PROJECT EVALUATION PROPOSAL

AN ASSESSMENT INTO THE IMPACTS OF WATER SCHEME IMPLEMENTED BY

BARLOWORLD EQUIPMENT ZAMBIA IN PARTNERSHIP WITH VILLAGE WATER
ZAMBIA IN ZAMTAN COMMUNITY OF KITWE DISTRICT.

BY

MUSUKU CHAMA
COMPUTER NUMBER: 18052979

THE UNIVERSITYOF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES (IDE)
LUSAKA
2022
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Number

1. 0 INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………. 2
1.1 Background …………………………………………………………. 2-3
1.2 Problem Statement ………………………………………………….. 3-4
1.3 evaluation Objectives ………………………………………………… 4
1.3.1 General objective …………………………………………. 4
1.3.2 Specific objectives ………………………………………… 4
1.4 significance of the evaluation ……………………………………. 4-5
1.5 Scope of evaluation …………………………………………………… 5
1.6 Theoretical framework …………………………………………………5-6
2.0 LITERITURE REVIEW …………………………………………………. 6-12
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ………………………………………… 12

3.1 Study Design ………………………………………………………… 12

3.2 Sampling Design ………………………………………………………. 12-13

3.3 Sample Size and Distribution …………………………………………. 13

3.4 Data Collection ……………………………………………………….. 13

3.4.1 Secondary Data…………………………………………………………13
3.4.2 Primary Data ………………………………………………………………. 13
3.5 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………… 14
3.6 Ethical Considerations ………………………………………………… 14
4.0 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………… ….. 15

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Water is life, particularly safe drinking water. Thus, it is of great importance that people are
able to have access to safe drinking water at all times as this is essential for a country
to have a healthy population. Access to water is critical to both the social and economic
well-being of men, women and children (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000). Safe water is a
necessity that should be available to everyone. Access to safe water and thus a good health is
a human right and also a requirement for development of society. Providing clean water and
sanitation is high on the list of the United Nations Development Program's Sustainable
Development Goals, and is fundamental in fighting many water-borne diseases and the novel
coronavirus, and preserving the health and well-being of millions. Zambia is a country that is
rich in water resources that can be used to provide its inhabitants with fresh water.
There are however several limitations and obstacles that Zambia need to overcome in
order to maintain a successful water supply in peri-urban areas (Pelling and Wisner, 2009).
Zamtan Compound of Kitwe District, for instance, is characterized by a lack of access to safe
water and sanitation.

Furthermore, Nkana Water and Sewerage Company Limited, is the major provider of water and
sanitation services in Kitwe District. The water utility provides services to about 65 percent of
the total population of the district. The rest of the residents, mainly in the informal settlements,
use wells and pit latrines. Pit latrines, poor sanitation, and open defecation and urination are
sources of water, air, and soil pollution, besides negatively affecting the city’s appearance. Water
supply and sanitation services are inadequate, particularly in low-income and peri-urban
settlements where more than 50 percent of the city’s population live, Zamtan compound is such
an example. A number of both local and international organizations have risen in the district to
supplement Government’s efforts to fund and implement urban restructuring and water supply
projects, in order to greatly improve on the clean water supply and sanitation within the locality
as there has been inadequate sanitation in the community.

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Barloworld Equipment Zambia in partnership residents of Zamtan community, Kitwe City
Council and Village Water Zambia had embarked on the construction of the water scheme to
provide safe and reliable water supply to the Zamtan community in Kitwe. Zamtan community
was struggled with piped water provision, and largely had to depend on shallow wells for water.
the water-scheme was targeted to see almost 20,000 households' benefit from easier access to
safe water, through a sustainable, and equitable water-supply distributed via boreholes and
subsequently improve the health and wellbeing of the community . All in all, the Zamtan Water
Scheme Supply Project is a social initiative informed by the need for improved access to water
and sanitation as outlined in the Government of Zambia’s Seventh National Development Plan
(7NDP) 2017-2021. Its main object is to improve the health and wellbeing of the people in
Zamtan by increasing access to sustainable and equitable water supply via boreholes and hygiene
education. In order to achieve this object, the project underwent a number of scheduled activities
which may be parallel or concurrent in nature. Some of these activities may include; project
planning in consultation with key stakeholders, conducting impact assessments, mobilization of
resources, conducting community sensitization meetings, procurement of materials, borehole
water drilling, construction of water tanks and distribution pipe lines, installation of solar panels,
actual connections and handover.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The background of the problem of the study relates to the challenges that puri urban areas face in
cities and municipalities of Zambia. As earlier stated, one of the targets of Zambia’s Seventh
National Development Plan (7NDP) read together with the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) is to improve the health and wellbeing of the people by increasing access to sustainable
and equitable water supply and hygiene but the government is failing to meet such targets
because of the increased demand due to overpopulation. Take for example, Nkana water utility
company provides its services to about 65 percent of the total population of Kitwe District and
the rest of the residents mainly in the informal settlements also known as peri-urban areas use
shallow wells and pit latrines (UN-Habitat; 2015). This has increased water borne diseases cases
in the communities due to poor sanitation and hygiene.

