POLYNOMIAL RINGS

of the
Here, the elements
this chapter with an introduction to polynomial rings.
We begin properties
polynomials and we shall be concerned with algebraie
a r e the
coefficients of the over a n integral
domain,
we shall discuss polynomials over a ring, polynomials
f this
ring. Then,
ring. Th
We shall also prove
the
of field.
pomials
polynomials
over a field and divisibility polynomials over a

t that every principal

ideal domain is a unique factorization on domain.

9.1. POLYNOMIAL RINGs

R, we mean a
arbitrary. By a polynomial
over
ring. Let ag, a1, ....,G, e R be
Let R be a

finite formal s u m

f(x) =
ag +GX+a2x +.. ax"

i =0

the
and 0 +a,r +
0r are different as formal sums,
but we regard them as
Now 0 a, x +
it as an infinite formal
Thus an easy way to define a polynomial is to express
same polymomial.

sum as

i -0

i.
where 0 for all but a finite number of values of
a, =

Remark:
are not unknown elements (variables)
x, x', .
The question is what is x ? The symbols of the ring.
R. act as place indicators
for the elements ay, 1, 2-..
of They
o v e r a ring R as infinite sequence
a polynomial
So we discard x altogether and define
a finite number of them a r e on-
Go,a, a2....,an....,) R such that only
of elements of
zero.
i n d e t e r m i n a t e or indeterminable.
Since we do not know what this x is, we call it an
number.
it is not 0, 1 or 2 or any other
One thing is sure,
expressions such as x =0 or x l or x = 9
Thus from now on we shall not be writting
 9.2
Over a Ring
9.1.1. Polynomial
sequence (a0, a2,....,Gn o . . ) of
a1,
elements
of a ring RR is said
said to
to be
a
Any infinite its terms are equal to zero.
if all except finite number of
polynomial o v e r R
1S Called its ith coefficient
Each member a, of the polynomial (a0, a1, a2., an..) nt.
is called the constant term
of the polynomial.
The first term a,
Ifn is the largest non-negative integer suchthat a, *0, then a, is called the last (orleadin
co-efffcient of the polynomial.
Remarks:
1. We shall consider 4 +x to be the polynomial 4 + lx with c0-efficients in Z.

co-efficients in Z.
2. 0,3, x, 3+x2 are all polynomials with
3. An element of R is called a constant polynomial.
4. We denote the set of all polynomial over R by Rx].

Let f(x) a +a, x+az * t. +, *"

=

+b"m be any two elements of R x].

and gx)=bo+bj x+ b2* +..

Here m and n are non-negative integers.

(i) flx)=g (x) iffn =m and a = b,for allji.e., two polynomials are equalifftheir corresponding
co-efficients are equal.

n) Addition of polynomials f(r) and g(«) is defined as

fx)+g (x)= co +C^ *+ e, x + . + e , " , where c = a, +b, for m = n.

Ifm <n then flx) + glr) = (a, + b,) +(a +6,)x + (a, + ba)x+...
+ + b,m) m + m + 1 +0)x *l + . + (a, +0) r.

Ifm>n then flr) + gx) = (a, +b,) + (a, + b,)x + (a, + b,)xd + . .
... + (a, + b,)r" +(0 + b, 1)r"*1+ . + (0 +b,)"

(iii) Product of polynomials is defined as

f(x)g x) =(a, +a *+ az * + .. +a ") (6, +6, * + b, ** +... +b "

=a bo +(a, b, +a b,) x + (a ba + a,bj +a2 b,) x t.

+( +m +a10n +m-1 . +a,bt +a+m Oo)*

= do +d, x+. m *"* m,

where d, =a,bo +a^-1b1 t+agb =

24
i=0
b-
*
2, b, need not be equal 26, ag-
i=0
to
i=0
ifR is not commutative.
 INGS
O L Y N O M I A LR I N

9.3
So,R A is anon-empty set and addition
and multiplication defined above on
Rl/ar binary compositions.
elementsot
0+ r + O2+
av)OCr)
=
L.e., zero
polynomial is the Zero of R{x].
(e)If flx) =ag +a1+ +an eR[x], then
-f(x)=- Go1 t.+a,)x"+. is the
additive inverse of f ..

ied If R has unity 1, then the x).

polynomial e(x) =1+0x +0x will be
alsodenoted 1. by unity of Rx).
s) is
Finally, it can be easily checked that associative law
holds and'.'is distributive on left as
well as on right
over +.

