Harris English Language, Science & Computer Program

Special Grammar Notes

Grammar
Grammar is taken from a new Latin word “Grammat” which means written letters or
characters.
Definitions
The systematic system of rules which we use to express our thoughts is called Grammar.
Grammar is a set of rules that we use to speak & write a language correctly.
In simple words, the system of putting a right word in a right place is called Grammar.
Grammar deals with four components:
Components of Grammar
Syntax: Arranging words to form/make grammatically correct sentences is called Syntax.
Semantic: Arranging words to make logical sentences is called Semantic.
Phonology: The study of sounds in a specific language is called Phonology.
Morphology: The study of forms & inflections of words in a language is called Morphology.
Parts of Speech
Each word is a part of our speech. Hence, all types of words are called Parts of Speech.
The different kinds of words used in English speech are called Parts of Speech.
In simple words, we can divide all English words into eight parts, called parts of speech.
Speech
A lecture given to a number of people is called speech.
A talk or a dialogue between two persons is called speech.
Parts of speech are eight in number:
1: Noun 2: Pronoun 3: Adjective 4: Verb 5: Adverb 6: Preposition 7: Conjunction
8: Interjection Kinds of Parts of Speech
Open Class Items: They are those items which are open to changes. Open class items are
unlimited. New members are allowed. Nouns, verbs, Adjectives & adverbs are in the class of
open items.
Closed Class Items: We can’t extend them. They are limited. We can’t coin new words in them.
Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions & interjections are in the class of closed items. New
members aren’t allowed.
Noun
Noun is taken from a Latin word “Nomen” which means a name.
Noun is the name of a person, place, thing or animal. Or, a naming word is called noun.
E.g. Ali, Islamabad, chair, tiger, etc.
Kinds of Noun
Proper Noun: It is the name of a particular person, place or thing. Proper nouns begin with a
capital letter anywhere in a sentence.
E.g. Afghanistan, Bilal, Nokia, etc.
Common Noun: A name given in common to a person, place or thing is called a common noun.
E.g. Teacher, doctor, class, boy, cell phone, etc.
Material Noun: A substance out of which other things are made or produced.

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Wood: Chair, door, table, sofa, board, etc.
Plastic: Pen, marker, bucket, stool, etc.
Paper: Book, notebook, newspaper, magazine, etc.
Concrete Noun: It’s a noun that can be seen and touched because it has a physical existence.
E.g. Book, chair, TV, etc.
Abstract Noun: It is a noun that we can’t touch or see. We can only feel them.
E.g. Pain, love, air, sorrow, etc.
Countable Nouns: Are those nouns which can be counted. We are able to use (S, ES, and IES)
with them in order to make them plural.
E.g. Book, Books, car, cars, tree, trees, etc.
Uncountable Noun: Are those nouns which can’t be counted. We can’t make them plural by
adding (S, ES, and IES) to them. E.g. Rice, milk, money, hair, etc.
Collective Noun: A single name given to a group is known as collective noun.
Team: A group of players
Class: A group of students
Army: A group of soldiers
Staff: A group of workers
Family: A group of people
Compound Noun: Noun+noun is called compound noun. The first noun functions as an
adjective and gives further information about the second noun. It must always be singular.
E.g. He is a school teacher. E.g. We are English teachers. I love Pashto books.
Kinds of Compound Noun
Open Compound Nouns: Space between the two nouns.
E.g. English teacher, police station, college student, Pashto book, etc.
Closed Compound Nouns: No space between the two nouns.
E.g. Keyboard, homework, shopkeeper, postman, etc.
Hyphenated Compound Noun: Hyphens between the two nouns.
E.g. Sister-in-laws, Father-in-law, in-laws, etc.
Cases of Noun
Case shows where a noun can be used in a sentence. It is normally used in the following cases:
Subjective/Nominative Case: It’s a case where nouns come at the beginning & function as
subjects in sentences. E.g. Ali is a teacher. E.g. Tiger is a dangerous animal.
Helmand is an insecure province. Nokia is a fine company.
Subject: The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about is called the subject of
the sentence. Objective/Accusative Case: In this case, nouns normally come after action verbs.
E.g. I teach English at HELP. We will watch TV. I saw Ali on the road.
Object: The receiver of an action is called object. Objects normally come after action verbs.
Verb+What=Object & Verb+Who=Object
E.g. I watch TV. E.g. We play cricket. E.g. Americans killed Osama in Pakistan.

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Complement: In grammar, a word or a phrase that follows a verb and describes the subject of
the verb is called complement. E.g. You look angry. E.g. We are teachers. I teach quickly.
We are in the class. Verb+Where=Complement, Verb+When= Complement & Verb+How=
Complement. Is, am, are, was & were+Noun=Complement.
As the Complement of BE: Be means is, am, are, was & were.
E.g. I am a teacher. E.g. We are learners.
As the object of a Preposition: In this case, nouns come after prepositions.
I am talking to Ali. E.g. You are learning English with Ali. That book is from Ali.
As the Indirect Object of a Verb: In such cases, we have two objects. Direct is an object that
receives the action of verb directly. It can be a thing or a person. It comes after an action verb.
Indirect object is a person that receives something.
E.g. I bought a book for Ali. They sent a letter to Bilal.
It is also possible to remove the final preposition & change the places of direct & indirect object
as in the following examples: E.g. I bought a book for Ali. I bought Ali a book.
E.g. They sent a letter to Hamid. They sent Hamid a letter.
Possessive Case: It shows ownership, relationship or someone’s activity.
This (‘) sign is called apostrophe. We use (‘S) with singular nouns, plural irregular nouns &
words having no plural form. That is Ali’s book. I am Ali’s teacher. I like Mateen’s teaching. We
have three e’s in comprehensive. We have four I’s in infinitive.
E.g. I am Ali’s & Bilal’s teacher. (Correct but uncommon) I am Ali & Bilal’s teacher. (Common)
Vocative Case: It is a case where we can use a noun at the beginning or at the end.
E.g. Bilal, bring a glass of water. E.g. Bring a glass of water, Bilal.
Appositive Case/In Apposition to a Noun: It is the following case:
E.g. My father, the president of AFG, will deliver a speech.
E.g. Farhad, the teacher of this class, will teach until 8:00 PM.
As a Part of Verbal: In such cases, nouns come after gerund or infinitive.
E.g. Teaching English is a tough job. E.g. To teach classes on time is my responsibility.
As the Objective Complement: In such cases, the direct object is modified by the noun that
comes after it. E.g. They made Bilal king. We elected Ghani President. I told Ali the reality.
Gender
It is taken from a Latin word “Genus” which means type or kind.
Masculine Gender: It indicates that a person or animal is male.
E.g. Boy, man, bull, tiger, husband, nephew, grandfather, etc
Feminine Gender: It indicates that a person or animal is female.
E.g. Niece, wife, mother, cow, woman, girl, tigress, etc
Common Gender: A noun that indicates either male or female is called common gender.
E.g. Doctor, teacher, student, friend, orphan, cousin, etc
Neuter Gender: A noun that indicates neither male nor female is called neuter gender.
E.g. Books, chairs, pens, tables, cars, etc.

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Singular & Plural Nouns

1: To make most nouns plural, add (S). E.g. Chairs, cup, cups, table, tables, book, books, etc
2: Nouns ending in S, SS, X, Z, O, SH, CH, add (ES).
E.g. Bus, buses, class, classes, box, boxes, buzz, buzzes, mango, mangoes, watch, watches, fish,
fishes/fish.
3: Nouns ending in a single (Z) & having a vowel letter before themselves, we double the final
(Z) & add (ES) .
E.g. Quiz, quizzes, fez, fezzes, whiz, whizzes, etc
4: If a noun ends in a (consonant+o), we add ES.
E.g. Buffalo, buffaloes, potato, potatoes, mango, mangoes, etc
5: If a noun ends in a (vowel+o), then we add only (S).
E.g. Radio, radios, studio, studios, etc
6: We use (S) with nouns which end in (O) and are generally short forms.
E.g. Photo, photos, photograph, Kilo, kilos, kilogram, zoo, zoos, zoological garden, memo,
memos, memorandum, etc.
7: Words which are related to music and end in (O), take a single (S).
E.g. Banjo, banjos, solo, solos, piano, pianos, etc
8: Nouns ending in (consonant+y), we remove (Y) & add (IES).
E.g. Baby, babies, city, cities, country, countries, pony, ponies, study, studies, etc
9: Nouns ending in (vowel+y), we add only s.
E.g. Day, days, play, plays, boy, boys, monkey, monkeys, etc
10: A few nouns ending in (F) or (FE), we normally drop (F) or (FE) & add (VES).
E.g. life, lives, knife, knives, self, selves, wolf, wolves, etc
Exception: The following nouns are regular, & take (S) for forming their plural form.
E.g. Chief, chiefs, gulf, gulfs etc
Note: The aforementioned nouns are called regular nouns. Nouns changing from singular
into plural by adding (S, ES, IES, VES) are called regular nouns.

Irregular Nouns
Nouns having no rules or nouns which don’t change into plural by adding (S, ES, IES, or VES)
& have special plural forms are called irregular nouns.
E.g. Man, men, child, children, ox, oxen, woman, women, etc

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Pronoun
Pronoun is taken from a Latin word “Pronomen” which means on behalf of a noun.
It is a word that is used in place of a noun to avoid its unnecessary repetition in a sentence. Or in
simple words, A word used instead of a noun is called a pronoun.
Kinds of Pronoun
Subject Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used in place of subject nouns. The following
are subject pronouns:
I, You, We, They, He, She, & It.
First Person Pronouns: Are those pronouns that refer to the person who is speaking.
I & we are called first person pronouns.
Second Person Pronouns: Are those pronouns that refer to the person spoken to.
You: Singular
You: Plural
Third Person Pronoun: Are those pronouns that refer to the person spoken off.
He, she, it & they are called third person pronouns.
Demonstrative Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to point near or far person (s),
place (s) or thing (s).
This: Near person, place or thing. That: Far person, place or thing. These: Near people, places or
things. Those: Far people, things or places.
Object Pronouns: Are used in place of object nouns. Have a look at the list of object pronouns:
I: Me E.g. I teach Ali & Bilal. I teach them.
You: You
We: Us
They: Them
He: Him
She: Her
It: It
Possessive Pronouns: Are those pronouns which are used to talk about ownership. We don’t use
a noun after possessive pronouns. Have a look at the list of possessive pronouns:
I: Mine
You: Yours
We: Ours
They: Theirs
He: His E.g. It is my car. Where is yours? Mine is at home.
She: Hers
It: Nil
Reflexive Pronouns: A pronoun in which the action turns back to the very subject is called
reflexive pronoun. In such pronouns, the doer & the receiver is one person.
I: Myself
You: Yourself/Yourselves

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We: Ourselves
They: themselves
He: Himself
She: Herself
It: Itself E.g. She killed herself. E.g. He fixed the car himself. E.g. He fixed the car by himself.I
saw myself in the mirror. Emphatic/Intensive Pronouns: Reflexive pronouns used for the sake
of emphasis, it is called emphatic pronouns. E.g. I myself saw Ali with Roya. E.g. He himself
wanted to meet the Taliban. Relative Pronouns: A pronoun that is used to join two clauses to
make/form a single adjective clause is called relative pronouns.
Who, whom, that & which are called relative pronouns.
The teacher is intelligent. He is from AFG. The teacher who is from AFG is intelligent.
Note: Such topics will be explained thoroughly when Adjective clause is taught.
Relative Compound Pronouns: A pronoun that is used with the word (Ever) is called relative
compound pronoun. Whoever, whatever, whichever, whomever, and whenever.
I don’t care whomever you tell. You can do whatever you can. You can go wherever you want.
You can come to my class whenever you want.
Indefinite Pronouns: Indefinite Pronouns refer to an unspecific person, place or thing.
Someone/Somebody, Something, & Somewhere: Are normally used in positive sentences.
Anyone/anybody, anything or anywhere: Are normally used in negative/interrogative sentences.
No one/nobody, nothing, nowhere: Are used in positive sentences, but convey a negative
meaning. There is someone in that class. E.g. I don’t want anything.
Interrogative Pronouns: A pronoun that we use to ask questions is called interrogative
pronoun. Who is Ali? What is that? Which works properly?
Distributive Pronoun: A pronoun that we use to talk about a person or a thing dividedly or
separately is called distributive pronoun.
Every one of, each one of, either of, neither of, one of, & none of.
Note: We use a plural noun after them, but we use a singular verb because the subjective is
singular. E.g. One of my teachers is intelligent. None of my students studies English. Every one
of those boys is eligible to study in India.
Reciprocal Pronouns: Is a pronoun that is used to show a mutual relationship.
E.g. They are fighting with each other. E.g. Don’t abuse each other/one another.Note: Each other
& one another can replace each other anywhere in a sentence. One another isn’t as common as
each other when it comes to studying them. Relative Continuative Pronouns: Make a statement
about an ongoing event when a word is put at the beginning of the sentence to emphasize it. E.g.
It is John who is drinking tea. E.g. It is tea that they are drinking.
E.g. It was Farhad who taught you.
E.g. It is grass that animals are eating.

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Adjective
It’s taken from a Latin word“Adjectus”, which means to add. It’s a word that we use to give
more information about a noun or a pronoun. E.g. Bilal is a nice teacher.

Cases of adjective
Adjectives are Normally Used in the following Cases:
Attributive Case: Is a case in which an adjective is placed before a noun. E.g. Bilal is an
intelligent teacher.
Predicative Case: Is a case in which an adjective is placed after a linking verb. Linking verbs
are those verbs which link the complement of the sentence to the subject of a sentence.
Complements are nouns or adjectives which come after linking verbs. E.g. Bilal is happy. I am
sick.
Postpositive Case: In this case, an adjective comes after nouns or pronouns. E.g. I met someone
interesting in my class.
Kinds of Adjectives
Demonstrative Adjective: Are those adjectives which point out a near or far place(s) person (s)
or thing(s). E.g. This car is expensive. These students are mine. That marker is old.
Possessive Adjectives: Are those adjectives which talk about ownership and relationship. My,
your, our, their, his, her and its, are possessive adjectives. E.g. I am your teacher. Proper
Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are made or taken from proper nouns, and show
nationality. E.g. Sania Mirza is Indian. Adjectives of Quality: Are those adjectives which talk
about the quality of a person, place or thing. Bilal is a kind teacher. English is a
comprehensive/rich language. Interrogative Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used to
ask questions. What province are you from? Which book do you want?
Emphatic/Emphasizing Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used for the sake of
emphasis. Very & own are such adjectives: E.g. This is the very boy whom I wanted to meet. I
saw it by my own eyes.
Exclamatory Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are used to show sudden/dramatic events
or shocking events. E.g. what a shot! What a girl! What a kick! Ing/Verbal/Present Participle
Adjective: Is a verb in its Ing form of that function as an adjective: Bilal is an interesting
teacher. It’s a boring class. Jism 2 is a frightening movie. We had a damaging earthquake.
Ed/Verbal/Past Participle Adjectives: Are those adjectives which are verbs but function as
adjectives. E.g. Ali is interested in her. America is a developed country. I am bored. Syria is a
damaged country.
Adjectives of Quantity: Are those adjectives which answer the question of how much. They
talk about amount. E.g. we have much money. We have much water.
I have a little sugar. Afghanistan has some money.
Adjectives of Number: Are those adjectives which talk about the number of people, things or
places. And it answers the question of how many. E.g. I want to meet some friends. We have
many students at (HELP). I saw a lot of girls.

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Kinds of Adjectives
Adjectives of Numbers: Definite numerical adjectives area those adjectives which tell us the
exact number of people things or places. E.g. one teacher, five classes, ten students, fifteen
markers, etc…
Note: The above figures or adjectives are called cardinal adjectives, second teacher, first boy,
tenth book, third position, etc…
Note: The above adjectives of numbers are called ordinal.
Indefinite Adjectives of Number: They talk about unspecific, unclear, or number of people
things or places. E.g. I have a lot of students at HELP. We have some classes. Distributive
adjectives: Are those adjectives which talk about every person or thing separately or dividedly.
E.g. every boy has come today. Each word is a part of our speech. Relative Adjective: Is an
adjective that we use to join or combine two sentences to make or form a single adjective clause
is called relative adjective. E.g. the boy whose father is killed is crying.
Positive/Simple/Absolute degree: It’s an adjective in which we give information about noun or
pronoun. E.g. Ali is a nice teacher.
Comparative degree: It’s a degree in which we compare a person place or thing with another
place thing or person, we use (than) after the comparative adjectives. E.g. Ali is taller than Bilal.
Superlative Degree: It’s a degree in which we compare a person place or thing with a group of
people persons or things, we use (the) before the superlative adjectives. After the comparative
adjectives: E.g. Ali is taller than Ahmad. Nokia is finer than Ashna. Afghanistan is better than
Pakistan.
Superlative Degree. It’s a degree in which we compare a place person or thing with a group of
things places or people, we use (the) before the superlative adjective. E.g. Ahmad is the oldest
boy in the class.
Siberia is the coldest country in the world.
How to Form the Comparative and Superlative Adjective?
1). Add (er) after one syllable adjectives in comparative and add (Est) to one syllable adjectives
in superlative: E.g. tall, taller, the tallest, small, smaller, the smallest, long, longer, the longest,
cold, colder, the coldest, short, shorter, the shortest.2). Add (r) to those adjective which end in (e)
in comparative and add (st) in the superlative. E.g. fine, finer, the finest, large, larger, the largest,
nice, nicer, the nicest, close, closer, the closest, wide, wider, the widest, white, whiter, the
whitest, 3). Adjectives ending in a (consonant + Y). remove y and add (ier) in comparative and
(iest) in the superlative degree. E.g. Happy, happier, the happiest, heavy, heavier, the heaviest,
easy, easier, the easiest, busy, busier, the busiest, healthy, healthier, the healthiest,4). Adjectives
ending in a vowel + consonant. We double the final consonant and add (er) in comparative and
(EST) in superlative: E.g. hot, hotter, the hottest, Big, Bigger, the biggest, fat, fatter, the fattest,
thin, thinner, the thinnest.
5). Adjectives ending in vowel + y. we only add (er) in comparative and (Est) in superlative. E.g.
gray, grayer, the grayest, gay, gayer, the gayest.

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6). Adjectives of two or more than two syllables, form their comparative by adding (more) in
comparative and (the most) in superlative: E.g. modern, more modern, the most modern,
intelligent, more intelligent, the most intelligent, comprehensive, more comprehensive, the most
comprehensive.
7). These adjectives are used differently in comparative and in superlative. E.g. I am senior to Ali
in teaching. Rashid is junior to Nabi in cricket. Nokia is superior to Ashna. Q mobiles are
inferior to Samsung.
8). The following adjectives have special comparative and superlative forms.
E.g. good, better, the best, bad, worse, the worst, many or much, more, the most, old, older or
elder, the oldest or the eldest.
Note: Adjectives having no rule or having special forms are called irregular adjectives.

Verb
Verb is taken from a Latin word “Verbum” which means a word. It is a word that is used to show
the following things.
1:It shows what a person or thing does. We come to HELP. Apple works quickly.
2: It shows what is done to a person or thing: Ali was killed last night. Sockets were repaired
by me.3: It shows what a person or thing has. They have a nice car. Apple has 1GB Ram.4: It
shows how a person, thing or place is: Bilal is fine. Australia is a developed country. BMW is a
comfortable car.
5: It shows where a person thing or place is: We are in class. Saleem Carawan is in Arzan
Qeemat. Mood of a Verb: Mood is taken from a Latin word “Modus” which means method or
manner. Mood is the method/manner by which a verb is used to express a specific or particular
action. Indicative Mood: When a verb is used to express or state a fact, it’s said to be indicative
mood. Allah knows better. We study grammar. Friday is a holiday. Milk is white.2:
Interrogative Mood: When a verb is used to ask questions. It’s said to be interrogative mood.
Do you play cricket? Were they coming to class? Imperative Mood: When a verb is used to
give orders, requests, instructions, or directions, it is said to be imperative mood. Bring a glass of
water. Please, help the poor. Slice three onions. Walk four blocks and turn left. Infinitive Mood
or Verbal Mood: When to + verb is used to show/name actions, it is said to be infinitive mood.
To respect elders is our duty. To teach English is a great fun. To watch cricket on TV is
interesting. Subjunctive Mood: A verb which is used to express a wish, desire, intension or
resolution in the present and unreal situation in the past and in the present is known as
subjunctive mood. I wish I were in Canada. God bless you. I wish I had done the job. Forms of
Subjunctive Mood
Intention or resolution is shown by using it in noun clauses.
Structure:It + To Be + Vital, Important, Necessary, Imperative Essential + That + Sub + Verb +
Rots. It is vital that Hisam come on time. It is imperative that you be polite in my class.
Characteristics of Subjunctive Mood
In place of (is, am, are) we use be in that/ noun clause. Verbs don’t take (s, es, ies,) it is not
concerned with the present, past or future.