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In order to mitigate such health-related risks, many co-operating partners have come to
supplement government efforts in ensuring that proper water and sanitation services are being
accessed in communities more especially the vulnerable members of the society such as women,
youths and physically challenged personnel. This is the reason why Barloworld Equipment
Zambia in partnership with Village Water Zambia had implemented the construction of the water
scheme to provide safe and reliable water supply to the Zamtan community of Kitwe in order to
improve the health well-being of the community.

It is against this backdrop that this evaluation proposal aims at making an assessment into the
impacts of water scheme implemented to the Zamtan community.

1.3 EVALUATION OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 General objective

 The main objective of the study is to carry out an assessment into the impacts of water
Scheme implemented by Barloworld Equipment Zambia in partnership with Village
Water Zambia in Zamtan community of Kitwe District.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

 To identify the status and nature of water and sanitation challenges that the Zamtan
community faced before the implementation of the water scheme.

 To establish whether the project has improved the health and wellbeing of the people in
the targeted community.
 To find out to what extent has the beneficiary’s taking responsibility in safeguarding and
maintaining the water scheme.

1.4 Significance of the Evaluation

The appearance and continued existence of poor water and sanitation in informal settlements of
cities in the developing world is the unequivocal and tangible evidence that the water and
sanitation sector is not performing its role in providing adequate water and sanitation services for
its rising population. Furthermore, many are the times that most projects are deserted and turn
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out to be white elephants due to the fact that some stages in the project cycle were overlooked or
less analyzed. Therefore, this project evaluation will serve as a contribution of knowledge base
for benefit of Zamtan community. This evaluation will also help various government institutions,
co-operating partners and various stakeholders who may wish to implement future projects of
this nature as the study shall provide information on project implementation strengths and
challenges faced and suggest ways of mitigating such challenges. The study will contribute to the
body of knowledge and may serve as a point of reference to academicians and evaluators. Lastly,
the study will be used as a requirement for the successful completion of PAM 4044 Project
Management course at the university of Zambia.

1.5 Scope of the evaluation

Zamtan compound is one of the informal settlements in Kamfinsa Constituency of Kitwe District
with a fast-growing population. Zamtan makes the project environment in which this evaluation
seeks to assess the impacts of water scheme implemented by Barloworld equipment Zambia in
partnership with village water Zambia. However, due to limitations of human, materials, time
and financial resources, the evaluation will consider only a few selected households to determine
the study sample size. The evaluation period will be from May 2021 to June 2022 to assess if the
project has yield positive results after over a year of unbroken water supply to the community.

1.6 Theoretical Framework

Theory of change

A theory of change is a method that explains how a given intervention, or set of interventions, is
expected to lead to specific development change, drawing on a causal analysis based on available
evidence. A theory of change for any needs-change relationship must be driven by sound
analysis, consultation with key stakeholders who participate in the project environment with
various interests and agree together on what works and what does not work in diverse contexts.
A theory of change helps to identify solutions such as water and sanitation challenges, to
effectively address the causes of problems that hinder progress and guide decisions on which
approach should be taken, considering comparative advantages, effectiveness, feasibility and
uncertainties that are part of any change process. This theory also helps to identify the underlying

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assumptions and risks that will be vital to understand and revisit throughout the process to ensure
the approach will contribute to the desired change.

Why theory of change

First, development challenges are complex, and are typically caused by many factors and layers
that are embedded deeply in the way society functions. For example, opening a legal aid clinic
may not lead to more women accessing justice services unless issues of cultural sensitivities,
needed legal reforms and childcare constraints are addressed as well. A theory of change can
help development agents systematically think through the many underlying root causes of
development challenges, and how they influence each other, when determining contribution to
achieving development change.

