1 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser.

D (July–December 2021) 102(2):301–315

Sand Washing

Sand washing is a phenomenon that takes place in many forms from industrial cleaning to experimental laboratory
procedures. This research focuses on sand washing that takes place in the sand and aggregate industry. Existing sites are
located in North West Province of South Africa which has been using sand washing at their sites. The company A has
been manufacturing and supplying sand and aggregate materials since 2006. This sand wash plant is experiencing a few
maintenance issues. These included having to change pump impellers every 3–4 weeks and reline the hydrocyclones
every 2–3 weeks as well as a high water consumption demand. There were also excessive fines to the slimes dam, thus
loss of the product. All of which have incurred additional costs to the client. Despite the selected equipment independently
functioning at a high efficiency, when they were working together, there seemed to be issues; hence, this sand wash plant
needs to be optimized. These needs support the research and study of the general optimization of a compact sand wash
plant.

Sand Wash Plant

A basic compact sand wash plant constitutes the following pieces of equipment:

Pump

Pumps can be classified into two types: centrifugal and positive displacement pumps. Vast tonnages are pumped each year
in solid–liquid mixtures known as slurry [4]. The sand wash plan uses a slurry pump which is a type of centrifugal pump. In
a general sand washing process, the pump transfers slurry stored in a storage vessel, commonly a sump to feed into a
cyclone. Ideally, a rubber-lined interior is ideal for most sand washing applications. The selection of the pump depends on
several important factors
2 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. D (July–December 2021) 102(2):301–315
such as the flow rate, the dynamic head and the density of the slurry. The total head required is the sum of the
dynamic head due to friction losses in the piping, fittings, valves and process equipment as well as any static head due to
differences in elevation. It is important to keep in mind that the selection of the pump cannot therefore be separated from
the design of the complete piping system [5].

Hydrocyclone

A hydrocyclone is part of process equipment that is designed to accommodate large volumes of slurry and perform
classification of the feed based on particle size differences and specific gravity [5]. These differences produce an overflow
and underflow. Separation takes place via a centrifugal force that is generated by the slurry that enters the feed chamber
under a high pressure. Due to this action, larger particles are thrown to the wall, whereas the finer particles gravitate closer
to the centre of the cone. The result of this is that the coarser material escapes through the apex and the fine material and
water leaves through the overflow. In a conventional sand wash plant layout, the cyclone receives the slurry from the
pump and the under- flow feeds it onto a vibrating screen.

Vibrating Screen

A screen is a newly designed beneficiation process machine that is mainly used for mineral particle separation in
mines and quarries. It has adjustable screen capacity and structure to allow for changes in production and quantity demand
advised by the client [6]. In the effort of improving durability, availability, reliability and maintainability, it needs to be
regularly assessed in order to improve its working condition. The overflow of the screen is usually collected as a product,
and the underflow is recycled back into the plant. A screen separates particles via an eccentric force. Screens either conduct
linear or circular vibration. The main function of a screen in a sand wash plant is to separate the ‘‘larger’’ particles from the
slurry by removing it as the oversize into a stockpile which is ready to sell or further process which is free of fine particles
which would be the undersize. The separation is dependent on the aperture sizes of the screen panels’ media, which is the
surface that the slurry comes into contact with when on the screen [6].

Thickener

A thickener is a storage unit that increases the density of its contents by removing the water, hence separating the solid
particles from the liquid ones.
 3 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. D (July–December 2021) 102(2):301–315
Screening

Screening is the process of passing material through defi- nite and uniform apertures in order to accurately grade the
required particle size [7]. Air separation and hydraulic classification depend on gravity and the particle shape. This results
in segregation and retention of the material of higher specific gravity and lower surface area regardless of size.

Stratification

Stratification is the process whereby the larger-sized par- ticles move to the top of the vibrating material bed as a result of
the vibrating motion effect, whereas the smaller particles sift through the empty spaces towards the bottom of the bed [7].

Supporting Structures

A compact sand washing plant connects the different pie- ces of process equipment together with supporting struc- tures
such as sumps, valves and hoses. The sump acts as a storage vessel. These parts are often fabricated to suit the design and
application of the plant. A larger sump for example will provide a larger surface area that would be needed to
accommodate for a larger feed flow rate, for example 150 tph slurry. Rubber hoses are ideally used for these plants and are
selected based on the pressure and the amount of flange drilling required. Knife gate valves used on such equipment often
have replaceable rubber sleeves. In most cases, before a sand wash plant is sold to a cus- tomer or during commissioning,
the entire plant is put together with the supporting structure followed by several testing and analysis.