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E.g. It is imperative that Ali work at home.
The negative form of subjunctive mood is Not + Verb. Its passive form is Be + Verb3:It is
necessary that I not come late. It is vital that Ashraf Ghani be beheaded. It is important that she
not smile in the class. It is necessary that Shahzad bat slowly. Structure #2: Subject + Order,
Recommend, Request, Suggest, Advise, Demand, Ask, propose + That + Sub + Verb + Rots.
I order that my brothers learn English soon. I request that I be told the truth.
Abdullah demands that he be given fifty percent. I recommend that Laila get married soon. She
orders that her children not eat candies.
Note: Such use of subjunctive mood is also called Mandative Mood.
Present Subjunctive Mood: Is used in some traditional expressions to express a wish desire or
prayer. God bless you. King save the nation. God saved our beloved Afghanistan. Allah/God
save the king. Allah forgive you.Note: Such traditional expressions are also known as putative or
formulaic mood. Past Subjunctive Mood: It is used after the verb wish to indicate a situation
which is unreal. I wish I were Salman Khan. Ali wishes he were in Canada. I wish I were
Ghani’s son. Structure # 1: Subject + Wish (es) + (That) + Subject + Were/Verb.2 +ROTS.
Naseer wishes that he had a house in Saleem Caravan. I wish (that) I were you.
Mariam wishes (that) she were a queen.Structure # 2: If + Simple Past +, + Subject +
Would/Could/May + Verb.1 + ROTS.
If I had a million dollars, I would go to Australia. If I were you, I would kill him. \
If I were you, I would marry her. If I were Ghani, I would kill the Taliban.
Note: The aforementioned structure has a present unreal meaning.
If I were Ashraf Ghani, I would be the president of Afghanistan.
When Past Perfect Tense is used after Wish or If, it conveys a past unreal meaning.
Take a look at the examples:
Structure # 1: Subject+ Wish (es) + That+ Subject+ Had+ Verb.3+ ROTS.
E.g. I wish (that) I had studied hard. She wishes that she had gone to the party.
Laila wishes she hadn’t gotten married.
Structure # 2: If+ Past Perfect Tense+, + Subject+ Would/Could/Might/May+ Have+ Verb.3+
ROTS. If I had gone to City Star Wedding Hall, I would have seen Gul Panra. If we had taken a
taxi, we would have reached on time.
As if/ As though +Simple Past Tense = Present unreal meaning.
You act as if you were a president. She talks as if/as though she were Ghani’s daughter. He
walks as though he were intoxicated. I teach as if I were a good teacher.As if/As Though + Past
Perfect Tense = Past Unreal Meaning:
She cried as if her husband had died. I teach as if/as though I had studied in London. It + is +
(High) time + Subject + Verb.2 + ROTS.
Using “High” is optional; this structure shows that something is generally late. High is used
between to be and time to emphasize that something is very late.
It is time he came to visit us. It is high time you congratulated me.
Kinds of Verb

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Auxiliary Verbs: A verb that helps some other verbs to form a negation and a question is called
auxiliary verb. Or in simple words, a kind of verb which helps a main verb to form a tense a
question or a negative sentence is called auxiliary verb.
She works at home. She doesn’t work at home. Does she work at home?
Kinds of Auxiliary Verbs
Primary/Principle Auxiliary Verbs: Those verbs which function either as main verbs or
auxiliary verbs in sentences. I am a teacher. I am learning English.
Kinds of Primary Auxiliary Verbs
To Be Verbs: Is, am, are, was, were, been, being, and be, are to be verbs.
To do verbs: do, does, and did, are to do verbs.
To have verbs: has, have, and had, are to have verbs.
Semi Auxiliary Verbs: It is a type of auxiliary verb which is a multi-word verb. Multiword
verbs are those verbs or expressions which function almost similar to modal auxiliaries. Some
semi modal auxiliaries are listed here. Used to, didn’t use to, be going to, have to, has to, would
rather, had better, and be supposed to.
Main, Lexical, or Complete Verbs
It is a verb that is used to show action, state, existence, and ownership.
I teach English. We are happy. I am at home. Ali has a pen.
Kinds of Main Verb
Transitive Verb: is a verb which takes an object. Transitive verbs are followed by direct object.
E.g: I bought a car. We are learning English.
Kinds of Transitive Verbs
Mono Transitive Verb: Is followed by a single object.
I saw Ali. They cook rice very well.
Di transitive Verb: is followed by two objects.
I bought a car for Ali. He sent a message to my father.
Complex Transitive Verb: It’s a verb which takes or doesn’t take an object:
E.g: We study English. We study hard.
Pseudo Transitive Verb: it’s a transitive verb which takes an object but the sentence cannot be
converted into passive. It isn’t an affected object. E.g. We own a house in the hills. I have a car.
She has a Smartphone.
Intransitive Verbs: Are those verbs which don’t take objects.
Such verbs aren’t followed by objects. E.g. We go to school. We study hard. We come at 5:00
clock. Ali went to London. Your car looks beautiful.
Modal Auxiliary/Defective Verbs: Are those verbs which are used to show different feelings of
a speaker. The following are some common modal auxiliary verbs: Shall, should, can, could,
will, would, may, might & must.
Semi Modal Auxiliary Verbs: Are those verbs which can be used as main verbs or auxiliary
verbs. They aren’t common in social English. The following are semi modal auxiliary verbs:

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Need & dare. Some grammarians think that they can be used like primary verbs at the beginning
to make a question. E.g. I need a glass of water. You needn’t shout. She dares to climb the
mountain.
How dare you touch me. Stative Verbs: Are also called non-progressive verbs. They are used to
show a mental activity, state, existence, emotion, ownership, and human sense. We don’t
normally use them in continuous tenses. I know Ali. I forgot to bring your pen.
State: I am happy. Existence: We are in grammar class. Ownership: I have a house. We own an
educational center. Emotion: I love you. We like Afghans in cricket. Human senses: I hear
some noise now. The chicken tastes really good.
Actions of Limited Durations: The word (Being) is the (Ing) form of (Be) and means behaving:
Ali is being stupid. They were being kind yesterday.
2:When we have a change in physical condition, the stative verb feel is used in this case.I was
sick yesterday, but I am feeling well today.
3: We can use it with the adverb always.
You are always forgetting my notebook.
Causative Verbs
Causative Verbs: Are those verbs that cause a person to do an action of the causative verb. The
subject of sentence does the action of the causative verbs.
The main action is performed by the object.
Ali made Jamil wash the car. Have as a causative verb means to hire or to choose someone to do
an action. Our teacher had Ali open the door. We will have a mechanic fix the car. My uncle had
his son clean rooms. We use base form of the verb with have in causative sense. Note: Have as a
non- causative verb means to own or be the owner of something. Make as a causative verb
means to force someone to do an action. We use base form of the verb with make in causative
sense. I always make my brothers study at home. I will make Ali go to India for higher
education. I make Baber teach classes at 2:00 o’clock. Note: Make as a non-causative verb
means to build or to prepare something. Let as a causative verb means to allow or give someone
permission to do an action. My teacher lets me drink water. My uncle will let my brother use his
car. Note: Let as a causative verb and non-causative verb has the same meaning. Help as a
causative verb means to assist someone to do an action. We can use the infinitive or base form of
the verb after help in causative sense. We helped Ali take out/to take out the garbage. He is
helping his mom cook/to cook rice. Note: Help as a causative or non-causative verb has the same
meaning.
Get as a causative verb means to persuade or to convince someone to an action.
I get my students to speak English in my class. I got Tahir to go to Pakistan for a medical
checkup. Get as a non-causative verb means to receive or obtain. Get is followed by infinitive in
causative sense. Phrasal Verbs: Are also called multi or three word verbs. We make a phrasal
verb by adding a preposition or adverb or both to a verb. Phrasal verbs have special meaning and
we can’t understand them easily. Look over, means to check, look for means to search. Adverbs
or prepositions coming after verb in the formation of phrasal verb are called particle. E.g.: I am

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looking for Ali. She ran away with Ali. We look over the paper on Friday at (HELP). Kinds of
Phrasal Verbs: Separable Phrasal Verbs: that can be divided or a noun or pronoun can be placed
between the verb and the particle. E.g.: I want to turn on the fan. I want to turn the fan on. I want
to turn it on. Ali will bring back the book. Ali will bring the book back. Ali will bring it back.
Inseparable Phrasal Verbs: Are those phrasal verbs which can’t be divided or a noun or
pronoun can’t be placed between the verb and the particle. E.g. Ali looks at this painting. We
can’t say, Ali looks this painting at. She is looking for a house. We can’t say that she is looking
house for.
Some Points Vital Points Concerning Phrasal Verbs
If a phrasal verb is made of two words, it’s called a two-word verb & if a phrasal verb is made of three
words, it’s called three-word verb. Phrasal verbs are very common in informal English & they are used
both in written & spoken English. The preposition or adverb or both of them which come after the verb is
called particle.

If the

is very long, then we normally don’t separate the particle & put it after the object.
E.g. The gang has carried out a number of bank raids in the last few months.
They burned down the building which was made 300 years ago.
Did you check over the one-hundred four-page report which was sent by the company.
We can’t separate the particle when the object is gerund or gerund phrase.
Khadim gave up smoking. Khadim gave smoking up. (Incorrect)
There is no change in meaning of a phrasal verb whether we separate a particle or not.
Separation of the particle is optional when the object is a noun & not a pronoun. The following two
sentences have the same meaning.

I shut down my computer. I shut my computer down. He turned on the TV. He turned the TV on.
However, separation is must when the object is a pronoun such as (him, it, them, me, you, us, and her).
I shut it down. I shut down it. (Incorrect)
He called me up. He called up me. (Incorrect)
Active Sentence: Ali switched the light off. The light was switched off by Ali.
Only two-word verbs are separable; three-word verbs are never separable.
If you are going barefoot, look out for the broken glass.

She sat down on the floor. She sat on the floor. He fell down from the stairs. He fell from the stairs.
Drink up: drink completely use up: use completely
Fill up: fill completely eat up: eat completely
Note: The best way to know whether a phrasal verb is separable or inseparable is to look the phrasal verb
up in a good dictionary.
Adverb
The word adverb is taken from a Latin word “Adverbium” which means to add something to the
meaning of a verb.

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It’s a word that is used to give more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb or an
entire sentence. E.g. I teach properly at HELP. Katrina is avery beautiful actress.
Luckily, Afghanistan won the match. He came very quickly.
Adverbs appear in three forms.
As a Word: We learn completely at HELP.
As a phrase: We live on Main Street.
As a clause: If you kill me, my brother will kill you.
Kinds of Adverbs
Adverb of Place: Is an adverb that answers the question where and indicates the place of an
action.Ali is playing upstairs. E.g. She is in the kitchen. I will go there. They don’t add
something to the meaning but they answer the question where. Can you come here? Adverb of
Time: Is an adverb that answers the question when and indicates the time of an action. E.g. He
comes late. Ali comes on time. I saw him yesterday. We will meet you tomorrow. Interrogative
Adverbs: Are those adverbs that are used to ask questions. Where is your class? How wide is
this class? Why are you late? Relative Adverb: Is an adverb that we use to combine two clauses
to form an adjective clause. E.g. 1919 is the year when Afghanistan came into being. The
building where we live is very old. The reason why she left the class is unknown. Adverbs of
Frequency: Is an adverb that answers the question how often and indicates the repetition of an
action.
Kinds of Adverbs of Frequency
Adverb of Definite Frequency: Are those adverbs which indicate the specific repetition. Once,
twice, thrice, four times…etc. E.g. I teach once a week.
Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency: Are those adverbs which indicate the unspecific repetition of
an action. Always, usually, often, sometimes, hardly ever, scarcely, seldom, occasionally
&never. We always come to HELP. I saw him four times on Friday. We usually play cricket.
Adverbs of Manner: Show how something is done. It answers the questions how or how well.
E.g. I come slowly. She was dancing beautifully. Note: Hard, fast, well and late are also called
adverbs of manner. I teach well. He comes late. He is late.(Adjective) We study hard. Ali speaks
fast. Adverb of Degree: Is an adverb that is placed before an adjective or another adverb to
emphasize or make their meaning stronger. E.g. Katrina was so cute. Salman is very smart. You
are too intelligent. He came really quickly. She was dancing very beautifully.
Adverb of Sentence: Is an adverb that is used at the beginning of a sentence to give further
information about the entire sentence. Unfortunately, we lost a match against UAE. Luckily,
Afghanistan won the match. Adverbs of Negation or Affirmation: Are those adverbs that are
used to show agreement or disagreement. Yes, no, not at all, yeah, never…etc. Adverb of
Reason: Is a kind of adverb that is used to combine two ideas to show the relationship of the first
idea with the second idea. E.g. I didn’t study. However, I passed the exam. Structure # 1:
Sentence + Full Stop + Adverb of Reason + Comma + Sentence +E.g. I didn’t study, I, however,
past the exam. Structure # 2:Sentence + Full Stop + Sub + Comma + Adverb of Reason +
Comma + Verb + ROTS. E.g. I didn’t study. I, however, passed the exam.

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Structure # 3: sentence + full stop + sentence + comma + adverb of reason.
Note: In addition, for example, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless, and therefore are also called
adverbs of reason. Additive Adverb: It’s a kind of adverb that offers a choice between two or
more than two items. You either leave or stay here.
Comment/View Point Adverb: It’s a kind of adverb which shows the speaker’s opinion. She
stupidly forgot my pen. You intentionally killed Ali.
Adverb of Completeness: It’s a kind of adverb which shows how completely something
happens or is true. I completely forgot your name. That house is partly ready. Focusing Adverbs:
They are those adverbs which point to a single part of a sentence. She has gone everywhere. She
has even gone Antarctica. He can only play cricket.

Preposition
It is taken from a Latin word “Praeposition”, which means placing or putting before.
It’s a word or a group of words that is used before a noun or pronoun to show the relationship of
a noun or pronoun to some other words in a sentence.

Or in simple words, a preposition is a word that is used before a noun or pronoun to show the
relationship of that with another word in a sentence.

My book is on the table. The teacher is in class. We are happy for them.
I agree with you. Ali sat under the tree.

Object of a Preposition:
Noun: I am thinking about Ali
Pronoun: We bought a car from them.
Gerund: I am interested in learning English.
Infinitive: I am thinking about to limit the timing of your class.
Noun Clause: I am nervous about what happened last night.
Note: Sometimes a preposition can go at the end of the sentence, informally.
Which class do you read in? (Informal)
In An Adjective Clause: The boy whom you are talking about is lazy. (Informal)
The boy about whom you are talking is lazy. (Formal)
In a Noun Clause: I don’t know to whom you are talking. (Formal)
I don’t know whom you are talking to. (Informal)
Note: Words coming after prepositions are termed as objects of the prepositions.
Kinds of Preposition
Simple/ Single Preposition: It’s a single word which is not formed by any method. Such
prepositions are common. To, in, at, under, between, for, from, about…etc.
Note: Simples Preposition can be Mono or Di syllable. In, on, between. Under…etc.
Double Preposition: It’s a two-word preposition. Two words functioning together as
prepositions are known as double prepositions: from …...to.
HELP serves people from 7:00AM to 7:00 PM.

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Because of sickness, Ali couldn’t come to class.
Compound Prepositions: Such prepositions are formed by prefixing.
Into: I am changing my words into English. Inside, outside, within, without, are called compound
prepositions.
Note: Prepositions that consist of three words are also known as compound prepositions.
In front of or in addition to etc.
Participle Prepositions: Verb+ing functioning as a preposition is called participle preposition. I
am talking regarding Ali. You can ask the manager concerning the class. There will be time for
questions following the lecture.
Phrase Preposition: A group of words that functions the same as a preposition is called phrase
preposition. I know a boy by the name of Ali. We worship for the sake of Allah. By the grace of
almighty Allah, AFG won the match.

Agentive Preposition: It’s a preposition that is used in passive voice to introduce the person
who performs the action.
Your class was started by Hassan. She was killed by Ali.

Conjunction
It’s taken from a Latin word “Conjunct” which means to join or to relate.
It’s a word or a group of words that is used to join two or more than two words, clauses,
sentences, or phrases.
Laila and Ali are close friends. (Nouns)
I don’t care both where she goes and whom she meets. (Clauses)
The teachers want to teach, but the students aren’t interested in learning. (Sentences)He was in
the kitchen or in the dining room. (Phrase)
Bilal was neither in the kitchen nor in dining room. (Phrases)

Kinds of Conjunction
Coordinative/Coordinating Conjunctions: Are those conjunctions that are used to join words,
clauses and phrases of equal rank.
I was sick, so I went to the doctor.
He works and earns at HELP.
He was in the kitchen or in the dining room.
Kinds of Coordinating Conjunctions
Cumulative Conjunction: Shows cause and effect and combines phrases, words and clauses. So
and (and) are called cumulative conjunctions:
My father was angry, so I left the Army. I work & earn at HELP.
Disjunctive/Adversative Conjunction: Shows contrast but and yet are called such conjunctions.
They combine two clauses. I am a teacher, but Haroon is a doctor. I didn’t study, yet I passed the
test. Note: Yet & but have the same meaning when they are used as conjunctions.
Alternative Conjunction: Shows chance and combines two words, phrases or clauses.

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Or and nor are called such conjunctions. Would you like tea or coffee?
I am neither Ali nor Bilal.
Illative Conjunctions: Show an inference and combines two clauses. For means because and is
called illative conjunction. We want to take a taxi, for it’s raining.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Are those conjunctions that are used to join clauses of unequal rank.
If you study, you will get intelligent. You will get intelligent if you study.

Kinds of Subordinating Conjunction

Subordinating Conjunctions of Time: Such conjunctions are used to talk about the time of an
action. The following are subordinating conjunctions of time:
As long as, so long as, till, until, after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, etc
E.g. As long as Nazari is here, we can’t study. While I was teaching, you were listening.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Place: Such conjunctions talk about the place of an action.
E.g. You will be caught wherever you go. I will follow you wherever/ where you go.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Reason & Result: Such conjunctions are used to provide the
clause of reason. The following are subordinating conjunctions of reason & result:
Because, in as much as, since, as long as, so long as, now that, etc
I went to the doctor because I was sick. Now that you are married, you have many
responsibilities. Note: The mentioned conjunctions have the same meaning & can replace each
other.
Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose: Such conjunctions are used to talk about the purpose of
an action. So that & in order that are such conjunctions.
We come to HELP so that we can learn English. In order that can take the place of so that.

Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison: Such conjunctions are used to compare persons,

things or places. I am as quick as Ali is.
Ali is more intelligent than Bilal (is). Sonam Kapoor is as beautiful as Katrina (is).
Note: The remaining types of subordinating conjunctions will be taught thoroughly when
teaching adverb clause.
Paired/Correlative Conjunctions: Are those conjunctions which are used in pairs to join
clauses, words and phrases of equal rank.
1: Both……..and 2: Not only……..but also 3: Neither…….nor
4: Either…….or
Both….. And
It is used to join positive structures. It is always followed by a plural verb.
E.g. Haya is beautiful. Haya is intelligent.
E.g. Haya is both beautiful and intelligent. The student is present. The teacher is present.

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E.g. Both the teacher and the student are present.
E.g. I ate dinner with my friends. I ate lunch with my friends.
E.g. I ate both dinner and lunch with my friends.
Neither…..Nor
It is used to join negative structures.
E.g. Uzma is not beautiful. Uzma is not intelligent. Uzma is neither beautiful nor intelligent.
She didn’t buy vegetables. She didn’t buy meat. E.g. She bought neither vegetables nor meat.
The teacher isn’t present. The student isn’t present. Neither the teacher nor the student is present.
E.g. The teacher doesn’t want to teach. The students aren’t interested to learn.
Neither the teacher wants to teach nor the students are interested to learn.
Note: When we join two subjects with this conjunction, the verb can be singular or plural.
The verb depends on the subject after nor. If the subject after nor is singular, the verb is singular.
If it is plural, the verb is plural. Neither the teacher nor the student is present.
Neither the student nor the teachers are working.
She didn’t have a stove at her home. She didn’t have a TV at her home.
She had neither a stove nor a TV at her home. E.g. I don’t know where she went. I don’t know
why she went. I know neither where nor why she went.
Either…..Or
It is used to talk about a choice in two possibilities. It means one or the other.
It is used to join both negative and positive structures.
E.g. Haya is beautiful. Haya is intelligent. Haya is either beautiful or intelligent.
E.g. The teacher isn’t present. The student isn’t present. Either the student or the teacher is
present. Note: When we join two subjects with this conjunction, the verb can be singular or
plural. The verb depends on the subject after or. If the subject after nor is singular, the verb is
singular. If it is plural, the verb is plural.
E.g. Either the student or the teachers are working. Either the student or the teacher is present.
E.g. The result can be good. The result can be bad. The result can be either good or bad. You can
take them to a zoo or you can go dancing with them.
You can either take them to a zoo or you can go dancing with them.
Your sister is going to pick you or your brother is going to pick you.
Either your brother or your sister is going to pick you.
Not only……But Also
It is used to join positive structures.
E.g. Haya is beautiful. Haya is intelligent. Haya is not only beautiful but also intelligent.
The student is present. The teacher is present. Not only the teacher but also the student is present.
Note: When we join two subjects with this conjunction, the verb can be singular or plural. The
verb depends on the subject after not only. If the subject after not only is singular, the verb is
singular. If it is plural, the verb is plural.
E.g. Not only the student but also the teacher is present.
E.g. Not only the student but also the teachers are present.

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Interjection
It means exclamation. It is used to express surprise or shock, happiness, pain, sadness or
grief. Or, in simple words, an interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or
emotion.
Joy/Happiness: Hurrah, Huzza!
Surprise/ Shock: Ha, Wow, what!
Grief/Sadness: Alas, Oh!
Pain: Ouch, ow!
Approval: Bravo!
The following structures can also be used to show exclamation.
AFG won the match from West Indies! You are Bilal!
Note: The aforementioned two sentences are called question intonation. We must rise our
voice while saying such sentences.
You are Bilal. It is now termed as declarative sentence as it said in normal velocity.
Structure #2:What+a/an+(Adjective)+Noun+!
What a beautiful building! What a car! What a chic/stylish girl!
Structure #3: How+Adverb/Adjective+Subject+Verb+!
How quickly the ball went out of the ground! How beautifully she dances!
How beautiful Australia is! How stupid you are!
Structure #4: How+Subject+Verb+Rots+!
How you have done it! How you have grown!
Note: An interjection, grammatically speaking, is not a part of speech as it has no
connection with any other word of the sentence. But, in broader sense, an interjection is a
part our speech.
Hence it is included as a part of speech in grammar.
The aforementioned idea is said by a number of grammarians. They say that a word is a
part of our speech only if it modifies any other word in s sentence. Since it doesn’t modify
any word, they don’t reckon it as a part of speech.
Applied English Grammar & Composition
Written by: Dr. PC Das & Modern Oxford authorities
Tense
The word Tense has three different meanings according to Standard English dictionaries:
A: As a Verb: To make someone nervous/sad. E.g. we always tense our teacher in the class.
B: To make firm or tight. E.g. Bodybuilding can really tense our muscles.
B: As an Adjective: Nervous or sad. E.g. Fawad looks so tense today.
C: As a Noun: Any of the forms of a verb expressing past, present and future.
Tense
The word Tense is taken from a Latin word “Tempus”, old French word “Tens”, and a Greek
word “Tensus”, which means time or era.
Definitions

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A form of a verb which indicates whether the action of the verb happens in the present, past or
future, whether it is a single action or a repeated action, whether the action is finished or
unfinished is called Tense.
Tense shows the time of an action/situation in the present, past or future.
Any of the forms of a verb that may be used to show the time of an action or state expressed by
the verb is called Tense.
In simple words, TENSE TIME OF ACTION OR STATE.

Kinds of Tenses
Tense is mainly divided into three kinds namely:
1: Present Tense2: Past Tense 3: Future Tense
Present Tense: When a verb is used to indicate that an action of the verb takes place in the
present time, it is called present tense. E.g. We come to call center every day.
Past Tense: When a verb is used to indicate that an action of the verb takes place in the past, it is
called past tense. E.g. I taught English at the American English language center.
Future Tense: When a verb is used to indicate that an action of the verb takes place in the future,
it is called future tense. E.g. We will become the permanent employees of MTN.
Remember: Some other Grammarians believe that there are four Tenses, such as Present, Past,
Future and Conditional Tense.
Each tense has four classes namely:
Present Tense
1: Simple Present Tense/Present Indefinite Tense
2: Present Continuous/Progressive Tense
3: Present Perfect Tense
4: Present Perfect Continuous /Progressive Tense
Simple Past Tense/Past Indefinite Tense
1: Simple Past Tense
2: Past Continuous/Progressive Tense
3: Past Perfect Tense
4: Past Perfect Continuous/Progressive Tense
Simple Future Tense/Future Indefinite Tense
1: Simple Future Tense
2: Future Continuous/Progressive Tense
3: Future Perfect Tense
4: Future Perfect Continuous/Progressive Tense
Remember:In English, only two tenses can be distinguished in the verb alone: the simple
present and the simple past. All other forms use extra words called Auxiliaries to distinguish
tenses.
Stages of Tense
Each tense has three stages namely:
1: Syntax Stage:we learn about the structures of a tense.
2: Explanation Stage:we learn about the usages/cases of a tense.
3: Implementation Stage: we learn about the examples of a tense.
Aspect of Tense
The form of a verb that shows, for example, whether the action happens once or repeatedly, is
completed or still continuing, is called the aspect of tense.

