Optics & Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

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Optics and Laser Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optlastec

Laser-based hybrid micromachining processes: A review

Ashish Kumar Sahu, Jitin Malhotra, Sunil Jha *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, 110016, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Laser beam micromachining is a prominent method for micromachining applications. But it has some drawbacks
Laser beam machining like thermal stresses, uncontrolled dimensions, burrs, and spatter. Similarly, non-conventional processes like
Hybrid machining ECM, EDM, and conventional machining processes, namely turning, drilling and milling, also have limitations
Surface roughness
due to slow process and tooling costs. Researchers are continuously seeking hybrid machining, like laser-based
Sequential machining
LAECM
hybrid machining methods, to improve the product’s quality characteristics. Researchers have thoroughly
JECM investigated the laser-based hybrid process mechanism in the last decade and have identified different issues and
Vibration-assisted machining control strategies to improve its performance. This paper reviews laser-based hybrid micromachining processes
Magnetic field-assisted machining (LHMMP) in which LBM is combined with conventional processes and non-conventional processes in an assisted
Electric field-assisted machining or sequential manner. Also, other energy sources assisting the laser beam machining process, viz. vibration,
Gas-assisted machining magnetic field, electric field, fluids, and gases, are reviewed in the current work. This paper summarizes the work
Fluid-assisted machining performed on metals, non-metals and ceramics in the area of the LHMMP to create 3D micro features. Theoretical
Drilling
and experimental studies, mechanisms of machining, machining setups, and the impact of process parameters on
Micromachining
laser-based hybrid micromachining techniques are reviewed in detail. The hybrid processes elevate the process
efficiency, surface quality, tooling cost and precision of fabricated parts. In the last section of this paper, future
development efforts needed in this area of laser-based hybrid machining are suggested to multiply the process
utility.

1. Introduction microreactors, microfluidic devices, micro moulds, micro dies, micro

fuel cells [8–10].
Micromanufacturing is becoming an eminent methodology having Micromachining processes are still in the development phase and
its feet in varied sectors like electronics, telecommunication, defence, suffer from a lack of findings. Further research can push the processes
automotive, aircraft, IT industries, home appliances, medical in­ from a lab centric environment to an industrial application scenario
struments, biomedical, implants industries, etc. [1–5]. Micro-products [11]. A list of critical challenges faced by researchers in micromachining
or micro-components usually have minimum requirements called is 3D geometries and complicated shape machining, satisfying re­
micro-manufactured, ranging from a few µm to 1000 µm. Micro products quirements of surface finish, workpiece material limitations, high pre­
can have complex 3D shapes with Ra values higher than 0.5 µm, high cision machining, machining time reduction, high production cost, etc.
tolerances typically below 1 µm on a wide span of materials, including [12–14]. Now it’s time to overcome these challenges in manufacturing
ceramics, steels, specialized alloys, etc. [6]. Traditional micro­ high-quality products and fulfil industry demands [15].
manufacturing covers technological processes like machining, material The classification of micromachining processes is similar to macro
deposition, forming, heat treatments, newly introduced additive machining processes and is divided into conventional, non-
manufacturing, and many more [7]. Significant applications are conventional, and hybrid micromachining methods, as shown in Fig. 1

Abbreviations: LBM, Laser Beam Machining; LHMMP, Laser-Based Hybrid Micromachining Process; VALBM, Vibration-Assisted LBM; MFALBM, Magnetic Field-
Assisted LBM; FALBM, Fluid-Assisted LBM; EFALBM, Electric Field-Assisted LBM; GALBM, Gas-Assisted LBM; LAM, Laser-Assisted Milling; LAECM, Laser-Assisted
ECM; LAT, Laser-Assisted Turning; ECM, Electro-Chemical Machining; EDM, Electrical Discharge Machining; IT, Information Technology; FEA, Finite Element
Analysis; LBT, Laser Beam Turning; LBC, Laser Beam Cutting; HAZ, heat affected zone; Fs, femtosecond; ns, nanosecond; MRR, material removal rate; SR, surface
roughness; RP, Rapid Prototyping; MRF, Magneto-Rheological Finishing; ECH, Electro-Chemical Honing; CPS, Cyber-Physical System; IEG, inter-electrode gap; RCL,
recast layer; MEMS, Micro-Electro-Mechanical System; LIPMM, Laser-Induced Plasma Micromachining; LAECM, Laser-Assisted Electrochemical Machining.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: suniljha@mech.iitd.ac.in (S. Jha).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107554
Received 6 February 2021; Received in revised form 22 July 2021; Accepted 23 September 2021
Available online 30 September 2021
0030-3992/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