Sump

A sump is a pit or reservoir that serves as a drain or storage unit for liquids and is part of the structures of the wash plant. In
the sand wash plant, the sump stores water or slurry depending on the plant structures that is usually pumped to the
cyclone where separation of sand particles takes place. A sump that is regularly filled results in a system that receives a
consistent, steady flow of fluid. These parts are often fabricated to suit the design and application of the plant. A
larger sump for example will provide a larger surface area that would be needed to accommodate for a larger feed flow
rate, for example
150 tph slurry.
4 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. D (July–December 2021) 102(2):301–315
Sieve Analysis

Once a run-of-mine (ROM—a sample) is collected from the mine, it is sent to a laboratory for testing. One of these tests
includes a sieve analysis. A particle’s physical form has a large influence over its sieve analysis results [8]. There are
several ways of conducting sieve analysis tests. The stan- dard grain size analysis test determines the amount of a specific
sized particle relative to the rest of the particles in the same size. This shows the size distribution of the par- ticles over a
certain range [9]. Physical sieve analysis uses a stack of sieves including a pan and cover, a balance, a mechanical sieve
shaker and oven [9]. The sample is oven- dried and then weighted. The stack of sieves is arranged in an ascending order
with the larger opening sizes closer to the top and the smaller opening sizes nearer the bottom. The feed is poured over
the top, and the stack is inserted in the sieve shaker [9]. Once the shaker is stopped, each sieve is weighed, and these
recorded results will create the par- ticle size distribution (PSD) information.

Particle Size Distribution

Particle size distribution refers to the curve and statistical information generated after the sieve analysis. It quantifies the
amount of a specific size particle relative to the sizes in the sample. A PSD therefore represents the distribution of the
aggregate particles over a range of aperture sizes. There have been several modern approaches to representing these data,
such as applying a digital image processing technique (DIT) which compares three different types of aggregates as well as
their grading curves versus those done via the conventional mechanical sieving [8]. Dimensions that are usually used are
standards of area, length and volume [8]. The importance of particle size distribution information in the sand wash plant
design is that it is extremely important in the equipment sizing and selection process. Usually, the cyclone is sized first
using a computer software application that combines the mass balance of the plant, characteristics of the feed such as its
density and tonnage, as well as the PSD to assist in selecting the most effective cyclone to suit the capability of the plant.
The PSD is also used to size screens in a similar process using different software applications and calculations.

Environmental Impact

Mining, in general, has a large local impact on the envi- ronment [10]. The release of metals from mining sites mainly
takes place through acid mine drainage as well as the erosion of waste dumps and tailings deposits [10]. However, much
legislation has been implemented globally to address the environmental issues caused by the both
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mining and quarry industry [10]. Research shows that lands (with healthy soil) occupied by quarries have significantly
increased between 1989 and 2005 [11]. This is a loss of potential productive land for vegetation. Despite the neg- ative
environmental image of these industries, the sand wash plant offers a slightly more environmentally friendly approach to
their customers. A compact sand washing plant recycles the water in its process used to create the slurry, hence saving
water. There is no major harm to the land on which it is positioned, as no drilling or grinding takes place on the surrounding
ground. The cyclone feeds onto the screen by gravity, hence saving energy. These are a few of several different ways that
highlight that the sand wash plant is less environmentally hazardous to the environment compared to several other
conventional mining and quarry equipment pieces.