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The two main aspects are: Perfect and Progressive.
E.g. I have taught my classes. (Perfect Aspect)
E.g. We are working properly. (Progressive Aspect)

Simple Present/Present Indefinite Tense

Positive Structure: Subject+Verb.1(s, es, ies) +Rots.
Negative Structure: Subject does/do+Not+Verb.1+Rots.
Positive Interrogative: Does/Do+Subject+Verb.1+Rots?
Negative Interrogative:American Way: Doesn’t/Don’t+ Subject+Verb.1+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Does/Do+Subject+Not+Verb.1+Rots?
E.g. We work at MTN. E.g. She works at home. E.g. Bilal studies English at HELP.
Remember:The aforementioned structures are used to indicate actions.
Positive Structure: Subject Is/Am/Are+ Complement.
Negative Structure:Subject+Is/Am/Are+Not+Complement.
Positive Interrogative: Is/Am/Are+Subject+Complement?
Negative Interrogative:American Way: Isn’t/Aren’t+Subject+Complement?
Negative Interrogative:British Way: Is/Am/Are Subject +Not +Complement?

E.g. We are happy. E.g. They are in the class. E.g. Bilal is a teacher.
Remember: The aforementioned structures are used to indicate state, existence or give
information about a person.
Usages
It shows an action that happens regularly.
E.g. We come to call center. E.g. Bilal goes to his office.
It shows an action that a person does habitually.
E.g. Zia smokes a lot. E.g. Some people lie.
It expresses a universal truth. Universal truth is not changeable by nature.
E.g. Allah is one. E.g. Milk is white.
General truth is changeable by nature.
E.g. Asif Ali Zardari is the president of Pakistan.
It expresses a situation of a limited duration.
E.g. The coffee is so hot.
E.g. The weather is too hot today.
It is formally used to talk about official announcements which will take place in the upcoming
time.
E.g. Pakistan and India resume their negotiations tomorrow in Islamabad.
E.g. The train comes at 5:00. E.g. The plane leaves tomorrow.
It is used to introduce quotations with the verb “Say”.
E.g. Our Prophet (PBUH) says, “Live together and don’t cause hurdles for each other.”
It expresses what is actually taking place in the present time in exclamatory sentences beginning
with “Here” and “There”.
E.g. Here comes Shahid Khan Afridi! E.g.TheregoesChris Gayle.
It refers to future actions which are timetabled.
E.g. Ahmad comes from Kabul next week. E.g. Sir Mateen teaches your class tomorrow.
It expresses an action happening now.
E.g. The rose smells nice. E.g. We know him.E.g. I believe you.

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Remember: This idea is commonly expressed by using Stative Verbs.
It is used in newspaper headlines to talk about past.
E.g. Obama meets Hamid Karzai. E.g. The President goes to China.
It talks about a sporting event when the duration of an action is brief. The action is completed
before the sentence describes it.
E.g.Afridi Hits a six. E.g. Salman passes the ball to Idress.
It is used in place of (Simple Future Tense) in clauses of time and condition.
E.g. When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him. E.g. I will wait till you finish your work
Present Continuous/Progressive Tense
Positive:Subject+Is/Am/Are+Veb_ing+Rots.
Negative:Subject+Is/Am/Are+Verb_ing+Rots
Positive Interrogative: Is/Am/Are+Subject+Verb_ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Isn’t/Aren’t+Subject+Verb_ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Is/Am/Are+Subject+Not+Verb_ing+Rots?
Usages
It is used to describe an action that is going on at this moment/at the time of speaking.
E.g. I am teaching English. E.g. The students are listening and writing.
It can also be used to show that something is not happening now.
E.g. Why aren’t you doing the homework? E.g. We aren’t wasting our time.

Sometimes, we use Present Continuous Tense to say that we are in the process of doing a longer
action which is in progress; as we might not be doing it at this exact time.
E.g. I am working at MTN to become a Team Leader. E.g. Heba is writing a book.
It is used to talk about developing and changing situations.
E.g. The climate in Kabul is getting warmer. E.g. Many boys are trimming their hair style like
Salman Khan.
It shows an action that has already been planned to take place in the future.
E.g. I am meeting my boss tomorrow. E.g. They are coming home next week. E.g. I am going to
Jalalabad tomorrow.
It is used to talk about a repeated action which annoys the speaker.
In this case, we use always, constantly, continuously, forever, perpetually, etc.
E.g. You are always leaving your dirty socks on the table. E.g. They are constantly making the
same mistakes.
It expresses a habitual action that takes place regularly especially one, which is new or
temporary.
E.g. You are smoking so much when your father is away. E.g. We are swimming a lot when the
weather is hot.
Remember: We don’t normally use stative verbs with continuous tenses.
Present Perfect Tense
Positive: Subject Has/Have+Verb.3+Rots.
Negative: Subject Has/Have+Not+Verb.3+Rots.
Positive Interrogative: Has/Have+Subject+Verb.3+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Hasn’t/Haven’t+Subject+Verb.3+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Has/Have+Subject+Not+Verb.3+Rots?
Usages
It shows an action or situation that started and ended at an unspecific time in the past.

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E.g. I have taught him English. E.g. They have fixed the car.
It shows an action that started and ended, but has present effects.
E.g.Heba has cut her finger. Now, it is bleeding. E.g. It has rained cats and dogs.The earth is Still
wet.
It expresses an action which was done again and again in the past. In this case, use the following
expressions:
Many times, severaltimes, a couple of times, a lot of times, a few times, etc.
E.g. She has missed me many times. E.g. I have taught higher classes at AELC several times.
It shows an action/situation that started in the past, and is still happening in the present, and it
may or may not remain in progress in the future.
In this case, we use since time and for+time at the end of the structure.
Since: Is used with exact time and it shows when the action has started.
For: Is used with duration of time and it shows how long the action has continued.
E.g. Mateen Ali has taught at AELC since 2002. E.g. I have worked at MTN for 7 months.
It shows an action/situation that has happened before the expected time or that hasn’t happened
up to the expected time, but it might happen. In this case, we use already and yet.
E.g. We have already eaten lunch.E.g. I haven’t met Maha yet.
It shows an action that happened in the near past. In this case, we use just, recently and lately.
E.g. Kareena has gotten married recently. E.g. I have come home recently/lately.
It also shows that an action that has never happened from past to up to now. In this case, we use
the adverb never.
E.g. Sharifullah has never smoked cigars. E.g. Heba has never been in Kabul.
It also shows habitual actions.
E.g. Ejaz has always disturbed me in my studies. E.g. Ayesha has often remained absent from
her class.
It also shows an action which finishes at the time of speaking.
E.g. She hasn’t written you for a long time. E.g. Heba hasn’t seen me for a long time.It is used to
talk about a change that has happened over a period of time.
E.g. You have grown since the last time I saw you.
E.g. My English has really improved since I joined AELC.
It is used to say that you have had or never had a certain experience.
E.g. I have been to Kabul. E.g. I have never been to India.
Present Perfect Continuous/Progressive Tense
Positive: Subject Has/Have+Been+Verb_ing+Rots.
Negative: Subject Has/Have+Not+Been+Verb_ing+Rots.
Positive Interrogative: Has/Have+Subject+Been+Verb_ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Hasn’t/Haven’t+Subject+Been+Verb_ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Has/Have+Subject+Been+Verb_ing+Rots?
Usages
It is used for an action which began at sometime in the past and is still continuing, and it may or
may not remain in progress in the future.
In this case, prepositions of time for and since are used.
E.g.Heba has been sleeping for six hours. E.g. I have been working at MTN since November.
It is used to talk about an action that started and just finished, but the reaction of that is not
finished yet. There is a present connection.
Or: It is used to give explanation for an action.

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E.g.WhyHeba’s are eyes red? She has been crying. E.g.Fawad is breathless. He has been
running.
Remember: In this case, since and for are not used.
It expresses an action which annoys a speaker.
E.g. The room smells awful. Someone has been smoking here.
E.g. Salman is disliked by all,for he has been telling lie.
It expresses an action which was repeated over a period of time.
E.g. The phone has been ringing. E.g. She has been dating a lot.
It is used to express an action that was just in progress.
E.g. Why are you wet? It has just been raining. E.g. She has been talking about you.It is also
possible to use this tense with some (Stative Verbs) in order to express a temporary feeling.
E.g.Noman has been wanting to tell you something.
E.g. My girlfriend has been loving me a lot recently.
Present Perfect TensePresent Perfect Continuous Tenses
It shows long background actions. It shows short background actions.
Action continuous from past to present with Action continuous from past to present
interruptions. without interruptions.
It has the idea of completion. It has the idea of continuation.
We can use it with Stative verbs. We don't use it with Stative verbs.
E.g. My father has worked at Habib Bank for 10 years. E.g. I have been teaching your class for
15 minutes.
E.g. I have taken my classes.E.g. I have been writing a book.
E.g. She has loved Ali for a long time.E.g. She has been loving Ali for a long time.
Remember:The present perfect and present perfect continuous are more or less interchangeable
in some cases:
E.g. It has rained all day. E.g. It has been raining all day.
E.g.Shehzad has taught at AELC for 3 years. E.g. Shehzad has been teaching at AELC for 3
years.
Simple Past Tense/Preterit Past Tense/Non_Present Tense
Positive: Subject+Verb.2+Rots.
Negative: Subject+Did+Not+Verb.1+Rots.
Positive Interrogative: Did+Subject+Verb.1+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Didn’t+Subject+Verb.1+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Did+Subject+Not+Verb.1+Rots?
E.g. They washed the car. E.g. I bought a new book. E.g. She saw Bilal yesterday.
Remember: The aforementioned structure of Simple Past Tense is for actions.
Positive: Subject +Was/Were+ Complement.
Negative: Subject +Was/Were+ + Not +Complement.
Positive Interrogative:Was/Were + Subject+ Complement?
Negative Interrogative: American Way:: Wasn’t/Weren’t +Subject+Complement?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Was/Were +Subject+Not+Complement?
E.g. She was at home. E.g. You were sad. E.g. He was a teacher in Pakistan.
Remember: The aforementioned structure of Simple Past Tense is for states.
Usages
The Simple Past Tense is used to report happenings in the past.
It is used to indicate an action/situation that started and ended at a particular time in the past.

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E.g. We played cricket yesterday. E.g. I met Heba last week.
It is used to express past habits which are no longer present.
E.g. I always spoke loudly. E.g. Iqbal Hassan used to smoke a lot.
It is used to give present unreal meaning in conditional sentences.
E.g. If I were Salman Khan, I would marry Katrina.
E.g. If Matiullah had a lot of money, he would start a business of his own.
It is used to show that two actions happened in the past, but one action happened earlier ant the
other action happened later.
E.g. When the patient died, the doctor came. E.g. When it started to rain, I stood under the tree.
It is sometimes used without a time reference to express an action which started a very short time
ago or recently.
E.g. Did Noman meet you on the way? E.g.Waqas broke the glass. Now I have to clean the
shatters.
It is used to replace Simple Present Tense in Indirect Speech according to the formal sequence of
tenses. E.g. Ayesha said, “I work hard.” E.g. Ayesha said that she worked hard.
E.g. Ahmad Shah said, “I have a lot work.” E.g. Ahmad Shah said that he had a lot work.
It is also used with “Used to/ would “for past habits.
E.g. I used to study many hours every day. E.g. Bilal would bathe in the Ganga.
Present Perfect Tense Simple Past Tense
It shows a past action with unspecific time. It shows a past action with specific time.
E.g. I have taken my classes. E.g. I took my classes yesterday.
The past action has a connection with present. The ended action doesn’t have any connection.
E.g. Why are your eyes red? I have cried a lot. E.g. She cried a lot last night.
It can be used with unfinished adverbs of time It is possible to use it with both finished
and
(today, this morning, but we cannot use it with unfinished adverbs of time.
finished adverbs of time (yesterday, last night, etc. E.g. she met Ali this morning/yesterday.
E.g. She has met Ali this morning/today. We can use the question word ‘When’ with
We cannot use the question word ‘When’Simple Past Tense as the time is specific.
with Present Perfect Tense as the time isn’t specific. E.g. When did you take your classes?
E.g. When have you taught your classes? X
Past Continuous/Progressive Tense
Positive:Subject+Be+Verb-ing+Rots.
Negative:Subject+Be+Not+Verb-ing+Rots.
Positive Interrogative:Be+Subject+Verb-ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Wasn’t/Weren’t+Subject+Verb-ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Was/Were+Subject+Not+Verb-ing+Rots?
Usages

It is used to show an action that was in progress/going on in the past.

The time may or may not be specific.
E.g. I was teaching English. E.g. We were running early in the morning.
It is used to show an action that was in progress, but it was interrupted by the happening of
another action. In this case, we use When+Simple Past Tense and While+Past Continuous Tense.

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E.g. While I was teaching, Bilal knocked at the door. E.g. She was dancing, when her father
came.
It is not possible to use (While and When) in one sentence.
When (While/When) comes at the beginning of the sentences, a comma is used to set off the
sentences.
E.g. When I came, he was singing songs. E.g. He was singing songs when I came.
E.g. While I was teaching, Emad made noise.
It can also show parallel actions. It shows that two or more than two actions were in progress at
the same time by using while or (at the time that).
E.g. While I was teaching, you were listening. E.g. Bilal was sleeping while she was watching
TV.
E.g. At the time that Noman was singing, Naseem was dancing.
It is also possible to use Simple Past Tense after while expressing two actions occurring at the
same time. E.g. While I watched TV, she cooked rice. E.g. While I worked at MTN, Ejaz taught
at ZSS.
It is also used to talk about repeated actions in the past.
E.g. You were always coming late. E.g. Haroon was making the same mistake again and again.
It is used with ‘Wonder’ to make a very polite request.
E.g. I was wondering if you could lend me some money. E.g. She was wondering if I could help
her.
It is used to replace ‘Present Continuous Tense’in indirect speechaccording to the formal
sequence of Tenses.
E.g. Bilal said, “I am learning English.” E.g. Bilal said that he was learning English.
It is also used to show a change.
E.g. I was improving my English in 2011. E.g. The weather was getting hotter and hotter.
Past Perfect Tense/Pluperfect
Positive: Subject+Had+Verb.3+Rots.
Negative: Subject+Had+Not+Verb.3+Rots.
Interrogative: Had+Subject+Verb.3+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Hadn’t+Subject+Verb.3+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Had+Subject+Not+Verb.3+Rots?
Usages
It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It doesn’t matter
which event is mentioned first, the tense makes it clear.E.g. The train had left when I arrived at
the station.E.g. I had taught my classes by the time you came.E.g. The patient had died before
the doctor reached.It is used to talk about unreal situations or actions in conditional clauses.E.g.
If we had taken a taxi, we would have reached on time.
E.g. If you had called me, I could/would have helped you.
It is used to replace ‘Present Perfect Tense and Simple Past Tense’ in indirect speech according
to the formal sequence of Tenses.

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E.g. Haya said, “I cooked rice.” E.g.Haya said that she had cooked rice.
E.g. Ahmad said, “I have played well.” E.g. Ahmad said that he had played well.
It is used with ‘Wish’ to express or to make wishes about a past situation.
E.g. Bilal wishes that he had taught higher classes at AELC.
E.g. I wish that Pakistan had won the world cup.
It is used to indicate an action that was expected to occur in the past.
E.g. I had hoped to know the truth before now.
E.g. Pakistan had expected to reach the final of 2011.
Past Perfect Continuous/Progressive Tense
Positive: Subject+Had+Been+Verb-ing+Rots.
Negative: Subject+Had+Been+Verb-ing+Rots.
Interrogative: Had+Subject+Been+Verb-ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Hadn’t+Subject+ Been+Verb-ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Had+Subject+Not+Been+Verb-ing+Rots?
Usages
It is used to express an action or emphasize the duration of an action that had been in progress
before another past action in the past.

E.g. Ejaz Hassan had been teaching in Kabul for more than 2 years by the time I came here.
E.g. I had been waiting for her since 5:00. She, finally, came at 7:00.
E.g. The police had been searching for the criminal for two months before they arrested him.
It used to express an activity in progress recent to another activity in the past.
E.g. The streets were wet because it had been raining.
E.g.You eyes were red. It is clear that you had been crying.
It shows an action that was repeated several times.
E.g. I had been teaching on topic for six times a week.
E.g. His father was out of Afghanistan. He had been coming home late every night.
It is used to replace Past Continuous Tense and Present Perfect Continuous Tense in indirect
speech according to the formal sequence of tenses.
E.g.Obaid said, “I was playing cricket.” E.g.Obaid said that he had been playing cricket.
E.g.Obaid said, “I have been playing cricket.” E.g.Obaid said that he had been playing cricket.

Simple Future Tense

Positive: Subject+Will/Shall+Verb.1+Rots.
Negative: Subject+Will/Shall+Not+Verb.1+Rots.
Interrogative: Will/Shall+Subject+Verb.1+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Won’t/Shan’t+Subject+Verb.1+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Will/Shall+Subject+Not+Verb.1+Rots?

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Usages
It is used to show future actions or plans that will happen in the coming time or in the future.
E.g. She will finish your class next week. E.g. We will meet tomorrow.
It is used to express promise.
E.g.I will buy you a nice gift. E.g. We will attend your wedding party.
It is used to express prediction.
E.g. It will be snowy tomorrow. E.g. It will rain tonight in Nangarhar.
It is used to ask someone to do something or to make a polite request.
E.g. Will you bring me a glass of water? E.g. Will you sit silent?
To+Verb.1 used in headlines expresses future events or incidents.
E.g.Ghani to visit Islamabad.E.g. Afghanistan to play in 2019 cricket world cup. It is used to
express a warning or threat.
E.g. I will strangle you if you go out at night. E.g. He will kill you.
It is used to express an action or situation that is out of our control or access.
E.g. Doomsday will come. E.g. I will be 22 in 2015. E.g. We will die.
It is used to give invitations.
E.g. Will you marry me? E.g. Will you have dinner with me tonight? E.g. Will you be my wife?
Difference between Will and Shall
In modern English, the traditional difference between shall and will has almost disappeared.
Both American and British speakers use will in place of shall in modern English.
Shall is now only used in the following cases:
We use Shall I….?to make offers and Shall we…..?to make suggestions.
E.g.Shall I carry your bag with you? E.g. Shall we play in the park?
We also use shall in tag questions which begin with Let’s.
E.g. Let’s play cricket, shall we? E.g. Let’s have a coke, shall we?
Note: Will is now more common and usual than shall and we can use will in place of shall both
in American and British English.
Be going to + verb
When we have decided to do something before talking about it. (Definite intention)
He is going to resign the job.
It’s used to show immediate future.
It’s going to rain, look at the clouds.
Future Continuous/Progressive Tense
Positive: Subject+Will/Shall+Be+Verb-ing+Rots.
Negative: Subject+Will/Shall+Not+Be+Verb-ing+Rots.
Interrogative: Will/Shall+Subject+Be+Verb-ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Won’t/Shan’t+Subject+Be+Verb-ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Will/Shall+Subject+Not+Be+Verb-ing+Rots?Usages
It is used to show an action or event that will be in progress at a particular moment in the future.
E.g. Ghani will be delivering a lecture tomorrow at 4:00 PM.E.g. I will be teaching your class.It
is used to express future plans, expectations or arrangements.
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E.g. I will be wearing new clothes in my brother’s wedding. E.g. We will be spending winter
vacations in Pakistan.
It is used to ask other people about their plans and expectations.
E.g. Will you be using your new car tomorrow? E.g. Will he be coming home next week?It is
used to show actions or events that will be happening in the normal course of events.
E.g. I will be visiting my cousin in American at the conference.
E.g. We will be arranging classes in the coming winter.
Note: It is also possible to use the following structure in place Future Continuous Tense:
Be+Goingto+Be+Verb+ing
E.g. She is going to be playing cricket tomorrow at 3:00 PM.
E.g. She will be playing cricket tomorrow at 3:00 PM.
Future Perfect Tense
Positive: Subject+Will+Have+Verb.3+Rots.
Negative: Subject+Will+Not+Have+Verb.3+Rots.
Positive Interrogative: Will+Have+Subject+Verb.3+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Won’t+Subject+Have+Verb.3+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Will+Subject+Not+Have+Verb.3+Rots?
Usages
It is used to express an action that will be completed before another particular future action in the
future. E.g. I will have taken my classes by the time Maha comes home.E.g. The patient will
have died before the doctor arrives.
It is used to talk about the duration of an action in the future. It shows how long an action will
have continued before another action in the future. In this case, we use since/for+time.
E.g. Ejaz will have played for one hour when you come.
E.g. I will have taught for 6 years by the end of 2015.
Future Perfect Continuous/Progressive
Positive: Subject +Will+Have+Been+Verb_ing+Rots.
Negative: Subject+Will+Not+Have+Been+Verb_ing+Rots.
Positive Interrogative: Will+Subject+Have+Been+Verb_ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: American Way: Won’t+Subject+Have+Been+Verb_ing+Rots?
Negative Interrogative: British Way: Will+Subject+Not+Have+Been+Verb_ing+Rots?
Usages
It is used to emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in progress before another time or
event in the future. In this case, we use since/for+time.
E.g. I will have been working at MTN for 4 years by the time 2015 ends.
E.g. We will have been studying English for one hour when Hasibullah turns up for his class.
It is uncommon to use this tense with non-action verbs. It is better to use (Future Perfect Tense).
E.g. I will have been knowing Ali………………………………(Incorrect)
E.g. I will have known Ali………………………………………(Correct)

Subject-Verb Agreement

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Special Grammar Notes
A verb must agree with its subject in number. Number indicates whether a word is singular or
plural.
Subject-verb agreement occurs when the subject and verb endings agree in number and person.
The syntax is the rule of placing the verbs in agreement with the subject in number and person.
Subject and verb agreement rules:
1: A singular subject takes the verb in singular and a plural subject takes the verb in plural.
E.g. There is a cat. E.g. There are three cats.
Note: But, a singular subject takes a plural verb in the Conditional Sentences.
2: An uncountable noun, though plural in sense, takes a verb in singular form.
E.g. Her hair is grey. E.g. The grass is getting long.
3: We can use The+Adjective with a plural verb to refer to some group of people in society.
E.g. The old are generally respected. E.g. The poor are not always dishonest.
4: Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘and’ usually take a verb in the plural.
E.g. Hassan and Bilal are two brothers. E.g. He and his friend have arrived here.
5: If two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, or two subjects together express one
idea.
E.g. The captain and manager of the team is coming. (The Same Person)
E.g. The captain and the manager of the team are coming. (Different Persons)
E.g. Her teacher and boyfriend is Bilal.
Note: One article for the same person and two articles for different persons.
6: Titles and names of plural form also take a singular verb when they refer to one thing.
E.g. ‘Three Idiots’ was a very successful film.
7: A phrase of measurement, though plural in form, takes a singular.
E.g. Two hours is a long time to wait. E.g. Five miles is too far to walk.
8: We use a singular verb after a subject with every, each, any, everyone, someone, everybody,
somebody, anything and nothing.
E.g. Someone is waiting at the door. E.g. Nothing happens in this place. E.g. Each boy was
wicked.
Note: When ‘each’ follows a plural subject, the verb is plural.
E.g. The pupils each have to take a test.
Note: If two or more singular subjects proceeded by ‘each’ or ‘every’ are connected by ‘and’, the
verb is usually singular. E.g. Each boy and each girl was dressed with a new dress.
E.g. Every man and every woman of the village was present at the festival.
E.g. The book or the pen is in the drawer. E.g. Each man, woman, and child was charmed.
9:Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, either or and neither nor, take a verb in the
singular. E.g. Either Hassan or Bilal has eaten the mango. E.g. Neither Hassan nor Bilal seems
intelligent.
E.g. The boy or the girl is fond of sweets.
10: When the subjects joined by: or, nor, either or and neither nor are of different numbers, the
plural subject comes latter and the verb must be plural.