Hence&R kl), +,.> is a ring.

Thus Z l is the ring of polynomials in the
indeterminate x with integral co-efficients and
c) is the ring of polynomials in z with rational coefficients ete.
9.1.2.Degree of a polynomial

f(x) Go + X+ ag **2 t.... +a *" be any non-zero

Let =

polynomial in R xl. We say thatn is

the degree of polynomial f(x) iffa, * Oand a,
0for all i > n. =

In symbols we write, deg f(«) = n.

Remarks:
1. The degree of a constant polynomial is zero while the
degree of a zero polynomial is not
defined.
2
deg(-f x)) degf(x). =

9.1.3. Theorem. Let f(x) and g «) be two non-zero polynomials ofR [x]. Then

G) degIf x)+ glx)]s max. ldeg fl), deg g(x)]

G) deg If a).glx)]sdeg flx)+ deg glz)
ii) IfR is an integral domain, then deg lf (*). g(r)] = deg f(r)+ deg glx).

Proof. (i) Let flx)= ag + a,* +az * +..+a, " , a, *0

and &x)=bo +bx +b2z*+...+b " , #0 be two elements of R l

Obviously fa) and glx) are of degree n and m respectively.

Now, f x) + g (r) =
(ag +bo)+(a1 +b)x+..+(a, +6,) x" +.
max (m,n) if m * n
n if m=n and a +6 #0
deg (f (x)+gl«)) =

<n if m n and a, +6 =0
 GROUPS AND RINCS
s max
|
deg/(«), degglx)].
ANGS
Thus deg fx)+glr)]
+(abtm+b m-1
+a,bn . R+ mb)xn
n+m = 0
Since
deg f(x) n so a, +1"n+2
=
6m +n = 0
deg g(x)= m so bm+1 0m+2
.
and
=
ay bo +(ag O1 +aj Oo)
*t....
+a, b, xm
fCx).glx)
#0, then deg (f(x)
g(x)) = m+n and if a, b,m =0, then deg telf (z)
en deu
g'z)<rm+n
If a, b
f(x) + deg glx).
Hence, deg If(x). gl«ls deg
domain, soa, * 0, b, #0 a,b z:0.
iii) Since Ris an integral
deglfc).gu)] 2 m
+n
But deg lfl«).glx)]s degf(x)
+ degg(x) From 2)
deg It).gx))
=
degfx) + deg glx).
Over a Ring
9.1.4. Polynomial Ring
indeterminate x with co-effeiont.
x] ofall polynomials in
an
Theorem. The set R
to addition and multiplication of two polvnomink
in a ring R is a ring with respect
ie., <R «), +, > isa ring.
Proof. Let f(x), glx), h («) e R («] be arbitrary.
Letf)-a,*, g)=>*, hl)=
, where
a, b;, c; eR ;i=0,124-
() <R [x], +> is an abelian group as
1. R[«]is closed with respect to addition:
f()+g(x) =(4g +bo)+ (a +b)x + (ag +b,) x +...+(a, +6,)x" t.
+b; R for all ai, b, e R
Since R is a ring, therefore a, e
Rlxl is closed with respect to (+)
2. Addition is commutative:
We have, f(x)+g(x) = (ag +bo) + (a +b,)x+...+ (a, +6,) x" *
o +ag) +(61 +a1) x +... +(6, +a,)r"*.
Since <R, +> is an abelian
group,
a +, b; +4;, =
for &ll a;, b, eR
Thus fx) +g x) =g «) +f (x).
POLYNOMIAL RINGS
S 9.5

3. Addition is associative in R [x]:

r)+gx]+h(w) =2a, +b,)x+c x'
a , +b,)+c,lx' =a , +(b, +c,)x'

4. Existence of additive identity: The zero polynomial

O(x) =0+Ox +Ox.. is thezeroof R Ix]such that
f(x)+O(x) =(a, +0) + (a +0) x + (a2 +0) x2 + (a, +0) x" +.

ag +ax +a2 * +.... +a, x"+.

