Boğaziçi University SPRING 2023

Department of Western Languages and Literatures

Certificate Programme in Film Studies

FA348
Introduction to
Film Analysis
Instructor: Asst. Prof. Cihat Arınç
Session 2
Narrative and Narration: Dramatic and Diegetic Elements in Film

01 Introduction 06 Conflict and Causality

02 Story and Plot 07 Point of View
03 Theme and Tone 08 Narration and Narrators
04 Setting and Scope 09 Narrative Strategies
05 Characterisation
 Joker Arthur Fleck: “For my whole life, I didn't know if I
even really existed. But I do, and people are starting
Todd Phillips, 2019 to notice.”
01
Introduction
Introduction
What is film narrative?

Film narrative refers to the way in which a film tells a story through visual and auditory means. It encompasses
all the elements that contribute to the story and the way it is presented, including the characters, dialogue,
setting, camera work, sound effects, music, and other aspects of film production.

Narrative structure, on the other hand, refers to the structural framework that underlies the order and manner
in which a film narrative is presented to a viewer. It is basically about two things: the 'content' of a story and the
'form' used to tell the story. Two common ways to describe these two parts of narrative structure are story and
plot.
Introduction
Why is it important?

Film narrative is a crucial component of the art and craft of filmmaking. It is essential for telling stories through
film and engaging the audience in a meaningful way. A well-crafted film narrative can capture the audience’s
attention and keep them engaged throughout the film. It can evoke emotions, create tension, and draw the
viewer into the story.

Film narrative can also be used to explore complex ideas, themes, and messages. Through the story and the
characters, the film can communicate a particular worldview or perspective, making the viewer think about the
world in a new way. A powerful film narrative can create a lasting impact on the viewer, inspiring them or
changing their perspective on an issue. Some films have the power to stay with people for a lifetime.
Introduction
How can it be examined?

By examining key narrative elements such as the plot, theme, tone, narrative perspective, characters, and
conflict type, a comprehensive narrative analysis of a film can be done that considers the specific context and
purpose of the film, and how the film narrative functions to convey meaning to the audience. Ultimately, the
goal of analysing a film narrative is to gain a deeper understanding of the narrative devices and storytelling
techniques used, the themes explored, and how the film engages with its audience.
02
Story and Plot
Story
Narrative content: the 'what' of cinematic storytelling

Mankind lives a storied life and effective communication is embedded in stories. We see life through stories. In
technical terms, we are a storytelling species (homo narrans or homo fabulans). While the terms 'story' and 'plot'
are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation, they have distinct meanings when referring to films. In
a film narrative, 'story', or narrative content, refers to the actual chronology of dramatic actions and events that
are either explicitly depicted on-screen or inferred to have occurred in the diegetic world of the film but not
shown. Story is about trying to determine the key conflicts, main characters, setting, dramatic actions, and
events.
Story
Key questions: where, what, and who?

To describe the story of a film, we would need to answer the following questions:

• Where is the story set?

• What event starts the story?
• Who are the main characters?
• What conflict(s) do they face? What is at stake?
• What happens to the characters as they face this conflict?
• What is the outcome of this conflict?
• What is the ultimate impact on the characters?
Plot
Narrative form: the 'how' of cinematic storytelling

The 'plot' of a film, also known as narrative form or narrative discourse, refers to the deliberate selection and
arrangement of events by the filmmaker to effectively convey the narrative to the audience. It is the way in
which the story is structured and presented in a particular order to create a dramatic or suspenseful effect.
The plot is often driven by a central conflict or problem that the characters must overcome, and it involves a
series of actions and reactions that lead to the story’s resolution. In short, the plot is about how the story is told,
or how, and at what stages, the key conflicts are set up and resolved. The plot can be simple or complex, linear
or non-linear, and it can be used to explore various themes and ideas. A well-crafted plot is essential for
engaging the audience and keeping them invested in the story. It should be structured in a way that creates
tension and suspense, while also providing a satisfying resolution.
Plot
Events

In any given plot, 'events' follow a logical order and hierarchy based on their relative importance. The
filmmaker's selection and arrangement of details regarding action, character, and setting give us insight into this
hierarchy. Crucial events in the plot structure force characters to make choices among alternate paths, while
minor events add texture and complexity without being essential to the narrative. During the editing phase,
filmmakers typically cut scenes that don't contribute enough to the overall movie. As a critical viewer,
understanding this hierarchy can help with diagramming the plot or mapping out the major and minor events
confronting the characters.
Plot
Order