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Special Grammar Notes
E.g. Hassan or his friends have done this work. E.g. Neither Hassan nor his brothers were hurt.
11: When the subjects joined by: or, nor, either or and neither nor are of different persons, the
verb agrees in person with the one nearest to it.
E.g. Neither you nor he works at home. E.g. Either Hassan or they are doing the proper work.
12: A collective noun takes a singular verb when it is thought of as a whole and takes a plural
verb when the individuals are separately thought of:
E.g. The army was defeated. E.g. Fifty rupees is enough for me. E.g. There is a large audience.
E.g. The audience are requested to take their seats. (Separately)
E.g. The committee is/ are unhappy with other decisions. (Whole/Separately)
13: When a plural noun follows number of, majority of, or a lot of, we usually use a plural verb.
E.g. A lot of boys are playing in the field. E.g. The majority of people have complained.
E.g. A lot of people/ A group of/A number of people have complained.
Note: Here, a number of means a lot of and expresses quantity.
E.g. There is a lot of boys on the ground. (Thought of collectively, rear& uncommon in modern
English)
Note: But, when number means ‘Figure’, it agrees with the verb.
E.g. The number of letters we receive is increasing.
The word amount agrees with the verb. E.g. A large amount of money was stolen.
E.g. Large amounts of money were stolen.
14: Some nouns which are singular in form, but plural in meaning take a plural verb.
E.g. The police are questioning a man. E.g. The policeman is watching outside the house.
E.g. People have to obey law. E.g. The staff have come to this decision.
E.g. Two dozen (Not dozens) make twenty-four. E.g. One dozen of eggs cost 60 AFN.
15: Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular in meaning take a verb in singular form.
E.g. The news is true. E.g. Physics is a branch of science. E.g. Politics is the business of his life.
16: Some nouns are always plural and take a verb in plural form.
These include belongings, clothes, stairs, surroundings, stairs, premises, congratulations, goods,
earnings, savings, riches, particulars.etc
E.g. The goods were found to be defective. E.g. My belongings have been destroyed.
17: When the subject of a sentence is a phrase, the verb must agree with the main noun in the
subject group. E.g. The quality of the oranges is not good. E.g. The only excuse that he gave for
his actions was that he was tired. E.g. Many leading members of the opposition party have tried
to justify the decision.
18: We use a singular verb after one of, either of, each of and neither of.
E.g. One of the boys was ill. E.g. Each of the girl is clever. E.g. Either of the books is stolen.
E.g. neither of the books was interesting.
19: When words are joined by: with, together with, or as well as, the verb agrees with the first
subject.
E.g. The Prime Minister with all the members of his cabinet has arrived.
E.g. They with their father deserve praise. E.g. Hassan together with his friends is buying books.

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E.g. He, not you, has won the prize.
20: After not only ….but also, the verb agrees with the nearest phrase.
E.g. Not only Hassan but also his friends are playing cricket.
E.g. Not only Hassan’s friends but also Hassan is playing cricket.
21: When the subject of the verb is a relative pronoun, care should be taken to see that the verb
agrees with the antecedent of the relative pronoun. E.g. This is the boy who is my friend.
E.g. I who am your friend should stand by you. E.g. He who is my friend should stand by me.
22: In referring to anybody, everybody, anyone, everyone, each etc, the pronoun of the
masculine or feminine gender is used according to the context.
E.g. I will help each of the girls in her studies. E.g. Each of the boys will do his duty.
But, when the sex/gender is not determined, we use the pronoun of the masculine gender.
E.g. Each must do his best. E.g. If anybody knows the truth, let him public it.
23: The indefinite pronoun (One) should be used throughout.
E.g. One should be careful of one’s (his/her) thoughts. E.g. One cannot be too careful about what
one says.
24: A pair noun like trousers, glasses, scissors, jeans, pants, clippers, etc is plural in form and
takes a plural verb. E.g. These trousers need cleaning. E.g. Your new glasses are very nice. E.g.
Here are the scissors. Note: We cannot use (A or Numbers) before the pair nouns.
E.g. Not a trouser and two trousers. (Incorrect)
We can use pair(s) of such pair nouns with a singular or plural verb.
E.g.This pair of trousers needs cleaning. E.g. How have three pairs of scissors managed to
disappear? 25: A singular verb is used with countries and cities. E.g. The United States has
beautiful cities.
26: A singular verb is used when nouns refer to a language.
E.g. French is spoken in France. E.g. Japanese is difficult to understand.
27: A plural verb is used when these nouns refer to people of the country. They are preceded by
article the
E.g. The Japanese are friendly people. E.g. French live in France.

Sentence
It‘s taken from a Latin word “Sententia” which means an opinion or thought.
It is the complete unit of a language.
Definitions
A word or a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and having a complete sense or
meaning is called Sentence.
In simple words, a word or a group of words having a clear meaning within a given context is called
a Sentence. A sentence must have a proper order of words and a clear meaning.

Rules for Writing a Sentence

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Special Grammar Notes
 First letter must always be capitalized and proper nouns will be capital anywhere in a
sentence.
 Sentences should be punctuated according to their nature.
 Equal spaces should be between the words in a sentence.
 English sentences should have at least a verb or a subject and a verb.
 English sentences should be grammatically correct.
 English sentences should be proofread to avoid mistakes.
 One sentence or two parts of one sentence should go together logically.

Words That Can Be the Subject of a Sentence

 Noun: Bilal studies at HELP.
 Pronoun: They are learning English with Farhad.
 Gerund: Teaching is a sacred job.
 Infinitive: To respect elders is our duty.
 Noun Clause: What they want is a pair of shoes.
 Phrase: A friend in need is a friend indeed.
 Adjective as Noun: The old are generally respected. E.g. The poor are not always dishonest.
Two Vital Parts of a Sentence
Subject: Is the person, place, thing or animal that we are talking about is termed as Subject.
E.g. Teachers are teaching their classes. E.g. Nokia is a fine company.
E.g. Nangarhar is a hot province. E.g. Tiger is a dangerous animal.
Complete Subject: Is the simple subject along with some other words that come before and after it.
E.g. Most of the students from different parts of Afghanistan are studying at HELP.
E.g. Some girls going to school are interested in education.
E.g. One of those boys is kind.

Predicate
A part of a sentence that talks about the subject is called Predicate. Verb+Complement = Predicate
Action+Object = Predicate
E.g. We teach English at HELP. E.g. They are eating apples. E.g. I am a doctor.
Note: Objects can be called complements, but complements can’t be called objects.
Simple Predicate: Is the only verb that tells something about the subject.
E.g. Haroon teaches English at HELP. E.g. I am Farhad Hassan.

Compound Predicate: Is the simple predicate along with some other words that comes directly
after it. E.g. The students are studying very hard to get the first position.
E.g. We come to HELP to learn to English properly.
Compound Subjects and Predicates
E.g. Ahmad and Ali study English and work in a factory.

Kinds of Sentence
Assertive/Declarative Sentence: Is a sentence that ends with a full-stop and states a fact.
E.g. Friday is a holiday. E.g. Allah is one.

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Interrogative Sentence: Is a sentence that ends with a question mark and asks a question.
E.g. Is the weather nice today? E.g. What does your father do?
Imperative Sentence: Is a sentence that ends with a full-stop and the subject is understood to be
you. It is used to give orders, advice, direction and instruction.
E.g. Don’t make a lot of noise. E.g. Bring me a glass of water. Please, help the poor.
E.g. Slice three onions. Walk for five minutes and turn left.
Exclamatory Sentence: Is a sentence that ends with an exclamation mark and shows sudden
feelings/emotions of mind. E.g. What a great building! E.g. Ali won a car!
Optative Sentence: Is a sentence that ends with a full-stop and shows a wish or prayer.
E.g. Long live AFG. E.g. God bless you. E.g. Wish you best of luck.
Segment/Verb less Sentence: Is a word or a phrase that doesn’t have any subject and a verb, but it
can give you a complete meaning.
E.g. Congratulations, Bye, Hi, impossible, etc.
Emphatic Sentences: These sentences are used to emphasize or intensify on something. We often
emphasize/ strengthen a particular word or expression.
E.g. You do look nice today. I saw it by my own eyes.
Aphoristic sentence: This structure is found in many proverbs. The common structural feature is
the balancing of two equivalent constructions against each other.
E.g. Easy come, easy go. E.g. Like father, like son. E.g. So far, so good.
Run-on Sentence: An incorrectly punctuated sentence is called run-on sentence. E.g. Hassan went
home I didn’t go
Padded Sentence: A padded sentence contains unnecessary words.
Structural Classification of
E.g. What l like is winter. I like winter.
Sentences/Sentences According to Structure
It indicates the number of clauses that can be used in a sentence
Simple Sentence: Is a sentence that contains only one main clause.
E.g. Tomorrow is a public holiday. I will meet Ali tomorrow
Compound/Balanced Sentence: Is a sentence that contains two or more than two
independent/main clauses without any dependent clause.
E.g. She is happy today and she will be happy tomorrow as well
E.g. I was sick, so I didn’t come to class.
E.g. The film ended and the audience went away.
E.g. I looked at David and he smiled at me.
How to Combine Compound Sentences
1: Semi-Colon:
E.g. I was sick; I didn’t come to class.
2: Comma+Co-ordinate Conjunction:
E.g. I was sick, so I didn’t come to class.
3: Semi-Colon+ Co-ordinate Conjunction:
E.g. I was sick; so I didn’t come to class.
4: Co-ordinate Conjunction:
E.g. I was sick so I didn’t come to class.
5: Only Comma: This is entirely wrong.

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E.g. I was sick, I didn’t come to class.
Complex Sentence: Is a sentence that contains one main clause and one or two dependent
clauses.
1: Main Clause+Adjective Clause
E.g. The boy whom you are talking about is my cousin. The boy is my cousin.
Dependent clause Main Clause
2: Main Clause+ Adverb Clause
E.g. Although Bilal was sick, he didn’t go the doctor.
Dependent Clause Main Clause
3: Main Clause+ Noun Clause
E.g. She asked Ahmad if he was learning English. I don’t remember where Ali was sleeping.
Main Clause Noun Clause Main Clause Noun Clause
4: Main Clause+Adjective Clause+Adverb Clause
E.g. Since the restaurant where we eat lunch was closed, we decided to cook our own food.
Adverb Clause Adjective Clause Main Clause
5: Main Clause+Adjective Clause+Noun Clause
E.g. That Allah is one is a fact which some non-Muslims don’t believe.
N. Clause/Main Clause Adjective Clause
6: Main Clause+Adverb Clause+Noun Clause
E.g. I didn’t know what had happened when I was away.
Main Clause Noun Clause Adverb Clause
Compound Complex Sentence/Double Sentence
Is a sentence that contains two or more main clauses and at least one dependent clause.
E.g. While I was going to school, I found some money; I decided to give my friends a party.
Adverb Clause Main Clause Main Clause

E.g. I came home, for the teacher who teaches our class was absent.
M. Clause Adjective Clause
E.g. My friend believes that he can do anything if he has a lot of money, but I cannot agree with him.
Main Clause Dependent Clause Main Clause
Minor Kinds of Sentence
Loose Sentence: Is a sentence in which main clause comes before adverb clause or phrase.
E.g. You will earn a lot of money if you study. E.g. You were listening while I was teaching.
Main Clause Adv. Clause Main Clause Adv. Clause

E.g. She saw an old book while she was sitting in the class.
Main Clause Adv. Clause
x
E.g. She saw an old book while sitting in the class. E.g. She saw an old book sitting in the class.
Main Clause Adv. Phrase Main Clause Adverb Phrase

Periodic Sentence: Is a sentence in which adverb clause or phrase comes before main clause.
E.g. If you study, you will earn a lot of money E.g. While I was teaching, you were listening.
Adv. Clause Main Clause Adv. Clause Main Clause

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Balanced Sentence: Is a sentence with two main clauses.
E.g. I was sick, so I went to the doctor. E.g. I was sick; I went to the doctor.
E.g. I was sick; so I went to the doctor. E.g. I was sick so I went to the doctor.
Note: It is entirely wrong to join two clauses by adding a comma between the two clauses.
Inverted Sentence: Is a sentence in which the verb or auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.
E.g. Are you a teacher? Here comes the bus. Running behind the deer was the tiger. There goes
Gayle.

Voice
The sounds that are made when people speak or sing. E.g. She has loud/quiet/soft voice.

Voice: Voice is the form of the verb which indicates whether a person or a thing does something
or something has been done to a person or a thing.

Kinds of Voices
There are two kinds of voice, namely:
1. Active Voice
2. Passive Voice
Active Voice
Active Voice: When a verb form shows that that the subject has done something, it is
known as Active Voice. E.g. I teach English at HELP. E.g. We eat food to live.
Passive Voice
Passive Voice: When a verb form shows that something has been done to the subject, it is
known as Passive Voice. E.g. Bilal was killed last night. E.g. West Indies was beaten by AFG.
In Simple words, the subject does something: Active Voice
Something is done to the subject: Passive Voice
Contemporary English Grammar
Written by: Jayanthi Dakshina Murthy
Fundamental Rules
1: Divide the sentence into subject, verb and object. E.g. Weplaycricket.
2: Make the object the subject of the passive voice. S V O

3: Add to be verb according to the tense.

4: Change the verb of active sentence to past participle in the passive voice.
5: Use the subject of the active sentence after the preposition by in the passive voice.

E.g. I teach English at HELP. English is taught by me at HELP.

E.g. Bilal wrote a letter. A letter was written by Bilal.
Coherent Points
In active voice, the subject performs from its actual position.
In active voice, the object receives from its actual position.
In passive voice, the subject performs from its non-actual position.
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Special Grammar Notes
In passive voice, the object receives from its non-actual position.
Remember: Use (By Phrase) only if it provides very important information about the
performer.
Points to Remember About Verbs
There are two types of verbs when we talk about verbs in active or passive voice:
1. Transitive Verb 2. Intransitive Verb
Transitive Verb: A transitive verb is a verb which takes an object.
Sentences having transitive verbs are usually converted into passive voice.
E.g. She killed a cat. E.g. My brother is painting a picture.
E.g. A cat was killed by her. E.g. A picture is being painted by my brother.
In simple words, the answer of verb+what/verb+who is usually object.
Verb+what/verb+who: Object
Kinds of Transitive Verb
Mono-Transitive Verb: It is a transitive verb that takes only one object.
E.g. I drink water. E.g. We play cricket in the ground.
E.g. Water is drunk by me. Cricket is played by us in the ground.
Di-Transitive Verb: It is a transitive verb that takes two objects.
E.g. She sent a card to Bilal. E.g. I bought a car for Ali.
D.ob sInd. Obj D.obj Ind. Obj
A postcard was sent to Bilal by her. (Formal) Bilal was sent a postcard by her. (Informal)
A car was bought for Ali by me. (Formal) E.g. Ali was bought a car by me. (Informal)
Retained Object: When we want to change a di-transitive verb (verb with two objects) to
passive, we bring only one of the objects at the beginning of a sentence as a subject and the
other object which remains or retains is called Retained Object. Di-transitive verbs can
have retained objects in passive. E.g. I bought a car for Ali.
D.obj Ind. Obj
A car was bought for Ali by me. (Formal) E.g. Ali was bought a car by me. (Informal)
Retained.Obj
Retained.Obj
Cognate/Kindred Object: Cognate or kindred means similar. Some verbs take after them an
object similar in meaning to the verbs. In simple words, it is an object that is the same as
verb. E.g. We build a building. E.g. The soldiers fight a fight.
E.g. Bilal dreamed a dream. We fought a good fight.
Complex Transitive Verb: It is a transitive verb which takes or doesn’t take an object.
E.g. She played tennis. (Object) E.g. She played well. (No object)
Absolute Transitive Verb: It is a transitive verb which doesn’t appear with an object. The
object is clear or unimportant. He smokes (cigarettes) E.g. She is singing (a song).
Pseudo Transitive Verb: It is a verb that takes object, but can’t be used in passive voice.
In simple word, is followed by an object, but the object isn’t affected object.
E.g. I have a car. They own a house in the hills. E.g. The black dress suits her.

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Intransitive Verb
An intransitive verb is a verb that doesn’t take an object. Sentences having intransitive
verbs cannot be converted into passive voice. They should only be used in active voice.
Verb+How/When/Where: Complement
If the aforementioned formula is applied/implemented successfully, the verb is
intransitive. E.g. The teacher talks quickly. Asad went to America. Your car looks beautiful.

Tenses into Passive Voice

Simple Present Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He studies English.
(Passive) English is studied.
Negative: (Active) He doesn’t study English.
(Passive) English isn’t studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Does he study English?
(Passive) Is English studied?
Progressive Tenses Structure (be + being + Past participle)
Present Progressive Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He is studying English.
(Passive) English is being studied.
Negative: (Active) He isn’t studying English.
(Passive) English isn’t being studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Is he studying English?
(Passive) Is English being studied?
Perfect Tenses Structure (Have + been + Past participle)
Present Perfect Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He has studied English.
(Passive) English has been studied.
Negative: (Active) He hasn’t studied English.
(Passive) English hasn’t been studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Has he studied English?
(Passive) English hasn’t been studied?
Simple Past Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He studied English.
(Passive) English was studied.
Negative: (Active) He didn’t study English.
(Passive) English wasn’t studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Did he studied English?
(Passive) Was English studied?

Past Progressive Tense:

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Special Grammar Notes
Affirmative: (Active) He was studying English.
(Passive) English was being studied.
Negative: (Active) He was not studying English.
(Passive) English wasn’t being studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Was she studying English?
(Passive) Was English being studied?
Past Perfect Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He had studied English.
(Passive) English had been studied.
Negative: (Active) He hadn’t studied English.
(Passive) English hadn’t been studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Had he studied English?
(Passive) Had English been studied?
Simple Future Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He will study English.
(Passive) English will be studied.
Negative: (Active) He won’t study English.
(Passive) English won’t be studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Will he study English?
(Passive) Will English be studied?
Future Perfect Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He will have studied English.
(Passive) English will have been studied.
Negative: (Active) He won’t have studied English.
(Passive) English won’t have been studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Will he have studied English?
(Passive) Will English have been studied?
Remember: The other four progressive tenses (Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect
Progressive, Future Progressive, and Future Perfect Progressive) don’t have any passive
voice in American English, but they can be used in passive voice in British English.
Present Perfect Progressive Tense:

Affirmative: (Active) He has been studying English.

(Passive) English has been being studied.
Negative: (Active) He hasn’t been studying English.
(Passive) English hasn’t been being studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Has he been studying English?
(Passive) Has English been being studied?
Past Perfect Progressive Tense:

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Affirmative: (Active) He had been studying English.
(Passive) English had been being studied.
Negative: (Active) He hadn’t been studying English.
(Passive) English hadn’t been being studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Had he been studying English?
(Passive) English hadn’t been being studied?
Future Progressive Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He will be studying English.
(Passive) English will be being studied.
Negative: (Active) He won’t be studying English.
(Passive) English won’t be being studied.
Interrogative: (Active) Will he be studying English?
(Passive) Will English be being studied?
Future Perfect Progressive Tense:
Affirmative: (Active) He will have been studying English.
(Passive) English will have been being studied.
Negative: (Active) He won’t have been studying English.
(Passive) English won’t have been being studied.
Interrogative:(Active) Will he have been studying English?
(Passive) Will English have been being studied?
Kinds Passive Voice
Full/Dynamic Passive Voice: It is a passive voice which shows an action and has an agent.
E.g. Your class was started by Ali.
Agent less/Short Passive Voice: It is a passive voice that doesn’t have by phrase.
E.g. Rice is grown. E.g. Ali was killed.
Noticed Passive Voice: It is a passive voice that is used in advertisements without to be
verbs. E.g. Wanted, Needed, Required!
Pseudo Passive Voice: It is a passive voice where only verb.3 and by phrase are used.
E.g. Prepared by: Mr. Bilal Hassan E.g. Issued by the Government of Pak. Written by: Ali
Stative Passive Voice: It is a passive voice that shows an existing situation rather than an
action. No by phrase; other prepositions are used. Verb.3 doesn’t function as a verb; it
functions as an adjective.
E.g. Our streets are well-lighted. E.g. You are known to me. I am interested in you.
E.g. The book is covered with plastic.
Impersonal Passive Voice: The passive voice structure which begins with it and the action
of the verb is attributed to no particular person.
E.g. It is said….. E.g. It is believed….. E.g. It is considered that………
Medio Passive: A sentence with ergative verb is called medio passive.
Ergative Verb: It is a verb that can be used transitively and intransitively with different
subjects. The intransitive is use like passive verb.