= f(x).

5. Existence of additive inverse:

Let-f() be a polynomial over R such that

-f Cx)= (-a,) +(- a) x+ (-ax t .+-a,)x t.

-f (x)+f(x) (-a0 +ag) +(- a +)x +(-ag +a)x*+... +(-a +a,)r"

=
t...

=
0+0x+ 0x +... +0x" +.
= O(x)

R [xl is the additive inverse off(x) e R k].

Since a, e R » -4; eR -f (x) e
6. R [] is closed with respect to multiplication:
We have, fa).g(x) = agbo +(abo +agb))x+.

d , *, where d= 24 b,;k =0,1,2,

i+j=k

Since R is a ring, therefore a;, b, e R > a, b, ¬R d, e Rfor all k

Thus Rx] is closed with respect to ().
7. Multiplicative is associative in R [x:

f(x)g(x) =
(40 +41 X+a2 .)6% +bh «*+b, x * . )
x" Where d^
do +d x +d2*"+..+d +..
=
=

i+j=k

Now, Ifa) g(x)) h(x) (d, +dx+dax* t . C +©C

=
X
+C2* +.)

* +.+P, x".
Po t P1 +P2
Where p= co-efficient of r" in f (x) g (x)) h (x)
 9.6
GROUPS AND RINGs

k+l=n

=2; b
I+J+l=
1)

Similarly, co-efficient ofr" in f(x) lglx)h(x))

=
a6,
i+j+l=n 2)

Ifx) g(x)] h(x) =

f(x)\g(x) h(z)] LBy (1) and (2)
8. Distributivity of'.
'with respect to + holds in R[x]:

We have f(x).lg(x) + h(x)] =|

; (b +c,) x*
i+j=

2a,b +a, c) x*
i+j=k

i+j=k i+j=k

= f(x). g(x) + f(x). h(x)

Similarly the right distributive law also holds.

Hence < R (x), +, »> is a ring.

Note:

1. Let R be a ring and f, g, heRk]. Then

) flg +h)=fg +fh i)g +h)f=sf+hf

. Letf.geR lx], where R is a commutative ring, then fg =gf.
i.e., IfR is a commntative ring, then R[«] is also a commutative ring.
3. Ifl is the unity element ofa ring R,then the unity element of ring R{«] is (1, 0,0, 0..
9.2. SET OF CONSTANT POLYNOMIALS IN R [x]
Let b e an arbitrary ring and R «] be the set of all polynomials over R. If R' = lax :0E
1s the ich
set of all polynomials over R whose all the co-efficients, except the constant
may or may not be zero) are zero, then R' is ealled the set of constant polynomials in R l .

Note. All polynomials of dégree zero as well as the zero polynomial are called constant poiyinomials.
 9.7
Y N O M I A LR I N G S

OF R INTO R [x]
9.3. EMBED
MBEDDING
ofpolynoms
em. Let t] the corresponding ring
R be a n arbitrary ring and R
to R, ie,
sel of constant polynomials in R[x), then R' is isomorphic
R' is the
o e rk [M.D.U. 2012]
be
embedded in R
l c a n

We have R' ={ax +Ox +Ox +0x +..a e R

Proof.

Define a mapping f: R>R', such that

fla) =
ax +Ox +0x* +Ox+for all a eR

We claim that f is a one-to-one homomorphism, as

fla) = fb); a, b e R be arbitrary

ax +0x+ 0x +0x+.. =bx +0x +0x+0x+.

a =b

i s one-to-one.
-
Obviously,fis onto and

fla +b) = (a +b)x" +0x +Ox +0x

+0x3 +(bx +Ox +0x +Ox +..)

=
(ax" +0x +Ox
= fla) + f(6)

Also,
flab) = abx° +0x +0x +0x*+..
= (ax" +0x +0x +...) (bx° + 0x +0x + . )

=
f (a) f(6)
Thus fis an isomorphism of R onto R.

