100/500)9.5 4.84 + (50/500)10 4.84
applied stress range Sra shall not exceed the allowable stress
+ (350/500)7.1 4.84] 1/4.84
range Srd
Sre = 8.2 ksi < 8.6 ksi = Srd
Srd = Cf N –1/m
So this variable amplitude loading does not exceed the
Where, for Stress Category B,
allowable stress range.
Cf = 130 ksi and m = 4.84

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b) Beam with transverse brackets for the number of cycles, N = 500,000,

Specification Figure 3.1 Example 6 is a girder with a Srd = (278) (500,000)–1/3.64 = 7.6 ksi
similar detail at the bottom of the stiffener to that shown
in Figure 17b. The category corresponding to Example 6 The section modulus at the bottom end of the stiffener is:
is C.
Sw = (20,132)/(27.1 – 4.0) = 872 in3
Section 3.2 requires for constant amplitude loading that
The allowable moment range for fatigue ΔM is calculated
the applied stress range Sra shall not exceed the allowable
for a tensile stress range at the end of the stiffener.
stress range Srd
ΔM = (7.6 k/in2) (872 in3) = 6630 in-k
Srd = Cf N–1/m

Where, for stress category C,

Cf = 278 ksi and m = 3.64

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 Example 18
PIPE IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3, and F.4

Figure 18
GIVEN: For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
1. Concentrated load of 5.5 k at mid-span. Mnu /Ω = ZFtu / k t / Ω
2. Span: 10 ft, simply supported. = (11.3 in3)(38 k/in2)/1/1.95
3. Alloy: 6061-T6. = 220.2 in-k.
4. Structure type: building
The allowable moment for local buckling determined using
REQUIRED: Section F.3.3 is based on Section B.5.5.4.
Is a 6 in. schedule 40 pipe adequate for the required load? Rb /t = (6.625 – 0.280)/2/0.280 = 11.3 < 55.4 = λ1, and
SOLUTION: Fb /Ω = 39.3 – 2.7(Rb /t)1/2 = 30.2 ksi

Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile The allowable moment for local buckling is
rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for fl exure of build-
ing-type structures. Allowable stresses for 6061-T6 given Mnlb / Ω = SFb / Ω = (8.50 in3)(30.2 k/in2) = 256.7 in-k
in Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.
For closed shapes, the slenderness for lateral-torsional
Section F.2 addresses the limit states of yielding and rup- buckling using Section F.4.2.3 is
ture. Part V Table 22 shows, for a 6 in. schedule 40 pipe: Lb Sxc (120)(8.50)
λ = 2.3 = 2.3 =
D = 6.625 in, t = 0.280 in., S = 8.50 in3, Z = 11.3 in3, Cb Iy J (1) (28.1)(56.2)
Iy = 28.1 in4, J = 56.2 in4
= 11.7 < 66 = Cc , so
For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
lesser of
⎛ λ ⎞ π 2E λ Sxc
3 2 Mnmb = Mnp ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ +
Mnp /Ω = 1.5SFty /Ω = 1.5(8.50 in )(35 k/in )/1.65 = 270 in-k
⎝ Cc ⎠ Cc3
Mnp /Ω = ZFty /Ω = (11.3 in3)(35 k/in2)/1.65 = 239.7 in-k 2
⎛ 11.7 ⎞ π (10,100)(11.7)(8.50)
= 395.5 ⎜1 − ⎟+
The lesser of these is Mnp /Ω = 239.7 in-k, and ⎝ 66 ⎠ 66 3
Mnp = (239.7 in-k)(1.65) = 395.5 in-k.
= 359.9 in-k

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The allowable moment for lateral-torsional buckling is From Part VI Beam Formulas Case 1, a simply supported
Mnmb / = 359.9/1.65 = 218.1 in-k beam with a concentrated load P at center, the maximum
moment is
The allowable moment is the least of the allowable moments
for yielding (239.7), rupture (220.2), local buckling (256.7), M = PL/4 = (5.5)(10)(12)/4 = 165 in-k < 218.1 in-k
and lateral-torsional buckling (218.1), which is 218.1 in-k.
The 6 in. schedule 40 pipe is therefore satisfactory.

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 Example 19
RECTANGULAR BAR IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections F.2 and F.4

Figure 19

GIVEN: Section F.2 addresses the limit states of yielding and

rupture:
1. Beam section: 1.50 in. deep rectangular bar.
2. Load 0.500 k at mid-span. For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
3. Span: 36 in. lesser of
4. Ends of beam restrained against rotation and translation,
lateral support at ends only. 1.5Fcy S/Ω = 1.5(23.4)(0.094)/1.65 = 2.0 in-k
5. Alloy: 5052-H34.
6. Structure type: building and ZFc y / Ω = (0.141)(23.4)/1.65 = 2.0 in-k,
so Mnp /Ω = 2.0 in-k, and
REQUIRED: Mnp = (2.0)(1.65) = 3.3 in-k.
The thinnest standard bar with an allowable load that For the limit state of tensile rupture, the allowable moment
exceeds the applied load. is
SOLUTION: Mnu /Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω
From Part V Table 28 provides section properties for a = (0.141 in3)(34 k/in2)/1/1.95 = 2.46 in-k.
rectangle
Since the least of these is 2.0 in-k < 2.25 in-k, a thicker bar
Try a 1/4 in. thick bar is needed.

A = td = 0.25 (1.50) = 0.375 in2 Try a 3/8 in. thick bar

Ix = td 3/12 = (0.25)(1.5)3/12 = 0.070 in4 A = 0.563 in2

Sx = td 2/6 = (0.25)(1.5)2/6 = 0.094 in3 Ix = 0.105 in4

Z = td 2/4 = (0.25)(1.5)2/4 = 0.141 in3 Sx = (0.375)(1.5)2/6 = 0.141 in3

From Part VI, Beam Formulas Case 26, concentrated load P Z = (0.375)(1.5)2/4 = 0.211 in3
at center, the maximum moment is
For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
Mmax = PL/8 = (0.5)(36)/8 = 2.25 in-k lesser of

Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile rup- 1.5Fcy S/Ω= 1.5(0.9)(26)(0.141)/1.65 = 3.0 in-k
ture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of building-
and ZFc y / Ω = (0.211)(0.9)(26)/1.65 = 3.0 in-k,
type structures. Part VI Table 2-10 gives allowable stresses
so Mn p /Ω = 3.0 in-k, and
for 5052-H34.
Mn p = (3.0)(1.65) = 4.95 in-k.

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For the limit state of tensile rupture, the allowable moment ⎛ ⎞ π 2E λ Sxc
Mnmb = Mnp ⎜1 − λ ⎟⎟ +
is ⎜ C Cc3
⎝ c ⎠
Mnu /Ω = ZFt u / kt/ Ω 2
⎛ 32.5 ⎞ π (10,100)(32.5) (0.141)
= (0.211 in3)(34 k/in2)/1/1.95 = 4.95 ⎜1 − ⎟+
⎝ 105 ⎠ 105 3
= 3.68 in-k.
= 3.81 in-k
Now check the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling
addressed in Section F.4.2.4. Using equation F.4-2, since
The allowable moment for lateral-torsional buckling is
the maximum moment occurs at the midspan and the
Mnmb /  = 3.81/1.65 = 2.31 in-k
moment is zero at the 1/4 and 3/4 points on the span,
The allowable moment is the least of the allowable moments
Cb = 12.5(2.25)/[2.5(2.25) + 3(0) + 4(2.25) + 3(0)] = 1.92
for yielding (3.0), rupture (3.68), and lateral-torsional buck-
2.3 Lb d 2.3 36(1.5) ling (2.31), which is 2.31 in-k > 2.25 in-k.
λ= = = 32.5 < λ2 = 105
t Cb 0.375 1.92 Use a 3/8 in. thick bar.

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 Example 20
RECTANGULAR TUBE IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3, and F.4

w = 20 lb/ft2

RT 4 x 2 x 0.188
12'-0" S S Tube of Alloy
6063-T5

Figure 20

GIVEN: and ZFcy/  = (2.67)(16)/1.65 = 25.9 in-k, so

Mnp / = 25.9 in-k, and
1. 4 in. × 2 in rectangular tube with 0.188 in. wall
Mnp = (25.9)(1.65) = 42.7 in-k.
(RT 4 × 2 × 0.188)
2. Load: 20 lb/ft2 total live and dead loads. For the limit state of tensile rupture, the allowable moment
3. 12 ft simple span, laterally unsupported. is
4. Alloy: 6063-T5.
5. Structure type: building Mnu /Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω = (2.67 in3)(22 k/in2)/1/1.95 = 30.1 in-k.

REQUIRED: From Section F.3, the local buckling strength is determined

using Part VI Table 2-20:
The maximum allowable spacing of the beams.
Section B.5.4.2 addresses the flange; b/t = 8.6 < 25.6 = λ1,
SOLUTION: so Fb / Ω = 9.7 ksi
Part I Table A.3.3 provides mechanical properties for 6063-
T5: Section B.5.5.1 addresses the web; b/t = 19.3 < 36.1 = λ1, so
Fb / Ω = 14.5 ksi
Fcy = Fty = 16 k/in2, Ft u = 22 k/in2
Conservatively use the lesser of these in lieu of the weighted
Part V Table 24 provides section properties for rectangular average compressive strength given in Section F.3.1; then
tubes: the allowable moment for local buckling is

Ix = 4.23 in4, Sx = 2.11 in3, Iy = 1.37 in4, J = 3.19 in4, and Mnlb /Ω = SFb / Ω = (2.11)(9.7) = 20.5 in-k
Z = 2.67 in3
Section F.4.2.3 addresses lateral-torsional buckling of
The slenderness ratio of the flange is closed shapes. Conservatively using Cb = 1.0,
b/t = (2 – 2 (0.188))/0.188 = 8.6

The slenderness ratio of the web is Lb S xc (144)(2.11)

b/t = (4 – 2(0.188))/0.188 = 19.3 λ = 2.3 = 2 .3 = 27.7 < 99 = Cc,
Cb I y J (1) (1.37)(3.19)
Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile so
rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of ⎛ ⎞ π 2E λ Sxc
λ
building-type structures. Part VI Table 2-20 gives allow- Mnmb = Mnp ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ +
able stresses for 6063-T5. ⎝ Cc ⎠ Cc3
2
⎛ 27.7⎞ π (10,100)(27.7)(2.1
From Section F.2, for the limit state of yielding, the = 42. 7 ⎜1 − ⎟ +
allowable moment is the lesser of ⎝ 99 ⎠ 99 3

1.5Fcy S /Ω = 1.5(16)(2.11)/1.65 = 30.7 in-k = 36.8 in-k

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The allowable moment for lateral-torsional buckling is Section G.2 addresses web shear
Mn m b / Ω = 36.8/1.65 = 22.3 in-k
b/t = (4 – 2(0.188))/0.188 = 19.3 < λ1 = 43.6
The allowable moment is the least of the allowable moments
for yielding (25.9), rupture (30.1), local buckling (20.5), Fs /Ω = 5.8 ksi
and lateral-torsional buckling (22.3), which is 20.5 in-k.
Web area
Part V Beam Formulas Case 6, simply supported beam with
A = 2(0.188)(4) = 1.5 in2
uniform load, has a maximum moment of
V = (Fs /Ω) A = 5.8(1.5) = 8.7 k
M = WL/8, which can be written as
W2 = 2V = 2(8.7) = 17.4 k = allowable load for shear.
W = 8M/L
Since W1 < W2 , flexure controls
W1 = 8(20.5)/144 = 1.14 k = allowable total load for
flexure W = W1 = 1.14 k, total allowable load per beam.

The allowable spacing can now be determined from the

given unit load of 20 lb/ft2 or 0.020 k/ft2

Spacing = (1.14 k)/[0.020 k/ft2)(12 ft)]

= 4.75 ft o.c. = 57 in.

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 Example 21
I-BEAM IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections F.2 and F.3

Figure 21

The flange’s slenderness ratio is

GIVEN: b/t = (6 – 0.25)/2/0.41 = 7.0
1. Uniform load: 1.0 k/ft including dead load. The web’s slenderness ratio is
2. Span: 18 ft, simply supported. b/t = (10.0 – 2(0.41))/0.25 = 36.7
3. Compression flange is adequately supported laterally.
4. Alloy: 6061-T6. Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile
5. Structure type: building rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of
building-type structures. Because the compression flange
REQUIRED: is laterally supported, the beam is not subject to lateral-
Size of lightest Aluminum Association standard I-beam torsional buckling. Allowable stresses for 6061-T6 given in
with an allowable load that exceeds 1.0 k/ft. Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.

SOLUTION: Section F.2 addresses yielding and rupture:

Part VI Beam Formulas Case 6 gives the total load W as For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
lesser of
W = wL = 1.0(18.0) = 18.0 k
1.5Fc y S/Ω = 1.5(35)(26.4)/1.65 = 840 in-k
Part VI Table 4-2 indicates that an I 10 × 8.65 will support
22.05 k at a 17 ft span; therefore, it may be the desired beam. and ZFc y S/Ω = (28.9)(35)/1.65 = 613 in-k,
The allowable load for an 18 ft span is not tabulated, but it so Mnp /Ω = 613 in-k.
can be determined as follows:
For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
Maximum moment,
Mnu /Ω = ZFtu / kt /Ω = (28.9)(38)/1/1.95 = 563 in-k.
M = WL/8 = (18 k)(18 ft)(12 in/ft)/8 = 486 in-k
Section F.3 addresses local buckling:
Part V, Table 8, gives the section properties:
Section B.5.4.1 addresses the flange; b/t = 7.0 > 6.7 = λ1, so
Sx = 26.4 in3, Z = 28.9 in3, b = 6 in., tw = 0.25 in., tf = 0.41 in. Fb /Ω = 27.3 – 0.91(7.0) = 20.9 ksi

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Section B.5.5.1 addresses the web; The least of these allowable moments is 552 in-k > 486 in-k.
b/t = 36.7 > 33.1 = λ 1,
so Fb /Ω = 40.5 – 0.262(36.7) = 30.9 ksi Since the required moment (486 in-k) is less than the
available moment (552 in-k), the trial beam is satisfactory.
Conservatively using the lesser of these, the allowable
moment for local buckling is NOTE: Section G.2 should be also be checked. It will be
more likely to govern for short, heavily loaded beams.
Mnlb / = SFb/Ω = (26.4)(20.9) = 552 in-k

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 Example 22
UNSYMMETRIC BEAM IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections B.5.4.1, B.5.4.2, B.5.4.3, B.5.5.1, F.2, and F.3
is laterally supported, the beam is not subject to lateral-
torsional buckling. Allowable stresses for 6061-T6 given in
Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.

Section F.2 addresses yielding and rupture:

For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the

least of

1.5Fcy Sc /Ω= 1.5(35)(2.24)/1.65 = 71.3 in-k

1.5Fty St /Ω= 1.5(35)(1.39)/1.65 = 44.2 in-k

and ZFcy /Ω = (1.943)(35)/1.65 = 41.2 in-k,

so Mnp /Ω = 41.2 in-k.

For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is

Mnu / Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω = (1.943)(38)/1/1.95 = 37.9 in-k.

Section F.3 addresses local buckling.

Section B.5.5.1 addresses local buckling of elements in

Figure 22 flexure (the web). The web slenderness is

b/t = (6 – 2(0.072))/0.072 = 81.3

GIVEN:
1. Beam of cross section shown in Figure 22 cc = - (6 – 3.7) = -2.3; co = 3.7
2. Continuous lateral support of compression (top) flange co/cc = 3.7/(-2.3) = -1.6 < -1, so
3. Alloy: 6061-T6 m = 1.3/(1 – co/cc)
4. Structure type: building = 1.3/(1 – (3.7/-2.3)) = 0.50
REQUIRED: λ1 = (Bbr – 1.5Fc y ) /(mDbr)
Allowable moment. = (66.8 – 1.5(35)) /(0.5(0.665) = 43.0

SOLUTION: λ2 = k1Bbr /(mDbr) = 0.5(66.8)/[(0.5)(0.665)] = 100.5

The section properties are computed as shown in example Since λ1 = 43.0 < 81.3 < 100.5 = λ2 ,
16 with the following results:
Fb /Ω = [Bbr – mDbr (b/t)] / Ω
ct = 3.70 in. Ix = 5.15 in4 = (66.8 – 0.5(0.665)(81.3))/1.65 = 24.1 ksi
The section modulus for the compression flange is The allowable moment based on web compression is
Sc = I/cc = 5.15/(6 – 3.70) = 2.24 in3.
Mwlb = (24.1)(5.15)/(6 – 3.70 – 0.072) = 55.7 in-k
The section modulus for the tension flange is
St = I/ct = 5.15/(3.70) = 1.39 in3. The distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the
flange stiffener is
In a similar fashion, the plastic neutral axis is determined to
be located at 4.63 in. from the bottom of the section, and the c = 6 – 3.70 – 0.072 – 0.5(0.7 – 0.072) = 1.91 in.
plastic section modulus Z is determined as 1.943 in3.
The stiffener can be treated as an element in uniform
Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile compression if the distance from the neutral axis to the
rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of centroid of the stiffener is greater than 75% of the distance
building-type structures. Because the compression flange from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber.