Filmmakers face a crucial decision in determining the 'order' of plot events to ensure the story is well-
structured. Although most films follow a linear plot structure, filmmakers can deviate from this by manipulating
the sequence of events to emphasize their importance, convey meaning or create audience expectations. This is
in contrast to the chronology of the story, which typically progresses linearly, similar to real-life events.
Plot
Duration

Events, whether in real life or in films, inevitably unfold over a certain period of time, which is referred to as
'duration'. In the context of narrative films, there are three distinct types of duration that can be distinguished:
(1) Story duration pertains to the amount of time that the implied story takes to occur. (2) Plot duration, on the
other hand, the elapsed time of those events within the story that the film explicitly presents (in other words,
the elapsed time of the plot). (3) Finally, screen duration refers to the overall running time of the film on the
screen. Understanding these different forms of duration can provide valuable insights into a film's temporal
structure and its impact on the storytelling experience.
Plot
Key questions: how and when?

To describe the plot of the film, we would need to answer the following questions:

• How and when is the major conflict in the story set up?
• How and when are the main characters introduced?
• How is the story moved along so that the characters must face the central conflict?
• How and when is the major conflict set up to propel the film to its conclusion?
• How and when does the film resolve most of the major conflicts set up at the outset?
Plot
Type 1: Three-Act Structure

The three-act screenplay structure is the fundamental and most commonly used structure in storytelling. It has a
beginning (protasis, or setup), middle (epitasis, or complications), and end (catastrophe, or
denouement/resolution) and has been used by mankind since the early days of storytelling. Many variations of
this structure exist, including four-act, five-act, and seven-act structures, but they are all based on the three-act
structure. Even screenplays that utilize the nine other story structures can usually be broken down into three
acts. The three-act structure offers the most accessible story design for audiences, with each scene progressing
naturally towards the resolution. Famous film The Matrix (Lana Wachowski and Lilly Wachowski, 1999) is a
perfect example of the three-act structure, with every scene building towards the finale.
Plot
Type 1: Three-Act Structure
Plot
Type 2: Real-Time Structure

The real-time structure presents a screenplay in an uninterrupted stream, with no breaks or flashbacks. Every
moment is important, and this structure requires the action and motivation of the characters to drive the story.
The ticking time clock is a good way to accomplish this. Examples of movies that use the real-time structure
include 12 Angry Men (Sidney Lumet, 1957), My Dinner with Andre (Louis Malle, 1981), Nick of Time (John
Badham, 1995), United 93 (Paul Greengrass, 2006), and High Noon (Fred Zinnemann, 1952). In real-time
screenplays, not a second can be skipped, and the tension is escalated and more impressive when delivered
honestly.
Plot
Type 3: Episodic Narrative Structure

The episodic narrative structure divides a story into smaller, self-contained episodes that are linked by a larger
narrative or theme. Each episode resolves a conflict while setting up the next one, allowing for the exploration
of multiple plots, subplots, and characters. This type of structure critically weakens or disables the causal
connections of classical narrative; however, this structure can be highly effective as long as there is a unifying
thread connecting everything. Films such as The Decameron (Il Decameron, Pier Paolo Pasolini, 1971), The Ballad
of Buster Scruggs (Ethan Coen and Joel Coen, 2018), and The French Dispatch (Wes Anderson, 2021) use this
structure to tell their stories.
Plot
Type 4: Multiple Timeline Structure

The multiple timeline structure is a complex screenwriting technique that combines different linear stories
with shared themes, emotions, and messages, but without direct causality between them. Films like The
Fountain (Darren Aronofsky, 2006), Cloud Atlas (Tom Tykwer, Lana Wachowski, and Lilly Wachowski, 2012), and
The Godfather Part II (Francis Ford Coppola, 1974) use this structure, which can create a sense of connection
between all life in the universe. The connection between the stories can be enhanced by linking them more
explicitly, as in The Godfather Part II, where the rise of Michael Corleone's power is matched with the more
subtle rise of his father's power. The multiple timeline structure provides writers with a way to break away from
traditional storytelling.
Plot
Type 5: Hyperlink Structure