Second, a theory of change provides a framework for learning both within and between
programming cycles. By articulating the causes of a development challenge, making assumptions
explicit on how the proposed strategy is expected to yield results, and testing these assumptions
against evidence including what has worked well, or not, in the past the theory of change helps
ensure a sound logic for achieving change. The theory of change also helps make course
corrections if the selected approach is not working or if anticipated risks materialize.

New learning and lessons from monitoring and evaluation help refine assumptions and inform
decisions on how an approach should be adapted to deliver planned results which is also
applicable in the water works supply. Adjustments to the theory of change should also be made
in light of changing circumstances, especially in response to crisis and shocks, as well as part of
regular monitoring.

Third, the theory of change is increasingly being utilized as a means for developing and
managing partnerships and partnership strategies. The process of agreeing on a theory of change
establishes different views and assumptions among program planners, beneficiaries, donors,
program staff, and so on. It can foster consensus and motivate stakeholders by involving them
early in the planning process and by showing them how their work contributes to long-term
impact. Thus, the adoption of this theory.

CHAPTER TWO

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to understand what is already in the public domain, a vigorous literature review was
conducted on a number of documents and publication.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for water and sanitation were to halve the
proportion of people without access to improved drinking water and sanitation facilities between
1990 and 2015 (WHO and UNICEF, 2013). Despite meeting the water goal and progressing
towards the sanitation goal, at the end of 2011 there remained 768 million people without access
to an improved water source and another 2.5 billion without access to improved sanitation
facilities (WHO and UNICEF, 2013). Lack of access to improved water and sanitation facilities
can result in diarrheal illness, which causes 760,000 deaths among children under 5 each year
(WHO, 2013). This lack of access can also lead to respiratory illness (Dinh et al., 2006;
Hennessy et al., 2008; Luby and Hadler, 2008). Worldwide, acute lower respiratory infections
caused over 900,000 deaths among children under 5 in 2013 (WHO, 2014).

By 2030 the water and sanitation SDGs aim to achieve universal, equitable access to drinking
water and sanitation (United Nations, 2014). In order to achieve this ambitious goal, significant
expansion of water and sanitation infrastructure will be required. Common strategies to provide
better access to water and sanitation facilities have included introducing community wells, point
of use water disinfection, and latrines to rural communities (Fewtrell et al., 2005; Waddington et
al., 2009)

More than 50% of the world’s population lived in cities in 2011 and additional urbanization is
expected; in Africa, the urban population is projected to triple by 2050 (United Nations, 2012).
Many cities are not equipped with the necessary water and sanitation infrastructure to support
such substantial urban population growth. In 2011, an estimated 132 million and 728 million
urban dwellers did not have access to improved water and sanitation, respectively (WHO and
UNICEF, 2013). Zambia, where approximately 40% of the population lives in urban areas, is not
on track to reach the MDGs (WHO and UNICEF, 2013). From 1990 – 2011 the proportion of the
urban population with access to improved water sources decreased from 89% to 86%, and the

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proportion with access to improved sanitation also decreased, from 61% to 56% (WHO and
UNICEF, 2013.

Limited access to adequate water and sanitation is one of the key developmental challenges faced
by Zambia. Zambia has a high poverty rate, at 74% in 2010 (using a Purchasing Power Parity at
US$1.25 per day), compared to 49% in the World Bank’s low-income countries aggregate
grouping (World Bank, 2015). In addition, Zambia has high income inequality, with a GINI
Index of 58 in 2010 (World Bank, 2015). Key indicators of health are similarly low. Life
expectancy at birth in 2013 was 58 in Zambia, compared to 62 in the World Bank’s low-income
countries aggregate grouping (World Bank, 2015). The mortality rate for children under 5 (per
1,000 live births) was 87 in 2013; in the World Banks’s low-income countries aggregate
grouping the mortality rate was 76 (World Bank, 2015). Malnutrition (stunting) is also prevalent
in Zambia, at 46% in 2007 (World Bank, 2015). These indicators are directly or indirectly related
to the status of water supply and sanitation infrastructure, and underscore the universal necessity
of equitable access to WASH facilities. Take for example, the lack of adequate water and
sanitation infrastructure is apparent in Lusaka where the current infrastructure - built in the 1960s
and 1970s for a population of 300,000 is not sufficient to meet the needs of the current
population of 1.8 million (Central Statistics Office, 2011). The situation is especially acute in
low-income, peri-urban areas (PUA).