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The distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber rs 0.363
c = 6 – 3.70 = 2.3 in.; 0.75(2.3) = 1.72 in. < 1.91 in., so treat ρst = = = 0.797 1.0
⎛b / t ⎞ ⎛ 26.25 ⎞
the stiffener as an element in uniform compression. 1.5t ⎜⎜ + 3⎟⎟ 1.5(0.072) ⎜ + 3⎟
⎝ λe ⎠ ⎝ 21.7 ⎠
Section B.5.4.1 addresses local buckling of elements in
uniform compression supported on one edge. The stiffener’s FUT / Ω = allowable stress for flange as if supported on one
slenderness is edge per B.5.4.1

b/t = (0.70 – 0.072)/0.072 = 8.7, which is between 6.7 = λ1 b/t = 26.25 > 10.5 = λ2, so
and 10.5 = λ2, so
FUT /Ω = 186/26.25 = 7.1 ksi
Fb /  = 27.3 – 0.91(8.7) = 19.4 ksi
FST /Ω = allowable stress for flange as supported on both
The allowable moment based on stiffener local buckling is edges per B.5.4.2
Mslb = (19.4)(5.15)/(6 – 3.70 – 0.072) = 44.8 in-k
λ1 = 20.8 < b/t = 26.25 < 33 = λ2
Section B.5.4.3 addresses local buckling of elements
supported on one edge and with a stiffener at the other edge. FST / Ω = 27.3 – 0.291 (b/t) = 27.3 – 0.291(26.25)

The flange element width is b = (4 – 3(0.072))/2 = 1.89 in. FST / Ω = 19.7 ksi

The depth of the stiffener is Ds = 0.70 – 0.072 = 0.628 in. Fc / Ω = FUT /Ω + (FST /Ω – FUT /Ω)ρST  FST

Ds /b = 0.628/1.89 = 0.33 < 0.8, so Section B.5.4.3 applies. Fc / Ω = 7.1 + (19.7 – 7.1) (0.797) = 17.1 ksi

E 10,100 Mflb = (17.1)(5.15)/(6 – 3.70 – (0.072/2)) = 38.9 in-k

λe = 1.28 = 1.28 = 21.7
Fcy 35

b/t = 1.89/0.072 = 26.25 The smallest of the allowable moments is for the limit
state of rupture, so the allowable moment is
ds sin θ 0.7 − 0.072
rs = = = 0.363 M = 37.9 in-k
3 3
NOTE: Shear stress should be checked using Section G.2.
2λe = 43.5 > 26.25 = b/t > 21.7 = λe, so

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 Example 23
CHANNEL IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections B.5.4.1, B.5.5.1, B.5.5.2, F.2, and F.3

Figure 23
GIVEN: and ZFcy / Ω = (0.435)(25)/1.65 = 6.59 in-k,
so Mnp /Ω = 5.52 in-k.
1. 2.5 in. × 2 in. × 0.125 in. channels as shown in Figure 23
2. Alloy: 6063-T6 For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
3. Structure type: building
4. Channel has continuous lateral brace. Mnu / Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω = (0.435)(30)/1/1.95 = 6.69 in-k.

REQUIRED: Section F.3 addresses local buckling.

The allowable positive moment about the X axis for each Section B.5.5.2 addresses elements in flexure (the web) with
channel shown in Figure 23 the tension edge supported and the compression edge free.
The web slenderness is
SOLUTION:
b/t = (2 – 0.125)/0.125 = 15,
Part I, channel without stiffener lips:
which is between λ1 = 6.5 and λ2 = 23 so
The section properties are computed using the method Fb /Ω = 27.9 – 0.81(b/t) = 15.7 ksi
shown in example 16 with the following results:
The allowable moment for local buckling is
cc = 1.34 in. to the top fiber Mnlb = (15.7)(0.325)/1.34 = 3.81 in-k

I = 0.325 in4, Sc = I/cc = 0.325/1.34 = 0.243 in3, The least of the allowable moments is Mnlb = 3.81 in-k, so
St = I/ct = 0.325/(2 – 1.34) = 0.485 in3, Z = 0.435 in3 3.81 in-k is the allowable moment.

Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile Part II, channel with stiffener lips:
rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of
The section properties are computed using the method
building-type structures. Allowable stresses for 6063-T6
shown in example 16 with the following results:
given in Part VI Table 2-21 are used below.
c = 1.20 in. to the top fiber
Section F.2 addresses yielding and rupture.
I = 0.461 in4, Sc = I/cc = 0.461/1.20 = 0.384 in3,
For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
St = I/ct = 0.461/(2 – 1.20) = 0.576 in3, Z = 0.566 in3
least of
Section F.2 addresses yielding and rupture.
1.5Fcy Sc /Ω = 1.5(25)(0.243)/1.65 = 5.52 in-k
For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
1.5Fty St /Ω= 1.5(25)(0.485)/1.65 = 11.0 in-k
least of

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1.5Fcy Sc /Ω = 1.5(25)(0.384)/1.65 = 8.73 in-k b/t = (2 – 2(0.125))/0.125 = 14

1.5Fty St /Ω = 1.5(25)(0.576)/1.65 = 13.1 in-k cc = -1.20

and ZFcy /Ω = (0.566)(25)/1.65 = 8.58 in-k, co = 2 – 1.20 = 0.8

so Mnp /Ω = 8.58 in-k.
co /cc = 0.8/(-1.2) = -0.67
For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
m = 1.15 + co /(2cc) = 1.15 + 0.5(-0.67) = 0.82
Mnu / Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω = (0.566)(30)/1/1.95 = 8.71 in-k.
λ1 = [Bbr – 1.5Fcy]/(mDbr)
Section F.3 addresses local buckling. = [46.1 – 1.5(25)]/[(0.82)(0.381)] = 27.5

Section B.5.4.1 addresses local buckling of elements in uni- Since b/t = 14 < λ1 = 27.5, Fb /Ω = 22.7 ksi
form compression supported on one edge (the lip). The lip
slenderness is The allowable moment based on web local buckling is
Mnwlf / = (22.7)(0.461)/(1.20 – 0.125) = 9.7 in-k.
b/t = (0.50 – 0.125)/0.125 = 3 < λ1 = 7.3,
so Fb /Ω = 15.2 ksi The least of the allowable moments is for the limit state of
flange local buckling , so 5.8 in-k is the allowable moment.
The allowable moment based on lip local buckling is
Mnflb / Ω = (15.2)(0.461)/1.20 = 5.8 in-k NOTES: The use of Section B.5.5.1 assumes that the lip pro-
vides lateral support at the top of the web. Section B.5.5.5
Section B.5.5.1 addresses elements in flexure (the web) may be used to determine the local buckling strength more
supported on both edges. The web slenderness is precisely and check this assumption.

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 Example 24
ALLOWABLE WEB STRESS IN A WELDED BEAM
Illustrating Section B.5.5.1

b/t = 72/0.190 = 379

Section B.5.5 states that for welded elements in flexure, the

stress corresponding to the flexural compression strength
is

Fb = Fbo(1 – Awzc /Agc) + Fbw Awzc /Agc

where

Fbo = stress corresponding to the flexural compression

strength calculated using Section B.5.5.1 for an element if
no part of the cross section were weld-affected. Using Part
VI Table 2-19 for unwelded allowable stresses, since b/t =
379 > 77 = λ2:

Fbo /Ω = 1563/(b/t) = 1563/379 = 4.1 ksi

Fbw = stress corresponding to the flexural compression

strength calculated using Section B.5.5.1 for an element
if the entire cross section were weld-affected. Since the
web is less than 0.375” thick, regardless of the filler used,
use Part VI Table 2-19W for the welded allowable stresses.
Since b/t = 379 > 123 = λ2:

Fbw /Ω = 982/(b/t) = 982/379 = 2.6 ksi

Awzc = cross sectional area of the weld-affected zone in

compression

Awzc = (1 in.)(0.190 in.) = 0.19 in2

Agc = gross cross sectional area of the element in

compression.

Agc = (72 in.)(0.190 in.)/2 = 6.84 in2

Fb = Fbo (1 – Awzc /Agc) + Fbw Awzc /Agc

Figure 24 Fb /Ω = (4.1)(1 – 0.19 /6.84) + (2.6)(0.19) /6.84
= 4.1 ksi
GIVEN: NOTES: Lateral-torsional buckling must also be checked
1. Beam cross section as shown in Figure 24 using Section F.4.
2. Alloy of web: 6061-T6
3. Structure type: building Filler metal for welds should be selected from Table M.9.1.

REQUIRED:
Allowable compressive flexural stress at the extreme fiber
of web.

SOLUTION:
Assume that the neutral axis is approximately at the mid-
height of the web. For the web,

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 Example 25
ALLOWABLE WEB STRESS IN A WELDED BEAM WITH STIFFENED WEB
Illustrating Section B.5.5.3
Section B.5.5 states that for welded elements in flexure, the
stress corresponding to the flexural compression strength is

Fb = Fbo (1 – Awzc /Agc) + Fbw Awzc /Agc

where

Fbo = stress corresponding to the flexural compression

strength calculated using Section B.5.5.3 for an element if
no part of the cross section were weld-affected. Using Part
VI Table 2-19 for unwelded allowable stresses, since b/t =
379 > 173 = λ2:

Fbo /  = 3502/(b/t) = 3502/379 = 9.2 ksi

Fbw = stress corresponding to the flexural compression

strength calculated using Section B.5.5.3 for an element if
the entire cross section were weld-affected. Since the web is
less than 0.375” thick, regardless of the filler used, use Part
VI Table 2-19W for the welded allowable stresses. Since b/t
= 379 > 275 = λ2:

Fbw /  = 2201/(b/t) = 2201/379 = 5.8 ksi

Awzc = cross sectional area of the weld-affected zone in

compression

Awzc = (1 in.)(0.190 in.) = 0.19 in2

Agc = gross cross sectional area of the element in

compression.

Agc = (72 in.)(0.190 in.)/2 = 6.84 in2

Figure 25 Fb = Fbo(1 – Awzc /Agc) + Fbw Awzc /Agc

Fb /Ω = (9.2)(1 – 0.19 /6.84) + (5.8)(0.19) /6.84

= 9.1 ksi
GIVEN:
Section B.5.5.3 provides requirements for the longitudinal
1. Beam cross section as shown in Figure 25.
stiffener
2. Neutral axis of beam is at mid-height of web.
3. Vertical stiffener spacing 10 ft o.c. α s = 3.5, b = 72 in., t = 0.190 in., f = 9.1 ksi,
4. Alloy of web: 6061-T6. s = 10 ft = 120 in.
5. Structure type: building
AL = 5.25(2.50) – 5.06(2.12) + 0.19(1.00) = 2.59 in2
REQUIRED:
0.02 αS ftb 3 ⎡⎛ 6 AL ⎞⎛ s ⎞ ⎤
2
1. Allowable web stress at the toe of the compression flange. IL = ⎢⎜1 + ⎟⎜ ⎟ + 0.4⎥
2. Confirm adequacy of the longitudinal stiffener. E ⎢⎣⎝ bt ⎠⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦

0.02(3.5)(9.1)(0.19)(72) 3 ⎡⎛ 6(2.59) ⎞⎛ 120 ⎞

2
⎤
SOLUTION: = ⎜
⎢⎜ +1 ⎟⎜ ⎟ + 0.4⎥
10,100 ⎟
For the web, b/t = 72/0.190 = 379 ⎣⎢⎝ 72(0.19) ⎠⎝ 72 ⎠ ⎦⎥

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IL = 28.3 in4 = the required moment of inertia of the The required distance from the toe of the compression
longitudinal stiffener. flange to the centroid of the stiffener is

Actual moment of inertia = (5.253(2.50) – 5.063(2.12) + 0.4(72)/2 = 14.4 in.

0.193(1.00))/3 = 29.0 in4
NOTES: The notes of example 24 also apply to this
The stiffener is therefore satisfactory. example.

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 Example 26
I-BEAM WITH WEB SHEAR CONTROLLING
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3, and G.2

Figure 26

GIVEN: Section F.2 addresses yielding and rupture:

1. 8 in. × 5 in. Aluminum Association standard I-beam For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
weighing 6.18 lb/ft (I 8 × 6.18) lesser of
2. Span: 4 ft, simply supported at ends.
3. Compression flange continuously laterally supported. 1.5Fcy S/Ω = 1.5(35)(14.9)/1.65 = 474 in-k
4. Alloy: 6061-T6.
5. Structure type: building and ZFcy /Ω = (16.5)(35)/1.65 = 350 in-k,
so Mnp /Ω = 350 in-k.
REQUIRED:
For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
Allowable uniform load.
Mnu /Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω = (16.5)(38)/1/1.95 = 322 in-k.
SOLUTION:
Section F.3 addresses local buckling.
From Part V, Table 8, Aluminum Association standard I-
beams. Section B.5.4.1 addresses the flange; b/t = 6.8 > 6.7 = λ1, so
Fb /Ω = 27.3 – 0.91(6.8) = 21.1 ksi
d = 8.00 in., b = 5.00 in., A = 5.26 in2, tf = 0.35 in.,
tw = 0.23 in., Ix = 59.7 in4, Sx = 14.9 in3, Z = 16.5 in3 Section B.5.5.1 addresses the web; b/t = 31.7 < 33.1 = λ1, so
Fb /Ω = 31.8 ksi
For the flange, b/t = (5.00 – 0.23)/2/0.35 = 6.8
The least of these is 21.1 ksi so the allowable moment for
For the web, b/t = (8.00 – 2(0.35))/0.23 = 31.7 local buckling is
Allowable stresses for 6061-T6 given in Part VI Table 2-19 Mnlb / Ω = SF / Ω = 21.1(14.9) = 314 in-k
are used below.
The allowable moment is the least of the allowable mo-
Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile ments for yielding (350 in-k), rupture (322 in-k), and local
rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of buckling (314 in-k), which is 314 in-k.
building-type structures. Because the compression flange
is laterally supported, the beam is not subject to lateral-
torsional buckling.

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Section G.1 establishes a safety factor of 1.65 for shear of Since w1, the allowable load for flexure, is greater than w2,
building-type structures. Section G.2 addresses shear in flat the allowable load for shear, the allowable load is w2 = 11.7
webs supported on both edges. k/ft.

For b/t = 31.7 < λ1 = 35.3, NOTES: Section F.3.1, the weighted average flexural
Fs /Ω = 12.7 ksi, allowable web shear stress. strength, could be used to determine a more precise and
less conservative flexural strength. Since shear controlled,
Allowable shear = however, using Section F.3.1 would not result in a greater
(Fs /Ω)Aw = (12.7 k/in2)(8)(0.23 in2) = 23.4 k allowable distributed load on the beam.
From Part VI, Beam Formulas Case 6, for a simply
supported beam with a uniform load,

M = wL2/8, which can be written as w1 = 8M/L2, when w

is unknown

V = wL/2, shear at end of beam. Rearranging, w2 = 2V/L

w1 = 8M/L2= 8(314/12)/42 = 13.1 k/ft for flexure.

w2 = 2V/L = 2(23.4)/4 = 11.7 k/ft for shear

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 Example 27
WELDED CONNECTION
Illustrating Section J.2

Figure 27
GIVEN: The length of the end-loaded fillet weld is
6 in. < 100(0.375 in.) = 37.5 in.,
1. Welded connection as shown in Figure 27
which does not exceed the maximum effective length
2. Longitudinal weld length 6 in. (each side), transverse
prescribed in Section J.2.2.2.
weld length 4 in.
3. Weld size: Sw = 3/8 in. equal leg fillet Section J.2.5 establishes the nominal strength of a fillet
4. Base metal: 6061-T6 weld Rn as the lesser of the base material strength for the
5. Filler alloy: 4043 limit states of tensile rupture and shear rupture and the weld
6. Structure type: building metal strength for the limit state of rupture as follows:

REQUIRED: (a) For the base metal

Determine the allowable force P on the connection. Rn = Fn BM ABM
SOLUTION: where
Section J.2 establishes the allowable strength of welded
FnBM = nominal stress of the base metal corresponding to
connections as Rn /Ω, where Ω = 1.95 for building-type
its welded ultimate strength from Table A.3.3
structures.
For base metal in shear,
Section J.2.2.1 defines the effective throat of a fillet weld;
FnBM = 0.6Ft uw = 0.6(24 ksi) = 14.4 ksi
the effective throat for an equal leg fillet is
ABM = cross-sectional area of the base metal =
Swe = 0.707Sw
SwLwe = (0.375 in.)(16 in.) = 6.0 in2
Swe = 0.707(0.375 in.) = 0.265 in.
Rn =(6.0 in2)(14.4 k/in2) = 86.4 k
Section J.2.2.2 defines the effective length Lwe :
(b) For the weld metal
Lwe = 2(6 in.) + 4 in. = 16 in. > 4Sw = 4(0.375 in.) = 1.5 in.,
Rn = Fnw Awe
so the full length of the weld is effective.
where

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 Fnw = nominal stress of the weld metal corresponding to NOTES: The strength of aluminum fillet welds is
its ultimate strength from Table A.3.6 usually governed by the strength of the filler alloy, as in this
example. Therefore, the joint strength can be increased by
Fnw = 0.6(0.85Ftuw ) = (0.6)(0.85)(24 k/in2) = 12.2 k/in2 using a stronger filler, such as 5356. Table M.9.1 shows
which fillers may be used.
Awe = effective area of the weld =
S weL we = (0.265 in.)(16 in.) = 4.24 in2

Rn = Fnw Awe = (12.2 k/in2)(4.24 in2) = 51.7 k

The lesser of these is 51.7 k, so

P = Rn / Ω = (51.7 k/in.)/1.95 = 26.5 k

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 Example 28
OPEN SHAPE IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections F.2, F.3, and F.4