Hence R R.
Remarks
1. Since R' =R, so R' can be identified with R, i.e. all the constant polynomials in Rix] can
elements of R.
be replaced by the corresponding
2. In view of (1), we note that the zero polynomial Olx) = 0+ Ox + 0x4+..can be replaced

by 0 and any arbitrary constant polynomial

a + 0x +
0x +..
in Ra] can be written as
simply a.
9.4. POLYNOMIALS OVER AN INTEGRAL DOMAIN
.4.1. Theorem. IfR is an integral domain, then R[x] is also an integral domain.

[M.D.U. 2009]
9.8
GROUPS AND RINGs
Kis a commutative
Let R be an integral domain, L.e., ring with unity
Praof element 1 and
without zero divisors.
h (x) e R «] be arbitrary
Let fx) g (x),
have to show that
To prove that
R «] is an integral domain, we
(i) R l«] is a ring (ReferArt. 9.1.4]
(ii) R [x] is commutative:
We have fr)gx) 2d r ; d=a; b,
=
+J=k i+j=k
+j=k
: Ris commutativel
i+j=k
g (x) flx)
Hence R [«] is commutative.
(ii) R [x] is without zero divisors:
flx) =
ag +a1 * +a2 *° +...+a, *"', a,n #0
gx) =
bo +bjx +b, x +.+b *",bm #0
We have, degf(x) =n and deg g(x) = m
Now f g )=24,6,*
i+j=k
=
ay o +(a bo +ab) xt.. +a, bn****
Since a,b # 0, therefore a, b #0
f(r)g (x) cannot be a zero polynomial, i.e., flx)g (x) * O(x) .1)
As degfx)» 0, degg (x) > 0
flx) Ou), g (x) * O() .2)
From (1) and (2), it follows
that R e) is without zero
divisors
(iv) R r] has
unity element:
If 1 is the
unity element of R, then the constant
polynomial
 9.9
(t) =1+0x 0x is unity of R Ixl, as
alt)= (a0 +a
fx).elr) X+a2 *" +.1+0x +0x2 +....)
(a 1)+( 1)x+(a, 1)x2t
= f(x)
simply
1 is the unity ement of R
r
o r