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E.g. She opened the door. E.g. The door opened. E.g. Birds fly. The kids fly their kites.
E.g. The candle blew out. She blew out the candle.
Agent/Actor: These are other names for the performer of action in passive voice which
comes after by in by phrase. E.g. Noman was killed by his brother.
Indirect Passive Voice: Despite having no object, a number of imperative sentences are
converted into passive voice.
Applied English Grammar & Composition
Written by: Dr. PC Das
E.g. Come here. You are ordered to come here. Please, go there. You are requested to go
there.
Double Passive Voice: A construction in which passive voice occurs both in matrix clause
and complement clause.
E.g. The houses were allowed to be burned. E.g. She was shown to be taught.
When to Use Passive Voice
 It is used when the object of an active sentence is more important than the subject.
 It depends on the speaker whether the subject or the object is more important for
him.
It is used when we don’t know the performer of an action. Or, we use it when we
want to hide the performer of an action. E.g. A car was stolen from Arzan Qemat.
 We use it when we are interested in action rather than who performs it.
 We use it when we want to bring variety in spoken and written English.
 We use it when we want to emphasize the receiver of an action.
 E.g. Ali was punished by the teacher
 We use it when the subject of an active sentence is indefinite pronoun.
 E.g. Someone killed Ali last night. Ali was killed last night.
When to Use Active Voice
 We use it when we are interested in the performer of an action.
 We use it when we want to avoid confusion.
 We use it when we want to use the subject and object in their actual places.
Speech
A lecture given to a number of people is called speech.
A talk or a dialogue between two persons is called speech.

Direct Speech & Indirect Speech

Direct Speech: When we give the exact words which were said, we use direct speech.
Direct speech refers to reproducing words exactly as they were originally spoken.
When we represent the exact words of a speaker in his/her own words without any modification
to someone is called Direct Speech.
Direct speech is also called quoted speech because we quote the words of someone in it.
E.g. Ali said, “I will buy a car.”

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How to Write Direct Speech
Reporting Speech: It has a subject & a reporting verb which introduces the reported speech.
Reported Speech: It has the exact words of a speaker.
E.g. Ahmad said, “I am going to learn English.”
1: Write the reporting verb. E.g. Ahmad said….
2: Put a comma after the reporting verb.
3: Put initial quotation marks/inverted commas (“”) after comma.
4: Capitalize the first letter of the sentence written inside the quotation marks.
E.g. Ali said, “I will buy a car.”
5: Put a period/full stop, question mark or exclamation mark after completing the sentence.
E.g. She said, “Are you coming tonight?”
6: Put terminal quotation marks after the period, question mark or exclamation mark.
7: Reporting speech can be placed before or after the reported speech.
E.g. Ali said, “I am tired.” E.g. “I am tired,” Ali said.
It is made of two parts:
Indirect Speech/Reported Speech
It is also made of two parts:
1: Main Clause 2: Noun Clause
E.g. Ali said, “I am too tired.” E.g. Ali said that he was too tired.
2: No comma or quotation marks are used.
3: The essence of a speaker’s exact words in the form of noun clause.
4: The noun clause will begin with (That), (If/Whether) or WH-words.
5: If the reporting verb is in the past tense, auxiliary verb & tense should be changed.
Indirect Speech: When we report the words of someone with change in tenses, pronouns & other
words & without using all the exact words spoken by the speaker is called indirect/reported
speech. E.g. He said, “I am playing cricket.” E.g. He said that he was playing cricket.
Verb Tenses in Reported Speech:
Simple present tense to simple past tense:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he went to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I don’t go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he didn’t go to school.
Present progressive to past progressive:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I am going to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he was going to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I am not going to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he wasn’t going to school.
Present perfect to past perfect:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I have gone to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he had gone to school.

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Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I haven’t gone to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he hadn’t gone to school.
Present perfect progressive to past perfect progressive:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I have been going to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he had been going to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I haven’t been going to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he hadn’t been going to school.
Simple past to past perfect:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I went to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he had gone to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I didn’t go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he hadn’t gone to school.
Past progressive to past perfect progressive:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I was going to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he had been going to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I wasn’t going to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he hadn’t been going to school.
Past perfect is changed to the same past perfect:
Past perfect progressive to the same past perfect progressive:
It means that these two tenses have the same Quoted and Reported Speech, but we have to obey
the rules of changing a Quoted speech to Reported speech; as,
(Quoted Speech) He said “I had gone to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he had gone to school.
Future Tense:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I will go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he would go to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I won’t go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he wouldn’t go to school.
Future Progressive Tense:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I will be going to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he would be going to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I won’t be going to school.
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he wouldn’t be going to school.
Future perfect Tense:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I will have gone to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he would have gone to school.
Negative: (Quoted Speech) He said “I won’t have gone to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he wouldn’t have gone to school.
Future perfect progressive Tense:
Positive: (Quoted Speech) He said “I will have been going to school.”

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(Reported Speech) He said (that) he would have been going to school.
Negative: Quoted Speech) He said “I won’t have going to school.
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he wouldn’t have been going to school.
Will to would:
(Quoted Speech) He said “I will go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he would go to school.
Shall to would:
(Quoted Speech) He said “I shall go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he would go to school.
May to might:
(Quoted Speech) He said “I may go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he might go to school.
Can to could:
(Quoted Speech) He said “I can go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he could go to school.
Have to to had to:
(Quoted Speech) He said “I have to go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he had to go to school.
Must to had to:
(Quoted Speech) He said “I must go to school.”
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he had to go to school.
The past forms of the auxiliaries are the same in Reported speech (would = would,
could = could, should =should, had to = had to, ought to = ought to, might =might)
(Quoted Speech) He said “I would/ should/ could/ had to/ ought to/ might go to school.
(Reported Speech) He said (that) he would/ should/ could/ had to/
Ought to/might go to school.

Some Vital Rules

Tenses are changed into indirect speech only if the reporting verb is in the past.
E.g. He said, “I take English classes.” E.g. He said that he took English classes.
But tenses don’t change when the reporting verb is:
1: In present or future.
E.g. He says, “I don’t want to go out.” E.g. He says that he doesn’t want to go out.
E.g. He will say, “I met her.” E.g. He will say that he met her.
Some Other Rules
We can’t apply the formal sequence of tenses in the following cases even if the reporting verb is
said/told.
1: A general/universal fact
E.g. My father said, “Honesty is the best policy.” E.g. My father said that honesty is the best
policy. E.g. Our teacher said, “Milk is white.” Our teacher said that milk is white.

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The president said, “Afghanistan is a mountainous country.” The president said that AFG is a
mountainous country.
2: Past historical events
E.g. The teacher said, “AFG got its freedom in 1919.” E.g. The teacher said that AFG got its
freedom in 1919.
3: Real Conditional Clause
E.g. My father said to me, “If you work hard, you will succeed in your life.”
E.g. My father said to me that if I work hard, I will succeed in my life.
4: Unreal Conditional Clause
E.g. Ali said, “If she were my real sister, I would never leave her.”
E.g. Ali said that if she were his real sister, he would never leave her.
How to Change Interrogative Sentences into Indirect Speech
YES/NO QUESTIONS:
To change yes/no questions to indirect speech, follow these steps:
1: Change the verb from said/told to asked/ wanted to know.
2: Use if/whether after asked.
3: Change the yes/no question to a statement and then change the tense & pronoun.
4: Change the question mark to a period or full stop.
E.g. Ali said, “Am I sad?”
E.g. Ali asked/wanted to know if/whether he was sad.
E.g. Hassan said, “Are they swimming?” E.g. Hassan asked/wanted to know if/whether they
were swimming. E.g. Ali said,” Was I hired?” E.g. Ali asked if he had been hired.
E.g. The teacher said, “Do you learn English?” E.g. The teacher asked if learned English.
E.g. The police said, “Did you rob the bank?” The police asked if I had robbed the bank.
E.g. The man said, “Can you do as I do? E.g. The asked if I could do as he did.
E.g. Laila said, “Do you love me?” Laila asked if loved her.
E.g. Ali said, “Doesn’t Bilal enjoy cricket?” E.g. Ali asked if Bilal didn’t enjoy cricket.
E.g. The boy said, “Have they found a house?” The boy asked if they had found a house.
WH- Questions/Information Questions into Indirect Speech
Structure: Subject + asked + object + W.H word + subject + verb
To change WH-questions from direct speech into indirect speech, follow these steps:
1: Change the verb from said/told to asked/ wanted to know/inquired.
2: Change the WH-question to an indirect question & then change the tense and pronoun.
3: Use a full stop at the end of indirect speech.
E.g. Ali said, “Where is she studying?” E.g. Ali wanted to know where she was studying.
E.g. He said, “When are they coming?” E.g. He asked when they were coming.
E.g. I said to him, “How do you study?” E.g. I asked him how he studied.
E.g. She said, “Why didn’t you come to the party?”
E.g. She asked/wanted to know why I hadn’t gone to the party.
E.g. The man said, “How long has he been teaching?”

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E.g. The man asked/ wanted to know how long he had been teaching.
Changing Imperative Sentences into Indirect Speech
To change imperative sentences into indirect speech, follow these steps:
1: Change the verb from said to ordered, forced, urged, instructed, directed, advised, warnedor
requested.
2: Use after told or ordered the name of the person whom the imperative sentence was told.
3: Use to+verb after told or ordered.
E.g. I said to Ali, “Open the gate.” E.g. I ordered Ali to open the gate.
E.g. The teacher said, “Write your homework.” The teacher ordered to write my homework.
E.g. The old man said, “Please help me.” E.g. The old man requested (people) to help him.
E.g. Katrina said to me, “Don’t touch me.” E.g. Katrina ordered me not to touch her.
E.g. The teacher said to the student, “Work hard.” The teacher advised the student to work hard.
E.g. The mother said to her daughter, “don’t meet him again.” The mother warned/ordered her
daughter not to meet him again.
E.g. His father said, “Don’t waste your time.” His father ordered/advised not to waste his time.
Changes in Pronoun
Changes in Pronoun:
1: First person pronoun (I, we) are changed according to the subject of the reporting clause.
E.g. Ali said, “I work at HELP.” E.g. Ali said that he worked hard.
E.g. Ali & Bilal said, “We are playing cricket.” Ali & Bilal said that they were playing cricket.
2: Second person pronoun (you) is changed according to object of reporting clause.
E.g. Ali said to his friend, “You are ill.” E.g. Ali said to his friend that he was ill.
E.g. She said to me, “You will not play.” She said to me that I would not play.
E.g. I said to you, “I don’t believe you.” I said that I didn’t believe you.
3: Third person pronoun (he, she, it, they) are not changed or unchanged.
E.g. I said to him, “He is a lazy boy.” I told him that he was a lazy boy.
Some adverb of Time and places are changed in reported speech:
Now to then
This to that
Just to then
Last week to the previous week or the week before
Tonight to that night
Tomorrow to the next day or the following day
Tomorrow morning to the following morning
Next day to the following day
Next week to the following week
Next month to the following month
Next year to the following year
The day before yesterday to the day before the previous day
Last year to the previous year
These to those

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Yesterday to the previous day or the day before
Today to that day
Here to there
Go to come
Come to go
Ago to before or earlier
Changing Exclamatory Sentences into Indirect Speech
Structure: Subject+Reporting Verb (Exclaimed)+ With+ Joy, surprise, happiness, sadness,
sorrow, pain, anger, grief+(That)+ WH-Words+subject+verb+complement.
E.g. The captain said, “Hurrah! we won the match.”
The captain exclaimed with joy/happiness that they had won the match.
E.g. He said, “Alas! I fail the exam.” He exclaimed with sadness/sorrow that he failed the exam.

Optative Sentences into Indirect Speech

In changing optative sentences from direct speech into indirect speech, the following steps are
taken:
The reporting verb is changed into pray or wish.
The exclamation mark is replaced by a full stop.
May is changed to might.
E.g. He said, “May Allah forgive this sinner!” He prayed that Allah might forgive that sinner.
E.g. He said, “May this child live long!” He prayed that that child might live long.
E.g. He said to me, “May you succeed/prosper!” E.g. He wished that I might succeed/prosper.
Miscellaneous Sentences into Indirect Speech
1: We use the verb greet in place of all kinds of greetings such as (good morning, good
afternoon, good evening, hi, hello) in indirect speech.
E.g. The captain said to me, “Good morning.” The captain greeted me/ the captain wished me a
good morning. E.g. Ali said to me. “Hello!” E.g. Ali greeted me.
Clause
A group of words that includes a subject and a verb, and forms a sentence or part of a sentence.
E.g. We teach English at HELP. Bilal bought his book yesterday. She comes late.

Kinds of Clauses
Independent Clause: An independent clause is a complete sentence. It contains the main subject
and verb of a sentence. It’s also called a main clause.
E.g. Tom watches TV. E.g. I am happy.

Dependent Clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be connected to an

independent clause. E.g. if i teach english E.g. if you become my friend E.g. when he is
alone. Adjective Clause/ Relative Clause

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An adjective clause is a clause which modifies a noun or a pronoun or it describes, identifies, or
gives further information about an Antecedent.
Antecedent: A noun or a pronoun which is modified by an adjective clause is called antecedent.
E.g. The teacher teaches well. He is from Pakistan. The teacher who is from Pakistan teaches
well. E.g. The man is swimming in the pool. He is our teacher.
E.g. The man who is our teacher is swimming in the pool.

Relative Pronouns
Relative Pronoun Nominative Accusative Genitive
(Subjective) (Objective) (Possessive)
Who (Person) Who Who/Whom Whose
Which (Things) Which Which Which / Whose
That That That

Adjective clause starts with relative pronouns:

Who, Whom, Which & That.
E.g. The book is Ali’s. It is on the table. The book which/that is on the table is Ali’s.
We have a car. My brother drives it to school. We have a car which my brother drives to school.
M The book is on the table. It is red. The book which is red is on the table. Cases of Adjective
Clause. Subjective Case: When the relative pronouns are used as the subject of the verb. They
take tea which comes from China. He is the man who got the first position in his class.
Subject pronouns ought to be taken into account.
Accusative or Objective Case: When the relative pronouns are used as a subject of a noun or a
pronoun.
She is the one whom I proposed.
P4 is the computer which I bought.
Object pronouns ought to be taken into account.
Possessive/Genitive Case: Whose shows ownership. It is used for people, but it is also for things
and animals. It replaces possessive adjectives in the second sentence.
The boy is killed. His father is crying. The boy whose father is crying is killed.
I don’t know the teacher. I missed his lessons. I don’t know the teacher whose lessons I missed.
The teacher failed the students. I checked their test papers.
The teacher failed the students whose test papers I checked.
Note: Of which+ noun or noun+of which can be used in place of whose when we talk about
things. E.g. The book is interesting. The pages of its are torn.
The book whose pages are torn is interesting.
The book of which the pages are torn is interesting.
The book the pages of which are torn is interesting.
Adjective Clause
Dative Case: When we have a preposition before the relative pronoun, it is known as Dative
Case. E.g. I dislike the movie. Bilal is talking about it.

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Make an adjective clause from the second sentence. Use the relative pronouns as close as
possible to its antecedent.
The boy is fat. I dislike him. The boy whom I dislike is fat.
E.g. I dislike the movie about which Ali is talking. (Formal, Dative Case) E.g. I dislike the movie
which Ali is talking about. (Informal, Objective Case)
I know the woman. Ali is talking with her. I know the woman with whom Ali is talking. I know
the woman whom Ali is talking with.
Note: Placing a preposition at the beginning is formal; but if it goes at the end of a sentence, then
it is informal. E.g. The boy sits next to me. The teacher punished him yesterday. E.g. The boy
whom the teacher punished yesterday sits next to me. E.g. The teacher is here. I have bought a
gift for him. The teacher for whom I have bought a gift for is here. (Formal) E.g. The teacher
whom I have bought a gift for is here. (Informal)
The movie was boring. We went to it last night. The movie to which we went last night was
boring. E.g. The movie which went to last night was boring.
I know the girl. Ali was dancing with her. I know the girl with whom Ali was dancing.
I know the girl whom Ali was dancing with.
My brother is a doctor. His car is black. My brother whose car is black is a doctor.
The farmer works hard. His field is very big. The farmer whose field is very big works hard. The
boys went outside. Their books are in the class. The boys whose books are in the class went
outside. E.g. We met a girl. Her paintings were all about flowers. We met a girl whose paintings
were all about flowers.
E.g. Ramin wears a shirt. Its color is black. Ramin wears a shirt whose color is black. Ramin
wears a shirt the color of which is black. Ramin wears a shirt of which the color is black. E.g. Ali
teaches a girl. We met her father. Ali teaches a girl whose father we met.
Note: when we talk about possessive case, the word whose replaces a possessive adjective in the
second sentence in order to form a relative/adjective clause.
Have a look at the list of possessive adjectives:
His, her, its, my, your, their and our
Note: Of which+ noun or noun+of which can be used in place of whose when we talk about
things. E.g. The book is interesting. The pages of it are torn.
The book whose pages are torn is interesting.
The book of which the pages are torn is interesting.
The book the pages of which are torn is interesting.
Punctuation of Adjective Clauses
According to punctuation, there are three types of adjective clauses.
1: Restrictive Adjective Clause: Is an adjective clause that gives limited, but essential
information about the antecedent.
2: Non-Restrictive Adjective Clause: Is an adjective clause that gives extra or additional
information about the antecedent. Information is enough to identify a noun.

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Difference between Restrictive & Non-Restrictive Adjective Clause
Restrictive Adjective Clause:
1: Is followed by a common antecedent
2: Is never set off by commas
3: Is used in informal spoken English
4: All pronouns can be used formally & informally
5: Relative pronouns can be deleted in objective & dative case
6: Essential information can’t be deleted because clarity is lost
7: It means half or some of a class with plural antecedent
E.g. The students who/that are absent will be charged.
8: It means more than one with a singular antecedent
E.g. The car that is parked outside is Ali’s.
Non-Restrictive Adjective Clause:
1: Is followed by a proper noun
2: Is always set off by commas
3: Is used in formal speaking
4: All pronouns can be used except that only formally
5: Deletion is impossible even in objective & dative case
6: Extra information can be deleted because clarity is not lost
7: It means whole or all of a class with a plural antecedent
E.g. The students, who are absent, will be charged.
8: It means only one with a singular antecedent
E.g.The car, which is parked outside, is Ali’s.
E.g. The boy who/that studies at HELP is from our village.
Restrictive Adj Clause
E.g. Ali, who studies at HELP, is from our village.
Non-Restrictive Adj Clause
E.g. I met Ahmad, about whom you were always talking. (Correct)
E.g. I met Ahmad, who you were always talking about. (Incorrect)
E.g. I met Ahmad, you were always talking about. (Incorrect)
E.g. I met Ahmad, that you were always talking about. (Incorrect)
E.g. I met Ahmad, whom you were always talking about. (Correct)
Sentential Adjective Clause
Structure: Main Clause+, +Which+Subject+Verb+Rots
It is used to give further information about the whole sentence. It always begins with which.
Antecedent is the main clause.
E.g. Ali died last night. This made all of us very sad.
E.g. Ali died last night, which made all of us very sad.
E.g. She sent me flowers to hospital. I really appreciated that.
She sent me some flowers to hospital, which I really appreciated.

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E.g. Ali married her. It was surprising. E.g. Ali married her, which was surprising.
Note: Which can be replaced by And This or And That.
E.g. Ali married her, which (and that) was surprising.
Adjective Clauses Modifying Pronouns
Personal/Subject Pronouns: Give further information about them in Cleft Sentences.
Structure: It+is/was+Subject+object Pronoun+Adjective Clause (Formal)
Structure: It+is/was+object Pronoun+Adjective Clause (Informal)
E.g. It is he who can help us. (Formal)
E.g. It is him who can help us. (Informal)
E.g. It is I who am with you all the time. E.g. It is me who am with you all the time.
E.g. It was they who called me last night. It was them that/who called me last night.
 It was my brother that threw an egg at the Minister of Education yesterday.
 It was an egg that my brother threw at the Minister of Education yesterday.
 It was yesterday that my brother threw an egg at the Minister of Education.
 It was the Minister of Education that my brother threw an egg at yesterday.
Indefinite Pronouns:
E.g. Let me talk to someone who knows about his home.
E.g. I want to eat something which I have not eaten before.
Personal/Subject Pronouns:
E.g. He who works hard will be rewarded. E.g. He who hesitates is lost.
E.g. I who work every day will earn money.
Demonstrative Pronoun:
E.g. Allah loves and rewards those who help the poor.
E.g. These shoes are better than the ones which I bought last month.
That in this case, we use which:
E.g. Let’s talk about that which we were discussing yesterday.
Reduction of Adjective Clause into Adjective Phrase
Before we change an adjective clause into an adjective phrase, we must understand a phrase and
a clause.
Phrase: A phrase is a group of words which has no subject or verb.
E.g. at the end of the street E.g. in a good manner E.g. in the park E.g. in the corner
Clause: A group of words that includes a subject and a verb, and forms a sentence or part of a
sentence. E.g. We teach English at HELP. Bilal bought his book yesterday. She comes late.
Adjective Clause/ Relative Clause: An adjective clause is a clause which modifies a noun or a
pronoun or it describes, identifies, or gives further information about an Antecedent
E.g. The teacher teaches well. He is from Pakistan. The teacher who is from Pakistan teaches
well. E.g. The man is swimming in the pool. He is our teacher.
E.g. The man who is our teacher is swimming in the pool.
Adjective Phrase: Is a group of words that doesn’t have a subject & a verb. It functions as an
adjective. Adjective phrase is the reduction of adjective clause.

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Special Grammar Notes
Adjective clause can be reduced into adjective phrase if the relative pronouns are in subjective
case. Have a look at the structure of subjective case: Who, which, that+verb+Rots
Rules for Changing Adjective Clause into Adjective Phrase
 1: Delete the relative Pronoun
 2: Delete any form of to be verb if any
 3: Change the active main verb into (ing) form
 4: No change occurs in a passive main verb
 5: Use having+verb.3 for Perfect Tenses
E.g. The boys who study English at HELP are intelligent.
E.g. The boys studying English at HELP are intelligent.
E.g. The car which is in the parking lot is old. E.g. The car in the parking lot is oldE.g.
Afghanistan, which is located in Asia, is our homeland. AFG, located in Asia, in our homeland.
The boy who sits next to me is from Laghman. The boy sitting next to me is from Laghman. I
have seen the place which is far away from Peshawar. I have seen the place far away from
Peshawar. The teacher who had taught our class went to America.
E.g. The teacher having taught our class went to America.
E.g. Ali, who is teaching your class, is a university graduate boy. Ali, teaching your class, is a
university graduate boy. I know the man who was a general in the army. I know the man a
general in the army. E.g. The class that is being taught is a grammar class.
The class being taught is a grammar class. The car that is parked outside is Ali’s.
The car parked outside is Ali’s. The doctor who taught the students has Ph.D. in English.
The doctor teaching the students has Ph.D. in English. Ali, who has failed two tests, doesn’t want
to fail the third one. Ali, having failed two tests, doesn’t want to fail the third one.
Using Expressions of Quantity in Adjective Clause
These quantity expressions can be used in an adjective clause: some of, none of, few of, most of,
many of, both of, several of, neither of, half of, etc.
The relative pronouns whom and whose are used after the quantity expressions if the quantity
expressions refer to people.
E.g. There are 20 students in our class, most of whom are intelligent.
E.g. The relative pronoun which is used after the quantity expressions if the quantity expressions
refer to things.
There are 20 chairs in our class most of which are old.
Hassan bought many houses. Three of them are big.
E.g. Hassan bought many houses, three of which are big.
Our teacher interviewed 30 people. Many of them passed the interview.
Our teacher interviewed 30 people, many of whom passed the interview.
The doctors were talking to two patients. Neither of them had cancer.
The doctors were talking to two patients, neither of whom had cancer.
There is a lot of oil in the world. Half of it is in Arab countries.
There is a lot of oil in the world, half of which is in Arab countries.