Hyperlink structures in film are different from linear stories, such as those found in the three-act structure. In
Magnolia (Paul Thomas Anderson, 1999), Crash (David Cronenberg, 1996), and Babel (Alejandro G. Iñárritu,
2006), each story is hyperlinked to the others, weaving in and out of each other like different rows of falling
dominoes, all leading to the same resolution at the end. This structure shows the interconnectedness of
individual lives and how the actions of one can impact the lives of others. Each story and character in a
hyperlink story must impact the others, and removing even one storyline or character would cause the
overarching story to fail. Although this structure is difficult to master, it can engage the reader or audience and
make for an invigorating experience.
Plot
Type 6: Fabula/Syuzhet Structure

The Fabula/Syuzhet structure, originating from Russian formalism and employed in narratology, is a common
screenplay structure in American cinema. It involves presenting the story out of chronological order, often
showing the end first and focusing on the journey rather than the destination. Examples include Citizen Kane
(Orson Welles, 1941), which opens with the protagonist's death and uses flashbacks to tell his life story, and
Forrest Gump (Robert Zemeckis, 1994), which starts with the near-ending of the story and uses flashbacks to
recount Forrest's life. This structure allows for the creative use of voiceover narration and can be applied to
both true and fictional stories.
Plot
Type 7: Reverse Chronological Structure

In movies, a less common but original structure involves telling stories in reverse chronological order. Unlike the
Fabula/Syuzhet structure where the story is organized in a non-linear way, this structure arranges scenes in
reverse order, from end to beginning, while keeping each scene itself in order. Memento (Christopher Nolan,
2000) is a prime example of this structure, using it to create tension and wonder about the character and his
story. The structure is challenging to construct, requiring a compelling and engaging story that presents
questions while answering them and leaves cliffhangers for audiences to ponder. Watching the film in
chronological order completely changes the experience by erasing tension and intrigue.
Plot
Type 8: Repetition Structure

The Repetition structure, also known as the Rashomon structure, is a screenplay structure that tells the same
story from different points of view, as exemplified by the Akira Kurosawa film of the same name. Although it
may use elements of the Fabula/Syuzhet structure, it is different because the same story is being told multiple
times from the perspective of different characters. This approach enables audiences to recognise that there are
always different sides to the same story, while also allowing writers to introduce more creativity and originality
into their screenplays. However, this structure is challenging to execute as it requires great attention to detail to
evenly relate each perspective and ensure that each perspective is self-contained while contributing to the
overall story.
Plot
Type 9: Circular Narrative Structure

Circular structure is a narrative that starts and ends at the same point, with a twist. This structure uses
elements of the Fabula/Syuzhet Structure, represented as a Mobius Strip, twisted in the middle and joined at
the ends, creating a circle. The most prominent example of circular structure is time travel stories like Back to
the Future (Robert Zemeckis, 1985), Primer (Shane Carruth, 2004), Twelve Monkeys (Terry Gilliam, 1995), and
Looper (Rian Johnson, 2012), where characters go back or forward in time, affecting their past or future selves
or events. Non-time travel stories can also use this structure, as seen in Homer's The Odyssey, which starts with
Odysseus leaving Ithaca and ends with his return to the same location.
Plot
Type 10: Non-Linear Time Structure

Non-linear films challenge the audience's traditional understanding of story by jumping around in time rather
than following a direct causal pattern. Films like Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994) and Dunkirk (Christopher
Nolan, 2017) play with chronology to examine how memories are constructed, while Memento (Christopher
Nolan, 2000) uses reverse chronological order to create tension. In contrast to linear narratives that follow a
clear beginning, middle, and end, non-linear stories jump back and forth between different points, making it
crucial for audiences to remember where different scenes left off.
Plot
Type 11: Oneiric Structure