s
that R Le) is an
conclude integral domain.
e l a )
we
h u s
(ii) and (tw),
of
la), , ),
h
view
1fFis a
field, then the set F xlofallpolynomials over Fis an integral
heorer.
F is an integral domain. Now reproduce
field is an integral domain,
so
overy
P r o o l t
previous:
theorem.
theorem.
in
ge proofas the polynomial
domain over the field F.
The set F :] is called
FIELD
OVER A
POLYNOM
MIALS K.U. 20121
F [x] may not bea field.
Theorem.
IfFis a field,
l.
a field. with Flxll
Let F be
Proof. discuss by replacing R{rl
F{z] is a ring.
Refer Art. 9.1.4; inverse.
show that multiplicative
We can elements of Flxl have
not all
non-zero
show that
Next we shall
non-zero
polynomial
Consider a
+agr+
Ox+
Ox3+.... (=do +a1x+a2*
0 + lr +
fx) =
multiplicative
inverse off x).
be the
element
Let
should be the unity
+C+.
Ta).g (x)= o +CqX+
+0r" +..ofF[xl
But elx) =1+0x +0x
+0xr°+..
=1+Ox+0x
Cot+C2* +C3x+..
= 0
Co1, C1=C2 =C3
Dut cy=agby =0.h =0*l inverse off(x)
=
multiplicative
the
Thus the exist no glx), which is
no glx S t
Hence, Flxl is not a field.
 GROUPS AND RINGS
domain (ring)
E u c l i d e a n
9.10
field,
then F x] is
an
(M.D.U. 2012, 11, 061
Theorem. IfF is a
9.5.2.
Or
i d e a l ring.
K.U. 2006
principal
Fl«] is a
field, t h e n with unity.
IfF is a
integral
domain
know that
Fle) is an
Proof. We
Define the valuationd as, e Flx] is arbitrary
where 0 f(x)
df(x)) =
deg fx),
20
* 0
where f(x), glr)
Flxl,
Also for any f(x), g (x) e
degfx) + degg («)
(«)) =
degfx)g
: degg t) 20)
g (x))
deg (f(x)) s deg (flx)
'
lx)
d fx)s dfc)g
gx) e Flx], there exist q(x) and r(x) in Fll
Next, we shall show that for any non-zerof(x),
where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x) .1)
such that f(x) =
qlx) glx) + r(a),
If degf(x) < degg (x), then
fx) = 0. g (x) +f(x) and so (1) holds.
Let us assume that (1) is true for all non-zero polynomials e F[x] of degree less than
deg f(r).
Let flx) = ao +a1 X+a2 * +.....+am
gx) = bo +bj * +ba * " + . + b "
We assume that deg f(x) 2 degg (x)
Let r) =
f(x)- am b,m-"g (x)
The coefficient
of xm in fx) is am -am
b b, =
m m=0
either f (x) 0
=
or deg fix)< m
POLYN
NOMIAL RINGS 9.11
NoW,
fx) =0
fx)-am b-" g(x) =0
f r ) = am b glr) +0
case also.
1fwe take qx)
=
am bn*and r(x) =
0, we see that (1) is true in this
If f(x) * 0, then deg f (x) < m
degf)< deg f (x)
o
By induction hypothesis,
f(x)= q1(x) g(x) + r (x), where r(x) = 0 or deg r(z) < deg gl«)
Thus fx) -a,nbx"g(x) 71(x) g(x) +r(x) =
or
fx) =
la,mb = +g1(x)]g(x)+r(x)
(x) 0 or deg r (x) < deg gx)
q(x) g(x) +r(x), where
=
r
Fc] is an Euclidean
Euclidean domain are satisfied. Hence
Thus both the conditions for
domain.
Remark: [M.D.U. 20071
is PID.
PID, it follows that Flx]
a
Euclidean domain is a
1. Since every
it follows that Flx] is
a
Euclidean domain (ring) is a principal ideal ring,
2. Since every
principal ideal ring.
DOMAIN
VARIABLES OVER AN INTEGRAL
POLYNOMIALS IN 'n'
9.6. RING OF
Let R be an integral domain.
the polynomial ring in x, over R.
Let R,= R x,l,
the polynomial ring in x, over R.
R= R, lxl,
ring in x, over R,-
R R-1 lz,], the polynomial
of polynomials in
n variables X1, 2 , . , X, and is denoted
Then R. is called the ring
R[x1, X2,...,
Rlx, t2,... K] i.e., R,
=
by
 9.12 GROUPS AND RINs
Remark:
1. If R is an integral domain, then Rl*1, *2) **T,is also an integral
lomain.
Proof. Since R is an integral domain, so Ri = R\x1lis also an integral domain
R =
R, lx2] =
R [x, x2lis also an integral domain.
Proceeding in this way after a finite number of steps, we get that R[z, z2,. lis an
integral domain.
2. IfF is a field, then F ls1, *2,. lis an integral domain.
Proof. Since F is a field,
F =
Flxlis an integral domain
F2 F} lxl F[x1, xz lis also an integral domain.
= =
Proceeding in this way after a finite number of steps, we get that F lx1, x2, lis an
integral domain.
Thus we can construct the field of quotients of the integral domain F [x, *2,. .
Such a fild is known as the field of rational functions in 1, 2 . * , over F and is
denoted by P (x1, X2,..,4)
9.7. DIVISIBILITY OF POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELDD
Let F be a field, then the set F ll of all polynomials over F is an integral domain.
Let fx), g(x) e Flx] be arbitrary.
9.7.1. Divisor. An element f lt) is said to be a divisor (or a factor) of g (x) if there
polynomiul h (x) e F[xl such that
g x) = hx)f(x)
The fuct that f(x) divides g x) is denoted by fw)/g (x)
.1.2. Unit Element. An element
ofFx] is said to be a unitifit has multiplicative inverse. 1nu
poynomials ofzero degree (i.e, constant polynomials) are units of F {xl
8.7.3. Associates. Ifflr) and glx) E Flx), then fx), g(z) are said to be associates iff/g )
and glx)lf(x).
9.7.4. visible
perProper and Improper divisors. A non-zero polynomialf(x) E Flx] is aluwaysa All
Us ussociates and by all unils in F k). These divisors are called proper divisors O
her divisors
of fx) are culled improper divisors.
O L Y N O M I A LR I N G S
S
9.13
reducible and Reducible Element. A non-zero element f (x) e F x] is said to be
ible (prime) over "
irreducible y t has no
proper divisors in F &). M.D.U. 2005]
fa) is reducible over F
Thus if it has a proper divisor in F x).
Lereducibility depends on the field. e.g., x2-3 is irreducible over the field of rational numbers as
Note. Irreducit
2-3 (x+ y3) (x - V3).
The polynomial x* * l is irreducible over the field of real numbers while it is reducible over the field
of
complex n u m b e r s .
I: x+1= (x+i) (x-i}
a7.6. Greatest Common divisor (g.c.d.). Let f x), g t) be two elements of Fe). An elemen
9.7.6.
inalyzomial) d x) s said to be g.c.d. off (x), g lx) if
polyn
i) d (x)f(x), d (x)lg(x)
i) ifcla) is a polynomial e Fl:) such that cíx)/fx), ctx) lg(x), then clx)/ d
9.7.7. Relatively Prime. Two polynomials f(x), g (x)e F ] are said to be relatively prime iy
their g.c.d. is 1, the unity element of F x].
9.8. DIVISION ALGORITHM FOR F X]
Theorem. Let f («), g («) # 0 be two elements of Fx]. Then there ezist unique
polynomials qlx) and r(x) in Flxl such that
flar) =
g(a). qlx) + rla), where r(x) = 0 or deg rx) « deg glx).
#0
Proof. Let f(x) =
ag t+Gj X+a2 .+am, am
such that
d g x)= bo +b1 x +b2« t.+6 *",b, #0,
deg f(x) = m, degg (x) = n
take g (x) =
0, r (x) = 0 and the result holds trivially
ff (x) =
0, then we can
deg g (x), then we can write f (x) 0g (x) + f(x).
=
Letfx) is non-zero. If deg fx) <
So in this case the theorem is true for q (x) =f(x).
= 0 and r(x)
We now assume that m 2 n.
We shall prove the theorem by induction on degf(x) i.e., m.
n = 0
Ifm 0, =
then m 2 n
>fx) andg (x) are both non-zero constant polynomials.
For f(x)= ao #0, g(x) =
bo * 0, we have
(a, ) bo+0 (a, b) glx)+0 b
=
fx)= a =
The theorem is true for m = 0, Le., for the case when deg f(x) < 1.
 9.14 GROUPS AND RINGs
We now assume that the theorem is true for every polynomial of degree less than m.