Water

The main medium used in the sand wash plant is water. Water is added to the sand to create slurry that is circulated within
the plant. Much like in the case of sand, the prop- erties of water need to be analysed as the slurry produces results that will
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need to be considered when sizing the equipment to be used in the plant. The density of water is approximately 1000 kg/m
[12]. This is the weight of the water per its unit volume which is affected by the tem- perature of the water [13]. Extremely
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high temperatures (?100 C) have a density of 958 kg/m , and extremely low temperatures (-30 C) also stray from the
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average with a density of about 983 kg/m [13]. In the case of the sand wash plant, the temperature of water is dependent
3
on the temperature of the surrounding environment that it is exposed to with a density of approximately 1000 kg/m .
Water’s main function in the sand wash plant is bringing about movement in the plant so that the separation of sand
particles can take place. This is based on the fact that liquid particles do not have a fixed shape and hence they can fill any
container, whereas in the case of solids, their particles can only vibrate and are not able to move from place to place and
hence no flow can occur [14]. Properties of water include the attraction to polar molecules, high polarity, high specific
heat, low density of ice and high heat of vaporization [14], thus making water the ideal ‘‘trans- porter’’ for the sand in
the wash plant. Presently, there are several environmental concerns and regulations with regards to wash water run-off in
that it needs to be con- trolled and collected to prevent potential environmental contamination and pollution [14]. Hence,
quarry or mine industry needs several legislation documents approved before installing a sand wash plant on their site. A
sand wash plant needs a continuous source of water in order to function. As water has become a rarer and more precious
6 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. D (July–December 2021) 102(2):301–315
commodity, a great deal of money and resources can be saved by a system that is able to recycle the same water over and
over again [15]. This is aided by the use of a thickener that will be discussed in detail in this study.

Flow meter

The flow meter is an instrument that is used to measure the parameter of the fluid flowing within a pipe and includes a
sensing device having a sensor for sensing an unsteady pressure of the fluid flow [16]. This sensing device pro- duces
sensor data that are responsive to the fluid flow. A processing device then communicates with the sensing device, receives
and then processes the sensor data to generate meter data. Another part of this apparatus includes a digital interface which
communicates with the processing device that is configured to associate with a portable ex- ternal digital storage device for
transferring information between the apparatus and the portable external digital storage device [15].
The study aimed at designing and optimizing a sand wash plant in order to increase the mining and quarry plant capacity
in North West Province, South Africa. A reference mining site was used, all equipment pieces present were sized, and the
feed and the final product were thoroughly analysed. Simulation modelling, equipment selection and mass balance were
undertaken.

Experimental Methodology

Experimental Procedure

The experimental procedure that was conducted in this study is shown in Fig. 1.
The experimental plan for this design and optimization of a sand wash plant was conducted on an existing site that
requires a novel sand washing solution. Several samples of the plant feed material were collected, and the results were

Feed Collection (Quantification) Feed Characterization

Design and Sizing (Simulation-Modelling) Testing and Commercialization

Fig. 1 Flow diagram of the design modification and optimization of the sand wash plant
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recorded using different pieces of equipment. After an acceptable number of samples were retrieved, these were taken to a
laboratory for further testing. Part of the labo- ratory results includes the particle size distribution (PSD). The hypothesis of
either to install new equipment or use the existing was determined by the PSD results. Firstly, the pump was sized, followed
by the cyclone and then the screen. The flow rate and densities of the slurry were also studied. Once the plant has been
installed, new samples were taken using the same testing and sampling methods on the product material so that
comparisons can be made to determine whether the new design has been successful in providing the plant with the desired
specifications of product.

Sand Characterization

Sand was the main product that enters and leaves the sand wash plant. The function of the sand wash plant was to separate
impurities from the sand product so that both fine and coarse sand can be extracted separately. Sand has a specific gravity of
2.65 [17]. Part of the experimental procedure of this project was to determine the density of the slurry (sand and water)
at different points of the plant. It was therefore important to understand the properties of sand, more particularly, the
densities. The density of sand was dependent on whether it was wet or dry, rammed (packed) or loose. When sand was
packed, the particles were forced into a closer formation with a high content of matter in the volume. However, when the
sand was wet, the gaps between grains of sand were filled by water, therefore also affecting the amount of matter in the
specific volume. The mean density of loose sand was approximately
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1442 kg/m . This referred to dry sand that had been moved,
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agitated or sifted to loosen the natural packing process. Dry sand had a mean density of about 1602 kg/m . This sand was
in its natural, undisturbed form where it had been slightly packed by rain and gravity over a period of time. Packed sand
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has a mean density of an estimated 1682 kg/ m . This sand has either been manually or mechanically packed. Looking at
wet sand which had mean density of
1922 kg/m3, this sand had been positioned in a natural
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setting where it was naturally compressed and now wet. Lastly, the mean density of wet packed sand was 2082 kg/ m and
refers to packed sand that is nearly saturated with water.
It was important to understand the properties of sand in order to size the correct equipment during the designing and
optimization phase of the project. It is ultimately this material that will be sold to the mine or quarry’s clients for industrial
processes such as construction.