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Two persons were injured in an accident. Both of them were from one family.
Two persons both of whom were from one family were injured in an accident.
We bought 8 kilos of apples. Some of them were rotten.
We bought 8 kilos of apples. Some of which were rotten.
We can use whose with quantity expressions in an adjective clause. Whose is used in place of
his, her or their. E.g. Bilal wants to meet the doctors. Most of his diseases are very serious. E.g.
Bilal, most of whose diseases are very serious, wants to meet the doctor.
E.g. There is a book with my family. Most of its topics are boring.
E.g. There is a book most of whose topics are boring is with my family.

Clause versus Sentence

Clause: It doesn’t need any punctuation or Capitalization.
2: It is larger than a sentence.
3: It structures a sentence.
4: It usually gives a complete meaning.
Sentence: It needs proper punctuation and capitalization.
2: It is shorter than a clause.
3: Is made up of different clauses.
4: It almost always gives a complete meaning.

Adverb
Adverb is taken from a Latin word “Adverbium”, which means to add something to the
meaning. It is used to give more information about `a verb, an adjective, another adverb &
sometimes a sentence.
E.g. They teach English carefully. E.g. Katrina is a very beautiful actress. E.g. Bilal works
very carefully. E.g. Luckily, Afghanistan won the match.
Subordinating Conjunctions
We use them to join clauses of unequal rank. E.g. If you study, you will get intelligent.
Adverb Clause
It is a group of words containing a subject and a verb that serves the function as an adverb
in a sentence. Or in simple words, an adverb clause is a dependent clause that begins with a
subordinating conjunction, has a subject and a verb and functions as an adverb.
E.g. I will learn if I teach English. E.g. They were sad when Pakistan lost the match.
E.g. Bilal bowls fast because he has practiced a lot.
Kinds of Adverb Clause
Adverb Clause of Time: Adverb clause of time shows time. It is introduced by the
following subordinating conjunctions: After, before, since, while, when, as, till, until, by the

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time, as long as, so long as, the first time, the next time, the last time, as soon as, once and
whenever.
After: This subordinating conjunction is used to with present tense to talk about every day
actions. Present tense is also used in the main/independent clause. E.g. After Ali studies his
English book, he watches TV. E.g. We go to the park after we eat lunch.
2: Present tense to talk about future. Future tense is used in the main clause.
E.g. After she graduates next year, she will get a job. E.g. We will meet them after they finish
their program.Note: Future tense is not used with after. Wrong: After she will graduate.
3: Past Tense to talk past. Past tense is also used in the main clause. E.g. They slept after
they watched TV. This sentence can be said using Past Perfect with no difference in
meaning. E.g. They slept after they had watched TV.
Before: This subordinating conjunction is used to with present tense to talk about every
day actions. Present tense is also used in the main/independent clause.
E.g. Before Ali studies his math book, he watches TV. We go to the park before we eat lunch.
2: Present tense to talk about future. Future tense is used in the main clause.
E.g. Before she graduates next year, she will get a job. E.g. We will meet them before they
finish their program.
3: Past Tense to talk past. Past tense is also used in the main clause.
E.g. They slept before they watched TV. This sentence can be said using Past Perfect with
no difference in meaning. E.g. Before they slept, they had watched TV.
When: Present tense to talk about future. Future is used in the main clause. E.g. When I see
tomorrow, I will ask him. E.g. When reach there, they will have already gone.
2: Past Tense to talk past. Past tense is also used in the main clause.
E.g. When I came to class, he went out of the room. E.g. When Hamid woke up, he washed
his face.3: Past tense to talk about past. Past Continuous is used in the main clause.
E.g. When I came to class, he was talking on the phone. E.g. When he finished his home
work, I was playing cricket.4: Past tense to talk about past. Past perfect tense is used in
main clause. The past perfect action happened before the past tense action.
E.g. Omar had gone to Jalalabad, when he went to Islamabad. E.g. The patient had died
when the doctor came.While/As: This subordinating conjunction means during that time
and is used with Past Continuous to talk about past. Past Tense is used in main clause.
E.g. While/As the teacher was teaching, Bilal entered the class. E.g. As/While I was walking
home, it began to rain.Since:It means from that time to the present. Since is used with Past
Tense to talk about an action that started in the past and continuous to the present. Present
is used in the main clause. E.g. I haven’t seen him since he left this morning.
Note: Present Perfect Continuous Tense can be used in place Present Perfect Tense.
E.g. She has been talking on the phone since she came home.
Until/Till: Till is the informal form of until. They are used with present tense to talk about
present. Present tense is also used in the main clause. E.g. Ajmal watches TV until/till he
sleeps. 2: Present tense to talk about future. Future tense is used in the main.

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E.g. I will work at KELC until/till I get enough experience. E.g. Until/Till I earn 50,000
dollars, I will teach English at HELP.
3: Past tense to talk about past. Past tense is used in the main clause.
E.g. Ali stayed home until/till he finished his homework.
As Soon As/Once: They mean immediately after. They are used with present tense to talk
about present. Present tense is also used in the main clause.
E.g. Bilal washes his face as soon as/once he wakes up.
2: Present tense to talk about future. Future is used in the main clause.
E.g. As soon as/once the rain stops, we will go to the park.
3: Past tense to talk about past. Past tense is also used in the main clause.
E.g. As soon as/once he entered the class, we stood up.
As Long As/So long As: They mean during that time. Present tense to talk about future. We
use future tense or can in the main clause. E.g. As long as/So long as he is here, we can’t
study here. E.g. I will marry her as long as/so long as she changes her habits.
Whenever: Whenever means every time when and is used with present tense to talk about
present. Present tense is used in the main clause.
E.g. Whenever he comes to Afghanistan, he stays with us. E.g. Whenever you come, you are
welcome.
By the Time: By the time means when and is used with present tense to talk about future.
Future tense is used in the main clause.
E.g. By the time we reach his home, Hamad will have gone.
2: Past tense to talk about past. Past perfect is used in the main clause.
E.g. By the time we reached, Ayesha had cleaned the room.
Adverb Clause of Place
A clause which indicates a place is called an adverb clause of place. It is introduced by the
following conjunctions:
Where, Wherever and anywhere. E.g. You can stay where you like. E.g. He knows where you
have stayed. E.g. I will find you wherever you go. E.g. I won’t let you go wherever you want.
E.g. You can stay anywhere you like. E.g. We won’t let you go anywhere you want.
Note: Adverb clause of place is usually used at the beginning of a sentence.
Adverb Clause of Manner
A Clause which shows how something is done is called adverb clause of manner.
It is introduced by the following conjunctions:
As, as if & as though
E.g. Pakistani players don’t play as we expect from them. E.g. Bilal didn’t write the letter as I
wanted. E.g. She acts as if she were a king’s daughter. She acts as though she were a king’s
daughter. (More formal) E.g. It seems as though it is going to rain. E.g. He walked as though
he had been lame.E.g. You talk as if/as though/as you were Ghani’s daughter.
Note: As though is more formal than as if & as.
Adverb Clause of Reason/Cause or Result

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A clause which shows reason is called adverb clause of reason. It is introduced by the
following conjunctions: Because, Since, As, As long as, So long as, in as much as & now that.
All the above conjunctions have the same meaning. The clause that starts with these
conjunctions show reason. The main clause shows the result.
E.g. He didn’t come to the party because he was sick. E.g. Because he likes playing cricket,
he plays it every day. E.g. As tomorrow is a holiday, we don’t have to work.
E.g. He took a taxi as he was late to work. E.g. He was taken to a near hospital since he was
seriously injured. E.g. So long as Bilal needed money, he went bank.
E.g. Now that you are married, you many responsibilities. E.g. Now that you are sick, I can’t
go out.
Note: All the above conjunctions have the same meaning, but in as much as is commonly
used in formal writing.
Other Ways of Showing Reason & Result
Prepositions: These prepositions are used to show reason & result: Due to, Because of &
owing to. E.g. Ali couldn’t come because of sickness. E.g. The show was cancelled due to
raining. E.g. The show was cancelled due to the fact that it rained.
E.g. Many people have died because of/due to cancer. E.g. Ali was unable to accept the job,
owing to a serious illness.
Note: Because of, Owing to & Due to are prepositions. They can be followed by a noun or a
gerund. Due to can be followed by a clause if we use the fact that after due to. When due to
is followed by the fact, it becomes even more formal.
E.g. Ali couldn’t come due to the fact that he was sick. E.g. The show was cancelled due to
the fact that it rained.
Transitions
These transitions are used to show reason & result: therefore & consequently.
They have the same meaning. The clause that comes after these conjunctions shows result.
The clause before these transitions show cause as in these examples:
E.g. Ali was sick. Therefore, he couldn’t come.
E.g. Ali was sick. He, therefore, couldn’t come.
E.g. Ali was sick. He couldn’t come, therefore.
E.g. Ali didn’t study much. Consequently, he failed his exam.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The coordinating conjunction so can also be used to show reason & result.
The clause before so shows reason and the clause after so shows result.
So means therefore or consequently. We normally a comma before so.
E.g. Ali was sick, so he couldn’t come.
So….that & such….that
E.g. Ali was so sick that he couldn’t come.
E.g. BMW is such an expensive car that we cannot buy it.
Adverb Clause of Purpose

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A clause which shows the purpose of doing something is called adverb clause of purpose.
It is introduced by the following conjunctions:
So that & in order that. They mean with the intention that.
E.g. Ali went to Pakistan so that he could see his parents. E.g. I turned off the television so
that I could study well. E.g. I am teaching you in order that you could learn.
E.g. So that/in order that you could learn English, I am teaching you. Right, but less
common.
Adverb Clause of Condition
It shows a condition. Adverb clause of condition has two parts: A: Conditional Clause B:
Result Clause
Conditional clause shows a condition. Result clause shows the result of the condition.
E.g. If she comes at 7:00, we will eat together.
Zero Conditional Clause
It shows automatic or habitual actions. If Clause: Simple Present Tense
Main/Result Clause: Simple Present Tense
E.g. If I want to pass my time, I watch TV. E.g. If I have free time, I play cricket. (Habitual)
E.g. If we don’t eat, we get hungry. E.g. If you heat ice, it melts. (Automatic Actions)
Real, True, Open, Natural Conditional Clause
The Condition is important for the result. The result will take place if the condition takes
place. It has a real meaning in the present & future.
IF Clause: Simple Present Tense Main/Result Clause: Will, Can, May+Verb.1
E.g. If you study, you will/can/may pass the test. E.g. If I teach English, I will learn a lot.
Unreal, untrue, Imaginary, Improbable Clause
It has a present & future unreal meaning. IF Clause: Simple Past Tense
Main/Result Clause: Could, would, might+Verb.1
E.g. If I had 10 million dollars, I would buy a house in Saleem Carvan.
E.g. If Nida lived in Germany, she would be very happy.
E.g. If Ali studied hard, he could pass the paper.
Note: Were, not was, is used in unreal conditional clause.
E.g. If I were Salman Khan, I would marry Katrina.
E.g. If Hisam were Ashraf Ghani, he would kill all Taliban.
E.g. If she were me, she wouldn’t teach English.
Type 3, Unfulfilled Conditional Clause
It has unreal meaning in the past. IF Clause: Past Perfect Tense
Main/Result Clause: Would, could, might+have+verb.3.
E.g. If my uncle had bought that car, we would have gone on a trip.
E.g. If Ali had come to the party, we might have seen him.
Mixed Time Conditional Clause
It talks about the present & past. It has unreal meaning in the present & past.
IF Clause: Past Perfect Tense Main Clause: Would, Could, Might+Verb.1

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E.g. If Bilal had studied university, he would be an engineer now.
E.g. If you were a good boy, you would have studied for your exams.
Whether……or Not
It shows neither this condition nor that condition will change the result.
E.g. She will come to the party whether you invite her or not. E.g. We will go swimming
whether it rains or not.
Note: We can also use if…..or not in place of whether or….not.
E.g. We will go swimming if it rains or not. E.g. She will come to the party if you invite her
or not.

Even If
Even if means no matter if. Even if shows unexpected results. E.g. Even if Bilal studies hard,
he will fail the test. E.g. Even if Ali is sick, he will not go to the doctor.Only if
Only if means that there is only one condition that will cause a result.
E.g. Bilal fights only if someone insults his mother. E.g. You can attend the party only if you
have an invitation card.
Providing That/ Provided That
They mean on condition that. E.g. The students can come to the class providing/provided
(that) they have paid the fee. E.g. Providing that you drive it carefully, you can take my car.
In Case that/In the Event That
They show that something has 50% chances to happen. E.g. I will take my umbrella in the
event that it rains. E.g. In case that you need money, call me.
Unless
We can use unless in place of if+negative verb. E.g. If he isn’t sick, he will come to the class.
E.g. Unless he is sick, he will come to the class. E.g. If he doesn’t call me, I will call him.
E.g. Unless he calls me, I will call him.
In case of/In the event of
They are prepositions. They are followed by a noun. In case of & in the event of mean if
there is. E.g. In case of fire, go out of the building. E.g. In the event of fire, go out of the
building.
Other Ways of Showing Condition
Transition: The transition otherwise can be used to show condition. Otherwise means if
this doesn’t happen. It always comes with the result clause.E.g. You have to study.
Otherwise, you will fail. E.g. He should find a job. Otherwise, he will have no money.
Coordinating Conjunction
The coordinating conjunction or can be used to show condition. Or is usually used with the
word else. Else is not necessary. Or (else) has the meaning as otherwise.
Adverb Clause of Comparison
A clause which shows comparison is called an adverb clause of comparison.
It is introduced by the following conjunctions:

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As, than
E.g. We are intelligent than they (are). E.g. He runs faster than I (do).
E.g. I am not as sad as you think. E.g. She is as talkative as her brother is.
Adverb Clause of Contrast
It is also called concession or supposition clause. It begins with the following conjunctions:
Although, even though, while & whereas. Although & even though mean but and show
unexpected results. E.g. Although/Even though Hamid was sick, he didn’t go the doctor.
E.g. Although/Even though Bilal studied hard, he didn’t pass the test.
E.g. Although she tried to stop, she hit the man. Even though Bilal is ugly, I like him.
E.g. Although Mohib was hungry, he ate nothing.
E.g. I wasn’t happy there, although/while it was a good place.
He must be about sixty, whereas his wife looks about thirty.
You eat a massive plate of food for lunch, whereas I have just a sandwich.
Note: Paired conjunctions (but….anyway, but….still, yet…….still) are used to show unexpected
result.
E.g. Bilal played well, but he still wasn’t rewarded. E.g. Bilal studied hard, yet he still failed the
papers. E.g. Pakistan played well, but they anyway lost the match.
Other Ways of showing unexpected Results
These prepositions can be used to show unexpected results: despite & in spite of. These
prepositions are followed by a noun or verb+ing.
E.g. In spite of rain/raining, we have come to class. E.g. In spite of cold weather, we went
swimming. E.g. Despite working hard, they don’t want to increase my salary.
E.g. Despite scoring 230, South Africa lost the match.
Structure: In spite of+the fact+That+Subject+Verb+Rots.
E.g. In spite of the fact that I was busy, I came to attend the meeting.
E.g. In spite of the fact that Ali was hungry, he ate nothing.
Transition: These transitions are used to show unexpected results: however, nonetheless,
nevertheless & on the other hand. E.g. My uncle is over 100 years old. However, he can still run
fast. Note: The above mentioned transitions have the same meaning & can replace each other.
Coordinating Conjunctions: These coordinating conjunctions are used to show unexpected
results: But & Yet. E.g. Ali studied very little, but/yet he passed the test.
E.g. Usman is rich, while Ali is poor. E.g. We have a black car, while they have a white car.
Note: While & Whereas can be used at the beginning.
E.g. While Ali is rich, Usman is poor.
Reduction of Adverb Clause to Adverb Phrase
An adverb clause can be changed to a modifying phrase ONLY IF the subject of main clause &
the subject of adverb clause are the same.
E.g. We studied English before we ate lunch. E.g. We studied English before eating lunch.
How is an Adverb Clause Changed into Adverb Phrase
The ways are the same as changing an adjective clause into an adjective phrase.1: Delete the
subject of adverb clause
2: Delete any form of to be verb if any
3: Change the active main verb into verb+ing form
4: No change occurs in a passive main verb
5: Use having+verb.3 perfect tenses
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E.g. While she was sitting in the class, she saw an old book.
E.g. While sitting in the class, she saw an old book.
E.g. She saw an old book while sitting in the class.
E.g. Because you are responsible, you can’t cheat.
E.g. Being responsible, you can’t cheat.
Note: A modifying phrase can come at the beginning of the sentence too. A comma is used when
the modifying phrase comes at the beginning of the sentence. E.g. We studied English before we
ate lunch.
E.g. We studied English before eating lunch.
Note: We can’t change adverb clause to modifying phrase if subjects are different.
E.g. We studied English before he came to the class.
E.g. When Ali saw his family, he became happy.
E.g. When seeing his family, he became happy.
E.g. When a new lesson is taught, it seems difficult.
E.g. When taught, a new lesson seems difficult.
E.g. He doesn’t eat meat because he eats vegetables.
E.g. He doesn’t eat meat because eating vegetables.
E.g. I have met several people since I came to AFG.
E.g. I have met several people since coming to AFG.
E.g. While we were going home, we saw a serious accident.
E.g. While going home, we saw a serious accident.
E.g. You can’t join this class because you have failed the test.
E.g. Having failed the test, you can’t join this class.
E.g. Because he is sick, he can’t attend the class.
E.g. Being sick, he can’t attend the class.
E.g. Because she had no tomatoes, she went to market.
E.g. Having no tomatoes, she went to market.
E.g. As she was nervous, she couldn’t concentrate.
E.g. Being nervous, she couldn’t concentrate.
E.g. As we knew the answers, we kept quiet.
E.g. Knowing the answers, we kept quiet.
Noun Clause
It’s also called a Nominal Clause. It is a group of words containing a subject & a verb &
functioning the same as a noun in a sentence is called a noun clause.
Or in simple words, a noun clause is a group of words that function as a noun. A noun clause has
a subject & a verb. A noun clause has a subject & a verb & starts with one of these words:
E.g. I know Latin. (NOUN)
E.g. I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
E.g. Their destination is unknown.
E.g. Where they are going is known.
1: WH Question Words
2: That
3: If/Whether
How to Make Noun Clause from WH-Questions

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Steps:
Change a WH-question into indirect question
E.g. Where was Ali sleeping? (Direct Question) E.g. Where Ali was sleeping (Indirect
Question)
2: If the question has does, do, & did, remove them from the question.
E.g. Where does he work? Where he works
E.g. When did he go to Kabul? When he went to Kabul
3: Now you can use this indirect question as a noun clause and can be used as subject and object
of verb
E.g. As subject: Where Ali was sleeping is not clear.
E.g. I don’t remember where Ali was sleeping.
E.g. What do they want? What they want
E.g. What they want is a pair of shoes.
E.g. We will ask them what they want.
Note: These WH-questions are called conjunctions when they are used as part of noun clause.
Cases of Noun Clause
As the subject of a verb:
E.g. What Ali did last night was a pure nonsense. E.g. Why the sky is blue isn’t known to
anyone. E.g. That Ali works hard is clear. E.g. What he said was so sad.
As the object of a verb:
E.g. The teacher asked what he taught us yesterday. E.g. I know that Ali is telling lie.
E.g. He agreed that he would help us. E.g. I don’t know if they watch TV.
E.g. I don’t know why Muslims are weak nowadays. E.g. I can’t tell what has happened to him.
E.g. We discovered what he had asked her. E.g. I don’t know where he goes.
As the object of a Preposition:
E.g. I am tired of what you are asking. E.g. They are excited about where they are going.
E.g. I don’t believe in what you are saying. E.g. Pay attention to what your teachers say.
E.g. Just look at what I am going to show you. Don’t pay attention to what he says.
As the Complement of Be:
E.g. My desire is that I fully help my nation. E.g. My belief is that she might come.
E.g. His fear is that she may refuse. E.g. I am what I am. My belief is that he will not come.
As the Objective Complement:
E.g. I told Ali that you are cheating him. E.g. They asked Ahmad whether he was learning his
lessons. E.g. Tell me why you did this. I asked the boy how old he was. You can tell her what
you wish.E.g. I asked Ali who was responsible for the accident.
As the Adjectival Complement:
E.g. I am happy that you are coming back. E.g. It is important that Ali come on time.
E.g. I am sure that a new coach will help our team a lot. E.g. We are sorry that we couldn’t
attend your wedding party. She is confident that she will pass the test.
In Apposition to a Noun/Pronoun:

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E.g. The questions that I asked haven’t been answered. E.g. The reason, why she left the country,
is unclear. E.g. Your claim, that you didn’t steal the money, will not be believed by the police.
E.g. You must never forget this that honest is the best policy. Your problem that you are sick is
acceptable. E.g. You should not forget this that HELP is the best.
As the objective Complement Case:
E.g. I told Ali that you are cheating him. E.g. I asked Ali who was responsible for the accident.
E.g. You can tell her what you wish. E.g. Tell me why you did this. I asked the boy how old he
was.Reduction of Noun Clause into Noun Phrase.
1: A noun clause can be changed to a modifying phrase ONLY IF the subject of main clause &
the subject of adverb clause are the same.
2: When the noun clause is used in objective case or in objective complement case.
How is Noun Clause Changed into Noun Phrase?
1: Delete the subject of Noun Clause
2: Delete the auxiliary verbs
3: Use to before the verb to make full infinitive
Examples
E.g. Ali doesn’t know what he should wear to Ali’s wedding.
E.g. Ali doesn’t know what to wear to Ali’s wedding.
E.g. I can’t decide where I can get a job.
E.g. I can’t decide where to get a job.
E.g. Ali asked me how he could pass the test.
E.g. Ali asked me how to pass the test.
E.g. Aslam wants to know whether he can go to the movies.
E.g. Aslam wants to know whether to go the movies.

Verbals
Verbs are divided into two groups according to the ways they show agreement with subject,
number & tense. 1: Finite Verbs 2: Non-Finite Verbs

Finite Verb: A verb, which is limited by the subject, number and tense of the sentence, is called a
finite verb. It means if we change the form of the subject & tense of the sentence, we must
change the form of finite verb too. Finite verb is limited to tense, subject & number and we
cannot use it in every tense.
E.g. She likes to play cricket. E.g. She liked to play cricket. E.g. She doesn’t like to play cricket.
E.g. Ali wants to study. E.g. They want to study. E.g. We wanted to study.
Non-Finite Verb: A verb which is not limited by the number of the subject & tense is called a
non-finite verb. It is not limited to tense, number & subject. It means non-finite verb remains
unchanged if we change the tense, the subject & the number.