Access to sanitation infrastructure in PUAs is similarly low, where nearly 88% of households use
pit latrines (Central Statistics Office, 2010). However, a majority of these pit latrines do not meet
the definition of “improved” (e.g., pit latrines without a slab or shared pit latrines) (Central
Statistics Office, 2012) and many are not properly constructed (Millennium Challenge
Corporation, 2012). These latrines can contaminate the shallow wells that most peri-urban
residents use as a water source (Millennium Challenge Corporation, 2012), and can lead to
diarrheal illness and outbreaks.

Given the current state of WASH infrastructure in urban cities, its expansion and revitalization
will become increasingly more important to health and well-being as urbanization trends
continue. The infrastructure interventions planned as part of the Compact aim to, among other
things, decrease waterborne disease and promote economic growth by building new and
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rehabilitating existing community kiosk connections, expanding residential water supply and
sanitation networks to underserved areas, and rehabilitating the drainage system. A review of the
literature offers strong evidence for the benefits of better WASH infrastructure. The importance
of water supply has been shown in meta-analyses that found water supply interventions - such as
installing standpipes or household connections - reduce diarrheal illness by 25-37% (Fewtrell et
al., 2005; Wolf et al., 2014). A meta-regression conducted by Wolf et al. to identify the health
effects of different types of water supply interventions found a relative risk for diarrheal disease
of 0.86 (95% CI: 0.72, 1.03) from interventions that provided piped water connections (with non-
continuous flow) to households that previously relied on improved community sources (e.g.,
stand pipes), and a relative risk of 0.21 (95% CI: 0.08, 0.56) in interventions that provided
continuous, high quality piped water connections to households that previously relied on
improved community sources (Wolf et al., 2014). While the illness reduction from a continuous
connection is based on limited evidence from a single study, the meta-regression identifies the
health benefits that can be achieved from household connections that provide continuous water
supply, which are envisioned in the intervention.

The health benefits of closer and more reliable access to water sources have been shown in
several other studies. For example, one multi-country study in sub-Saharan Africa found that
even a 5- minute decrease in one-way travel time was associated with decreased diarrheal disease
incidence and improved weight-for-age measures (Pickering & Davis, 2012). Closer access to
piped water has also been found to be protective against diarrheal morbidity (Thompson, 2001),
and to reduce diarrheal illness duration (Jalan & Ravallion, 2003). Further, close access to piped
water, either in the home or compound, has been linked to an increase in the quantity of water
consumed (Devoto et al., 2011; Thompson, 2001), and increased water consumption has been
shown to be protective against diarrheal disease (Shrestha et al., 2013).

Lacking water access and infrastructure has also been linked to respiratory diseases. A 2004
study in Vietnam found the lack of an indoor water source to be associated with the development
of influenza A H5N1 infection (Dinh et al., 2006). Another study in rural Alaska found higher
hospitalization rates for pneumonia, influenza, and respiratory syncytial virus (for children under
5) in regions with lower proportions of in-home water service (Hennessy et al., 2008). And a
study in Bangladesh found having a place inside the house with water to wash hands to be
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protective against children under five reporting a cough or difficulty breathing in the last 7 days
(Luby and Hadler, 2008).

There is also significant evidence to support the importance of improved sanitation on health
(Fewtrell et al., 2005; Waddington et al., 2009; Wolf et al., 2014). However, as nearly 88% of
peri-urban households in Lusaka already have access to a pit latrine (CSO 2010), and the
LWSSD Compact aims to facilitate household connection to the sewer system via a flush toilet,
this review of the literature will be limited in scope to the health benefits associated with sewer
connected toilets. Sewer connections have been widely shown to decrease diarrhea; one meta-
analysis found a 31% reduction in diarrheal morbidity among households with access to a toilet
(Waddington et al., 2009).