microfabrication applications. In this process, material ablation occurs

by an intense laser beam radiation when the substrate absorbs the
thermal energy. When the fluence generated by a focused beam is
greater than the material threshold, it transforms the material into a
molten, vaporized, and chemically degraded state. Ablation leads to
material removal, resulting in the fabrication of geometry and surface
modification at microns or sub-micron levels [29,170]. The sub-
threshold value of laser fluence will result in permanent property
modification of materials by forming HAZ. However, higher fluence
Fig. 1. Classification of the micromachining processes. leads to boiling of material and vapour bubble formation. The absorbed
thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings by convection, as
[16]. In the conventional micromachining process, an interaction be­ shown in Fig. 2.
tween a tool and a workpiece results in a shearing action, and material When multiple pulses are used for laser ablation, the ablation
removal happens. Although factors like cutting force and tool wear come thresholds may decrease due to the incubation effect. According to the
into the picture due to the physical contact between tool & workpiece Beer-Lambert law, the thickness or volume of material removed per
[17]. Conventional processes include micro-turning, micro-milling, & pulse above the ablation threshold typically shows a logarithmic in­
micro-grinding processes, where a single-point cutting tool or fine crease with fluence [26]. The thermal effect generated by laser beam
abrasive grinding wheel interacts with a workpiece material for material depends on thermal & optical properties, surface characteristics, the
removal [18]. In the non-conventional process, no physical contact be­ microstructure of the material, and laser parameters. Thermal properties
tween the tool and work material happens. Machining occurs by energy such as conductivity and specific heat; optical properties like reflectiv­
transfer in other forms like sparks, vibration, electrolysis, beam energy ity, absorption coefficient, density of a material, and refractive index
(laser, electron, or ion), erosion energy [19–22]. In the hybrid process, majorly influence laser beam ablation characteristics [108]. Laser
two or more conventional or non-conventional processes are combined properties such as beam quality, pulse width, wavelength, and spot
either in an assisted manner or in a sequential form so as energy sources diameter also affect the interaction with the substrate. Thermal loss of
of multiple processes can be used for machining [23,24]. The objective laser fluence occurs due to reflectivity, conduction loss, and radiation
of using hybrid processes is to enhance the advantages or positives of losses from the substrate surface [27].
one method and (or) reducing the disadvantages or negatives of the In LBM, material removal occurs due to fluence, so no cutting tool is
process to get the maximum benefit out of it. required. This missing physical interaction behaviour leads to the
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) is a well-established non-conventional absence of mechanically induced material damage, tool vibration, tool
micromachining process used for several industrial applications varying chatter, tool wear, and cutting forces. Nd: Yag and CO2 are the most
from one-dimensional to three-dimensional machining [25]. Laser popular laser used for LBM applications. Nd: Yag laser gives high peak
beams are highly monochromatic, have high electromagnetic flux in­ power in pulse mode. Fiber laser is also gaining popularity due to its
tensity with high spatial and temporal coherence. Laser beam properties robust nature and lesser maintenance. Shorter pulse widths such as ps
make it highly directional and allow them to focus in narrow areas with and fs are preferred for high precision machining with lesser HAZ [28].
increased intensity. The focused beam further enables them to deposit,
remove or change the material properties by altering the inherent
properties. Additionally, the laser’s dynamic capabilities of depth and 1.2. Laser beam machining variants
energy control make it more advantageous. A brief description of LBM is
presented in the following subsection. a) Laser beam drilling (LBD) is a precise non-contact technique that can
form small diameter holes in a wide range of materials [30]. The
upsides of laser drilling include the capacity to machine hard ma­
1.1. Laser beam Machining (LBM) terial, for example, superalloys, ceramics, and composites without
any wear [31,32]. Laser micro-drilling having different techniques,
LBM is a thermal process that uses the focused beam energy for namely single shot, percussion, helical, trepanning [33,34]. The

Fig. 2. Mechanism of the laser pulse and material interaction [29]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the
rights holder].