Consider fx)= flr)-(a) r " glx) .1)

Clearly, deg f(x)< m

i.e., deg f ) < deg f(x)

Thus by our assumption, there exist polynomials gj(x), z(x) such that

fx)= q1(x). glx) +^«)

f ) - ( a , b , ) x* glx)= q,(x)glx) + i(x)

By (1))
fx) =(«b) +9(ax)1 g(x) +ri(x)
Setting qlr) =(a,m b)"-1 + g1(x) and r(x) =n(x), we get

flx) = q(x). glz) + r(x)

where r ) = 0 or degr (x) < degg (x) which proves the existence of
qlr) and rz).
Uniqueness: Ifpossible, let
fx)= q1(r) glz) +q(x)
2)
and
fCx)= q(x) glx) +r2(x),
.3)
where r(x) = 0 or deg r, (x) < deg g (x)
.4)
and r, (a) = 0 or deg r, (x) < deg g (x)
.5)
Subtracting (3) from (2), we get
lq, Cx)-92 (x)) g(x) r,a) -r(«)
=

..6)

Since deg Ir,(t)-7z(«] <

deg g(z), By (4) and (5)]
Eqn. (6) is true only if
qi(t)-42(x) =0
i.e., if
9(x)= qgx)
Thus from (6), we have

ax)-ria) = 0 i.e., zlx) =7(«)

which shows that the
polynomials q(z) and r(x) are unique.
y ) N O M M A L R I N G S