In addition, a meta-regression, though based on findings from only two studies, found a relative
risk for diarrheal disease of 0.37 (95% CI: 0.31, 0.44) for sanitation interventions that provided a
sewer-connected toilet where before there was an improved sanitation facility (e.g., a latrine)
(Wolf et al., 2014). Installations of sewer connections in large urban cities in Brazil and Iran also
demonstrated a decrease in diarrheal prevalence; Barreto and colleagues found a decrease of
22% in Salvador, Brazil, while Kolahi et al. found diarrheal incidence to decrease by 9% in
Tehran, Iran (Barreto et al., 2007; Kolahi et al., 2009).

Furthermore, a study in peri-urban Lima, Peru, found the lack of a sewer connection to be
associated with decreased child growth (Checkley et al., 2004). While considering these findings,
it is important to note the studies are non-experimental in design (i.e., the site of interventions
was not determined by the authors), and therefore there is a risk for confounding. Randomized,
experimental interventions that provide sewer connections are few given the inherent cost of
sanitation infrastructure and equity considerations. However, the studies presented, though
limited in their study design, demonstrate the substantial health gains that can result from
sewerage connections in urban areas.

The benefits of adequate drainage infrastructure can also be found in the literature. In another
observational study in Brazil, the combined benefits of drainage and sewerage were
demonstrated by Moraes et al., who found a 40% and nearly 70% lower incidence of diarrhea in

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neighborhoods that had drainage systems or both drainage and sewerage systems, respectively,
compared to neighborhoods that had neither (Moraes et al., 2003). In Lusaka, higher incidence of
cholera has been linked to areas that have smaller, insufficient drainage networks, and thus less
flood control (Sasaki et al., 2009).

Diarrheal illness can also create a financial burden for households as a result of medical and
transportation costs. Furthermore, illness can prevent a person from working or require that they
stay home to care for ill family members, resulting in potential income lost. This financial
burden is measured in a study in three African countries that found the total average cost per
episode of diarrheal illness to range from $2.63 to $6.24 (Rheingans et al., 2012). The potential
gain in productive days due to averted diarrheal illness is also substantial. One cost-benefit
analysis reported a worldwide gain of 310 and 550 million working days for adults 15 to 59
years old by meeting the Millennium Development Goals for water and sanitation and achieving
universal access to improved water supply and sanitation facilities, respectively (Hutton et al.,
2007).

In sub-Saharan African countries, the economic loss associated with inadequate access to water
supply and sanitation is estimated to be 4.3% of annual GDP (Hutton, 2013). In Zambia, the
economic loss associated with inadequate sanitation alone is estimated to be 1.3% of the national
GDP, an equivalent of approximately $194 million dollars. Nearly $180 million of that loss is
attributed to premature death from WASH-related diarrhea, diarrheal disease-related healthcare
costs, and productivity loss while sick with or accessing healthcare for diarrheal illness (Water
and Sanitation Program, 2012).

The visited residents clearly had challenges with waste disposal, with waste being visible in
drainages and open spaces. When interviewed on waste disposal, most residents stated using
formal waste collectors, usually via Lusaka City Council. However, spotted disposal sites were
usually full of waste, which residents explained, was collected inconsistently by the
municipality. Our findings cited the second most common form of waste disposal (25% in Site I,
20% in Site II) as being via informal collectors. Despite being unregulated, informal collectors
were stated to be a cheaper, more accessible waste disposal solution for community residents.
Still, several aspects such as the mode of collection of waste, treatment of waste and movement
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of waste were often overlooked. In Site III, many residents attested to the use of ditches for
throwing waste. This is a banned practise however, due to the impact of burying non-degradable
waste on the environment. There have also been several accidents of pit latrines caving in due to
their being set up on and/or near former and/or existing ditches. Even so, the ban is not regulated.
Several residents living near dams also use these water locations to dispose of waste.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Design

This study will employ qualitative approach. According to Merriam (2009: 13), “ Qualitative
researchers are interested in understanding the meanings people have constructed, that is, how
people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world”. this means that
qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to
interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. In this study the interest is
assess the impact of water project in line with water and sanitation challenges among residents of
Zamtan compound in a bid to come up with possible ideas that policy makers and cooperating
partners can utilize for future implementation of projects of similar nature. Additionally, this
approach was used because it is valuable in providing rich descriptions of complex phenomena
such as; exploring people’s opinions, perceptions, attitudes, views about a phenomenon and so
on. The design for this study will be content analysis. (cole, 1988) describes content analysis as a
method of analyzing written, verbal or visual communication messages and may be used with
either qualitative or quantitative data. It is also known as a method of analyzing documents.