GIVEN: At any point x between supports 1 and 2,

1. Twin span curtainwall I-beam as shown in Figure 28d wx 2 ⎛ 3 ⎞ wx 2
2. Beam cross section and properties as given in Figure 28e M ( x) = R1 x − = ⎜ ⎟ wLx −
3. Uniform wind load of 26.3 lb/ft2. Load must be
2 ⎝8⎠ 2
applied as both a pressure (positive inward) and
wL2 (11.0)(150) 2
suction (negative) loading. Beams are spaced 5 ft o.c. Mmax = = = 30.9 in-k
4. Lateral bracing provided at anchors and at horizontals 8 8
5. Alloy: 6063-T5 9 9(11.0)(150) 2
6. Structure type: building M1 = wL2 = = 17.4 in-k
128 128

REQUIRED:
Check the given I-beam's ability to carry the wind load Per Section F.1, the available flexural strength of members
safely. is the least of the available strengths for the limit states
of yielding, rupture, local buckling, and lateral-torsional
SOLUTION: buckling. These available strengths are tabulated below.
From Part VI, Beam Formulas Case 36, continuous beam of For local buckling:
two equal spans-uniformly distributed load:
For the interior flange, Section B.5.4.3, flat elements with
Load, w = (26.3 lb/ft2) (5 ft) (1 ft/12 in.) = 11.0 lb/in. (posi- one edge supported and one edge with stiffener, applies if
tive and negative) Ds /b < 0.8; however,

Ds /b = (0.625 – 0.125)/[(1.75 – 2(0.375) – 0.125)/2]

= 0.5/0.4375 = 1.14 > 0.8,

so Section B.5.4.3 cannot be applied. Using instead Section

B.5.4.1, flat elements supported on one edge,

b/t = (1.75 – 0.125)/2/0.125 = 6.5 < 8.2 = λ1,

so Fb / = 9.7 ksi

For the web (Section B.5.5.1, flat element with both edges
supported):

h/t = (6 – 0.125 – 0.125 – 0.125)/0.125 = 45;

since λ1 = 36.1 < 45 < 119 = λ2

Fb / = 17.2 – 0.072(45) = 14.0 ksi

For the exterior flange, b/t = (1.5 – 0.125/2)/0.125 = 11.5;

since λ1 = 8.2 < 11.5 < 15.9 = λ2 ,

Fb / = 11.8 – 0.26(11.5) = 8.8 ksi

For lateral-torsional buckling, Section F.4 allows the slen-

derness to be determined by any applicable Section in F.4.2.
Since this is an open shape unsymmetric about the bending
axis and the minor axis moment of inertia of the compres-
sion flange is not always less than or equal to the minor axis
moment of inertia of the tension flange, use Section F.4.2.5
Figure 28a
to determine the slenderness ratio, since F.4.2.5 applies to
any shape.

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 Figure 28b

symbol units span

0' to 2' to 10'-6 to
2' 10'-6 12'-6
compression flange
exterior exterior interior
at Mmax
unbraced length Lb in. 24 102 24
4
major axis moment of inertia Ix in 11.28 11.28 11.28
distance from bottom to n.a. cx in. 3.05 3.05 3.05
depth of section d in. 6.00 6.00 6.00
distance between flange
df in. 5.75 5.75 5.75 = 6 – 0.125(2)
centerlines
compressive section modulus Sc in3 3.82 3.82 3.70 = I /c
tensile section modulus St in3 3.70 3.70 3.82 = I /c
flange moment of inertia Ixf in4 9.42 9.42 9.42
4
web moment of inertia Ixw in 1.86 1.86 1.86
y axis moment of inertia
Iytop in4 0.677 0.677 0.677
top flange
y axis moment of inertia
Iybot in4 0.238 0.238 0.238
bottom flange
y axis moment of inertia
Iyc in4 0.677 0.677 0.238
compression flange

⎞ ⎡ ⎛ Iy ⎤
2
coefficient of ⎛ 2 I yc ⎞
βx in. 2.43 2.43 -2.48 = 0.9d f ⎜⎜ − 1⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜
⎟⎢
⎟
⎟
⎥
⎝ Iy ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ Ix ⎥
monosymmetry ⎠ ⎦

distributed load w k/in 0.011 0.011 0.011

span L in. 150.0 150.0 150.0
distance to 1/4 point x in. 6.0 49.5 132.0
moment at 1/4 point MA in-k 3.51 17.15 -14.16
distance to 1/2 point x in. 12.0 75.0 138.0
moment at 1/2 point MB in-k 6.63 15.47 -19.35
distance to 3/4 point x in. 18.0 100.5 144.0
moment at 3/4 point MC in-k 9.36 6.63 -24.95
12.5M max
bending coefficient Cb - 1.55 1.23 1.42 =
2.5M max + 3MA + 4 MB + 3MC

distance from load to

go in. -1.69 -1.69 -1.69
shear center

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 U in. -1.451 -1.451 -0.225 = C1g0 – C2 βx /2, where C1 = C2 = 0.5
torsion constant J in4 0.0293 0.0293 0.0293
warping constant Cw in6 6.11 6.11 6.11
4
minor axis moment of inertia Iy in 0.92 0.92 0.92
3
plastic section modulus Z in 4.374 4.374 4.374
2
modulus of elasticity E k/in 10,100 10,100 10,100

elastic LTB buckling Cb π 2 EI y ⎡ 0.038 JLb

2
C ⎤
Me in-k 399.6 34.4 564.3 =
2
⎢U + U 2 + + w⎥
moment Lb ⎢ Iy Iy ⎥
⎣ ⎦

ESxc
LTB slenderness ratio λ - 30.9 105.3 25.6 = π
Me

slenderness limit Cc - 99 99 99 from Part VI Table 1-1

LTB moment MnLTB in-k 60.3 34.4 61.6 see Section F.4
available LTB moment MnLTB / Ω in-k 36.5 20.8 37.3
2
compressive yield strength Fcy k/in 16 16 16
tensile yield strength Fty k/in2 16 16 16
tensile ultimate strength Ftu k/in2 22 22 22
safety factor (except for
Ωy - 1.65 1.65 1.65
rupture)
safety factor for rupture Ωu - 1.95 1.95 1.95
limit state moment for
Mnp in-k 70.0 70.0 70.0 = Z Fcy
yielding
available moment for yielding Mnp /Ω in-k 42.4 42.4 42.4
available moment for rupture Mnu /Ω in-k 49.3 49.3 49.3 = Z Ftu /kt /Ω
available stress web local
FnbLB /Ω k/in2 14.0 14.0 14.0
buckling
available stress flange
FncLB /Ω k/in2 8.8 8.8 9.7
local buckling
distance n.a. to flange
ccf in. 2.76 2.76 2.987
centerline
distance n.a. to web extreme
ccw in. 2.70 2.70 2.925
fiber
available moment for local
Mn LB /Ω in-k 39.7 39.7 39.5 = (FncLB /Ω)I f /ccf + (FnbLB /Ω)Iw /ccw
buckling
available moment Mn /Ω in-k 36.5 20.8 37.3 = min(Mnp /Ω, Mnu /Ω, MnLB /Ω,MnLBT /Ω)
maximum moment Mmax in-k 11.7 17.4 30.9
is Mn/ > Mmax? OK OK OK

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 Figure 28c

symbol units span

0' to 2' to 10'-6 to
2' 10'-6 12'-6
compression flange
interior interior exterior
at Mmax
unbraced length Lb in. 24 102 24
4
major axis moment of inertia Ix in 11.28 11.28 11.28
distance from bottom to n.a. cx in. 3.05 3.05 3.05
depth of section d in. 6.00 6.00 6.00
distance between flange
df in. 5.75 5.75 5.75 = 6 – 0.125(2)
centerlines
compressive section modulus Sc in3 3.70 3.70 3.82 = I/c
3
tensile section modulus St in 3.82 3.82 3.70 = I/c
flange moment of inertia Ixf in4 9.42 9.42 9.42
web moment of inertia Ixw in4 1.86 1.86 1.86
y axis moment of inertia
Iytop in4 0.677 0.677 0.677
top flange
y axis moment of inertia
Iybot in4 0.238 0.238 0.238
bottom flange
y axis moment of inertia
Iyc in4 0.238 0.238 0.677
compression flange

⎞ ⎡ ⎛ Iy ⎤
2
⎛ 2 I yc ⎞
coefficient of
βx in. -2.48 -2.48 2.43 = 0.9d f ⎜⎜ − 1⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜
⎟⎢
⎟
⎟
⎥
monosymmetry ⎝ Iy ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ Ix ⎠ ⎥
⎦

distributed load w k/in 0.011 0.011 0.011

span L in. 150.0 150.0 150.0
distance to 1/4 point x in. 6.0 49.5 132.0
moment at 1/4 point MA in-k 3.51 17.15 -14.16
distance to 1/2 point x in. 12.0 75.0 138.0
moment at 1/2 point MB in-k 6.63 15.47 -19.35
distance to 3/4 point x in. 18.0 100.5 144.0
moment at 3/4 point MC in-k 9.36 6.63 -24.95
12.5M max
bending coefficient Cb - 1.55 1.23 1.42 =
2.5M max + 3MA + 4 MB + 3MC

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distance from load to
go in. 1.69 1.69 1.69
shear center
U in. 1.465 1.465 0.239 = C1g0 – C2 βx /2, where C1 = C2 = 0.5
4
torsion constant J in 0.0293 0.0293 0.0293
6
warping constant Cw in 6.11 6.11 6.11
4
minor axis moment of inertia Iy in 0.92 0.92 0.92
plastic section modulus Z in3 4.374 4.374 4.374
modulus of elasticity E k/in2 10,100 10,100 10,100

elastic LTB buckling Cb π 2 EI y ⎡ 0.038 JLb

2
C ⎤
Me in-k 1119.9 66.1 669.5 =
2
⎢U + U 2 + + w⎥
moment Lb ⎢ Iy Iy ⎥
⎣ ⎦

ESxc
LTB slenderness ratio λ - 18.1 74.7 23.9 = π
Me

slenderness limit Cc - 99 99 99 from Part VI Table 1-1

LTB moment MnLTB in-k 64.1 45.6 62.5 see Section F.4
available LTB moment MnLTB / Ω in-k 38.8 27.6 37.9
compressive yield strength Fcy k/in2 16 16 16
2
tensile yield strength Fty k/in 16 16 16
2
tensile ultimate strength Ftu k/in 22 22 22
safety factor (except for
Ωy - 1.65 1.65 1.65
rupture)
safety factor for rupture Ωu - 1.95 1.95 1.95
limit state moment for
Mnp in-k 70.0 70.0 70.0 = Z Fcy
yielding
available moment for
Mnp / Ω in-k 42.4 42.4 42.4
yielding
available moment for rupture Mnu / Ω in-k 49.3 49.3 49.3 = Z Ftu /kt /Ω
available stress web local
FnbLB/ Ω k/in2 14.0 14.0 14.0
buckling
available stress flange
FncLB / Ω k/in2 9.7 9.7 8.8
local buckling
distance n.a. to flange
ccf in. 2.987 2.987 2.76
centerline
distance n.a. to web
ccw in. 2.925 2.925 2.70
extreme fiber
available moment for local
Mn LB / Ω in-k 39.5 39.5 39.7 = (FncLB /Ω)I f /ccf + (FnbLB /Ω)Iw /ccw
buckling
available moment Mn /Ω in-k 38.8 27.6 37.9 = min(Mnp /Ω, Mnu /Ω, MnLB /Ω,MnLBT /Ω)
maximum moment Mmax in-k 11.7 17.4 30.9
is Mn / > Mmax? OK OK OK

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 Figure 28d

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 Properties
A 1.92 in2
Ix 11.28 in4
cx 3.05 in.
rx 2.42 in.
Iy 0.92 in4
ry 0.69 in.
J 0.0293 in4
Cw 6.11 in6
Z 4.374 in3
Stop 3.82 in3
Sbot 3.70 in3
Ixf 9.42 in4
Ixw 1.86 in4
Iytop 0.677 in4
Iybot 0.238 in4

Figure 28e

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 Example 29
FORMED SHEET IN FLEXURE
Illustrating Sections B.5.4.2, B.5.5.1, F.2, F.3, J.9.1, L.3, and 1.4

t/2

d R
n

1.0

Detail A - Bend

Bend Detail

See Detail A

1/2 1/2
1 3/8 5 5/8

Figure 29
GIVEN: This siding is the 8” ribbed siding shown in Part V Table 25
with section properties given in Part V Table 26.
1. 8 in. rib panel, repeating pattern.
2. Thickness = 0.032 in. Calculations of Section Properties
3. Alclad 3004-H151 (Ftu = 34 ksi, Fty = 30 ksi).
4. Bend radii are 0.0625 in. at inner surface of each bend. The small radii are ignored. Nodal geometry is based on
5. Structure type: building points of intersection of centerlines of elements.

Nodal geometry
REQUIRED:
1. Allowable moments for: Node x y
a. top in compression 1 0.000 0.016
b. bottom in compression
2. Moment of inertia for deflection calculations 2 1.375 0.016
3. Allowable reactions: 3 1.875 0.984
a. interior 4 7.500 0.984
b. exterior
4. Check the applicability of calculations for the above 5 8.000 0.016
against the criteria of Section 1.4.

SOLUTION:
1. Allowable moments for:
a. top in compression
b. bottom in compression

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Element Properties For the bottom flange in compression,

Element y L yL y 2L I 1.5Fcy Sc /Ω = 1.5(27)(0.0596)/1.65 = 1.46 in-k

1 0.016 1.375 0.022 0.000 0.000 1.5Fty S t /Ω = 1.5(30)( 0.1565)/1.65 = 4.27 in-k
2 0.500 1.090 0.545 0.272 0.085
and ZFcy /Ω = (0.0781)(27)/1.65 = 1.28 in-k,
3 0.984 5.625 5.535 5.446 0.000 so Mnp /Ω = 1.28 in-k.
4 0.500 1.090 0.545 0.272 0.085
For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
Totals 9.179 6.647 5.992 0.170
Mnu /Ω = ZFtu / kt /Ω = (0.0781)(34)/1/1.95 = 1.36 in-k.
ct = ΣyL/ΣL = 6.647/9.179 = 0.724 in., height of neutral
axis The allowable moment for the limit state of local buckling is
determined using Section F.3.1.
Ix = [Σ(y2L) – ct2ΣL + ΣI]t = [5.992 – (0.724)2(9.179) +
0.170](0.032) = (1.349 in3)(0.032 in.) For the top flange in compression,

Ix = 0.0432 in4 a) Element 3 is in uniform compression;

b/t = λ = 5.625/0.032 = 175.8.
Sbot = Ix /ct = (0.0432)/(0.724) = 0.0596 in3
By Section B.5.4.2, λ2 = 41.8, so
Stop = Ix /(height – ct ) = (0.0432)/(1 – 0.724) = 0.1565 in3

The moment of inertia of the flanges (elements 1 and 3) is k 2 Bp E 2.04 (37.6)(10,100)

Fc /Ω = = = 2.7 ksi
(1.6 b / t ) Ω 1.6(175.8)(1.65)
If = [(1.375)(0.724 – 0.016)2 + (5.625)(0.984 – 0.724)2] (0.032)
= 0.0342 in4 b) Elements 2 and 4 are in flexural compression;
The moment of inertia of the webs (elements 2 and 4) is b/t = λ = 1.09/0.032 = 34.1.

Iw = [2(1.090)(0.724 – 0.5)2 + 2(0.085)] (0.032) By Section B.5.5.1:

= 0.0089 in4 cc = 0.724 – 1 = -0.276 in., co = 0.724 in.;
The plastic section modulus computed by finding the plastic since co /cc = 0.724/-0.276 = -2.62 < -1,
neutral axis such that the area above this axis equals the area m = 1.3/(1 – co /cc) = 1.3/(1 – (-2.62)) = 0.359 and
below is Z = 0.0781 in3.
λ1 = (Bbr – 1.5Fc y)/(mDbr)
Section F.1 states that the allowable moment is the least of = (50.2 – 1.5(27))/0.359/0.433 = 62.4 > 34.1,
the allowable moments for yielding, rupture, local buckling,
and lateral-torsional buckling. Lateral-torsional buckling is so Fb /Ω = 1.5 Fcy /Ω = 1.5(27) /1.65= 24.5 ksi
unlikely to govern for this shape. Section F.1 also estab-
lishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile rupture and 1.65 on MnLB /Ω = (Fc/Ω) If /ccf + (Fb/Ω) Iw /ccw
all other limit states for flexure of building-type structures.
MnLB /Ω = (2.7) (0.0342) /(1 – 0.724 – 0.032/2) +
By Section F.2, the allowable moment for yielding is the 24.5 (0.0089) /(0.276 – 0.032) = 1.25 in-k
least of
For the bottom flange in compression,
1.5FcySc /Ω
a) Element 1 is in uniform compression;
1.5Fty St /Ω b/t = λ = 1.375/0.032 = 43.0.

and ZFcy /Ω By Section B.5.4.2, λ2 = 41.8, so

For the top flange in compression, k 2 Bp E 2.04 (37.6)(10,100)

Fc /Ω = = = 11.1 ksi
(1.6 b/t ) Ω 1.6(43.0)(1.65)
1.5Fcy Sc /Ω = 1.5(27)(0.1565)/1.65 = 3.84 in-k
b) Elements 2 and 4 are in flexural compression;
1.5Fty St /Ω = 1.5(30)( 0.0596)/1.65 = 1.63 in-k b/t = λ = 1.09/0.032 = 34.1.

and ZFcy /Ω = (0.0781)(27)/1.65 = 1.28 in-k,

so Mnp /Ω = 1.28 in-k.