9.15

p a a r k1 n e
P
olynomialsq (x) and r x) of the above theorem are called the quotientaand the
o l y n o n

Kemark.
1he

r e m a i
mainder respectively, whereas fx) and g (x) are called dividend and divisors
respectively.

say that g (x) dividesfx)

(t) = 0, wees g (x) is factor
or a
of f(x).
& THEOREM

aa
then
field,
feld,t F[rl lie., ring of polynomials whose co-efficients are in the
Fbe
etFbe aprincipal ideal doma
ddFlis
of. Let Fle) be a polynomial domain over the field F. Obviously F«] is a commutative
Proof.
shall
withunity hunity and without zero divisors. To prove that Fll is a principal ideal domain,
and we

ring ideal in Flxl is a principal ideal.

that every
totSbe an arbitrary ideal of F{x]. Then S =<0> or S<0>
ES-<0>, ie., null ideal generated by 0, theen Sis a principalideal

We assume that
S * < 0>. Then there exists non-zero polynomial f (x) in S

Let gt) be a polynomial of lowest degree in S.

By division algorithm, there

exist qlx), rlx) e FEl such that
deg r (c) < degg (x) ..(1)
fx)= q(x). g(x)+r(x), where r (x) =0 or

q Cr) e
Flxl,g«) e S
Also
S I:Sisan ideal ofFlxll
g (x).g x) e

fCx) e S
Also
[<S, +> is an additive subgroup of FE|
fr)-q (x).g (a) e S
r (x) e S, LBy (D

wberer(t)= 0 degr (x)< degg (x). or

in Flxl]
g(x) is a polynomial of lowest degree
Butdeg (x) degg (x) r

Thus we must have r (x) = 0

eS.
There exists glx) e S such thatf(x)
Fx).
f a ) = q lt).g«) for some q (x)
e

can be expressed as q{x).glr)

S f (x)
e Flx] is arbitrary, thus every f(x)
e

ie, Sis n 1deal which is generated by single element

g(x) ¬ S
a
of Flx),
is principal ideal domain.
principal ideal and hence Fxl
a
S18 a
 GROU

as .
restated

9.16 also be
can
theorem

Kemark.
The above ideal.
principal

Flr] is
a
ideal in Or
Brery
PID.
Fis a
Flx)over
field whereas a polynomi
domain
ideal ring,
A
polynomial
principal this fact.
field is a
example
proves
arbitrary
an following
ring
over
The
principal ideal ,
Note. A polynomial
principal
ideal ring.
iS not a ring.
ofintegers
is not a
arbitrary ring over the ring
ringZlxl t h e r e exist
atleast one idostal
Thepolynomial show that
Fxample 1. s u f i c i e n t to
it is
establish this result,
Solution. To
not a principal ideal 2, x e Zlr].
in Zlxl which is
elements

Zlx) generated
by the
ideal of the ring
Let (2, x) be an
ideal of Zr]
principal
that (2, x) is a
We assume

element r) Zix] iLe, (2, x) =

< gx)»
non-zero
by a
(2, x)is generated
andr e <glr)>
Now 2 e <glx) >
Zla]such that
There exist elements alx), Ba) e
a a)a) and
s= a )gx)
2
0
degla(r)gx)) deg (2) =

divisors
Since Zlal is free from zero

0 ...(1)
deg ala)+ degglx) =

But deg alx) 2 0, deggla) 2 0 .2)

From (1) and (2), we note that deg alr) = 0, deg glx) = 0

Also ala)glx) = 2 3

alx) and gix) are non-zero integers.

From (3), we observe that the following cases are
possible :

alr)= 1, gx) =
2;
alx)= 2,
glx) =1;
alt)= 1, glx) = 2; -

ul)= - 2, glx) =
-1
Ifgial= 1, then
Zx) = g )) <
nINOANAL ING
Otherwisesr)=+ 22

x=t2B(x)

x=t2(6% +bx +6,**+.