Oneiric structure is a storytelling method that explores the structure of dreams, memories, and human
consciousness. Films like Vanilla Sky (Cameron Crowe, 2001) and The Tree of Life (Terrence Malick, 2011) use
dream-like visuals to blur the lines between the real and the imaginary. Auteurs often use this structure because
it requires a single, visionary voice. In deciding how to tell your story, it's important to choose a structure that
best fits your vision, rather than trying to follow a formulaic approach.
03
Theme and Tone
Theme
Narrative's raison d'être or telos: the 'why' of cinematic
storytelling
The 'theme' of a film is the central idea, belief, moral, lesson, or insight that defines the universe in which the
story takes place, and the filter through which all information is presented. It is the underlying argument that
the director or scriptwriter is trying to make the viewer understand, the meaning behind the entire story, and
the purpose or deeper reason why the story is shared. The theme brings depth, cohesion, and complexity to the
story while unifying script elements such as plot, characters, dialogue, and actions. Although not always obvious,
the theme requires focused attention to perceive its presence. Every film narrative, by its very nature, must
have a theme, sometimes comprising major and minor themes throughout the story.
Tone
Emotional flavour: the affective dimension in cinematic
storytelling
Tone is the emotional flavour of a film that determines how it makes the audience feel. It is created by various
elements like camerawork, lighting, editing, performances, music, colour scheme, and more. The tone can be
composed of various qualities such as dark, humorous, serious, emotional, objective, chaotic, happy, funny, sad,
or depressed, and there are countless different tones that a film can have. The tone of a film plays a crucial role
in how the audience perceives and responds to the story.
04
Setting and Scope
Setting
Narrative space and time: the 'where' and 'when' of
cinematic storytelling
The setting in a film refers to the narrative space where the story takes place. It is determined by the director
through various techniques such as camera placement, framing, and angles. The setting not only represents the
physical location of the story, but also the time period and social and cultural conditions in which the
characters exist. In addition, the setting often functions as a metaphor to express hidden wisdom on a
subconscious level. Metaphors are expressed through visual images that include the characters, locations, and
objects in the story. Therefore, setting in a film plays an important role in creating the overall tone and meaning
of the narrative.
Scope
The spatial and temporal range of cinematic storytelling

Scope is a crucial element of cinematic storytelling that determines the spatial and temporal boundaries of a narrative. It
encompasses the time period and physical locations in which the story takes place, as well as the perspective and focus
through which it is presented to the audience. The scope of a film can vary greatly, from stories that take place within a
single location and a short timeframe, to epics that span vast distances and cover multiple generations. The scope of a
film is often established through the use of establishing shots and montage sequences, which convey a sense of scale and
context for the audience. The scope of a film can also be influenced by the director's stylistic choices, such as the use of
long takes, wide shots, and close-ups, which can emphasise different aspects of the story and create a distinct visual
language. Ultimately, the scope of a film is a key factor in determining its impact and resonance with audiences, as it
shapes the overall structure and emotional arc of the story.
05
Characterisation
Characterisation
Narrative agents: the 'who' of cinematic storytelling

The character is an essential element of cinematic storytelling, where it can be a person, animal, or even an
object personified in the narrative. In fictional films, directors and scriptwriters employ various character types
to convey the story effectively:

• The protagonist is the primary character whose story the film follows, while the antagonist is the character
who opposes the protagonist.
• Major characters are vital to the development and resolution of the conflict, while minor characters
complement the major characters and help move the plot events forward.
Characterisation
Narrative agents: the 'who' of cinematic storytelling

• Dynamic characters change over time, usually as a result of resolving a central conflict or facing a major crisis,
while static characters do not change over time, and their personalities do not transform or evolve.
• Round characters are often portrayed as complex and multi-dimensional, while flat characters are one-
dimensional and lack depth.
• Foil characters provide a contrast to other characters; by providing this contrast, we get to know more about
the other character.
• Symbolic characters represent some major idea or aspect of society.
• Lastly, an anti-hero is a character who lacks traditional heroic qualities and may have flaws or engage in
immoral behaviour.
Characterisation
Narrative agents: the 'who' of cinematic storytelling

Characters are a crucial element of cinematic storytelling, and they can be presented to viewers through direct
or indirect methods. Direct presentation involves the narrator explicitly describing a character's traits and
characteristics, while indirect presentation requires viewers to infer a character's traits based on their actions
and words. There are ten ways in which a character can be revealed in a film:

• By psychological description • By what he or she does

• By physical description • By what others say about him or her
• By probing what he or she thinks • By his or her environment
• By what he or she says • By his or her reaction to others
• By how he or she says it • By his or her reaction to himself or herself
06
Conflict and Causality
Conflict
Narrative development: dramatic tension in cinematic
storytelling
Conflict is a fundamental element of film narratives that gives direction and purpose to the story. It refers to the
challenge or problem around which the film's plot revolves. Without conflict, a film's story loses its trajectory
and becomes meaningless.
Conflict
Narrative development: dramatic tension in cinematic
storytelling
There are seven primary types of conflict in film narratives, and each type presents unique challenges for the
characters and shapes the development of the plot:

• Human vs. self • Human vs. technology (machine)

• Human vs. human • Human vs. supernatural (extraterrestrial or metaphysical) being(s)
• Human vs. society • Human vs. God(s)/fate
• Human vs. nature
Causality
Causes and effects: the chain of actions and events in
cinematic storytelling
Causality is the connection between events in a narrative, with every element being justified by another
element or the laws of probability and necessity. In classical narrative form, characters are the main causal
agents, through their actions, inactions, behaviours, psychological states, and nature, that cause events to
happen. These events become the cause for subsequent events in the narrative. Natural forces, social
circumstances, artistic and intertextual dynamics are also causal factors that are not character-centric. The
linkage between events and elements must follow a logical sequence where the existence of one justifies the
presence of another.
07
Point of View
Point of View
Narrative perspective: focalisation in cinematic
storytelling
The point-of-view, or narrative perspective, is a crucial element in a film narrative that determines how
characters and events are presented to the audience. There are several types of point-of-view that filmmakers
can use to shape the audience's perception of the story:

• First-Person Point-of-View: The first-person point-of-view involves presenting the events from the
perspective of a single character, allowing the audience to experience the story as if they were that character.

• Interior Monologue: The use of interior monologue allows the audience to hear the character's thoughts,
which can provide insight into their motivations and emotions.
Point of View
Narrative perspective: focalisation in cinematic
storytelling
• Third-Person Limited Point-of-View: In contrast, the third-person limited point-of-view presents the events
from the perspective of a single character, but without the use of interior monologue. This approach can
provide a more objective view of the story, while still allowing the audience to connect with the character.

• Third-Person Unlimited Point-of-View: The third-person unlimited point-of-view is a more omniscient

approach that presents the events from an outside perspective, often providing insight into multiple characters'
thoughts and feelings.
Point of View
Narrative perspective: focalisation in cinematic
storytelling
• Multiple Point-of-View: Finally, the multiple point-of-view approach can be used to present the story from
the perspectives of several characters, often allowing the audience to see the same events from different
angles. The choice of point-of-view can have a significant impact on the audience's experience of the story,
shaping their understanding of the characters and events and influencing their emotional responses.
08
Narration and Narrators
Narration
Presenting the diegesis (fictional world of a film)

Narration in filmmaking refers to the act of telling a story, or more precisely, the act of presenting the diegesis,*
or the fictional world of a film, to an audience. The narrator, on the other hand, is the entity that delivers the
narration, conveying the narrative to the audience. While the camera is often considered the primary narrator,
as it captures and arranges visual elements, other cinematic elements such as lighting, set design, make-up, and
performances also contribute to the narration.

* The diegesis of a film is the fictional world in which the film takes place, and the term refers to everything contained within the world of that
film. Diegetic space and time refer to space and time within the fictional world of the diegesis. Therefore, a diegetic element is an element within
the world of the film, while a non-diegetic element is any element outside the world of the film.
Narrators
The uses of narrators in a film

Some films use more than one narrator, with the first-person narrator being a character in the narrative who
imparts information through voice-over narration or even direct address narration, breaking the fourth wall.
Voice-over narration can also be provided by a third-person narrator, who is removed from the action and
provides objective context to the story.

Narration can be omniscient, providing information from any character's experiences and perceptions, as well as
information that no character knows. Overall, while cinematic storytelling can become more complex and
expressive, the basic concepts of narrative, narration, and the narrator remain straightforward.
09
Narrative Strategies
Narrative Strategies
Suspense and surprise

'Suspense' and 'surprise' are two distinct elements in film plots. While they are often mistaken for each other,
they serve different functions in storytelling. Alfred Hitchcock, a master of both elements, explained the
difference to François Truffaut in a conversation. In surprise, an unexpected event happens without warning,
whereas in suspense, the audience knows about a looming danger, such as a bomb under a table, and watches
as the characters unknowingly approach it. Suspense creates a drawn-out feeling of anticipation and anxiety,
whereas a surprise has a short-lived emotional impact. The audience may seek out suspense, even when they
know the outcome of the story, because they feel compelled to protect the characters. In general, informing the
audience of the danger creates more suspense than a surprise twist ending.
Narrative Strategies
Repetition and variation