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By Section B.5.5.1: Similarly, it can be seen that elements 2 and 4 are not
reduced. A recalculation of the moment of inertia follows:
cc = -0.724 in., co = 0.276 in.;
since co /cc = 0.276/-0.724 = -0.381, and -1 < 0.381 < 1, Element Properties

m = 1.15 + co /2cc = 1.15 + (-0.381/2) = 0.959 and Element y L Leff yLeff y2Leff Ieff
λ1 = (Bbr – 1.5Fcy)/(mDbr) = (50.2 – 1.5(27))/0.959/0.433 1 0.016 1.375 1.375 0.022 0.000 0.000
= 23.4 < 34.1, 2 0.500 1.090 1.090 0.545 0.272 0.085
λ2 = k1 Bbr /(mDbr) = 0.5(50.2)/0.959/0.433 = 60.4 3 0.984 5.625 3.90 3.838 3.78 0.000
4 0.500 1.090 1.090 0.545 0.272 0.085
so Fb/Ω = (Bbr – mDbr λ) / Ω
= (50.2 – 0.959(0.433)(34.1))/1.65 = 21.8 ksi Totals 7.455 4.95 4.32 0.170

MnLB /Ω = (FcIf /Ω) /ccf + (Fb Iw/Ω)/ccw ct = ∑ (yLeff)/∑L = 4.95/7.455

MnLB /Ω = (11.1)(0.0342)/(0.724 – 0.032/2) + = 0.664 in., height of neutral axis

21.8(0.0089)/(0.724 – 0.032) = 0.82 in-k Ix = [∑(y2Leff) – ct2 ∑Leff + ∑Ieff]t
For the top flange in compression, the least of the allowable = [(4.32 – (0.664)2(7.455) + 0.170)](0.032)
moments for yielding (1.28 in-k), rupture (1.36 in-k), and = (1.203 in3)(0.032 in.)
local buckling (1.25 in-k) is 1.25 in-k. = 0.0385 in4, for deflection calculations when
For the bottom flange in compression, the least of the element 3 is at its allowable compressive stress.
allowable moments for yielding (1.28 in-k), rupture (1.36 3. Allowable reactions:
in-k), and local buckling (0.82 in-k) is 0.82 in-k.
a. allowable interior reaction
The above results can be converted to allowable moments
per foot of width as follows: Reference: Section J.9.1
Matc = (1.25)(12 in./ft.)/(8 in./cycle) Let the bearing length, N, be 2.0 in.
= 1.87 k-in./ft-width (top in compression) Consider element 2 (a web).
Mabc = (0.82)(12in./ft)/(8 in./cycle) C wa ( N + C w1 )
Pc /Ω =
ΩC wb
= 1.23 k-in./ft-width (bottom in compression)
where Cwa = t2 sin θ (0.46Fcy + 0.02 EFcy )
2. Moment of inertia for deflection calculations
where t = 0.032 in.
Refer to Section L.3
θ = 63.4°
π2 E π 2 (10,100)
For element 1: Fcr = = Fcy = (0.9)(30) = 27 ksi
(1.6 b / t ) 2 (1.6(43)) 2
E = 10,100 ksi
= 21.1 ksi > 11.1 ksi = fa
so Cwa = (0.032)2 sin 63.4°(0.46(27) + 0.02 (10,100)(27) )
so the width of element 1 is not reduced for deflection
calculations. Cwa = 0.0209 k
2 2
π E π (10,100)
For element 3: Fcr = = Cw1 = 5.4 in.
(1.6 b/t ) 2 (1.6(175.8)) 2
Cwb = Cw3 + Ri (1 – cos θ)
= 1.3 ksi < 2.7 ksi = fa
where
Cw3 = 0.4 in.
so the effective width of element 3 is
Ri = 0.0625 in.
be = b (Fcr /fa)½ so
= 5.625 (1.3/2.7)½ Cwb = 0.4 + 0.0625 (1 – cos 63.4°)
= 3.90 in.
Cwb = 0.435 in.

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 (0.0209)(2.0 + 5.4) 4. Check the applicability of calculations for the above
so Pc /Ω = = 0.182 k per web against the criteria of Section 1.4.
(1.95)(0.435)

The allowable interior reaction, Fint is Cases (a), (b), and (e) do not apply. Cases (c), (f), and (g)
vary with each installation.
Fint = (Pc /Ω )(2 webs/cycle)(12 in./ft.)(1 cycle/8 in.)
(1000 lb/k) = 546 lb/ft-width. Case (d) is checked as follows:

Section J.9.3, combined web crippling and flexure, should maximum b = 5.625 + 2(0.25)
also be considered. = 6.125 in.
b. Allowable end reaction b/t = 6.125/0.032
Let the bearing length, N, be 2.0 in. = 191
Again, consider element 2. Condition (1) is stated then algebraically rearranged.
1.2C wa ( N + C w 2 ) 1230
Pc /Ω = (1) b/t < otherwise tests are required.
ΩC wb 3 q
where Cwa = 0.0209 k [see (a) above] q < (1230/(b/t))3
Cw2 = 1.3 in. q < 265 psf
Cwb = 0.435 in. [see (a) above] Condition (2) is treated likewise
1.2(0.0209)(2.0 + 1.3)
Pc /Ω =
(1.95)(0.435)
= 0.098 k per web. (2) b/t < 435 Fty / q otherwise tests are required.

The allowable end reaction, Pend , is: q < [435/(b/t)]2Fty

q < [435/191]2(30)
Pend = (Pc /Ω)(2 webs/cycle)(12 in./ft)(1 cycle/8 in.)
(1000 lb/k) = 293 lb/ft-width q < 155 psf

Subcase (2) governs. Tests must be run to establish the load

carrying capacity of the panel when:

a. q > 155 psf

b. Cases (c), (f), or (g) are not satisfied.

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 Example 30
SCREW CONNECTION
Illustrating Section J.5

1/4" diameter screw c) Section J.5.5.3 addresses screw shear. The single shear
strength of a 1/4” 7075-T73 machine screw is given in Part
VI, Table 5-1 as 1170 lb.
0.06"
0.06"
Rn / (1.25Ω) = (1170 lb)/(1.25(3)) = 0.31 k

The allowable shear is the least of 0.24, 0.31, 0.32, and

0.31 k, so the allowable shear is 0.24 k based on bearing on
the top sheet.

2. Allowable tensile force

Figure 30 The allowable connection tension is determined according

to Section J.5.4, which specifies a safety factor Ω = 3.0 for
screw connection tension for building-type structures.
GIVEN:
Section J.5.4 requires that the washer outside diameter Dw
1. Tapping screw of 7075-T73 aluminum, 1/4” diameter, equal or exceed 5/16 in.:
UNC thread joining 0.06 in. thick 3003-H16 sheet on top
of 0.06 in. thick 5052-H32 sheet. Dw = 5/8 in. > 5/16 in.
2. 5/8” outside diameter flat washer under the screw head.
3. The hole diameter in the top sheet is 9/32”. a) Section J.5.4.1 addresses pull-out. The allowable pull-out
4. Distance from center of screw to edge of sheet is 1 in. force is
5. Structure type: building
Rn /Ω = KsDLeFty2 /Ω
REQUIRED: = (1.01)(0.25)(0.06)(23)/3 = 0.12 k
The allowable shear and tension forces for the connection.
b) Section J.5.4.2 addresses pull-over. The allowable pull-
SOLUTION: over force is:

1. Allowable shear force Rn /Ω = Cpov t1Ftu1(Dws – Dh)/Ω

The allowable connection shear is determined according to = (1.0)(0.06)(24)(0.625 – 9/32)/3

Section J.5.5, which specifies a safety factor Ω = 3.0 for
screw connection shear for building-type structures. = 0.16 k

a) Section J.5.5.1 addresses bearing. Since the edge dis- c) Section J.5.4.3 addresses screw tension. The tensile
tance is 1 in. > 0.5 in. = 2(1/4 in.) = 2D, the allowable strength of a 1/4” diameter 7075-T73 machine screw is
bearing force is 2Ftu Dt / Ω. Using Ftu from Table A.3.3, the given in Part VI, Table 5-1 as 1940 lb.
allowable shear for bearing is
Rn / (1.25Ω) = (1940 lb)/(1.25(3)) = 0.52 k
Thickness Ftu 2Ftu Dt /Ω The allowable tension is the least of 0.12, 0.16, and 0.52 k,
Sheet Alloy (in.) (ksi) (k) so the allowable tension is 0.12 k based on pull-out.
1 3003-H16 0.06 24 0.24

2 5052-H32 0.06 31 0.31

b) Section J.5.5.2 addresses screw tilting. Since t2 = 0.06 <

0.06 = t1, the allowable screw tilting shear is

Rn / Ω = 4.2 (t23D)1/2Ftu2 / Ω
= 4.2 (0.063 (0.25))1/2(31)/3 = 0.32 k

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 Example 31
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Illustrating Sections F.2 and F.3

GIVEN:
1. Symmetric Shape: Aluminum Association standard I 12
x 14.3

d 12” Y
bf 7”
tf 0.62”
tw 0.31” X X
Sx 52.9 in3
Z 58.4 in3
web height h 10.76” = 12” – 2(0.62”)
Y
flange area 7(0.62) = 4.34 in2
web area 10.76(0.31) = 3.34 in2

Unsymmetric Shape: Modified I 12 x 14.3 (top flange 1” Y

wide instead of 7” wide)
d 12”
bf (bottom) 7”
bf (top) 1”
X X
tf 0.62”
tw 0.31”
web height h 10.76”= 12” – 2(0.62”) Y
2
bottom flange area 7(0.62) = 4.34 in
Figure 31
top flange area 1(0.62) = 0.62 in2
web area 10.76(0.31) = 3.34 in2

2. Alloy: 6061-T6 torsional buckling. Allowable stresses for 6061-T6 given in

Part VI Table 2-19 are used below.
3. Continuous minor axis lateral bracing
4. Structure type: building Section F.2 addresses yielding and rupture:

For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the

REQUIRED: lesser of
The allowable moment about the major axis for each shape
for loading causing compression in the top flange 1.5Fcy Sc /Ω= 1.5(35)(52.9)/1.65 = 1683 in-k

and ZFcy / Ω = (58.4)(35)/1.65 = 1239 in-k, so

SOLUTION: Mnp /Ω = 1239 in-k.
Allowable stresses for 6061-T6 given in Part VI Table 2-19
are used below. For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
Symmetric Shape: Aluminum Association standard I12 Mnu / Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω = (58.4)(38)/1/1.95 = 1138 in-k.
14.3:
Section F.3 addresses local buckling:
Section F.1 establishes safety factors of 1.95 on tensile
rupture and 1.65 on all other limit states for flexure of Section B.5.4.1: Flange:
building-type structures. Because the beam is continu- b/t = (7” – 0.31”)/2/(0.62”) = 5.4 < 6.7 = λ1, so
ously laterally supported, the beam is not subject to lateral- Fc / Ω = 21.2 ksi

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Section B.5.5.1: Web: and ZFcy / Ω = (26.15)(35)/1.65 = 555 in-k, so
b/t = (10.76”)/(0.31”) = 34.7 > 33.1 = λ1, so Mnp/Ω = 517 in-k.
Fb /Ω = 40.5 – 0.262(34.7) = 31.4 ksi
For the limit state of rupture, the allowable moment is
If = 2[(7”)(0.62”)3/12 + (7”)(0.62”)(6” – 0.62”/2)2]
= 281.3 in4 Mnu / Ω = ZFtu / kt / Ω = (26.15)(38)/1/1.95 = 510 in-k.

ccf = 12”/2 – (0.62”/2) = 5.69” Section F.3 addresses local buckling:

ctf = 12”/2 = 6” Section B.5.4.1: Flange: |

b/t = (1” – 0.31”)/2/(0.62”) = 0.6 < 6.7 = λ1, so
Iw = (0.31”)(10.76”)3/12 = 32.2 in4 Fc /Ω = 21.2 ksi

ccw = ctw = 10.76”/2 = 5.38” Section B.5.5.1: Web: b/t = (10.76”)/(0.31”) = 34.7

From Section F.3.1, the weighted average method allowable The neutral axis is located 8.55” – 0.62” = 7.93” below top
moment is: end of web and 10.76” – 7.93” = 2.83” above bottom of
web.
Mnlb ( Fc / Ω) I f ( Fb / Ω) I w
= + co /cc = 2.83/(-7.93) = -0.36, so m = 1.15 +(-0.36)/2 = 0.97.
Ω ccf ccw
(21.2)(281.3) (31.4)(32.2) λ1 = (Bbr – 1.5Fcy)/(mDbr)
= + = 1236 in-k = (66.8 – 1.5(35))/[(0.97)(0.665)] = 22.2 < 34.7 = b/t,
5.69 5.38
λ2 = k1Bbr /(mDbr) = (0.5)(66.8)/0.97/0.665 = 51.8
The allowable moment is the least of the allowable moments
for yielding, rupture, and local buckling, which is 1138 in-k. so Fb / Ω = Bbr / Ω – mDbr (b/t) / Ω
= 66.8/1.65 – 0.97(0.665)(34.7)/1.65 = 26.9 ksi
Unsymmetric Shape: Modified I 12  14.3 (top flange 1”
wide): If = 42.93 + 42.12 = 85.05 in4
ccf = 8.55” – 0.62”/2 = 8.24”
Determine moment of inertia: (Table below)
ctf = 12” – 8.55” = 3.45”
The neutral axis is located (70.96 in3)/(8.3 in2) = 8.55” Iw = 53.9 in4
below the top of the section. ccw = 7.93”
ctw = 2.83”
The section modulus on the top (compression) side is
Sc = I/cc = 139/8.55 = 16.24 in3. From Section F.3.1, the allowable moment is:
Mnlb ( Fc / Ω) If ( F / Ω) Iw
The section modulus on the bottom (tension) side is = ccf + bc
Ω cw
St = I/ct = 139/3.45 = 40.29 in3.
(21.2)(85.05) (26.9)(53.9)
The plastic neutral axis is determined to be located 0.593 = + = 402 in-k
8.24 7.93
in. above the bottom of the shape, and the plastic modulus
Z = 26.15 in3. The allowable moment is the least of the allowable
moments for yielding, rupture, and local buckling, which
Section F.2 addresses yielding and rupture:
is = 402 in-k.
For the limit state of yielding, the allowable moment is the
least of

1.5Fcy Sc /Ω = 1.5(35)(16.24)/1.65 = 517 in-k

1.5Fty St /Ω = 1.5(35)(40.28)/1.65 = 1282 in-k

A y Ay d Ad 2 I Ad 2 + I
bottom flange 4.34 11.69 50.73 3.14 42.79 0.14 42.93
web 3.34 6 20.04 2.55 21.72 32.18 53.9
top flange 0.62 0.31 0.19 8.24 42.10 0.02 42.12
total 8.3 70.96 106.61 32.34 139

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 Aluminum Design Manual

PART VIII

Guidelines for Aluminum Sheet Metal Work

In Building Construction

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 VIII

Guidelines for Aluminum Sheet Metal Work in Building Construction

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3. Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4. Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

5. Standing Seam Roofing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6. Batten Seam Roofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

7. Aluminum Roof Shingles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

8. Flashing for Non-Metallic Shingle Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

9. Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

10. Gravel Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

11. Base Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

12. Cap Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

13. Chimney Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

14. Through-Wall Flashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

15. Standing Seam Siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

16. Coping Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

17. Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

18. Rainwater Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

19. Aluminum Composite Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

20. Aluminum Face Sheet and Liner with Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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1. SCOPE
These guidelines apply to the use of aluminum in roof- sheet metal systems or products such as horizontal siding,
ing, flashing and other sheet metal work in building con- fascia and soffit systems, curtain wall systems, or corru-
struction. They do not apply to proprietary or pre-formed gated or ribbed roofing and siding.

2. MATERIALS
2.1 ALUMINUM SHEET 2.1.2 Thickness
Sheet thickness shall be sufficient for the intended use,
2.1.1 Alloy and Temper but not less than the minimum nominal thickness listed in
Table 1. The thickness of shingles and proprietary roofing
Sheet shall be 1100, 3003, Alclad 3003, 3004, Alclad systems shall be determined for specific applications on the
3004, 3105, 5005, 5050, or 5052 alloy and H14 or H34 basis of load tests.
temper. Properties shall conform to Aluminum Standards
and Data. 2.1.3 Dimensional Tolerances
Tolerances on sheet dimensions shall conform to
Table 1 Minimum Nominal Sheet Thickness Aluminum Standards and Data.

Residential Non-Residential 2.1.4 Finish

(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
Roofing Sheet shall be mill finish unless otherwise specified.
Standing Seam 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 Embossed, anodized, or painted sheet shall be acceptable
Batten Seam 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
provided it has the necessary strength and formability for
Shingles 0.019 0.50 0.019 0.50
Proprietary Systems 0.019 0.50 0.024 0.60 the intended purpose.