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i. Burr and spatter formation: Spatter on the top and bottom

surface of the workpiece is observed, which results in poor
machining. Similarly, burrs on the bottom of the cutting surface
are more in laser processing [55].
ii. Surface roughness: Surface roughness is poor in laser micro­
machining with larger pulse duration, i.e., ms and µs. In multiple
scans, it increases drastically with larger pulses duration [56]. At
a scanning speed lower speed surface, it is very rough due to the
repositioning of melted material. Optimization of parameter
needed for higher surface finish part.
iii. Uncontrolled dimension of micro features: Dimensional ac­
curacy is a challenge in laser micromachining. The tolerance is
weak and can’t precisely shape features on the workpiece as the
beam is tapered [49,57].
iv. Recast layer and redeposition: The machined zone’s melted
material gets redeposited, and the recast layer is constructed due
to the unreachable region of assist gas or cooling effect [58]
v. Thermal stress and crack: The higher thermal intensity of laser
beam and cooling effect of assist gases and thermal crack were
observed on the machined surface. Due to thermal stress, a heat-
Fig. 3. LBM process parameters and responses. affected zone (HAZ) is formed surroundings to the machined area
[59].
drawbacks in LBD are the low aspect ratio while machining features vi. Tapered surface: Due to beam focusing condition, the tapered
(depth/diameter) and tapered hole profile because of focused beam surfaces are achieved during machining in holes and channels
shape condition. [51,52,60].
b) Laser beam turning (LBT) is used to machine cylindrical-shaped or
hollow cylindrical workpiece materials by removing micron level 1.4. Need of hybrid machining processes
chips from the workpiece surface. Grooves on the cylindrical surface
can also be created by this process [35]. Stent manufacturing on The qualities like high precision, smaller dimensional tolerances, and
nitinol, stainless steel, and the biodegradable polymer is a potential superior surface structure are expected out of micro-components [57].
application of laser beam turning in biomedical applications [36,37]. The application of micro-size components will be increasing extensively
c) Laser beam milling process (LBMP) creates various geometries on in the upcoming years. It is challenging to produce micro components
metals and non-metals contrasted. LBMP has few interests points with high productivity and less cost. LBM alone cannot give final
independent of material properties, such as hardness, thermal con­ products, which can be used for various applications because of draw­
ductivity, and quick micro-scale component production [48]. The backs like uncontrolled dimension and tapered surface [61]. Still, there
sub-variant of laser beam milling process, i.e., engraving and is a need for post-processing techniques like etching, chemical bath, or
scribing, has applications for marking, cleaning, thin-film patterning, finishing.
microchannels for fluid flow, and coining and moulding applications Laser beam machining has been studied since 1960, and its industrial
[38]. application of technology was started by CO2 laser. In 1965, the first
d) Laser beam cutting (LBC) is a widely used method of cutting sheets production laser cutting machine was used to drill holes in dia­
with laser fluence. The laser beam traverses along a cutting path with mond dies. Since then, technology was put into production to continu­
a defined scanning speed and melts the workpiece material. Nd: Yag ously improve the way to cut titanium for aerospace and textiles
or CO2 laser cutting is used for different thicknesses depending on applications. In the present scenario, the LBM technique is wildly
power and kerf width required. Excellent cut quality and narrow kerf accepted in several industries and research organizations. Development
width are the potentials of LBC [39,40]. of fs and ps laser leads to the application of machining of micro features
e) Laser beam polishing (LBP) is a method to improve tribological with lesser HAZ and better surface quality.
properties and surface conditions, including microparts’ waviness Many researchers took an interest in LBM in recent decades, and
and roughness. Laser pulses of fs and ps range are utilized in this many studies were reported related to different variants of LBM.
process, where melting of material in the range of 10–100 nm hap­ Although, most of the research focuses on the effect of process param­
pens and results in a highly polished surface [154,155]. eters. Wu et al. constructed a micro-hole array on PU synthetic leather
to improve water vapour permeability with different laser beam wave­
lengths and observed the morphology of holes created. It revealed that
1.3. Challenges in LBM photochemical and photothermal ablation occurs at a wavelength of
355 nm. At the same time, only photothermal ablation occurs at IR
Besides the advantages of LBM like faster machining, the small size of wavelength (1064 nm). Also, water vapour permeability was increased
features, cost-effectiveness, and high production rate, few drawbacks with a decrease in the wavelength [41]. Lash et al. performed laser
exist. In laser drilling, lower aspect ratio, poor circularity, and taperness drilling on 0.025 mm–0.127 mm thick foils of copper, titanium, and iron
comes with burrs and spatter on hole inlet and outlet [34,52]. In laser at atmospheric pressure in air and argon assistance [42]. They reported
milling, surface roughness, surface integrity, and microstructure change the number of pulses required to drill a hole and claimed a four-times
due to heat severely affecting the material properties. Machining reduction in drilling time on titanium in the presence of argon. In
reflective material like aluminium by LBM is still a challenge. Laser comparison, no machining was evident on the surface of the foil of
process parameters and response is shown in Fig. 3. Different researchers aluminium in argon.
worked on the micro-drilling application to manufacture holes from few Biffi et al. performed percussion micro-drilling on Ti (0.5 mm thick)
microns to 500 µm. They looked into problems associated with laser with pulsed fiber ns laser to examine the impact of machining parame­
micro-drilling, i.e., hole taper, circularity and aspect ratio, etc. [53,54]. ters on the quality of machined through holes, like diameter, taperness,
Few problems associated with LBM are mentioned below: circularity, area of top spatter, and surface morphology[43]. Exit hole