E.g. He wants to watch TV. E.g. They want to watch TV. E.g. He has always wanted to watch
TV. (Non-Finite Verb).
E.g. He has eaten. E.g. They have eaten. E.g. We had eaten. (Has, Have & Had are Finite Verbs).
(Eaten is a non-finite verb in the aforementioned three sentences).

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E.g. I am teaching. E.g. Ali is teaching. They are teaching. (are, is & am are called finite verbs).
E.g. Ali enjoys swimming. E.g. You enjoy swimming. E.g. I enjoyed swimming.
(The verb enjoy is a finite verb in the aforementioned sentences, while swimming is a non-finite
verb).
Kinds of Non-Finite Verbs
1: Gerund 2: Infinitive 3: Participle
Gerund: It is taken from a Latin word “Gerere/Gerundium” which means to do or to perform.
Gerund is a verb that ends with (ing) form of a verb and has the force of a verb and a noun.
Basically, gerund is the (ing) form of a verb that functions as a noun, so it can also be called a
verbal noun. Or in simple words, verb+ing that names an action is called gerund.
Note:The verb+ing form can function in five ways:
1: As a Gerund 2: As an Adjective 3: As a Verb 4: As an Adverb 5: As a Preposition

As a Verb
Verb+ing is a verb when it has a be verb before it. Be verbs are: is, am, are, was, were, been &
being. E.g. She is playing cricket. E.g. The boys were playing cricket. Ali has been crying.
As an Adjective
As an adjective, it gives more information about a noun.
E.g. It was an interesting class. E.g. We heard a surprising news. E.g. It’s a boring class.
Note: Verb+ing adjectives are called Present Participle Adjectives.
As an Adverb
When gerund functions as an adverb, it describes a verb. E.g. Inzamam-ul-Haq left the ground
crying.
As a Preposition
When gerund functions as a preposition, it comes before a noun clause.
E.g. I am tired of what you are asking. E.g. They are excited about where they are going.
As a Gerund
It’s going to be explained!
Note:After a gerund, we can use a noun, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.
E.g. Playing soccer is good. Teaching English can be a tough job. (Nouns)
E.g. Playing well is important in any game. E.g. Teaching slowly is necessary in AFG. (Adverbs)
E.g. Playing at the park is good. Going to Pakistan is a great fun. (Prepositional Phrases)
Note#2: Singular/Plural gerund phrase+singular verb.
E.g. Washing a dish is your duty. E.g. Washing the dishes is your duty.
Gerund Phrase+and+gerund phrase+plural/singular verb.
E.g. Washing the dishes and bringing vegetables are/is your duty.
E.g. Teaching English and earning money is/are important.
The negative form of gerund is not+gerund. Sentences which have gerunds can be changed in
two ways into negatives without any change in meanings. We can use not either before gerund or
change the main verb to negative.

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E.g. I like not teaching English. E.g. I don’t like teaching English.
Usages of Gerund
As the Subject of a Verb:
E.g. Swimming is a fine exercise. E.g. Eating a lot of potatoes can make you fat.
As the Object of a Verb:
E.g. Ali enjoys playing cricket. E.g. I love watching romantic movies. They like eating a lot.
Note: We always use a Singular verb when gerund is the subject of a verb.
E.g. Reading books is a great fun. E.g. Teaching English classes is a boring job.
However, we can use a plural/singular verb if a compound gerund is the subject of a verb.
E.g. Sleeping and eating good food are/is important for health.
E.g. Speaking and writing are/is two indispensable skills of English.
As the object of a Preposition:It can be used in the following structures:
Verb+Preposition+Gerund: E.g. I will keep on working hard. I am tired of living in AFG.
Adjective+Preposition+Gerund: We are interested in learning English. I will think about
changing my plans.Noun+Preposition+Gerund: E.g. Her father is the head of hiring and firing
people.

As the Complement of (Be): What I dislike is telling lie. My aim is teaching you gerund well.
Note: In grammar, a word or a phrase that follows a verb and describes the subject of the verb is
called complement. E.g. You look angry. E.g. We are teachers.
After do, does and did to talk about homework:
E.g. Mariam does cooking and washing. My father did shopping yesterday. I do teaching.
After No to talk about prohibition:
No smoking. No parking. No walking.
After BY to indicate how something is done:
You can improve your English by listening to CNN. I always make you understand by giving
examples.
After LIKE to give examples:
E.g. You can do certain activities like swimming, running and walking in free time.
After (come and go) to talk about sports or free time activities:
E.g. We will go skating this year. E.g. We went fishing yesterday.
E.g. Why don’t you come dancing?
After what/how about…?
E.g. What about drinking a cup of tea? E.g. How about playing cricket?
As the object of Transitive phrasal verb:
E.g. I will give up teaching very soon. E.g. I want to put off going to Pakistan.
Take a look at the following two sentences:
E.g. Reading books is a great fun. The reading of books needs patience.
After Possessive Adjectives:
E.g. Do you like my teaching? E.g. His speaking is very fast.

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Using a Possessive to Modify Gerund
We can use these to modify a gerund:
1: Possessive Adjectives (His, Her, My, Your, Our, Their, Its)
2: Possessive Nouns (Ali’s, Usman’s, the teacher’s, etc)
3: Object Pronouns (Him, Her, Me, You, Us, Them, It)
4: Nouns (Ali, Bilal, Javid, etc)
If there is no possessive adjective before a gerund, then the action of gerund is performed by the
subject. E.g. She enjoys cooking. E.g. I like reading slowly.
If there is a possessive adjective before a gerund, then the action of gerund is performed by the
person shown by the possessive adjective.
Note: Possessive adjectives are also called pronominal adjectives because they are made from
pronouns.

Possessive Nouns:
E.g. We are proud of Ali’s working hard. E.g. She minds Javid’s making noise.
Object Pronouns:
E.g. We enjoy him reading slowly. E.g. He likes her singing.
Noun:
E.g. We enjoy Ali reading slowly. E.g. She minds Javid making noise.
Note: In formal English, possessive adjectives and possessive nouns are used to modify gerunds.
In informal English, object pronouns and nouns are used to modify gerunds.
Special Expressions & Verbs Followed by Gerund
Gerund can be used after these expressions:
Have+fun, difficulty, trouble, or have+good, bad, difficult, hard+time.
E.g. We had difficulty finding Ali’s house. E.g. Go with us, Ali. We will have a good time
swimming.
Special Verbs: To use gerund after these verbs, we must use expressions of time or money after
them. Spend & waste. E.g. Ali wasted 100 dollars buying unimportant things.
E.g. Bilal spent three hours studying math.
To use gerund after these verbs, we must use expressions of place after them.
Stand, sit & lie are these verbs.
E.g. She is standing in the class reading a book. E.g. We sat in the park talking about our school.
E.g. He was lying in the room watching Peace TV.
Find & Catch: To use a gerund after these verbs, we must use a noun or pronoun as object after
these verbs. We use catch when we show anger or displeasure.
E.g. The teacher caught Ali cheating. E.g. She found her son taking money out of her purse.
Forms of Gerund
Present Active Gerund: Verb+ing
Present Passive Gerund: Being+Verb.3
Past Active Gerund: Having+Verb.3
Past Passive Gerund: Have+Been+Verb.3

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Special Grammar Notes
We use active & passive forms of gerund to talk about present. We use active gerund when the
subject performs the action of gerund. It is shown by the following structures:
1: SUBJECT+GERUND VERB+VERB+ING+ROTS.
E.g. I enjoy studying English. E.g. She dislikes playing cricket.
E.g. You have almost completed studying grammar class. E.g. He appreciated shaking hands
with each other. E.g. He considered giving an award to Ali. Ali advised studying very hard.
2: SUBJECT+TO BE+ADJECTIVE+PREPOSITION+VERB+ING+ROTS.
Some common prepositions that we use here are: sad about, excited about, proud of, tired of,
happy about, thank for, responsible for, nervous about & worried about, interested in, keen on,
etc.
E.g. We are excited about going to India. E.g. I am proud of being a Muslim.
E.g. Laila is responsible for coming late. E.g. I am tired of teaching English.
E.g. Fawad was nervous about marrying Maraim.
3: SUBJECT+GERUND VERB+OBJECT+GERUND+ROTS.
E.g. I dislike him playing cricket. E.g. They advised Ali eating a lot.
E.g. We enjoy people telling lie. E.g. Nobody can stop me doing that.
Present Passive Gerund
We use present passive gerund when the subject receives the action of gerund. The action of
gerund is performed by someone else. It is shown by the following structures:
SUBJECT+GERUND VERB+BEING+VERB.3+ROTS.
Some common verbs that we use here are: enjoy, avoid, appreciate, love, hate, like, mind,
discuss, mention, escape, admit, etc.
E.g. I avoid being photographed by my students. E.g. I appreciate being helped by my teachers.
E.g. Samim loves being given tough time by me. E.g. I hate being asked many questions at
home. E.g. She minds being sent messages. E.g. He discussed being insulted by professor.
E.g. I appreciate being respected by my student students. E.g. She hates being called
grandmother by Ali. E.g. I mind being told many activities by your father.
SUBJECT+TO BE+ADJECTIVE+PREPOSITION+BEING+VERB.3+ROTS.
E.g. Aryana Saeed is afraid of being given a warning by the Taliban.
E.g. Toshi is proud of being nominated as the best singer in the show.
E.g. I am happy about being respected by my students.
E.g. I am thankful for being helped by Noman.
E.g. Nabi is excited about being selected as an all rounder by the ICC.
E.g. I am tired of being called many times to the police station by the police offers.
Past Active Gerund
We can use active & passive forms of gerund to talk about the past. Past active gerund is also
called Perfective Gerund. We use past active gerund when the subject of the sentence performed
the action of gerund in the past. Past active gerund shows a present remark. It is shown by the
following structures:
SUBJECT+GERUND VERB+HAVING+VERB.3+ROTS

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E.g. The woman admits having killed her husband. I missed having studied at Islamic
International University.
E.g. I appreciate having met the king & the queen. E.g. She understands having done a wrong
job. She forgets having watched that movie. E.g. I regret having selected Javid as a teacher at
HELP. I remember having visited Kandahar. E.g. I admit having done a lot of mistakes in life.
SUBJECT+TO BE+ADJECTIVE+PREPOSITION+HAVING+VERB.3+ROTS
E.g. I am excited about having gotten the first position in the class.
E.g. India is proud of having beaten Pakistan in the final match of 2007 world cup.
E.g. I am happy about having taught English at KELC.
E.g. She is afraid of having told a lie to her parents.
E.g. The Taliban are responsible for having blasted three bombs in Kabul.
E.g. She is nervous about having failed the paper.
E.g. I am thankful for having saved Ali.
Past Passive Gerund
We use past passive gerund when the subject received the action of gerund. The action of gerund
was performed by someone else. Past passive gerund is also called perfective gerund. Past
passive gerund shows present remark. It is shown by the following structures:
SUBJECT+GERUND VERB+HAVING+BEEN+VERB.3+ROTS
E.g. Ali admits having been taught properly by his teacher.
E.g. I appreciate having been invited to the wedding party by my students.
E.g. Ali remembers having been insulted by me.
E.g. Pakistan admits having been beaten by India in the semi final of 2011.
E.g. I regret not having been helped by anyone.
SUBJECT+TO BE+ADJECTIVE+PREPOSITION+HAVING+BEEN+VERB.3ROTS
E.g. He is proud of having been hired as an ambassador.
E.g. some people are afraid of having been threaten by the Taliban.
E.g. AFG is thankful for having been funded by USA.
E.g. We are worried about not having been invited by our cousins.
E.g. She is sad about having been left alone by her husband.

Infinitive
It is taken from a Latin word “Infinitus” which means unlimited.
To+Verb base form of a verb that names an action & shows a purpose is called infinitive.
Infinitive is not limited to tense & the number of subject. It means that infinitive remains
unchanged if we change the tense & the number of subject.
Or in simple words, infinitive is the to + base form of verb which functions as a noun.
Infinitive is also called a verbal noun because it can take an object like a verb.
E.g. She likes to play cricket. E.g. They like to play cricket. E.g. Ali liked to play cricket.
The negative form of infinitive is not/never+infinitive.
E.g. To work on time is a good habit. E.g. Not to work on time is a bad habit.

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E.g. Never to work on time is a good habit.
Functions of Infinitive
Infinitive functions in four ways:
1: Verb 2: Noun 3: Adjective 4: Adverb
As a Verb:
E.g. You must study hard. E.g. I made Javid teach English. E.g. I can come to HELP.
As a Noun:
E.g. To respect elders is our duty. E.g. Bilal needs to win the match.
As an Adjective: When infinitive functions as an adjective, it comes after a noun.
E.g. This is the boy to kill. E.g. That is the class to teach. E.g. HELP is the only place to learn
English. E.g. I have some homework to write.
As an Adverb: When infinitive functions as an adverb, it comes after an adjective.
E.g. I am happy/pleased to meet you. E.g. I am prepared to teach my classes.
E.g. Ali is sorry to tell you the bad news. E.g. It is hard to drive in Kabul city.

Some Important Structures

After an infinitive, we can use a noun, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.
E.g. To play cricket is good for health. E.g. To teach English is a tough job. (Nouns)
E.g. To play well is important in any game. E.g. To teach slowly is necessary in AFG. (Adverbs)
E.g. To play at the park is a great fun. E.g. To go to Pakistan is interesting. (Prepositional
Phrases). Note: Preposition+Noun is called a prepositional phrase.
Usages of Infinitive
As the Subject of a verb:
E.g. To eat a lot of sugar is bad for health. E.g. To watch soccer is interesting.
Note: It is not common to use infinitive as the subject of the sentence.
The common structure is It+Be+Adjective+to+Verb+Rots.
E.g. it is interesting to watch TV. E.g. It is bad for health to eat a lot of sugar.
Note: It in the above structure has no meaning & is called Preparatory, Dummy or Delayed
Subject.Note: We always use a singular verb when infinitive is the subject of a verb.
E.g. To wash a dish is your duty. E.g. To wash the dishes is your duty.
However, we normally use a plural verb if a compound infinitive is the subject of a sentence.
E.g. To wash the dishes & (to) bring vegetables are your duties.
E.g. To advise & (to) act upon advice is important. To teach & to earn is/are important.
As the Object of a Verb:
E.g. Ali wants to play cricket. E.g. They decided to marry soon. You need to come on time.
Ali forgot to bring my grammar book. I have decided to learn Arabic.
Note: The verbs that we use before infinitive are called infinitive verbs.
As the Object of a Preposition:
E.g.The teacher is about to come to class. You can’t do anything but/except to waste your time.
E.g. Afghans have no choice except/but to go to schools.

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As the Complement of Be:
E.g. My desire is to study English in America. E.g. His plan is to get married soon.
E.g. My aim is to teach you infinitive well. E.g. Ali’s wish is to travel all around the world.
As an Objective Complement: When infinitive comes after a direct object, it is said to in
objective complement case.
E.g. I advised Ali to study hard. E.g. I will encourage the students to get 90 marks.
As an Adverb: it gives further information about the verb & shows a clear purpose.
E.g. We come to HELP to learn English. We eat to live. E.g. I went to sadder to buy some bread.
After a WH-question word:
E.g. They can’t decide where to go for their honeymoon. E.g. She taught me how to cook rice.
Some Important Points
E.g. We come to HELP for learning English. (Wrong)
E.g. We come to HELP to learn/in order to learn/so as to learn English. (CORRECT)
E.g. We come to HELP for English. (CORRECT)
BE USED FOR+GERUND: GENERAL PURPOSE
The above structure usually shows the purpose of a thing.
E.g. A knife is used for cutting. E.g. A marker is used for writing.
BE USED TO+VERB.1: BOTH SPECIFIC & GENERAL PURPOSES.
E.g. A marker is used for writing. General Purpose
E.g. A marker is used to write. General Purpose
E.g. A red marker is used to write headings. (Specific purpose)
E.g. A red marker is used for writing headings. (Wrong)
Note: Gerund is used to show a general purpose, while infinitive is used to show both specific
and general purpose.
GERUND: the purpose of a thing in general
INFINITIVE: shows the purpose of a person or thing specifically
When a noun or a prepositional phrase comes after an infinitive, it makes an infinitive phrase.
E.g. to read in the library……. E.g. to buy a coat……. E.g. to sit in the class
How to Join Infinitives?
Infinitives can be joined by and & than. TO is normally dropped before the second infinitive.
E.g. She wants to marry me & (to) have a pleasant life in the future.
E.g. I prefer to watch TV than to play cricket under the sun.
An infinitive can be transitive or intransitive:
An infinitive that can take an object is said to be a transitive infinitive.
E.g. To read novel….. E.g. To watch movies…..
An infinitive that can’t take an object is said to be an intransitive infinitive.
E.g. To go…. E.g. to sleep… E.g. to stay
Kinds of Infinitive
Full/Noun/Absolute Infinitive: It is formed by to+verb.1
E.g. I want to teach my classes properly. E.g. We have decided to leave AFG very soon.

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Bare/Plain Infinitive: It is formed by using only verbs without to. We normally use bare
infinitive after auxiliary verbs & causative verbs.
E.g. You must come on time. E.g. I make Ali teach my classes.
Split Infinitive: It is formed by adding adverb an adverb between to+verb.1.
E.g. Ali wants to properly teach his classes. E.g. I desire to systematically run my personal
business. Note: It is considered to be an informal style to use an adverb between the to+verb.1.
Abridge/Short Infinitive: It is formed by using only (TO) to answer a question.
Do you want to come with us? Yes, I want to. Does she like to study English? Yes, she likes to.
Complex Infinitive: It is formed by using infinitive as in objective complement case.
E.g. I advised her to cook on time. E.g. I want you to learn your lessons. I will encourage the
students to secure 90 marks in the final test.
Compound Infinitive: It is formed by using two infinitives with (AND).
E.g. I want to teach and (to) earn at HELP. E.g. It is important to eat and (to) exercise on time.
Qualifying Infinitive: It is an infinitive that gives further information about the whole sentence. It
can come at the beginning or at the end.
E.g. To be very honest, I hate you. E.g. To tell you frankly, you are a stupid boy.
Verbs That Are Followed by Both Infinitive & Gerund with a Clear Difference in Meaning
These verbs are followed by both infinitive & gerund. They have different meanings with
infinitive & gerund. Remember, forget, regret, try, stop, go on, come & mean.
Remember+Infinitive: Remember with infinitive means to remember to do as a job, duty, task or
responsibility. Remember is the first action & infinitive is the second.
E.g. Bilal remembers to lock the door when he sleeps at night. Last night, I remembered to study
for my paper. She remembered to clean the room. I always remember to teach my classes.
Remember+Gerund: Remember with gerund means to remember something that happened in the
past. Gerund is the first action & remember is the second action.
E.g. I remember India beating Pakistan in the semi final of 2011 world cup.
E.g. I still remember fighting with Ali. E.g. I remember teaching 9 classes at KELC.
Note: We can also use having+verb.3 after remember.
E.g. He remembers having gone to London. E.g. I remember having met Zakir Naik.
Forget+Infinitive: It means to forget to do a job, task or responsibility.
E.g. I always forget to teach my classes on time. E.g. I sometimes forget to submit the books.
E.g. She forgot to sign the attendance sheet. E.g. Don’t forget to bring your books.
Forget+Gerund: Forget with gerund means to forget something that happened in the past. The
action that happened in the past is shown by gerund. Forget followed by gerund is usually used
in negative sentences or questions. E.g. I can’t forget meeting Ali. We can’t forget going there.
E.g. India will never forget beating Pakistan in the semi final of 2011 world cup.
Note: We can also use having+verb.3 after forget with no difference in meaning.
E.g. I will never forget having met my friend.
Regret+Infinitive: It means to inform someone of bad/sudden news
I regret to inform you that your application for the visa is refused.

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I regret to tell you that you are fired. I regret to say that you have failed the papers.
Regret+Gerund: It means to be sad for what happened in the past.
They regret getting married. E.g. I regret not listening to my father’s advice.
I regret leaving school. E.g. America regret attacking AFG.
Note: We can also use having+verb.3 after regret with no difference in meaning.
I regret having left school.
Try+Infinitive: It means to attempt to do something. I tried to fix my car, but I couldn’t.
E.g. I always try to teach my classes properly. E.g. You must try to come on time.
Try+Gerund: It means to apply different methods to see or check which one works.
E.g. Did you pass? No, I tried bringing him sweets, making new clothes, but he still failed me.
The baby was crying. Her mother tried feeding him.
Stop+Infinitive: It shows a purpose. There are two actions; one stops & the other starts.
Bilal stopped his car to give a lift to his friend.
While I was walking in Sadder, I saw my friend. I stopped to talk to him.
Stop+Gerund: there is only one action which stops.
You are talking, so please stop talking. His uncle stopped smoking last week.
Go on+Infinitive: it means to do something different.
After we finish infinitive, I will go on to teach inversion.
Go on+Gerund: it means to do something the same without interruptions.
E.g. Last night, my uncle & I went on playing cards for three hours.
Come+infinitive: It means that something develops automatically.
After spending some time with Ali, I came to know that he is a stupid boy.
Come+Gerund: It means the action is performed with movement.
The old woman came complaining about the insurance money.
Mean+infinitive: It means that we talk about intention or plan.
I asked about her father who died a month ago. She got sad. I didn’t mean to hurt her feelings.
I mean to finish this class very soon.
Mean+Gerund: It means that we talk about the result of something.
If you take that job in Kabul, it will mean travelling for 6 hours every month.
Infinitive Verbs
Group A: These are some of the verbs after which we can use infinitive: decide, wish, hope,
forget, plan, refuse, promise, etc.
Group B: Invite, allow, encourage, tell, advise, order, force, teach, etc.
Group C: Want, expect, ask, need, etc.
Note: These verbs are called infinitive verbs because we can use infinitive after these verbs.
Group A Infinitive Verbs: These are directly followed by infinitive. In this case, the action of
infinitive is performed by the subject.
E.g. Tahir decided to play cricket. E.g. Ali forgot to bring his grammar book.
Group B Infinitive Verbs: These are first followed by a noun/pronoun and then by infinitive.