Flashings 2.2 BUILDING PAPER AND ROOFING FELT

Base 0.019 0.50 0.032 0.80
Cap 0.019 0.50 0.032 0.80 Building paper or roofing felt used where condensation
Ridge, Hip 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 occurs such as over poorly vented spaces shall be vapor
Coping Covers 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 barriers conforming to Federal Specifications UU-B-790A,
Scuppers 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
Splash Pans 0.032 0.80 0.040 1.0
Type I, Grade A; HH-R-590A, Type II, Class C; or poly-
Chimney 0.019 0.50 0.032 0.80 ethylene not less than 4 mils (0.1 mm) thick conforming to
Apron 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 Federal Specifications L-P-378B or L-P-512A.
Head 0.019 0.50 0.032 0.80
Sill 0.019 0.50 0.032 0.80 Building paper or roofing felt over well ventilated
Curbs 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
Through-Wall
spaces need not be water proof but shall be water repellant
Lintel 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 and conform to Federal Specifications UU-B-790A, Type
Spandrel 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 I, Grade C or D; HH-R-590A, Type II; or HH-R-595B,
Sill 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 Type I or II.
Parapets 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
Gravel Stops and Fascia 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
Edge Strips 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
Building paper and roofing felt that contains additives
Gutters of heavy metals or chemicals corrosive to aluminum shall
Gutters 0.027 0.70 0.032 0.80 not be used.
Continuous Cleats 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
Hangers 0.064 1.6 0.080 2.0 Building paper or roofing felt shall have a minimum
Rainwater Goods
Downspouts (Leaders) 0.019 0.50 0.024 0.60
weight of 15 lb (6.8 kg) and shall be overlapped at least 2
Elbows 0.019 0.50 0.024 0.60 in. (50 mm) so as to shed water and shall be secured along
Leader Heads 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80 the laps with large flat headed aluminum nails spaced no
Clips 0.040 1.0 0.064 1.6 farther than 6 in. (150 mm) on centers.
Straps 0.040 1.0 0.064 1.6
Valley 0.019 0.50 0.032 0.80
Snow, Eave 0.024 0.60 0.032 0.80
Expansion Joint, Building 0.032 0.80

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2.3 SEALANTS marine or corrosive industrial environments. Nuts shall be
6061-T6 or 6262-T9 aluminum. Alternately, screws, bolts
2.3.1 One Part and nuts shall be 300 series stainless steel. Washers shall
One part synthetic or rubber base sealants shall conform be used under bolt and screw heads.
to Federal Specification TT-S-230A(1). Use shall conform
to manufacturers' specifications. 2.5.4 Washers
Washers shall be 1100-H18 aluminum or of the same
2.3.2 Two Part material as the sheet or fasteners used. The minimum nom-
Two part synthetic or rubber base sealants shall conform inal thickness of washers shall be 0.040 in.(1 mm). Where
to Federal Specification TT-S-00227E(1) or ANSI A116.1. water tightness is required an elastomeric washer shall be
Use shall conform to manufacturers' specifications. used with the metal washer.

2.4 ELASTIC CEMENT 2.5.5 Miscellaneous Hardware

Elastic cement shall conform to Federal Specification Expansion inserts, plugs, anchors, and shields shall be
SS-C-153. wood, fiber, plastic, lead, or aluminum and shall be chosen
to suit the environment of each application.

2.5 FASTENERS 2.5.6 Rivets

2.5.1 Cleats Rivets shall be 1100-H14 aluminum unless otherwise
specified. Rivets shall have a shank diameter of at least
Cleats shall be aluminum of the same alloy, temper, and 0.187 in. (4.75 mm) and sufficiently long to form a proper
nominal thickness as the sheet unless otherwise specified. head. Blind rivets shall be used only where maximum
Cleats shall be at least 2 in. (50 mm) wide and long enough water tightness, strength, or corrosion resistance is not
to be fully incorporated into the seam with the other end required. Blind rivets shall be 1100 sleeve, 5056 mandrel;
folded back over the nail heads. They shall be fastened 5050 sleeve, 5056 mandrel; 5052 sleeve, 5056 mandrel;
securely with two aluminum nails placed parallel to the 5052 sleeve, 7178 mandrel; 5056 sleeve, 1020 steel man-
seam. drel; stainless steel; or monel.

2.5.2 Nails 2.6 PAINT

Nails shall be 5056 or 6061 aluminum and conform to Paint for back painting aluminum shall be bituminous
ASTM F 1667. paint of the cut-back type conforming to specification
MIL-C-450 B (1) or TT-C-494 or methacrylate type lac-
2.5.3 Screws, Bolts, and Nuts quers conforming to MIL-L-19537C (2).
Screws and bolts shall be 6061-T6 or 2024-T4 alumi-
num except that 2024-T4 fasteners shall not be used in

3. SURFACE PREPARATION

3.1 GENERAL 3.2 DISSIMILAR METALS

All surfaces upon which aluminum sheet is to be placed Galvanic corrosion of aluminum caused by contact
shall be smooth, even and free of projections and hollows. with dissimilar metals shall be prevented by proper design
The surface shall be dry before and during the placing of considerations and installation procedures. Water that
the aluminum. For wood surfaces the lumber shall be of has come in contact with copper, brass, or bronze shall be
good quality, well seasoned, straight, and free of knotholes directed away from aluminum.
and splits. It shall be laid with joints true, even, and firmly
attached with all fastener heads flush with the top surface. 3.3 WOOD
On masonry surfaces adequate provision shall be made for
Wood sheathing or wood surfaces to be covered with
receiving fasteners in accordance with the plans for sheet
aluminum shall be covered with building paper or roofing
metal work.
felt (Section 2.2) or the wood shall be painted with two
coats of good quality exterior type paint or the aluminum
shall be back painted (Section 2.6).

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3.4 CONCRETE AND MASONRY or reglets in masonry, brickwork, or concrete, the slot or
reglet shall be filled with sealant (Section 2.3) so that the
Concrete and masonry surfaces to be covered with alu- sealant covers both surfaces of that part of the aluminum in
minum shall be covered with building paper or roofing the slot or reglet.
felt (Section 2.2) or the aluminum shall be back painted
(Section 2.6). Where aluminum is to be caulked into slots

4. JOINING
4.1 MECHANICAL JOINTS for the temperature of the metal at the time of installation,
whichever is greater.
Mechanical seams and joints for aluminum shall be the
same as those used for other sheet metals. Lap and lock The installer shall account for the metal temperature at
seams shall not be riveted or otherwise fastened together to the time of installation and leave adequate allowance for
restrict relative movement unless such seams are designed expansion and contraction.
to transfer movement to a different location.
4.2 SOLDERING
End joints of formed sheet members such as ridge, hip,
valley, gable or rake strips, battens, aprons, gravel stops, Aluminum shall not be soldered.
coping and cap flashing shall not be riveted or fastened
together to restrict movement. Simple laps shall not be 4.3 BRAZING
used unless the slope is sufficient to provide drainage and
Brazing shall be done in the shop and flux residue shall
flat widths are less than 8 in. (200 mm). For flashing with
be completely removed.
flat widths over 8 in. (200 mm) or surfaces with slopes less
than 3 in 12 (1:4), sealant filled controlled slip joints shall
be used. Joints shall allow for thermal movement of 0.125 4.4 WELDING
in. (3 mm) or that determined for the application allowing Welding shall comply with AWS D1.2.

5. STANDING SEAM ROOFING

5.1 ROOF SLOPES underlying sheet. Transverse seams shall be staggered a
distance of one half the sheet length in adjacent roof sheets.
These specifications do not apply to roofs with slopes
less than 3 in 12 (1:4). 5.3.2 (See Figures 1 and 2). For roofs with slopes at
least 3 in 12 (1:4) but less than 6 in 12 (1:2), the lower
5.2 DIMENSIONS end of each sheet shall be folded under 0.75 in. (20 mm).
Roof sheets shall not exceed 10 ft (3 m) and no straight The fold shall be slit 1 in. (25 mm) away from the corner
run of roofing shall exceed 30 ft (10 m). Nominal sheet to form a tab where the sheet turns up to make a standing
thickness shall be 0.024 in. (0.6 mm) where the distance seam. The upper end of each sheet shall be folded over 0.5
between standing seams does not exceed 20 in. (500 mm) in. (12 mm). A 1.5 in. (38 mm) wide locking strip the full
and 0.032 in. (0.8 mm) where the distance between stand- width of the sheet shall be secured at least 4 in. (100 mm)
ing seams is from 20 in. (500 mm) to 27 in. (700 mm). To below the top folded edge by rivets spaced no more than 6
allow for expansion, sheet width shall be 0.125 in. (3 mm) in. (150 mm) apart. The 0.75 in. (20 mm) fold on the lower
less than the center to center spacing of the standing seams. end of the upper sheet shall hook into the locking strip on
the upper end of the underlying sheet. Alternately, trans-
5.3 TRANSVERSE SEAMS verse seams shall be made as specified in Section 5.3.1 and
filling the seams with sealant. Transverse seams shall be
5.3.1 (See Figures 1 and 2). For roofs with slopes staggered a distance of one half the sheet length in adjacent
6 in 12 (1:2) or greater, the lower end of each sheet shall roof sheets.
be folded under 0.75 in. (20 mm). The fold shall be slit 1
in. (25 mm) away from the corner to form a tab where the 5.4 DIMENSIONS
sheet turns up to make a standing seam. The upper end of
each sheet shall be folded over 2 in. (50 mm). The 0.75 in. (See Figure 1). Standing seams shall finish 1 in.
(20 mm) fold on the lower end of the upper sheet shall be (25 mm) high except on curved surfaces where they shall
hooked into the 2 in. (50 mm) fold on the upper end of the finish a minimum of 0.75 in. (20 mm) high. One side edge
of roof sheets shall be 1.5 in. (38 mm) high and the other

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 Figure 1
SEAMS AND JOINTS

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1.75 in. (44 mm) high. The first fold shall be a single fold outer edge of the valley sheets shall be folded 0.5 in. (12
0.25 in. (6 mm) wide and the second fold shall be 0.5 in. mm) for cleating and in these folds cleats shall be spaced
(12 mm) wide. The lock portion of the standing seam shall not more than 24 in. (600 mm) apart between centers. Val-
be 5 plies thick. A space at least 0.125 in. (3 mm) wide ley sheets shall be nailed along their top edge only.
shall be provided between adjacent sheets at the bottom
of each standing seam. At eaves, ends of standing seams 5.8 EAVES
shall be closed by folding over a tab provided at one side
of each roof sheet. (See Figure 2). At eaves without gutters, each sheet
shall be hooked 0.75 in. (20 mm) over a previously placed
aluminum edge strip. Edge strips shall be continuous and
5.5 CLEATS
shall be formed from sheets not longer than 10 ft (3 m);
Cleats shall be at least 2 in. (50 mm) wide and shall be ends of adjacent lengths shall lap at least 1 in. (25 mm).
spaced not more than 12 in. (300 mm) apart between cen- The edge strip shall extend up the roof deck at least 4 in.
ters. If the roof deck is a material other than wood, nailers (100 mm) and be secured with nails spaced not more than
shall be provided to secure the cleats. 4 in. (100 mm) apart along the upper edge. The lower edge
shall be turned out 0.75 in. (20 mm) to form a drip edge.
5.6 RIDGES AND HIPS The edge strip shall not be face nailed.
(See Figure 2). Ridges and hips shall be provided with
(See Figure 2). Where seams finish back from eave
standing seams constructed as for the main roof. Where
edges, the lower edge of the roofing shall engage a previ-
standing seams of the main roof terminate at ridges or hips
ously placed apron strip. The connection between the roof
they shall be laid flat and folded into ridge or hip standing
sheets and the upper edge of the apron strip shall be as
seams. Standing seams on opposite sides of ridges or hips
described in 5.3. The lower edge of the apron strip shall be
shall be staggered to avoid excessive thicknesses of metal
hooked over a previously placed edge strip as previously
in the ridge or hip standing seam.
described.
5.7 VALLEYS 5.9 GABLE RAKES
Valleys shall be formed from aluminum sheets not (See Figure 2). Side edges of roof sheets at gable rakes
exceeding 10 ft (3 m) in length of the same nominal thick- shall finish over an edge strip as described in Section 5.8
ness and alloy as used for the roof sheets. Each sheet shall or shall turn up 1.5 in. (38 mm) and be locked into an alu-
lap the lower one at least 6 in. (150 mm) in the direction of minum fascia strip forming a standing seam 1 in. (25 mm)
drainage. The valley sheet shall extend at least 6 in. (150 high. Where the standing seam finishes at the roof edge,
mm) under the roof sheets on both sides. At the valley line the lower edge of the fascia strip shall be hooked 0.75 in.
adjacent to the lower edge of the roof sheets, a 0.75 in. (20 (20 mm) over a previously placed continuous edge strip
mm) double fold shall be made to engage a 0.75 in. (20 that is secured to the deck with aluminum nails spaced no
mm) single fold at the lower ends of the roof sheets. The more than 4 in. (100 mm) apart.

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 Figure 2
STANDING SEAM ROOFING

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 6. BATTEN SEAM ROOFING
6.1 ROOF SLOPES 6.5 CLEATS
These specifications do not apply to roofs with slopes Cleats shall not be less than 2 in. (50 mm) wide and
less than 3 in 12 (1:4). spaced not more than 12 in. (300 mm) apart on centers.
Cleats shall be secured to the sides of the battens or a
6.2 BATTENS U-shaped cleat passing under the batten shall be used.
(See Figure 1). Battens shall be aluminum or wood
6.6 COVER STRIPS
unless otherwise specified and at least 1.5 in. (38 mm)
high. Battens shall be attached to concrete roof decks by Cover strips formed of the same alloy and nominal
through bolts or cinch bolts and to gypsum or steel decks by thickness of aluminum sheets as used for the roof sheets
through bolts, none spaced more than 3.5 ft (1 m) between shall be applied over the battens. Edges of cover strips
centers. Bolt heads shall be countersunk. shall lock into the 0.5 in. (12 mm) horizontal flanges of
the roof sheets and shall be turned down against the verti-
6.3 DIMENSIONS cal sides of the battens. Lengths of cover strips shall be
joined by a 0.5 in. (12 mm) lock or shall be lapped at least
Roof sheets shall be no longer than 10 ft (3 m) and be 3 in. (75 mm) with the uphill strip on top of the downhill
installed between battens. Nominal sheet thickness shall be strip. Batten ends shall be covered with an end cap folded
0.024 in. (0.6 mm) when the distance between battens does and locked into tabs 0.5 in. (12 mm) long on the top and
not exceed 20 in. (500 mm) and 0.032 in. (0.8 mm) when two vertical sides of the cap. The tabs shall be 0.5 in. (12
the distance between battens is from 20 in. (500 mm) to 27 mm) extensions of the cover strip and vertical legs of the
in. (700 mm). To allow for expansion, sheet width shall be roof sheets.
0.125 in. (3 mm) less than the clear distance between the
battens. Sides of sheets shall be turned up the height of the
6.7 HIPS AND RIDGES
batten and terminate in a 0.5 in. (12 mm) horizontal flange.
(See Figure 3). Hips and ridges shall be aluminum cov-
6.4 TRANSVERSE SEAMS ered battens similar to the roof battens. At their intersec-
tion with ridge or hip battens, the edges of roof sheets shall
6.4.1 (See Figures 1 and 3). For roofs with slopes 6 be turned up the height of the ridge or hip batten and termi-
in 12 (1:2) or greater, the lower end of each sheet shall nate in a 0.5 in. (12 mm) horizontal flange. Cover strips,
be folded under 0.75 in. (20 mm). The fold shall be slit as specified for the roof battens, shall be installed over hip
1 in. (25 mm) away from the corner to form a tab where and ridge battens. Alternate methods of finishing hips and
the sheet turns up against the batten. The upper end of ridges shall be as shown in the detail drawings.
each sheet shall be folded over 2 in. (50 mm). The 0.75 in.
(20 mm) fold on the lower end of the upper sheet shall be
6.8 VALLEYS
hooked into the 2 in. (50 mm) fold on the upper end of the
underlying sheet. Transverse seams shall be staggered a (See Figure 3). Valleys shall be formed from aluminum
distance of one half the sheet length in adjacent roof sheets. sheets no longer than 10 ft (3 m) of the same gauge and
alloy as used for the roof sheets. At laps, the uphill valley
6.4.2 (See Figures 1 and 3). For roofs with slopes at sheet shall overlap the downhill valley sheet at least 6 in.
least 3 in 12 (1:4) but less than 6 in 12 (1:2), the lower (150 mm). Each valley sheet shall extend under the roof
end of each sheet shall be folded under 0.75 in. (20 mm). sheets at least 6 in. (150 mm). At the valley adjacent to the
The fold shall be slit 1 in. (25 mm) away from the corner lower edge of the roof sheets, a 0.75 in. (20 mm) double
to form a tab where the sheet turns up against the batten. fold shall be made to engage a 0.75 in. (20 mm) single fold
The upper end of each sheet shall be folded over 0.5 in. (12 at the lower ends of the roof sheets. The outer edge of the
mm). A 1.5 in. (38 mm) wide locking strip the full width valley sheets shall be folded 0.5 in. (12 mm) for cleating
of the sheet shall be secured at least 4 in. (100 mm) below and in these folds cleats shall be spaced no more than 24
the top folded edge by rivets spaced not more than 6 in. in. (600 mm) on centers. The under edge of wood battens
(150 mm) apart. The 0.75 in. (20 mm) fold on the lower shall be notched to permit the folded edge of valley sheets
end of the upper sheet shall hook into the locking strip on to pass under the battens. Valley sheets shall be nailed
the upper end of the underlying sheet. Alternately, trans- along the top edge only.
verse seams shall be made as specified in Section 6.4.1 and
filling the seams with sealant. Transverse seams shall be
staggered a distance of one half the sheet length in adjacent
roof sheets.