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Fig. 4. Classification of laser-based hybrid micromachining processes. [VALBM Vibration assisted LBM; MFALBM Magnetic field-assisted LBM; FALBM Fluid
assisted LBM; EFALBM Electric field-assisted LBM; GALBM Gas-assisted LBM; LAM Laser-assisted Milling; LAECM Laser-assisted ECM; LAT Laser-Assisted turning].

was free from spatter and dross, and also, Dtop and Dbottom increased due [10,20]. However, in the LBM process, accuracy is better compared to
to higher heat input. Taperness depends only on pulse energy, while other processes. It will depend on beam delivery and the optical system.
pulse frequency doesn’t make any contribution. The nano hardness of With conventional machining, significant tool wear and tool cost issues
internal walls also resulted in a significantly higher value, which sig­ were reported [64]. It is also challenging to use conventional micro­
nifies the changes in Ti properties after the laser process on the hole’s machining processes as microtools cost is approximately 40–50% of the
entrance and exit surface [44]. High aspect ratio drilling is still a chal­ total component cost. So, for cost-effective production, it is a need of an
lenge for LBM, and even a few studies like ref. [45,46] have reported hour to use other processes in combination with conventional
these challenges. Dhupal et al. performed laser turning for machining. Hybrid machining methods can be utilized to overcome the
manufacturing square micro-grooves on the cylindrical surface of limitation of these individual processes [65].
ceramic materials. The effects of laser turning process parameters, i.e., In this paper, laser-based hybrid processes are discussed, past
lamp current, pulse repetition rate, pulse duration, scanning speed, and experimentation and theoretical studies are reviewed. The laser-assisted
assist gas pressure on the quality of laser turned micro-grooves, were machining process is considered, such as LAECM, vibration-assisted
studied [35]. Similarly, Kibria et al. also employed laser machining to LBM, magnetic or electric field-assisted LBM, fluid or gas-assisted
machine round bars of difficult-to-process ceramic materials with a LBM, and laser-assisted conventional machining. In laser-assisted con­
single laser beam. The authors further studied the effect of process pa­ ventional machining and laser-assisted ECM, the laser beam is the sec­
rameters on surface roughness and depth of cut in turning [47]. Other ondary process, which helps in melting or heating the workpiece. The
studies were reported in the laser micro-milling area to optimize primary process is used to remove material, resulting in improved
geometrical dimensions and surface roughness of microchannel and overall efficiency. In vibration-assisted LBM, magnetic or electric field-
different complex geometries [50,51]. assisted LBM, fluid or gas-assisted LBM, the laser beam is the primary
The increasing number of publications per year on laser beam process that gets benefitted by vibration, magnetic field, electric field,
machining’ state of the art establishment and process improvement re­ liquid, or gasses, respectively. In sequential machining processes like
flects the academic attention towards the LBM process and can expect a EDM or drilling are combined sequentially with the laser beam drilling
more process-specific analysis in future. Several researchers have process.
worked towards understanding the mechanism and processing condition The hybrid machining processes have applications primarily focused
for different materials with LBM. At present, the LBM process is in a on fabricating micron size components, like microholes, microchannels,
phase where understanding the LBM process mechanism and produc­ and 3D geometry on difficult to cut material (ceramics, metal, non-
tivity has to be enhanced by combining it with other hybrid machining metal, and superalloys) [16,24,72]. These processes have achieved
processes. The hybrid machining processes based on laser also need to burr and defect-free surfaces with good surface finish and lesser thermal
overcome the limitation of two or more processes to prove their stress [66]. A summary of machining setup is also covered in this review,
usefulness. which is used for sequential and assisted machining processes combined
The hybrid machining process, still being in the improvement stage, with LBM. In the last section, challenges faced by researchers are curated
can be widely accepted in industries working on fabricating micro- with a direction towards future works and areas of improvement like the
fluidic devices, bio-medical, electronic devices, etc. The need for an development of precision machines with high dynamic stiffness and
hour is to transfer the available knowledge to the industries and new­ accuracy for LHMMP. Different machining setup causes repositioning
comers in the field in a comprehensive way so that they can understand errors in product, so, there is a need for a device to align two machining
the process in a consolidated manner and think about possible amelio­ setups or develop such precision multi-process machining setups
rations accordingly. [67,71]. Apart from that, measurements also play a vital role during
Other machining processes like EDM, ECM, or conventional manufacturing, so for high precision micro components, it is a must to
machining also suffers from some drawbacks. EDM gives high-quality measure geometric dimensions on the machining setup itself [68]. In
machining with high precision and better surface characteristics, but it situ measurement of geometric dimension and surface finish for high-
is time-consuming, resulting in lesser production rates [62,63]. Also, it is quality parts is a mandate [69]. Research should not be bounded till
limited to electrically conductive material [19,20]. ECM does not cause process advancement and development, but also it needs to develop a
any thermal stress or HAZ, but precision is very limited in the process machining setup that can be used in the industry for assisted and