3.2 Sampling Design

Purposive and convenience sampling which are both non-probability sampling will be used in
order to achieve a rich varied collection of information. White (2003:63) elaborates that, “in non-
probability sampling, the researcher uses subjects who happen to be accessible or who may
represent certain type of characteristics. Denzin and Lincoln (2000) also state that purposive
sampling method seeks out group settings and individuals where the processes being studied are
most likely to occur. They further point out that in Convenience sampling sometimes called
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availability sampling respondents are usually those who are the nearest and the most easily
available.

In this regard, respondents will be purposively selected for questionnaires and in-depth interview
respectively. This will be on the basis that the researcher will be aware of the population and
respondents to be selected will be able to provide the best data needed for the study.

3.3 Sample Size and Distribution

According to Mugenda (1999), a population is a complete set of individual case or object, with
some common observable characteristics. The study will target residents of Zamtan compound of
Kitwe District as it represents the water project environment.

The total sample size of fifty (50) respondents will be included in the evaluation study of Zamtan
compound. In order to ensure that all the residents have an equal chance of being in the
representative sample of the research, simple random sampling method will used to select the
sample.

3.4 Data Collection

The study shall use both Secondary data and Primary Data in this research.

3.4.1 Secondary Data

Secondary data is the type of data that is obtained from existing literature, and will be used with
a view of assessing the problems associated with poor water supply and sanitation in peri urban
areas and measures to mitigate the problems, particularly Zamtan compound of Kitwe District.
This will be comprised of a critical evaluation of relevant literature on the subject matter and
already existing researches. The type of materials that will be reviewed shall include published
and unpublished books, journals, Ministry of National Development Planning, Central statistics,
Ministry of housing and Government Local Authority.

3.4.2 Primary Data

This is the type of data that will be obtained from the field survey using research instruments.
For this research evaluation, primary data will be collected using questionnaires, observation and
structured personal interviews. The questionnaires will be distributed to would be selected

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residents of Zamtan Compound as research respondents because it makes the environment where
the water project was implemented.

3.5 Data Analysis

The data collected will not be an end in itself but it will serve as a means to an end. The end
being the use of the required data to understand the various situations it is with a view to making
valuable recommendations and contributions. To this end, the data collected will be analyzed for
any meaningful interpretation to come out with some results. It is for this reason that the
following methods will be adopted in the research analysis of the data collected. For a
comprehensive analysis of data collected, emphasis will be laid on the use of absolute number
frequencies of tables, charts and percentages. Answers to the research questions will be provided
through the comparison of the percentage of respondents’ response to each statement in the
questionnaire related to any specified question being considered.

3.6 Ethical Considerations

Research is a scientific human endeavor that is organized according to a range of protocols,
methods, guidelines and legislation. As such, informed consent was the cornerstone of this
research. Participants were informed of the whole study goals including expected results. They
were informed of their right to participate voluntarily and to withdraw at any point if they so
wished. They were also informed that the study was entirely for academic purposes and as such
their identity would be kept anonymous and their individual responses confidential from the
public domain. The principle of veracity or truth telling is inherently important and the
researcher will show this by telling the participants the aim of the research, permission to record
the interview and why and the proposed outcomes in order to allow the participants to participate
willingly.

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BIBIOGRAPHY

Ahsan, H. (2007). "Can information alone change behavior? Response to arsenic contamination
of groundwater in Bangladesh." Journal of Development Economics: 84: 731–754.

Burr, V. (2003). Social Constructionism (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Central Statistics Office. (2011). Zambia 2010 Census of Population and Housing Preliminary
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Chintu, C., Et al (1995). Intestinal parasites in HIV-seropositive Zambian children with diarrhea.

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Dube, S. D. (1984). Acute bacterial diarrhea’s due to salmonella, shigella and enteropathogenic
Escherichia coli in Zambia. Med J Zambia, 18(3), 26-29.

Cole F.L. (1988). Content analysis: process and application. Clinical Nurse Specialist 2(1), 53–
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Evans, P. (1992). Paying the Piper: an overview of community financing of water and sanitation.
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Fewtrell, L. & Colford, J. M (2004). "Water, sanitation and hygiene: interventions and diarrhoea:
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Greener, Healthier and Happier. New York: The Penguin Press.

WHO and UNICEF (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update
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