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In this case, the action of infinitive is not performed by the subject, but by the person used after
infinitive verb. E.g. I will teach Ali to drive a car. E.g. We invited Hamid to play soccer with us.
Group C: These verbs can be directly followed by infinitive or they can be followed by a noun
and then by infinitive.
E.g. Mariam wants to cook rice. E.g. Mariam wants Ali to cook rice.
E.g. Nadeem needs to pass all the papers. E.g. Nadeem needs Ali to pass all the papers.
Using Infinitive with Too & Enough
E.g. Ali has enough money to buy the book. I had enough time to meet my cousin.
E.g. Ali is too tired to play soccer. E.g. The weather is too hot to go out today.
Common Verbs Followed by Infinitive or Gerund
After these verbs, both gerund & infinitive can be used. These verbs are: begin, start, commence,
like, love, hate, can’t bear, deserve, intend, omit, cease, bother, fear, dread, prefer, advise, allow,
recommend, permit, neglect, attempt& continue.
Note: If any of these verbs is used in progressive tenses, we can only use infinitive not gerund.
E.g. It is beginning to rain. E.g. It is beginning raining.
Note: Using gerund is also possible, but two gerund forms sound awkward or uncommon.
E.g. She prefers to live in England. She prefers living in England.
Bilal doesn’t allow smoking at home. E.g. Bilal doesn’t allow people to smoke at home.
Prefer with Comparison
E.g. She prefers to live in England rather than to live in America.
E.g. She prefers living in England rather than to living in America.
Gerund versus Infinitive
E.g. To reject a wedding invitation is difficult. (Specific Invitation, it can be a close relative’s
invitation).
E.g. Rejecting a wedding invitation is difficult. (General invitation, it can be from anyone).
When the action is considered in a particular sense/purpose, we use infinitive.
When the action is considered in a general sense/purpose, we use gerund.
Forms of Infinitive
Present Active Infinitive: To+Verb.1
Present Passive Infinitive: To+Be+Verb.3
Past Active Infinitive: To+Have+Verb.3
Past Passive Infinitive: To+Have+Been+Verb.3
we can use active or passive forms of infinitive to talk about present actions. Present active
infinitive shows that the action is performed by the subject.
It is indicated by the following structures:
SUBJECT+INFINITIVE VERB+TO+VERB+ROTS
E.g. I want to teach English. E.g. I hope to leave AFG very soon.
SUBJECT+TO BE+ ADJECTIVE+TO+VERB+ROTS
E.g. They are happy to invite us. E.g. Ali is glad to meet you. I am nervous to fail the papers.
SUBJECT+INFINITIVE VERB+OBJECT+TO+VERB+ROTS

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E.g. I want Ali to teach English classes. E.g. She permitted us to use her books.
Present Passive Infinitive
When the subject receives the action of infinitive which is done by someone else, present
infinitive is used. It is shown by the following structures:
SUBJECT+INFINITIVE VERB+ TO BE+VERB.3+ROTS
I want to be helped by my parents. E.g. Afghans need to be taught by qualified instructors.
Ali likes to be known by everyone. I hope to be called for an interview by them.
I expect to be respected by my students. I hate to be told a number of tasks by my parents.
I asked to given a raise in my salary. They demand to be paid fully.
SUBJECT+TO BE+ADJECTIVE+TO+BE+VERB.3+ROTS
I am happy to be called (SIR) by my students. I am excited to be told about my wedding party.
Sania Mirza is lucky to be married by Malik. You are fortunate not to be killed by the Taliban.
WE ARE PROUD TO BE CALLED AFGHANS. I am happy to selected as a teacher by KELC.
SUBJECT+INFINITIVE VERB+OBJECT+TO BE+VERB.3 ROTS
I want a pen to be bought. Doctors like apples to be eaten. I hope Mullah Akhtar Mohammad
Mansoor to be killed soon. Past Active Infinitive
We use past active infinitive when the subject performed the action of infinitive in the past. It is
shown by the following structures:
SUBJECT+INFINITIVE VERB+TO+HAVE+VERB.3+ROTS
E.g. She seems to have cried. E.g. He forgot to have returned the book on time.
I remember to have called Ali. E.g. I regret to have informed Ali about my personal secrets.
The Taliban claimed to have blasted the bomb of PULE MAHMOOD KHAN.
I swear not to have killed my wife.
SUBEJCT+TO BE VERB+ADJECTIVE+TO+HAVE+VERB.3+ROTS
I am sorry to have broken the chair. E.g. Ali is happy to have passed the papers.
AFG was shocked/surprised to have beaten West Indies. We are proud to have defeated the
Russians. I am worried to have told a big lie to my parents. I am sad not to have focused on
studies in Pak. E.g. West Indies was lucky to have won the world cup. I am happy to have
studied with Sir Mateen. After Would Like
Past active infinitive shows a wish that wasn’t fulfilled.
E.g. She would like to have become a teacher. I would like to have met Ashraf Ghani.
After Be Supposed To Past active infinitive with be supposed to shows that an action was
expected to happen, but it didn’t. We were supposed to have studied at Islamic International
University. He was supposed to have come yesterday.
Past Passive Infinitive
We use past passive infinitive when the subject received the action of infinitive. The action of
infinitive was done by someone else. It is shown by the following structures:
SUBJECT+INFINITIVE VERB+TO+HAVE+BEEN+VERB.3+ROTS
The girl seems to have been killed with a knife by her husband.
Haidar Raza Gilani claims to have been tortured by the Taliban in Ghazni.

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I swear not to have been taught properly by Ali.
Pakistan regrets to have been beaten by India in the events of ICC consecutively.
I wanted to have been told the reality by them.
SUBJECT+TO BE+ADJECTIVE+TO+HAVE+BEEN+VERB.3+ROTS
I am happy to have been told the reality by them. She is lucky to have been sent to the UK for
holidays. Mariam is sad to have been cheated by Ali. They are proud to have been selected as
lecturers at Kardan University. Dr. Hasib was happy to have been issued the diploma.
I am happy to have been invited by Saleem. We are pleased to have been given a chance to visit
Saudi Arabia. Katrina was surprised to have been proposed by Salman Khan.
I am nervous to have been given a warning by the Taliban.

Participle
It is taken from a Latin word “Participium” which means sharing the function.
A participle is a double part of speech--- a verb & an adjective combined.
A participle is that form of the verb which is partly a verb & partly an adjective.
Or in simple words, a word that can be a verb or an adjective is called participle.
E.g. Don’t try to get into a running train. E.g. Don’t put your hand in boiling water.
E.g. I am teaching English. We are working hard. You are coming late.
Kinds of Participles
Present Participle: The ing form of the verb showing an action going on is called present
participle. I am teaching English. It is said that barking dogs seldom bite.

Past Participle: Past participle ends with ‘ed’, ‘d’. ‘t’ or ‘n’ & is used to indicate a completed
action.
E.g. I have cleaned my classes. I have seen Ali. (Verb)
E.g. Deceived by his friends, he lost all hope. I want you to give me a written record.
E.g. A lost opportunity never returns.

Perfect Participle: A perfect participle is formed with ‘having+Verb.3’ to indicate an action

as completed in the past.
E.g. Having rested a while, we continued our journey. Having killed his wife, the boy escaped.
E.g. The sun having risen, we came out of our room.

Usages of Participle
1. Participles are used as simple adjectives:
E.g. Sanam Teri Kasam is an interesting film. Shagiwal is a reputed poet. India is a
developed nation.

2. To govern a noun or pronoun

E.g. Looking at the beautiful painting, I dropped the cup in my hand.
E.g. Putting the newspaper away, I closed my eyes.

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E.g. Having given up her job, she stayed at home to look after her daughter.
3. As a complement to a verb:
Padma looks worried. Raju seems disappointed.
2. Absolutely with a noun or pronoun:
E.g. The chief guest, having arrived, they started the function.
E.g. He, being a skilled writer, we asked him to take part in discussion.
5. To form continuous tenses.
E.g. I am teaching. E.g. You are reading. E.g. Ali is waiting.
Phrase
A group of words without a finite verb, especially one that forms part of a sentence.
A phrase is a group words which doesn’t make a complete sense.
Phrase is a group of words, which has neither a subject nor a verb, but makes some sense, though
not a complete sense is called phrase.
Or in simple words, a group of words which lacks either the subject or verb, or both is called
phrase. E.g. in the east, at the bus stop, for his courage, about my success, etc.
Kinds of Phrase
Noun Phrase: A noun phrase is a group of words that acts as a noun. It may be a subject, object
or complement of a verb.
E.g. Aunt Angie’s dog, the neighbor’s dog,
E.g. Our dog, their dog, his dog,
E.g. That dog, this dog, the big dog,
E.g. I enjoy reading novels. To win a prize is not an easy task. Teaching English is not a simple
job. E.g. Early to bed is a healthy habit.
E.g. I took my books. (Noun) E.g. I took my books early. (Phrase)
Note: When gerund & infinitive are followed by nouns, they are noun phrases or you can call
them gerund phrase or infinitive phrase.
E.g. To win a prize is not an easy task. Teaching English is not a simple job.
Adjective Phrase: An adjective is a group of words that acts as an adjective for qualifying a noun
or pronoun. It consists of a preposition, adjective, noun etc.
E.g. It is a black coat. I have a coat of black color.
E.g. A boy from America won the race.
E.g. I admit that he is a man of sense.
E.g. The boy with blue eyes is very smart.
E.g. He came with his wife & children.
Adverb/Adverbial Phrase: An adverb phrase is a group of words that acts as an adverb.
It may generally modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
E.g. He talked to me in a very rude manner. E.g. The doctor arrived at that very moment.
E.g. Katrina walks in a beautiful style. E.g. I will kill you at that time.
E.g. He will sing a song sweetly in the town hall in the coming time.
Participle Phrase: A word that can be a verb or an adjective is called participle.

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Participle phrase is normally separated by commas.
E.g. The kids, making noise, need food. Hearing a noise, the boy woke up.
The table, made of steel, is expensive. We saw a car, damaged in an accident.

Verb Phrase: A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its helping verbs used with the
main verb in the sentence. E.g. I am teaching English. She should study her lessons.
She has been studying English for two years.
Phrase in Apposition: Have a look at the following examples:
E.g. Ali, my cousin, is seriously sick.
E.g. I like Tom, my faithful dog.
Parenthetical Phrase: Read the following sentences:
E.g. He is, after all, an honest man. I, to tell the truth, don’t like this idea. I, to be very honest,
have taught each topic of this properly.
Prepositional Phrase: A group of words that begins with a preposition & ends with a nounis
termed prepositional phrase.
In the class, near our house, at the end of the street, under the table,
Word Formation
In English, there are many word beginnings (prefixes) & word endings (suffixes) that can be added to a
word to change its meaning or its word class.
1. The endings –ize & -ify can be added to many nouns & adjectives to form verbs.
Legal: Legalize Beauty: Beautify
Modern: Modernize pure: Purify
Popular: Popularize Simple: Simplify
American: Americanize Clear: Clarify
Equal: Equalize Specific: Specify
Stable: Stabilize Solid: Solidify
Global: Globalize Unity: Unify
Local: Localize Horrible: Horrify
Capital: Capitalize Identity: Identify
Social: Socialize Qualified: Qualify
2. The ending –ly can be added to most adjectives to form adverbs.
Slow: Slowly
Main: Mainly
Quick: Quickly
Beautiful: Beautifully
Intelligent: Intelligently
Easy: Easily
Careful: Carefully
Equal: Equally
3. The endings –er, -ment, & ation can be added to many verbs to form nouns.
Lead: Leader Develop: Development Admire: Admiration
Teach: Teacher Amaze: Amazement Associate: Association

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Drive: Driver Retire: Retirement Organize: Organization
Open: Opener Pay: Payment Examine: Examination
Work: Worker Improve: Improvement Invite: Invitation
Employ: Employer Excite: Excitement Identify: Identification
Play: Player Announce: Announcement Justify: Justification
Write: Writer Advertise: Advertisement Certify: Certification
4. The endings –ity & -ness can be added to many adjectives to form nouns.
Active: Activity Kind: Kindness
Equal: Equality Happy: Happiness
Creative: Creativity Dark: Darkness
Cruel: Cruelty Active: Activeness
Pure: Purity Quick: Quickness
Stupid: Stupidity Good: Goodness
Complex: Complexity Sad: Sadness Great: Greatness
Mortal: Mortality Hard: Hardness
Fatal: Fatality Cheap: Cheapness

5. The endings –Y,-ic,-ical,-ful & -less can be added to many nouns to form adjectives.
Dirt: Dirty Islam: Islamic Logic: Logical
Rain: Rainy Atom: Atomic Grammar: Grammatical
Filth: Filthy History: Historic Type: Typical
Push: Pushy Strategy: Strategic Economy: Economical
Smell: Smelly Class: Classic Electricity: Electrical
Hair: Hairy Academy: Academic History: Historical
Trick: Tricky Diplomacy: Diplomatic Chemistry: Chemical
Rock: Rocky Science: Scientific Geography: Geographical
Word: Wordy System: Systematic
6. Home: Homeless Pain: Painful
Sleep: Sleepless Hope: Hopeful
Shame: Shameless Care: Careful
Harm: Harmless Color: Colorful
End: Endless Power: Powerful
Price: Priceless Skill: Skillful
Heart: Heartless Harm: Harmful
7. The ending –able can be added to many verbs to form adjectives.
Wash: Washable
Love: Loveable
Break: Breakable
Touch: Touchable
Match: Matchable
Believe: Believable
Suit: Suitable
Afford: Affordable

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Forget: unforgettable
Prefix: The following prefixes can be used in front of many words to produce an opposite
meaning.
Happy: Unhappy Correct: Incorrect Possible: Impossible
Block: Unblock Complete: Incomplete Polite: Impolite
Fortunate: Unfortunate Expensive: Inexpensive Patient: Impatient
Able: Unable Tolerable: Intolerable Perfect: Imperfect
Acceptable: Unacceptable Secure: Insecure Mature: Immature
Believable: Unbelievable Visible: Invisible
Lucky: Unlucky Active: Inactive
Logical: Illogical Responsible: Irresponsible Like: Dislike Agree: Disagree
Literate: Illiterate Regular: Irregular Honest: Dishonest Appear: Disappear
Legal: Illegal Relevant: Irrelevant Approve: Disapprove
Legible: Illegible Religious: Irreligious Satisfied: Dissatisfied

Questions
We ask questions to know something. These questions are of two types in English:
Kinds of Questions
1: Yes/No Questions
2: Wh-Questions
Interrogative sentences formed with the Auxiliary Verbs Do, Have, Be, & the Modals (Will, can,
could, shall, should, may, might, would, must) can be answered by ‘Yes’ or ‘No’.
But those formed with the help of Wh-words cannot be answered by ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. They require
some specific answers.
E.g. Are you going to school? Yes/No.
E.g. Where are you going? I am going to school.
Don’t forget to put Asking Sign (?).
Note: We must remember that the rules of interrogative patterns are the same in both the cases.
In interrogative sentences, Be verb (is, am, are, was, were), Have verb (has, have, had) Do verbs,
(Do, Does, Did) and (Will, can, could, shall, should, may, might, would, must) verbs are used
before the subject.
Note: Wh-questions are also called information questions.
An information question starts with these words: Who, whom, what, which, whose, when, where,
why, how.
These WH-words are used to get information from a sentence.
Note: In Modern English, Who in place of Whom is used as a pseudo Subject.
What is your father/he? He is a doctor. Who is he? He is my uncle.

Declarative Questions: In spoken English, we don’t always use interrogative word order.
Declarative questions can be used when the speaker thinks he/she knows something or has

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understood something, but wants to make sure or expresses surprise. A rising intonation is
common. This is your friend?
A declarative question shows surprise.

Echo questions: To questions what has been said, a speaker may simply repeat “echo” what has
been heard. A rising intonation is common. I’m getting the first position. You are getting the first
position? He is moving to Canada. He is moving to Canada?

Rhetorical Questions: (Questions that don’t expect an answer) A question with an obvious
answer can be used simply as a way of drawing attention to something. What time is it? (=
you’re late) I can’t’ find my coat. What’s this then? (Here’s it’s stupid)
In simple words, such questions are self-addressed. They don’t expect any answer. Let me see.
Should I take the bus or go on foot? What should I drink?

Tag Questions: We use tag questions to check whether our sentence is right or not. Tag is a small
question that often comes at the end of a sentence to show confirmation. Question tags are used
after affirmative and negative sentences, but not after questions. She is intelligent, isn’t she?
She isn’t intelligent, is she?

Alternative questions: There are two types of alternative questions. The first resembles a yes-no
question, and the second a wh-question:
Would you like chocolate, vanilla or strawberry?
Which country do you love, Pakistan, AFG or India?

Exclamatory Questions: It is a question like structure that ends in an exclamatory mark & shows
surprise.
Isn’t that a big room? Aren’t you Bilal?
Included Questions in Statements
Before this structure is explained in details, we must know which part is included question &
which is the statement.
I don’t knowwhere he lives.
Statement Included Q

We can include these two questions into statements, follow these steps:
1: Wh-Questions
2: Yes/No Questions
To include wh-questions into statements, follow these steps:
Change the wh-question into an indirect question: To do so, place the subject of the question
after the wh- question word.
Where is she teaching? Where she is teaching.
If there is does, do or did, in Wh-question, delete it from the question. If the auxiliary does is
deleted, use S, ES or IES with the verb.

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When does he start the class? When he starts the class.
If the auxiliary did is deleted, change the verb to second form:
Where did he go? Where he went.
The negative forms (doesn’t, don’t & didn’t) are not deleted from the questions.
Why doesn’t he work? Why he doesn’t work.
Why didn’t they call me? Why they didn’t call me.
Use the indirect questions (Positive Statement) after these statements:
I don’t know I don’t remember I don’t understand I am not sure
When is she coming? I don’t know when she is coming.
Where did she teach? I don’t remember where she taught.
Yes/No Questions
To include a yes/no question into statements, follow these steps:
Change a yes/no question to a statement: To do so, place the subject of the questions at the
beginning of the question.
Is she playing soccer? Are they painting the room?
I am not sure if she is playing soccer. I don’t know if they are painting the room.
If there is do, does & did, delete it from questions.
If the auxiliary did is deleted, change the verb to past form.
The negative forms (doesn’t, don’t, didn’t) are not deleted from questions.
Use if or whether with the statements made from questions.
Use the statements with if/whether after these statements:
Does she work? I don’t know if she works.
Do you teach English at HELP? I don’t know if you teach English at HELP.

Included Questions in Questions

Before we explain this structure in details, we must understand which part is the question &
which is included question.
Can you tell mewhere he lives?
Question Included Question
We use included question in question to ask a question more politely. Included question in
question is more polite than a direct question.
We include these questions in the questions:
1: Wh-Questions
2: Yes/No Questions
To include a wh-question into another question, follow these steps:
1: Change wh-question to indirect question (Positive Statement)
2: Use the indirect question after these questions:
Can you tell me Do you know Do you remember
Simple Question: Where is Ali?

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Included Question in Question: Can you tell me where Ali is?
Simple Question: When does the class finish?
Included Question in Question: Do you know when the class finishes?
Yes/No Questions: To include a yes/no question into another question, follow these steps:
Change the yes/no question into a statement.
Use if/whether with statement made from yes/no question.
Use the statement with if or whether after these questions:
Can you tell me Do you know Do you remember
Simple Question: Is he fixing my car?
Included Question in Question: Can you tell me if he is fixing my car?
Simple Question: Does he understand English?
Included Question in Question: Do you know if he understands English?
Articles
“A”, “An” and “The” are known as articles.
An article is a word that limits the noun. Or in simple words, an article is a word that gives
further information about nouns in order to show whether you are talking about a noun
specifically or generally. “A” or “An” is an abbreviated form the adjective “One”; while “The”
is an abbreviated form of “This”, “That”, “These or “Those.”

Kinds of Articles
Indefinite Articles: An article which doesn’t refer to a particular/specific person or thing is
known as the indefinite article. “A” & “An” are called indefinite articles.
E.g. I want to buy a car. She has an informative book at home. She is using a stylish phone.
A student should be obedient. A doctor must love his/her patients. Give me a book to read.
“A” & “An” are only used before singular countable nouns.
The selection between “A” or “An” is determined by sound.

1: A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound.

E.g. a boy, a man, a table, a center, a light, a window, a yard, a young man, etc

2: A is used before a word beginning with “H”, & also with “Y” & “U.”
E.g. a horse, a historical building, a human being, a youth, a year, a yard, a yellow paper, a
young man, a university, a useful book, a unit, a European, a uniform, a union, etc

3: A is used before a word beginning with a “W” sound.

E.g. a one dollar note, a one way ticket, such a one, etc

4: An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound.

E.g. an hour, an honor, an honest, an heir, etc

Uses of A/AN

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1: A or An is used when it is mentioning someone or something (single countable noun) for the
first time. E.g. I saw a man on the street. E.g. An old lady came to our house.
2: We can use a or an with partitives:
E.g. a glass of water, a bottle of milk.
Note: Partitives are quantity expressions that show quantity.
E.g. I bought a kilo of sugar in the market.

3: We also use a/an to talk about the job of someone.

E.g. Lisa a nurse. E.g. Ali wants to an engineer. He is a businessman.
4: We can’t use a/an with plural nouns. We use some instead.

5: A or An is used to indicate a unit.

E.g. An ounce is enough. One hundred centimeters make a meter.

6: The indefinite article A or An is used in the sense of “one of a.”

E.g. I met a friend. I read a novel.
7: It is used to represent a whole class or in the sense of all or any.
E.g. A student should be obedient. A doctor should love his/her patients.
8: It is used to convert a proper noun into a common.
E.g. She seems to an Indian. E.g. He thinks I am a Farhad. A Daniel has come to class.
I am an Ashraf Ghani. (a political leader) I am a Sunil Narine.
9: We use a/an with words “little” & “few.”
E.g. I drink a little milk. E.g. I teach a few students at 5:00 PM.
10: we use a/an in the sense of every.
E.g. I pay 2,000 a month. It will cost you 5 rupees a kilo. They meet five times a year.
She earns one hundred dollars a month. He drives the car at 50 kilometers an hour.
11: It is used in exclamatory sentences.
E.g. What a shame! What a clever boy! What a hot day! What an intelligent student! What an
awful remark! What a nice bird it is!
12: A is used before “dozen”, “hundred”, “thousand”, “million” etc
E.g. Here are a dozen bananas. A hundred boys came out from school. There are a thousand
people in the street.
13: A or an (also the) is used to indicate a class as a whole.
E.g. A (the) car has horns. (All cows have horns.) An (the) elephant never forgets.
14: A or an is used before some words & phrases.
I have a headache. I am in a hurry. He had a bad cold. She had a cough. They take an interest in
this.
15: A (& not the) is used before the superlative “most” when it means “very”.
This is a most interesting story. He saw a most wonderful sight.
16: We also use (an) with words that begin with: A, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, O, R, S, T, & X, but we
can use (an) only if the abbreviations are said individually.
E.g. An ISI operative, an M.A. a SIM card, A FIFA tournament, an L.L.B. etc
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17: We use a/an when someone is strange to us.
E.g. A Mr. Khan is calling you. E.g. A Mr. Smith has died.

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