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 Figure 3
BATTEN SEAM ROOFING

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6.9 EAVES described in 5.3. The lower edge of the apron strip shall be
hooked over a previously placed edge strip as previously
(See Figure 2). At eaves without gutters, each sheet described.
shall be hooked 0.75 in. (20 mm) over a previously placed
aluminum edge strip. Edge strips shall be continuous and
6.10 GABLE RAKES
shall be formed from sheets no longer than 10 ft (3 m);
ends of adjacent lengths shall lap at least 1 in. (25 mm). Side edges of roof sheets at gable rakes shall finish over
The edge strip shall extend up the roof deck at least 4 in. an edge strip as described in Section 6.9 or a batten shall be
(100 mm) and be secured with aluminum nails spaced no set flush with the gable end. Where battens occur at gable
more than 4 in. (100 mm) apart along the upper edge. The ends, a cover strip shall lock into the roof sheets and extend
lower edge shall be turned out 0.75 in. (20 mm) to form a over the batten and down the face of the gable end to hook
drip edge. The edge strip shall not be face nailed. 0.75 in. (20 mm) over a previously placed continuous edge
strip that is secured to the deck with aluminum nails spaced
(See Figure 2). Where seams finish back from eave no more than 4 in. (100 mm) apart.
edges, the lower edge of the roofing shall engage a previ- Aluminum roof shingles shall be of the size and shape
ously placed apron strip. The connection between the roof shown on the drawings. Installation shall be in accordance
sheets and the upper edge of the apron strip shall be as with manufacturer's specifications.

7. ALUMINUM ROOF SHINGLES

Aluminum roof shingles shall be of the size and shape
shown on the drawings. Installation shall be in accordance
with manufacturer's specications.

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8. FLASHING FOR NON-METALLIC SHINGLE ROOFS
8.1 APRON FLASHING extend under the roofing at least 5 in. (125 mm). The lower
edge shall be hemmed for stiffness and be secured by blind
cleats spaced no further than 24 in. (600 mm) on centers.
8.1.1 General
Apron flashing shall be formed of sheets not longer than 8.2 EAVE SNOW FLASHING
10 ft (3 m). The ends of each length of flashing shall be (See Figure 4). Eave snow flashing shall be formed and
lapped at least 4 in. (100 mm) or a 2 in. (50 mm) sealant secured as for standing seam roofing. Where the flashing
filled "S" lock shall be formed at one end of the flashing extends more than 4 ft (1.2 m), center to center spacing
sheet to receive the end of the adjacent flashing sheet. of standing seams shall not exceed 26 in. (660 mm). The
flashing shall extend up the roof at least 18 in. (460 mm)
8.1.2 Change of Roof Slope Flashing beyond the exterior wall face. Along the upper edge, stand-
(See Figure 4). At changes of roof slope the flashing on ing seams shall be laid flat for approximately 6 in. (150
the uphill side shall extend at least 6 in. (150 mm) under mm), and the top edge shall be folded over 0.5 in. (12 mm)
the shingles and be secured by aluminum nails along the to form a hook dam. The starter course of shingles shall
uphill side spaced no further than 6 in. (150 mm) apart. An be lapped over the top flat surface at least 6 in. (150 mm).
inverted V cant shall be formed in the flashing near the butt
edge of the first shingle course or a wood cant strip shall At eaves, the flashing shall be hooked 0.75 in. (20 mm)
be placed under the butts of the first shingle course and over a previously placed aluminum edge strip as described
be secured with narrow strips of aluminum attached to the in Section 5.9.
roof deck above the flashing. The flashing on the downhill
side shall extend at least 5 in. (125 mm). The downhill At valleys a 1.5 in. (38 mm) wide locking strip the full
edge shall be hemmed 0.5 in. (12 mm) for stiffness and be length of the snow flashing shall be secured to the valley
secured by blind cleats spaced no further apart than 24 in. sheet 6 in. (150 mm) from its outer edge by rivets spaced
(600 mm). Where the flashing is to be concealed on the not more than 6 in. (150 mm) apart. The edge of the snow
downhill side it shall extend between the shingles of the flashing at the valley shall be folded under 0.75 in. (20
top double course of shingles to within 0.5 in. (12 mm) of mm) and engage the locking strip that is filled with sealant
the butts of the top shingles. With slate roofing, sealant or the outer edge of the valley shall be folded over 0.75
shall be applied to the underside of the pre-drilled holes in in. (20 mm), filled with sealant, and the edge of the snow
the slates before the slates are applied. flashing inserted in the fold.

8.1.3 Flashing Where Sloping Roof 8.3 HIP AND RIDGE FLASHING
Meets Vertical Wall (See Figure 5). Hip and ridge flashings shall be formed
(See Figure 4). Where sloping roofs meet vertical walls from sheets not longer than 10 ft (3 m) and ends of adja-
the flashing shall extend up the wall at least 4 in. (100 mm) cent lengths shall lap at least 4 in. (100 mm). The flashing
under the siding and be secured to the sheathing along its shall be fastened on both side flanges by aluminum screws
upper edge with aluminum nails spaced no further apart spaced no farther apart than 24 in. (600 mm). Screws shall
than 24 in. (600 mm). At masonry walls, the flashing shall be provided with washers having neoprene gaskets under
extend up the wall face at least 4 in. (100 mm) and be coun- the heads.
ter flashed as described in Section 12. The flashing shall

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 Figure 4
APRON FLASHING

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9. VALLEYS
9.1 OPEN VALLEYS 9.2 CLOSED VALLEYS
(See Figure 5). Valley flashing shall be formed of alu- (See Figure 5). Separate pieces of aluminum sheet
minum sheets not longer than 10 ft (3 m). The sheets shall shall be built in with each course of roofing material. The
extend at least 6 in. (150 mm) under the roof covering on flashing shall be as long as the diagonal of the shingle at
each side of the valley and the side edges shall be folded the center of the valley, and at least 18 in. (460 mm) wide
0.5 in. (12 mm) for cleating. Uphill sheets shall overlap where the roof slope is more than 6 in 12 (1:2) and 24 in.
downhill sheets by at least 6 in. (150 mm). The upper end (600 mm) wide where the roof slope is less than or equal
of each sheet shall be fastened to the roof deck. Side edges to 6 in 12 (1:2). The bottom edge of each piece of flashing
shall be secured with aluminum cleats spaced no farther shall be 0.5 in. (12 mm) short of the butt line of the shingle
apart than 24 in. (600 mm) on centers. The open portion in the succeeding course. Each piece of flashing shall be
of the valley shall not be less than 5 in. (125 mm) wide at fastened to the roof deck along the upper edge with alumi-
the top and shall increase in width 0.125 in. (3 mm) per num nails.
foot (300 mm) towards the eaves. Where intersecting roofs
are on different slopes, an inverted V 1.5 in. (38 mm) high
shall be formed along the centerline of the valley flashing
and the lap of the valley sheets shall be increased to 8 in.
(200 mm) unless otherwise shown on the drawings.

10. GRAVEL STOPS

10.1 SHEET GRAVEL STOPS be nailed in place before the gravel stop is installed. A
0.25 in. (6 mm) opening shall be left between the ends of
(See Figure 6). Sheet gravel stops shall be formed from the gravel stop sections. This opening shall be covered
sheets not longer than 10 ft (3 m). The horizontal flange by a 6 in. (150 mm) top cover plate. The cover plate shall
shall extend at least 4 in. (100 mm) onto the previously be embedded in mastic and fastened through the opening
built-up roofing and be secured through the roofing and between the sections.
into the deck with aluminum nails not more than 3 in. (75
mm) apart. Wood nailing strips shall be provided on decks Where depths of fascias vary from 8 to 16 in. (200 to
that are not wood. Over the horizontal flange a layer of 400 mm), longitudinal steps or ridges shall be formed in
elastic cement shall be applied; a strip of fabric shall be the fascia to minimize waviness. Steps or ridges shall be
embedded into this elastic cement. A second strip of fabric at least 0.5 in. (12 mm) high and proportionally spaced not
shall be similarly applied or, alternately, the first strip of more than 6 in. (150 mm) apart.
fabric shall be covered with hot pitch into which the top
strip of felt shall be embedded. The top strip shall be sur- Edge strips shall be continuous and shall be formed of
faced the same as the adjacent built-up roofing. sheets no longer than 10 ft (3 m); ends of adjacent lengths
shall lap at least 1 in. (25 mm). The lower edge shall be
The aluminum shall be bent to form a gravel stop at least turned out 45 degrees to form a drip. Edge strips shall be
1 in. (25 mm) high and the outer edge shall extend down fastened to wood with nails spaced no more than 4 in. (100
as a fascia. For fascias 4 in. (100 mm) or less in depth the mm) apart, or to masonry with screws in expansion sleeves
lower edge shall be hemmed at least 0.5 in. (12 mm) and spaced no more than 10 in. (250 mm) apart.
turned out 0.75 in. (20 mm) at an angle of 45 degrees to
form a drip. For fascias more than 4 in. (100 mm) in depth
the lower edge shall hook 0.75 in. (20 mm) over a previ-
10.2 EXTRUDED GRAVEL STOPS
ously placed continuous aluminum edge strip.
Extruded gravel stops shall be installed in accordance
End joints shall be made using a back-up plate and top with manufacturers' specifications.
cover plate. The 12 in. (300 mm) long back-up plate shall

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 Figure 5
HIP, RIB, AND VALLEY FLASHING

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 Figure 6
GRAVEL STOPS AND FASCIAS

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11. BASE FLASHING
11.1 STRAIGHT BASE FLASHING 11.2 STEPPED BASE FLASHING
(See Figure 7). Straight base flashing for built-up roof- (See Figure 7). Where slate, flat tile or shingle roofs
ing shall extend up on vertical surfaces at least 8 in. (200 abut vertical brick or other masonry surfaces, separate
mm) and to a height of at least 3 in. (75 mm) above the bot- pieces of aluminum flashing shall be woven in with each
tom of the cap flashing. Base flashing shall extend onto the course. Each piece of flashing shall extend out onto the
previously placed built-up roofing at least 4 in. (100 mm). roof at least 4 in. (100 mm) and up on the vertical wall at
least 4 in. (100 mm) and under the cap flashing or finish
The base flashing shall be made of aluminum sheets not siding at least 3 in. (75 mm). The flashing pieces shall
longer than 10 ft (3 m). Ends of sheets shall be joined by 1 extend from the top edge of the shingle on which it rests
in. (25 mm) wide loose lock seams filled with sealant. The to within 0.5 in. (12 mm) of the butt of the course placed
horizontal leg of the base flashing shall be nailed along its over the flashing. For slate or tile, the flashing piece shall
outer edge with aluminum nails spaced no more than 3 in. extend at least 2 in. (50 mm) above the top edge of slate for
(75 mm) apart. On decks not made of wood, wood nailers nailing, or two lugs approximately 1 in. (25 mm) wide shall
shall be provided. Over the horizontal flange a layer of be made at the top of each flashing piece bent to hook over
elastic cement shall be troweled; a strip of fabric shall be the top edge of the slate or tile. Flashing used with slate or
embedded into this elastic cement. A second strip of fabric tile roofing shall be at least 0.032 in. (0.8 mm) thick.
shall be similarly applied or, alternately, the first strip of
fabric shall be covered with hot pitch into which the top
strip of felt shall be embedded. The top strip shall be sur-
faced in the same manner as the adjacent built-up roofing.

12. CAP FLASHING

12.1 STRAIGHT CAP FLASHING (100 mm) and terminate in a 0.25 in. (6 mm) hook dam.
The steps shall lap at least 3 in. (75 mm) over each other
(See Figure 7). Straight cap flashing shall be provided and at least 3 in. (75 mm) over the base flashing.
with all base flashings. The flashing shall be formed of
sheets not longer than 10 ft (3 m) and shall be built into the
masonry approximately 4 in. (100 mm) with the inner edge
12.3 ATTACHING CAP FLASHING TO EXIST-
terminating in a 0.25 in. (6 mm) hook dam or, alternately,
ING MASONRY WALLS
turning up 1 in. (25 mm) behind the first brick course. The
built-in portion of the flashing shall be painted (Section (See Figure 7). On existing masonry walls the mortar
2.6) before installation. The apron shall be of sufficient joint to receive the flashing shall be raked out to a depth of
width to overlap the base flashing at least 3 in. (75 mm). 1 in. (25 mm). The flashing shall extend into the raked-out
Ends of adjacent lengths of flashing shall overlap at least 3 joint with the inner edge bent back to form a hook dam.
in. (75 mm) and the built-in horizontal portion of the joint It shall be secured by aluminum wedges or plugs spaced
shall be set in elastic cement. The flashing shall have a not more than 8 in. (200 mm) apart and the raked-out joint
layer of mortar above and below the horizontal flange in shall be filled with sealant.
the wall.

12.2 STEPPED CAP FLASHING

(See Figure 7). Stepped cap flashing shall be provided
at the intersection of pitched roofs with vertical surfaces.
The flashing pieces shall extend into the wall at least 4 in.

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 Figure 7
BASE AND CAP FLASHING

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13. CHIMNEY FLASHING
13.1 CHIMNEYS ON SLOPED ROOFS Cap flashing shall extend through the chimney wall and
the back edge shall turn up 1 in. (25 mm) against the flue
(See Figure 7). At the front of the chimney, an apron lining. Pieces of stepped cap flashing shall lap the base
flashing of aluminum shall extend over the roofing material flashing at least 3 in. (75 mm) and each other at least 3 in.
at least 5 in. (125 mm) and up the chimney face at least 4 (75 mm).
in. (100 mm). The lower edge of the apron flashing shall
be hemmed 0.5 in. (12 mm) for stiffness and be secured
13.2 CHIMNEYS ON FLAT ROOFS
in place with blind cleats or screws with neoprene gaskets
not more than 18 in. (460 mm) apart. Along the chimney Chimneys on flat roofs shall be flashed as straight base
sides, separate pieces of flashing at least 8 in. (200 mm) and cap flashing (Sections 11 and 12).
long bent to extend at least 4 in. (100 mm) onto the roof
and at least 4 in. (100 mm) onto the chimney wall shall
be woven in with each course of roofing material. At the
chimney corners, the base flashing shall be connected to
the apron flashing by a lapped or locked seam filled with
sealant. Crickets above chimneys shall be flashed and the
flashing shall extend under the roofing material at least 6
in. (150 mm) and terminate in a 0.5 in. (12 mm) fold. All
joints shall be lapped or locked and filled with sealant.

14. THROUGH-WALL FLASHING

14.1 GENERAL face of columns. At the bottom of concrete spandrel beams
the flashing shall be set into a continuous reglet, placed
Through-wall flashing shall be installed under para- so that the bottom edge of the receiving slot is 2.5 in. (63
pet copings, for counter flashing in parapets and in rising mm) above the top edge of the lintel or carrier angles or
masonry walls where roofs abut, over lintels of exterior as detailed on the drawings. It shall extend down to the
openings, under window sills and stone band courses, and second brick joint or first stone joint above the horizontal
continuously over spandrel beams. All flashing in exterior leg of the carrier or lintel angle, and out within 0.5 in. (12
walls shall extend through the wall to within 0.5 in. (12 mm) of the exterior wall face. The ends of each length of
mm) of the exterior face and turn up 2 in. (50 mm) on the flashing shall lap at least 3 in. (75 mm) and be sealed with
interior wall face unless otherwise shown on the drawings. elastic cement.
Cap flashing shall turn extend at least 4 in. (100 mm) down
the face of the wall and shall overlap the base flashing at Where the front face of the steel spandrel beams are fire-
least 3 in. (75 mm). Flashing over spandrel beams and proofed with brick masonry, the through-wall flashing on
lintels and under band courses and sills shall be installed as top of the beam shall be installed as heretofore specified.
indicated on the drawings and specified elsewhere. At the bottom of the spandrel, the lintels or carrier angles
shall be flashed with a separate strip of flashing. The flash-
All through-wall flashing shall be set with a bed of mor- ing shall extend through the masonry to within 0.5 in. (12
tar above and below the flashing. The flashing shall be mm) of the exterior wall face in the second brick joint, or
factory formed to provide a mechanical bond in the mortar first stone joint above the horizontal leg of the angle. The
bed in all directions. Where aluminum flashing is to be flashing shall turn up at least 2 in. (50 mm) against the web
embedded in masonry walls, it shall first be coated with of the steel beam and the joint between the flashing and
bituminous paint or methacrylate lacquer (Section 2.6). steel shall be sealed with elastic cement.
Alternately, painted sheet shall be used.
14.3 SILL FLASHING
14.2 SPANDREL FLASHINGS
(See Figure 8). The flashing under masonry sills shall
(See Figure 8). A continuous through-wall flashing extend the full depth of the sill or as detailed and at least 4
shall be installed on top of all spandrel beams. The flash- in. (100 mm) beyond the ends of the sill. The front edge
ing shall extend through the masonry to within 0.5 in. (12 of the flashing shall be 0.5 in. (12 mm) back of the exterior
mm) of the exterior wall face. The rear edge of the flashing wall face and the back edge shall turn up at least 2 in. (50
shall be turned up at least 2 in. (50 mm) against the interior mm) unless shown otherwise on the drawings.
face of the wall. Where the flashing intersects columns, it
shall turn up at least 2 in. (50 mm) against the sides and