1 t2b
can have l =
t2b
as for no integer, we
eantradiction,
contradict

is a ideal
jch principal
1S not a

Thus
(2, x)
ideal ring. polynomials
nota principal those
Z xl is and S the
set of al
Hence class rung
H e n c

numbers
be a field of real the
residue
2. Let R Rlz].
ideal
Is
of
Example Show that S is
an
0 ={1).
that f (0)
=

ele Rlx) such with unity.

domain. domain
integral integral
Rol/S
an
numbers and Rx] the
real
the field of
Let R be
Solution.

S 1f(x) e Rlxl:f(0) =0 =f(1)}

fx), glx) e S
Let
where
-glr),
hx) f(x)- =

Consider

S]
f0) =0 =f(1) By def of

0 =g (1)
g (0)
=

and 0-0=0

h0) =f(0)-g(0)
=

Now,
0-0=0
h(1) =f(1)-g (1) =
and
0 = h(1)
h(0) =

Thus
hx) e S .(1)
S
f(x) glx)
- e
S
flx), glx)
e

So,
have I:R[x] is commutativel
Also for rtr) e R [x], we

rx)f(x) =f(x) rr)

r0)f(0) =r{0).0
=0
and 0)f(0) = 0 = r(1)f(1)
= 0
1)f(1) =r(1).0 S ..(2)
e S rx)fx) flx) r{x)
= e

t) e R l , f(x)

have that S is an ideal of R{x].

rom (1) and (2), we

a (x) B (x)
1, 7(r)
=

B (x)
-

=x
(x) =x,
e Let a
 GROUPS AND RINGs
9.18

y (x)
= x (x - 1)
and (1) = 1.(1-1) =0
1) 0
y(0) = 0.(0
- =

y (0) = 0 =
y (1)

y (x) e S or a (x) B (x) e S

Now, a (1) = 1#0

a (x) e S

Also, B(0)=0 -1= -1 0

B(x) e S

Thus a (x)B x) e S a«) e S, B («) ¢ S.

S i s not a prime ideal of R (x]
Hence R{r]/S is not an integral domain.
Example 3. Let Rbe a commutative ring with unity element.
then R is an integral domain. If <x>is aprime ideal of R
Solution. Let a, b R such that ab
e
=0
We consider the
polynomials
f(x) (0 +1.x+0x
=

+..)+(a+ Ox+0x+..)
and
g(x) =
(0+1.x+0x +...)+ (b +0x +0x+..)
Obviously, f(a) = * +a e R[x]

and
g(x)= * +be R[x]
f(x) glr) e R[x]
L.e
(x +a) (x +b) e R[x]
or
+x(a +6) +abe R[«]
Also
ab = 0

+x (a+6) +ab x =
+x (a +6)
=
* (x +a +6) E <xs
Thus (x +a) (x +b) E <*>

(x+a) e <x>. or (x + b) e <*> < x > is aprime

ideal)
 POLYAOMIALRINGS

9.19

Now, (x+a)E <x>

x
+a = *
dl«) for some ¢lx) e Rlx]

Wauating the constant term on both sides, we get

a= 0

Similarly, if we consider the case (x +b) e <x>, we get b =0

Jlence R is an integral domain.

9.10,UNIQUE FACTORIZATION DOMAIN

let Rbe an integral domain with unity. Then R is called a unique factorization domain
(abbreviated UFD) if

(i) every element of R that is neither 0 nor unit can be expressed as a product of jnlte
number of irreducible elements of R.

(u) =P1 P2 PaP, anda = q1 92 3 . . , are twofactorizations ofthesame element a4,

is unique upto the order and
then r and each P; is a n associate
= s of some q, i.e., factorization
ussociates of irreducible elements.
Examples:
1. The ring < Z, +t, ofintegers is a UFD.
.>

In Z, we have 24 = (2) (2) (3) (2) =(-2)(-3) (2) (2)

associates. We note that the irreducible factors
in these two
Here 2, -

2 and 3, -

3 are
associates.
actorizations of 24 are same except for order and

2. Every field < F, +,.> is always a UFD.

F, being a field, is a commutative ring.

Let b e F such that ab = 0

a,

If a 0, then a-
l exists and ale F
a1 (ab)=ar1(0)

(aa)b= 0

b= 0
(1)b =0
Thus F is an integral domain.

Also, F has a unity element 1