'Repetition', or similarity, plays a fundamental role in the pattern of a film, as it allows for a better understanding
of the work. Elements such as characters, settings, music, camera positions, story actions, and even lines of
dialogue are frequently repeated throughout the film. The concept of a motif is introduced as a useful tool for
analysing films. Any significant repeated element in a film is known as a motif, which can take various forms,
including objects, colours, places, people, sounds, songs, character traits, patterns of lighting, or certain types
of shots. Film form is not solely composed of repetitions, or similarity, as this would become monotonous. The
principle of 'variation', or difference, is also crucial to creating an engaging film. Variations in characters,
environments, times, and activities, as well as contrasts in tonality, texture, direction, and speed of movement,
are necessary to add variety and change to a film.
Narrative Strategies
Allegory and symbolism

'Allegory' is a narrative that serves a dual purpose of being coherent on the literal level while also signifying a
correlated order of agents, concepts, and events. The word allegory comes from Latin allegoria, the latinisation
of the Ancient Greek ἀλληγορία (allegoría), 'veiled language, figurative', which in turn comes from both ἄλλος
(allos), 'another, different', and ἀγορεύω (agoreuo), 'to harangue, to speak in the assembly', which originates from
ἀγορά (agora), 'assembly'. It can, therefore, be defined as an image, story, or poem that can be interpreted to
reveal a hidden meaning, moral, or truth. An allegory, in this case, requires deeper analysis as well as
interpretation to get the exact lesson in a piece of work either for education or sensitisation purposes.
Narrative Strategies
Allegory and symbolism

There are two main types of allegory. The first is historical and political allegory, where the literal characters
and actions represent historical personages and events. The second is the allegory of ideas, where the literal
characters represent abstract concepts and the plot serves to communicate a doctrine or thesis. In the sustained
allegory of ideas, the personification of abstract entities such as virtues, vices, states of mind, and types of
character is central to the plot, while in more explicit allegories, this reference is specified by the character's
name.
Narrative Strategies
Allegory and symbolism

The Latin word symbol derives from the Ancient Greek σύμβολον (symbolon), from a verb meaning 'throw
together, put together, compare,' alluding to the Classical practice of breaking a piece of ceramic in two and
giving one half to the person who would receive a future message, and one half to the person who would send
it: when the two fit perfectly together, the receiver could be sure that the messenger bearing it did indeed also
carry a genuine message from the intended person. Symbols are objects, images, or persons that stand for,
suggest, or trigger a complex set of ideas, attitudes, or feelings that acquire significance beyond themselves,
whereas symbolism is the art of using symbols to communicate a message in an indirect and implicit way.
Narrative Strategies
Allegory and symbolism

Symbols can be found in all forms of human communication, and their meaning is dependent on the ideas or
concepts associated with them. For instance, a traffic light communicates its message symbolically, and its
colour change triggers a response in people who have previously associated those colors with a particular
action. In film, symbols can take many forms, such as setting, characters, and conflicts. To examine the levels of
meaning in a work of art or a film profoundly, one must understand the nature, function, and importance of its
symbols.
Narrative Strategies
Allegory and symbolism

'Allegory' and 'symbolism' are related concepts in that they both convey meanings beyond the literal. The main
difference between allegory and symbolism, however, is how they are presented. Allegory is a narrative, as the
moral lesson is in the form of an allegorical story. Symbolism, on the other hand, is a literary device that
presents one particular item, like a dove, to represent something else (peace).
Narrative Strategies
Irony

'Irony' is a literary, dramatic, and cinematic technique that employs the linking of opposites or the juxtaposition
of what on the surface appears to be the case and what is actually the case or to be expected. The word irony
etymologically comes from the Ancient Greek εἰρωνεία (eirōneía), "dissimulation, feigned ignorance". This
technique adds an intellectual dimension and achieves both comic and tragic effects at the same time by
emphasising sharp and startling contrasts, reversals, and paradoxes.
Narrative Strategies
Irony

There are three types of irony: dramatic irony, irony of situation, and irony of character.

• Dramatic irony involves a contrast between ignorance and knowledge, whereby the audience knows
something that a character does not, and this creates two separate meanings for each line of dialogue.
• Irony of situation, on the other hand, is a sudden reversal or backfiring of events, so that the end result of a
character's actions is the opposite of their intentions.
• Finally, irony of character occurs when characters embody strong opposites or contradictions, or when their
actions involve sharp reversals in expected patterns of behaviour. Irony adds depth and complexity to film
narrative and has been used since Homer's Odyssey.
Thank you.