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 Figure 8
THROUGH-WALL FLASHING AT SPANDRELS, SILLS, AND LINTELS

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14.4 LINTEL FLASHING a one piece combination coping and base flashing shall
be installed. The outer edge of the combination flashing
(See Figure 8). Where openings occur in solid brick or shall extend over the coping and be secured as specified
tile walls, the flashing shall extend the full length of the lin- under coping covers (Section 16). The inner edge of flash-
tel. It shall extend through the wall one brick course above ing shall extend 4 in. (100 mm) onto the roof deck and be
the outer lintel to within 0.5 in. (12 mm) of the exterior face installed as specified in Section 11, Base Flashing.
of the masonry wall, or alternately, shall be bent down to
lap over the vertical leg of the outer lintel angle at least 2 (See Figure 9). Where the height of the parapet is more
in. (50 mm). The back edge of the flashing shall be bent up than 15 in. (380 mm) from the roof line to the underside
at least 2 in. (50 mm) against the interior wall face. of the coping, a through-wall flashing shall be installed
directly under the coping stone. The flashing shall extend
Where the bottom of concrete spandrels form the head to within 0.5 in. (12 mm) of the exterior wall face and the
of openings a reglet shall be installed in the face of the edge shall be folded over 0.25 in. (6 mm) to form a hook
spandrel the full length of the lintel. The reglet shall be so dam. At the inside face of the wall, the flashing shall proj-
placed that the bottom edge of the receiving slot is 2.5 in. ect 0.5 in. (12 mm) and be bent down at an angle of 45
(63 mm) above the top edge of the lintel, or as detailed on degrees to form a drip. Directly above the base flashing a
the drawings. the flashing shall be inserted the full depth of cap flashing that extends 4 in. (100 mm) into the wall shall
the reglet and shall extend horizontally through the mortar be installed.
joint to within 0.5 in. (12 mm) of the exterior face of the
masonry wall, or alternately, shall lap over the vertical leg
14.6 CONCRETE PARAPETS AND WALLS
of the lintel by at least 2 in. (50 mm).
(See Figure 9). For counter flashing and other flashing
Where the front face of the steel spandrel beams are which connect with concrete walls, furnish and install a
fireproofed with brick masonry, the flashing shall extend reglet in the concrete to receive metal flashing where indi-
the full length of the lintel. The flashing strip shall lap over cated on the drawings.
the vertical leg of the lintel at least 2 in. (50 mm) and shall
be bent to extend up onto the web of the steel spandrel at The flashing shall be inserted into the reglet and secured
least 2 in. (50 mm). The joint between the flashing and with aluminum wedges no farther apart than 16 in. (400
steel shall be sealed with elastic cement. mm). The reglet shall then be filled with sealant. The ends
of each piece of counter flashing shall lap at least 3 in. (75
14.5 BRICK PARAPET WALLS mm). A slight bend shall be made in the counter flashing
to provide spring action of the lower edge against the base
(See Figure 9). Where the height of the parapet is 6 flashing.
in. (150 mm) to 15 in. (380 mm) from the roof line to the
underside of the coping, the through-wall flashing shall be
placed directly under the coping stone. Where the height
to the underside of the coping is less than 6 in. (150 mm),

15. STANDING SEAM SIDING

Where drawings call for metal covering minor vertical The upper edge of the siding shall be counterflashed and
surfaces (walls of penthouses, monitors, skylights, fascias, the lower edge shall lap over the base flashing a minimum
the inside face of parapet walls, etc.), covering shall be of 3 in. (75 mm).
standing seam siding constructed according to the Section
5, standing seam roofing.

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 Figure 9
THROUGH-WALL FLASHING AT PARAPETS AND WALLS

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16. COPING COVERS

16.1 FLAT SEAM COPING COVERS (See Figure 10). Where the height of the coping above
the roof deck is less than 6 in. (150 mm), a one-piece com-
Flat seam coping covers shall be formed of sheets not bination coping cover and base flashing shall be installed.
longer than 10 ft (3 m), joined by 1 in. (25 mm) loose lock The inner edge of the flashing shall extend onto the previ-
seams that are filled with sealant. ously placed built-up roofing 4 in. (100 mm) and shall be
nailed along its outer edge with aluminum nails spaced no
(See Figure 10). On stone copings where the cover- more than 3 in. (75 mm) apart. The horizontal flange shall
ing extends down over the front face of the stone, the alu- then be stripped into the built-up roofing. Where the height
minum sheet shall hook 0.75 in. (20 mm) over a continu- of the coping above the roof deck is more than 6 in. (150
ous edge strip made of 8 or 10 ft (2.5 or 3 m) lengths of mm), the inner edge of the coping cover shall lock into the
aluminum. Edge strips shall be secured with aluminum aluminum base flashing or be secured by cleats not more
screws in expansion sleeves spaced no farther than 10 in. than 2 ft (0.6 m) apart.
(250 mm) apart. Ends of adjacent lengths shall lap at least
1 in. (25 mm).
16.2 STANDING SEAM COPING COVERS
(See Figure 10). Where the covering does not extend (See Figure 10). Standing seam coping covers shall be
over the front face a separate continuous locking strip of formed from sheets not longer than 10 ft (3 m). Ends of
aluminum shall be secured into a reglet in the stone with sheets shall be connected by a single fold standing seam
aluminum wedges, or aluminum screws in expansion finishing at least 1.25 in. (32 mm) high. The tab at the ends
sleeves, and the reglet filled with sealant. Ends of adjacent of standing seams shall be folded over to close the ends of
lengths of locking strip shall lap at least 2 in. (50 mm). The seams. Front and rear sides of the aluminum coping shall
aluminum covering shall engage the locking strip with a extend down over the edge of the masonry at least 2 in. (50
0.75 in. (20 mm) loose lock seam. The inner edge of the mm). The lower edges shall be bent out to form a drip and
coping shall lock into the aluminum base flashing or be hook over continuous edge strips. Edge strips, in 8 or 10 ft
secured by cleats spaced not more than 2 ft (0.6 m) apart. (2.5 or 3 m) lengths, shall be attached to the inner and outer
Cleats shall be secured to the stone coping with two alumi- faces of the wood plate with aluminum nails spaced no
num screws in expansion sleeves. more than 4 in. (100 mm) apart. Edge strips shall extend
over the top of the wood plate at least 2 in. (50 mm).
(See Figure 10). Walls topped with wood plate shall
have a continuous edge strip, made of 8 or 10 ft (2.5 or 3 16.3 EXTRUDED COPING COVERS
m) long lengths of aluminum , secured along the front edge
Extruded coping covers shall be of the size and shape
with aluminum nails spaced no farther than 4 in. (100 mm)
shown on the drawings. Installation shall be in accordance
apart. The coping cover shall be hooked over the edge strip
with manufacturer's specifications.
with a 0.75 in. (20 mm) loose lock seam. The inner edge
of the aluminum coping shall lock into the top of the alu-
minum base flashing with a 0.75 in. (20 mm) loose lock
seam. Where aluminum base flashing is not provided, the
coping shall hook over an edge strip as specified for the
front edge, or, alternately, it shall be secured by aluminum
cleats spaced no more than 2 ft (0.6 m) apart. Cleats shall
be secured to the wood plate with two aluminum nails.

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 Figure 10
COPING COVERS AND STANDING SEAM FASCIA

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17. MISCELLANEOUS
17.1 SCUPPER FLASHING mm) high and shall extend under the side wall covering or
be cap flashed on masonry walls. Pans shall be bedded in
(See Figure 11). Scupper flashing shall cover the inte- elastic cement and the 4 in. (100 mm) side flanges shall be
rior of the opening in the wall and shall extend through and stripped and mopped into the built-up roofing as specified
project outside the wall as shown on the drawings. The in Section 11.1.
dimensions of the flashing shall be 0.5 in. (12 mm) less
than the masonry opening. On the roof side, the scupper
17.3 CURB FLASHING
lining shall be of sufficient length to be built into a mem-
brane base flashing at least 4 in. (100 mm) or locked to the Curb flashing shall be provided on all curbs, roof scut-
aluminum base flashing with a 0.75 in. (20 mm) sealant tles, etc. The flashing shall extend up the full height and
filled seam. The bottom edge shall extend at least 4 in. over the top of the curbs. The lower edge shall extend 4
(100 mm) into the built-up roofing and where required a in. (100 mm) onto the roof deck and with built-up roofing
0.75 in. (20 mm) high gravel stop ridge shall be formed be installed as specified in Section 11.1 or with slate, tile
around the scupper inlet. or shingle roofing be installed as specified in Section 10.2.

17.2 SPLASH PANS 17.4 DOOR SILLS

(See Figure 11). Splash pans shall be installed under (See Figure 11). The sills of doors leading onto flat
all downspouts discharging onto composition roofs. Pans roofs (except where the bottom of the sill is at or above
shall be made of sheets 24 in. (600 mm) long by 18 in. (460 the level of cap flashing) shall be provided with aluminum
mm) wide unless otherwise indicated on the drawings. 1 flashing. The flashing shall extend under the sill and be
in. (25 mm) inverted V members placed 4 in. (100 mm) turned up behind and at the two ends of the sill at least 2
from the outside edges shall be formed on two sides and in. (50 mm). The sill flashing shall be joined to the base
one end of the sheet. Filler pieces shall be provided at the flashing by a 0.75 in. (20 mm) lock seam filled with seal-
corners so that they lap over the flanges on the sides at least ant. All lock seams and joints shall be made watertight
3 in. (75 mm) with the lapped joints being set in elastic with sealant.
cement. The rear side of the pan shall be at least 8 in. (200

18. RAINWATER GOODS

18.1 HUNG GUTTERS at the top of the outlet tube shall be riveted to the gutter
and the connection sealed with sealant. Outlet tubes shall
(See Figure 11). Hung gutters shall be of the size and extend at least 3 in. (75 mm) into leaders.
shape shown on the drawings. Outer edges shall be rolled
or beaded to provide stiffness. Inner edges shall finish at
18.3 LEADER HEADS
least 1 in. (25 mm) above outer edges. Gutters shall be
secured by cleats engaged along the inner edge and by Leader heads shall be of the size and shape shown on
hangers or straps spaced not more than 32 in. (800 mm) the drawings.
apart. Ends of gutter sections shall be joined in a separate
S lock or, alternately, the ends shall lap at least 3 in. (75 18.4 LEADERS
mm) in the direction of flow, be riveted and the joint cov-
Leaders or downspouts shall be of the size and shape
ered with sealant. Gutters shall slope at least 1/16 in. per ft
shown on the drawings. End joints shall telescope at least
(1:192) toward leaders. Expansion joints shall be provided
1.5 in. (38 mm) and longitudinal joints shall be locked. All
on long straight runs at spacings not greater than 50 ft (15
necessary elbows, offsets, and other fittings shall be pro-
m) and at inside and outside corners at spacings not greater
vided.
than 20 ft (6 m).
18.5 LEADER STRAPS
18.2 OUTLET TUBES
Leader straps shall hold leaders clear of the wall.
(See Figure 11). Outlet tubes shall be of the size and
Leader straps shall be spaced as shown on the drawings,
shape required to fit the gutter. They shall be located as
but not more than 10 ft (3 m) apart. They shall be securely
shown on the drawings, but at spacings not more than 50
attached to the wall with aluminum fasteners and shall grip
ft (15 m). Holes shall be provided in the gutter bottom
the leader securely by means of punched prongs, screws,
through which the outlet shall extend. The flanges formed
rivets, or other mechanical fasteners.

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 Figure 11
RAINWATER GOODS AND MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS

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19. ALUMINUM COMPOSITE MATERIAL
19.1 ALUMINUM COMPOSITE MATERIAL (ACM) 19.3 CONTINUOUS EDGE GRIP (CEG)
ACM shall be composed of a thermoplastic compound ATTACHMENT METHOD
core sandwiched between two aluminum sheets formed Continuous edge grip is another common method for
in a continuous manufacturing process. Aluminum skin providing an attachment system for composite panels.
thickness shall be minimum nominal 0.020 in (0.5mm). CEG panels are perimeter framed on the non-exposed side
thick and total panel thickness shall not be less than 4 mm of the panel with extruded aluminum shapes which provide
for architectural cladding applications. Maximum panel registration and a mechanical grip on the panel edge. CEG
sizes for architectural cladding are 62 in. wide by 20 ft – 3 lends itself to dry set reveal joints (no exposed sealants).
in. long. The CEG perimeter extrusion typically has a small lip
which seats into a rectangular groove in the panel’s edge.
19.2 ROUT AND RETURN (R&R) CEG extrusions are mitered and mechanically fastened at
ATTACHMENT METHOD the corners and set in a continuous bead of silicone sealant,
which provides structural attachment of the frame to the
Rout and return is a standard fabrication method for
panel. Composite panels may have to be squared to form
providing an attachment system for composite panels. A
proper corner joints. CEG joints should be a minimum 5/8
flat sheet of material is continuously routed around the
in. (16 mm) wide to allow for thermal movement. Slotted
entire perimeter with a vee-shaped groove to remove the
back skin and all but 0.020 in. (0.50 mm) thick of the panel holes at fastener connection points on the CEG extrusions
core. The minimum distance from edge of panel to cen- may be needed to accommodate thermal movement.
terline of the groove is 1.0 in. (25 mm). The corners are
removed and the remaining panel edges are folded to cre- 19.4 STIFFENERS
ate a 1 in. deep pan, or cassette. The panel corners are Composite panel stiffeners can be provided to resist
reinforced with aluminum angles to stiffen the unit. Pre- wind load and reduce panel deflections. Metal stiffeners
punched aluminum angles are installed at approximately
should be made of aluminum so that the thermal growth
12" (305 mm) centers to the returned panel edges with two
coefficient of the panel and stiffeners is the same. Stiffen-
non-corrosive fasteners. Corrosion resistant screws are
ers are most effective when they span the shortest dimen-
run through pre-punched holes in the clip angles into the
supporting sub structure. Horizontal slotted holes shall be sion of the panel. They shall be adhered to the back of
utilized in the legs of the clip angles if significant panel the panel with a structural silicone caulking and the ends
thermal growth is anticipated. The joints between the R&R of the stiffeners should be mechanically connected to the
panels should be caulk sealed to prevent air and moisture perimeter of the sheet.
infiltration between the panels.

20. ALUMINUM FACE SHEET AND LINER WITH INSULATION

20.1 THICKNESS 20.4 SUPPORTS
Aluminum roll formed sheeting used for double skin, Horizontal subgirts shall be placed against the liner
field insulated wall panel systems shall be 0.024", 0.032", sheet flanges 48 in. on center or per the manufacturer’s
0.040", or 0.050" thick. recommendations. Subgirts shall be made of steel or alu-
minum and of sufficient strength to resist the applied dead
20.2 FASTENERS and wind loads applied through the face sheet. Steel mem-
bers shall be galvanized or painted in accordance with the
Liner Sheets shall be fastened to structural supports with Specification for Aluminum Structures such that a barrier is
non-corrosive screws in accordance with manufacturer’s created between the aluminum steel mating surfaces. Sub-
recommendations. Care should be taken to avoid dissimi- girt fasteners shall run through the liner lips into the build-
lar metal (galvanic action) contact between the supports ing support substrate.
and the aluminum liner. Refer to the Aluminum Associa-
tion Specification for Aluminum Structures, Section M.7.
20.5 LOADS
20.3 INSULATION Aluminum face sheets shall be designed to resist applied
wind loads. Fasteners shall be applied through the profile
Insulation shall be placed in the cavity of the liner sheet. cells resting against the subgirt for maximum mechanical
Insulation materials shall not be corrosive to the liner, sub- clamping force.
girts, or face sheet.

January 2015 VIII-29

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COMMENTARY
2.1.1 Where severe forming is involved a softer temper 4.1 Solar radiation can develop material temperatures
may be employed and where little forming is required a of 140oF (60oC) on bare aluminum and up to 180oF (80OC)
harder temper may be used. Minimum bend radii for com- on dark painted metal. Radiation to the night sky can pro-
mon alloy/tempers and thicknesses can be found in Alu- duce surface temperatures 10oF to 15oF (5oC to 7oC) below
minum Standards and Data. Alclad sheet provides extra ambient air (more in arid regions and at higher altitudes),
protection against pitting in corrosive environments. so joints should be designed for temperature variations of
100oF (50oC) minimum or more depending on the applica-
2.1.2 The smallest nominal thickness preferred is 0.024 tion.
in. (0.60 mm).
4.4 Filler alloy selection is a function of the alloys of
2.5.3 The use of washers increases the fastener's resis- the metals to be welded and may be made using the Alu-
tance to the sheet pulling over the head of the fastener. The minum Design Manual, Specification for Aluminum Struc-
strength of tapping screw connections is addressed in the tures, Table M.9.1 for MIG and TIG welds.
Aluminum Design Manual, Specification for Aluminum
Structures, Section J.5. 5.1 Standing seam roofs with slopes less than 3 in 12
(1:4) require special precautions in design and installation
3.2 Indoors under dry conditions, galvanic corrosion of to ensure leaktightness.
aluminum will not occur and therefore aluminum may be
used in contact with any metal commonly used in build- 5.3 Standing seam roofing is best installed over wood
ings. decks since the cleats used to secure the aluminum roofing
are nailed directly to the deck. If decks other than wood
Outdoors and indoors where moisture is present gal- are used, properly located nailers should be incorporated
vanic corrosion may occur. Galvanic corrosion between in the deck.
aluminum and zinc, stainless steel, monel, or lead is insig-
nificant. Between aluminum and iron or steel, such corro- When standing seams are formed or finished in the field
sion is very slow and can be prevented readily by painting the cleats become rigidly locked into the multiple folds of
the iron or steel with a good quality exterior grade primer the seam; slippage does not occur between standing seam
and top coat or bituminous paint. Galvanic corrosion roof sheets and the cleats that are secured to the deck. Long
between aluminum and galvanized steel is insignificant, runs of roofing may eventually loosen the nails in the deck.
but once the zinc is consumed, steel will rust which may Where runs of standing seam roofing over 30 ft (9 m) are
cause staining. In severe industrial environments this can unavoidable, expansion or sliding cleats should be used.
happen in a short time and painting may be required.
6.1 Batten seam roofs with slopes less than 3 in 12 (1:4)
Highly corrosive environments such as those on the sea- require special precautions in design and installation to
coast and around industrial plants may promote galvanic ensure leaktightness.
corrosion even though aluminum by itself has good corro-
sion resistance. Consult specialists in such cases. 6.3 The size and spacing of battens may vary within
reasonable limits to suit architectural style, scale of build-
3.3 Kiln dried lumber, impregnated against decay, is ings, and width of sheets.
recommended for sheathing, cant strips, coping blocks,
and fascia boards. Preservatives that are compatible with 18.1 Alclad sheet is recommended for gutters, espe-
aluminum are coal tar creosote, coal tar oil, chlorinated cially in corrosive environments.
naphthalenes, zinc naphthenate, pentachloroxide, and
orthophenylphenol. Other preservatives may be used but 18.4 Leaders should be formed in lengths at least 10 ft
assurance should be obtained from the manufacturer that (3 m) long where possible.
they are not harmful to aluminum.

Aluminum paint, consisting of 2 pounds of aluminum

paste pigment (ASTM D962, Type 2, Class B) per gallon
of varnish meeting Federal Specification TT-V-81F, Type
II or equivalent, is an excellent primer and paint for wood.
However, any good quality exterior paint may be used.

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REFERENCES
1. Metal Construction Association, Guide Specification
for Residential Metal Roofing, Glenview, IL, 1995.

2. Aluminum Association, Aluminum Standards and

Data, Arlington, VA, 2013.

3. National Roofing Contractors Association, The Metal

Roofing Manual, Rosemont, IL, 1996.

4. American Architectural Manufacturer's Association

(AAMA) Standard Specifications for Aluminum Siding,
Soffit and Fascia (ANSI/AAMA 1402-09), Schaumburg,
IL, 2009.

5. American Welding Society, D1.2 Structural Welding

Code – Aluminum, Miami, FL, 2014.

January 2015 VIII-31

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 Aluminum Design Manual

Appendix 1

SI Guide

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 Appendix 1
SI Guide

Table A.1
SI Conversion Factors
Quantity Multiply By To obtain
Length inch in. 25.400 millimeter mm
foot ft 0.3048 meter m
mile mi 1.609 kilometer km

millimeter mm 0.03937 inch in.

meter m 3.281 foot ft
kilometer km 0.621 mile mi

Area square inch in2 645.16 square millimeter mm2

square foot ft 2
0.093 square meter m2
square mile mi2 2.590 square kilometer km2

square millimeter mm2 0.001550 square inch in2

square meter m2 10.764 square foot ft2
square kilometer km2 0.386 square mile mi2

Volume cubic inch in3 16387 cubic millimeter mm3

cubic foot ft 3 0.028317 cubic meter m3
cubic yard yd3 0.765 cubic meter m3
gallon (U.S. liquid) gal 3.785 liter L
quart (U.S. liquid) qt 0.946 liter L

cubic millimeter mm3 61.024×10-6 cubic inch in3

cubic meter m3 35.315 cubic foot ft3
cubic meter m3 1.308 cubic yard yd3
liter L 0.2642 gallon (U.S. liquid) gal
liter L 1.057 quart (U.S. liquid) qt

Mass ounce oz 28.350 gram g

pound lbm 0.4536 kilogram kg
short ton (2,000 lb) 907.2 kilogram kg

gram g 0.035274 ounce oz

kilogram kg 2.205 pound lbm
kilogram kg 0.001102 short ton (2,000 lb)

Force pound-force lbf 4.448 newton N

kip k 4.448 kilonewton kN

newton N 0.2248 pound-force lbf

kilonewton kN 0.2248 kip k

January 2015 Appendix I-3

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 Table A.1
SI Conversion Factors (Continued)
Quantity Multiply By To obtain
Bending Moment pound-force-inch lbf-in. 0.113 newton-m N-m
pound-force-ft lbf-ft 1.356 newton-m N-m

newton-m N-m 8.851 pound-force-inch lbf-in.

newton-m N-m 0.738 pound-force-ft lbf-ft

Stress, Pressure pound-force per lbf/in2 6.895 kilopascal kPa

square inch
pound-force per lbf/ft2 0.04788 kilopascal kPa
square foot
inch of water in. w.c. 0.249 kilopascal kPa
kip per square inch k/in 2
6.895 megapascal MPa

kilopascal kPa 0.145 pound-force per square inch lbf/in2

kilopascal kPa 20.885 pound-force per square foot lbf/ft2
kilopascal kPa 4.015 inch of water in. w.c.
megapascal MPa 0.145 kip per square inch k/in2

Energy, Work, foot-pound-force ft-lbf 1.356 joule J

Heat
British thermal unit Btu 1055 joule J
calorie cal 4.187 joule J
kilowatt-hour kW-h 3.600×10 6 joule J

joule J 0.738 foot-pound-force ft-lbf

joule J 0.948×10 -3 British thermal unit Btu
joule J 0.239 calorie cal
joule J 0.278×10 -6 kilowatt-hour kW-h

Density pound per cubic foot lb/ft3 16.0185 kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
kilogram per cubic kg/m 3
0.06243 pound per cubic foot lb/ft3
meter

Angle degree deg 0.017453 radian rad

radian rad 57.296 degree deg

Temperature °C = (°F - 32)/1.8

°F = 1.8°C + 32
See ASTM E 380 for more information.

Appendix I-4 January 2015

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 Table A.2 Table A.3
SI Prefixes SI Derived Units with
Special Names
Multiplication
Factor Prefix Symbol Quantity Unit Symbol Formula
10 18 exa E force newton N kg-m/s2
pressure, pascal Pa N/m2
1015 peta P stress
1012 tera T energy, work joule J N-m

109 giga G power watt W J/s

106 mega M

103 kilo k

102 hectoa h

101 dekaa da

10-1 decia d

10-2 centia c

10-3 milli m

10-6 micro µ

10-9 nano n

10-12 pico p

10-15 femto f

10-18 atto a

a: not recommended

January 2015 Appendix I-5

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 Aluminum Design Manual

Index

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AASHTO, I-20, 31, II-15, 63, III-8 spacing, I-58
abrasion blasting, I-67, II-51 tension, I-58
ACM, III-10, VIII-29 installation, I-70
adhesive joints, III-11 braces, I-87
aerospace, III-6, 13 bridges, I-17, 31, II-15, III-8
allowable strength design: I-17, I-31, II-9 buckling:
tables by alloy-temper, VI-19, 67 constants, I-32 , II-19, VI-5-12
alloys: local buckling effect on beam strength, I-48
commonly used, III-6 local buckling effect on column strength, I-45
comparative characteristics and applications, IV-17 elastic buckling stresses of elements, I-41
designation system, cast alloys, IV-11 lateral-torsional, I-47
designation system, wrought alloys, IV-9 torsional, I-44
metallurgy, IV-7 torsional-flexural, I-44
aluminum composite material, III-10, VIII-29 building codes, I-17, 31
analysis, I-17, I-42, II-24 building-type structures, I-17, 31
angles: camber, I-17, 66, II-50
equal leg, V-18, V-20 Canadian shapes, V-11, 16
in flexure, I-48 castings:
in tension, II-25, 26 material specifications, I-29
section property formulae, V-49 mechanical property limits for permanent mold casting
square end, V-20, V-24 alloys, IV-22
unequal leg, V-21, 24 mechanical property limits for sand casting alloys, IV-21
annealing, IV-7, 14, 16 weld fillers for, I-70
anodizing, I-67, III-17, 24 channels, V-7-11
ASCE, I-20 Aluminum Association Standard Channels, V-7, VI-73
ASME, I-20 American Standard Channels, V-8
ASTM, I-20 Canadian Channels, V-11
automotive, III-13 Car and Ship Building Channels, V-10
AWS, I-20 clad alloys, IV-7
beams: cleaning aluminum, I-67
angles, I-48 coefficient:
bars, I-48 tension, I-22, II-11
examples, VII-8-14, 28-47, 55-65, 67 thermal expansion, I-21, 67, 84, II-50
formulas, VI-87 columns: I-17
round tubes, VII-12 examples, VII-18, 27
tubular shapes, I-55 member buckling, I-44
welded, I-47 welded, I-44
bearing: combined stresses:
examples, VII-15, 16 compression and bending, I-54
on holes, I-58, 60, 63, VII-15 shear, compression, and bending, I-54
on flat surfaces, I-64 tension and bending, I-54
on slots, I-58 web crippling and bending, I-65
pins, I-64, VII-16 compression:
bending, I-67 axial, I-44
coefficient, I-47, VII-56, 58 concrete in contact with aluminum, I-68, II-52
developed lengths, VI-71 conductivity
maximum thickness for 180 degree bends, VI-70 electrical, IV-5, 32-35
minimum radii for sheet and plate, VI-68 thermal, IV-5, 32-35
minimum radii for wire and rod, VI-70 connections:
biaxial stresses, III-9 adhesive, III-11
block shear, I-64 mechanical, I-58
bolts: welded, I-56
dimensions, VI-81 contact with other materials, I-67, II-51
material, I-30, II-13 coping covers, VIII-34
shear, I-58 corrosion, III-23
slip critical connections, I-58 cathodic protection, III-24

January 2015 Index - 3

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 crevice, III-23 base flashing, VIII-19
galvanic, III-23 cap flashing, VIII-19
stress-corrosion cracking, II-13 chimney, VIII-21
corrugations, see building sheathing curb flashing,VIII-27
countersunk, I-58, 60, 62 hip and ridge flashing, VIII-14
cutting, I-67 sills, VIII-21
damping, II-50 scupper flashing, VIII-27
dead load, I-73, 82, II-18 snow, VIII-14
deflection, I-66, 73, 75, III-6 through-wall flashing, VIII-21
density, I-21, IV-36 forgings, I-20
designation system for sections, V-5 gravel stops, VIII-16
diaphragms, III-9 gages, sheet metal and wire, V-44
doubly symmetric sections, I-44, 47 grip, I-17, 58
drilling, see holes heating, I-21, 67, 82, II-51, IV-5
ductility, III-9 holes:
edge distance, see fasteners bolts, I-58, 59
effective length factor, I-17 drilling, I-67
effective radius of gyration, I-47 punching, I-67
effective width, I-66 reaming, I-67
elements: I-17 rivets, I-59
compression, I-37 screws, I-60
edge stiffeners, I-35 I-beams:
flexure, I-39 Aluminum Association Standard I-beams, V-12, VI-74
intermediate stiffeners, I-36 American Standard I-beams, V-15
curved, I-37 inquiries, I-4
welded, I-37, 39 interpretations, I-4
width defined, I-33 insulation, VIII-29
elevated temperatures, see heating joining, see connections
emittance, III-26 laps, see roofing and siding connections
erection, I-70 light poles, see luminaires
examples, VII live load, I-74, 82, II-18
existing structures, I-86 load and resistance factor design, I-18, 31, II-9, 15
extrusions, III-14 load combinations, I-18, 31, 82
alloy selection, III-17 load factors, I-18, II-18
circle size, III-18 lockbolts, I-18, I-59
design, III-16 luminaires, I-20, 31, 77
finish, III-17 magnesium content in aluminum alloys, III-23, IV-8
joining, III-21 marine service, I-20, IV-8
screw chases, III-22 material specifications, I-20
fabrication, I-67-68, III-7 mechanical properties:
layout, I-67 fastener alloys, IV-23
tolerances, I-68 for wrought aluminum products, I-22
factor of safety, see safety factors for welded aluminum products, I-22
fasteners: I-17, 30 permanent mold alloys, I-29, IV-22
fatigue: I-76, II-59, III-7 sand casting alloys, I-29, IV-21
allowable stress range, I-76 testing to determine, I-73
constant amplitude fatigue limit, I-76 typical, IV-24
constant amplitude loading, I-76 modulus of elasticity, I-11, 21, IV-24
design details, I-76 net area, I-43, II-25
examples, VII-30, 34 nomenclature, see symbols
stress category, I-77 nuts, I-21, 30, VI-83
variable amplitude loading, I-76 paint, I-67, 68, II-51, III-6, IV-6
finishes: I-67, II-51, IV-6 physical properties, typical, IV-32
fire: I-82 pipe, I-48, 52, III-8, V-34
fire protection: III-25 pipe bursting pressure, III-9
flashing: plate, I-20
apron, VIII-14

Index - 4 January 2015

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Poisson’s ratio, I-15, I-21 sheet metal screws, shear strengths, VI-80
polar radius of gyration, I-15, V-4 sections, nomenclature, V-4
postbuckling, I-18, 33, II-20 shear, see webs
pressure vessels, III-8 in tubes, I-52
punching, see holes shear center, I-15
quality assurance, I-70 shear modulus, I-13, 21
quality control, I-70 sheet, I-20
radiographic inspection, I-29, II-11 sheet gages, V-44
radius of gyration, I-15, V-4 shingles, VIII-13
rail cars, III-8 ships, III-8
rainwater goods. VIII-27 SI conversions, Appendix I
reaming, see holes siding, see roofing and siding
recycling, III-26 singly symmetric sections, I-44
references, I-20, II-63, III-7, 27, VIII-31 slenderness ratio, I-16
reflectance, III-26 specific gravity, IV-5, 36
Research Council on Structural Connections, I-21, 58, 70 specific heat, I-84
resistance factors, I-31, II-15, VI-13 stability, I-42, II-24
rivets: stainless steel, I-67, II-13
bearing, I-60 steel, I-67, III-6
blind, I-60 bolts, II-13
heads, I-70 fatigue performance, III-7
hole, I-59, 70 stiffeners:
hollow-end, I-60 aluminum composite materials, VIII-29
material, I-30 circumferential stiffeners on tubes, I-55
removal, I-70 edge, I-38
shear, I-59 example, VII-34, 44, 46, 49
spacing, I-59 intermediate stiffeners, I-26, 38
rods, I-53, 55 transverse stiffener in web, I-51
roofing and siding: strengths, see mechanical properties
allowable deflection, I-75 surface preparation, I-67, VIII-6
batten seam roofing, VIII-11 sustainability, III-26
connections, I-65 symbols, I-11
dimensions, V-42 tanks, III-8
example, VII-62 tapered thickness elements, I-37, II-19
maximum recommended spans, VI-76-78 tees, V-25-26
section properties, V-43 Army-Navy, V-26
standing seam, VIII-7 Special, V-26
testing, I-74 temperature, effect on strength, I-21, IV-37
weights, V-42 tempers, IV-12
safety factors: I-31, II-18, VI-13 tension, axial: I-43
sandwich panels, III-10 example, VII-6, 7
section properties, I-31, II-15, V-1 testing, I-73
serviceability, I-66 torsion:
screw chase, I-18, III-22 and bending, I-54
screw slot, I-19, 62, III-22 in tubes, I-54
screws, tapping: in rods, I-55
example, VII-61 torsional flexural buckling, I-44
hole sizes, I-60 torsion constant, II-15
internal thread stripping area, VI-83 tread plate, I-21, VI-75
material, I-30 triaxial stresses, III-9
pull-out, I-61 tubes:
pull-over, I-62 circumferentially welded, I-39
shear, I-62 column examples, VII-24, 26, 27
tension, I-61 in bending, I-48
screws: rectangular, V-39
cap screws, strengths, VI-80 round, V-28
machine screws, tensile and shear strengths, VI-79 shear, I-52

January 2015 Index - 5

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 square, V-37
unbraced length, I-19
unsymmetric sections, I-44
V-beam, see building sheathing
vibration, I-66, II-50
von Mises stresses, III-9
warping constant, I-11, V-4, 7, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 46
washers, I-30, 59, 62
webs:
crippling, I-65
crippling example, VII-11, 64
examples of shear checks, VII-48, 49, 51
longitudinal stiffeners for, I-38, VII-49
shear in stiffened webs, I-51
shear in unstiffened webs, I-51
transverse stiffeners for, I-51, VII-34
weighted average strengths
axial compression, I-45
bending, I-46, VII-68
weights, V-6
weld-affected zone, I-19
welding:
beams, see beams, welded
columns, see columns, welded
corners, II-54
fabrication, I-68, II-52
filler wire, I-30, 69, 70
fillet welds, I-56, II-53, VI-86
groove welds, I-56, VI-84-85
inspection, I-68, II-57
lap joints, II-55
plug and slot welds, I-57
post-weld heat treating, I-58, II-44
stud welds, I-57
wide flange sections, V-13, 14, 17
wind load, I-66, II-50, VII-55
wood, I-67, II-52
zees, V-27

Index - 6 January 2015

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