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sequential machining on the same machining system [21,71].

To do so, a review of the published literature covering all aspects of
laser-based hybrid machining along with their essential evaluation
highlighting conceivable future contributions is the ideal way out.
Indeed, any review article covering all the exploratory and analytical
aspects of the laser-based hybrid machining process is as yet not pub­
lished up to the best of our insight. The current work targets to fill this
gap by providing a comprehensive and detailed review of laser-based
hybrid machining processes focusing on the micromachining area.

2. Laser-based hybrid micromachining processes

Despite numerous research on micromachining techniques, it is still

suffering from various limitations, as mentioned in the previous section.
To overcome these limitations, researchers focused on hybrid machining
techniques. In hybrid machining techniques, two or more machining
processes are combined in an assisted or sequential way. Both processes
have different machining principles, compound the advantages, and
offset each other’s limitations [65,163]. Hybrid manufacturing process
performance and responses are better than individual machining pro­
cesses. The laser-based hybrid process can be classified in an assisted and
sequential manner, as depicted in Fig. 4.
There is one primary participating machining method in assisted
machining methods, which is directly involved in material removal. At Fig. 5. US vibration LBM schematics [77].
the same time, the secondary process provides assistance to increase
metal removing mechanism or overcome defects like roughness, burrs, 3. Assisted machining with laser as primary process
recast layer, thermal stress [16,58,70]. Secondary assistance processes
can be ultrasonic vibration, external magnetic field or electric field, In this section, studies about laser beam machining with external
fluid, gasses, or heat [71]. The laser-assisted process can be further energy sources’ assistance are described in detail. The energy in the form
subclassified into laser machining as the primary method and other of vibration, external magnetic field, electric field, and fluids such as
energy sources assisting laser machining. In another sub-classification, gasses and water helps laser micromachining improve fabricated parts
laser beam assisting another machining process like ECM or conven­ quality and characteristics. Researchers have developed a lab setup for
tional machining. In these processes, LBM acting as the secondary pro­ such processes and analyzed the mechanisms. Significant improvements
cess, as shown in Fig. 4. are shown and concluded in the processes.
In hybrid micromachining, clustering multiple processes in a single
setup is not realized, so the process is performed in multiple steps with
more than one setup. So, two or more processes perform machining at a 3.1. Vibration-assisted laser micromachining
similar machining zone one after another, as s process chain to overcome
drawbacks in a sequential manner. From a machining perspective, there The redeposited and re-solidified material layer is undesirable in
is no significant difference; however, the second process works on the laser machining, stopping interaction between the laser beam and fresh
machined surface of the machined process. Sequential machining is material and limiting aspect ratio and surface quality [76]. Reduction of
when two or more machining methods are implemented one after re-deposition and post-processing of holes and channels is needed by
another on the same or different machining setups [71]. In a sequential chemical etching or polishing. Vibration-assisted EDM shows a better
process, one method has been performed after another to overcome the surface compared to typical EDM [171]. It needs to provide assistance to
limitations of both individually [72]. One other benefit of the laser the workpiece or focusing lens by ultrasonic vibration and analyze the
process combined with conventional machining is to use the thermal effect on redeposition and machining efficiency. Schematics are shown
energy of laser machining for softening material and a significant in Fig. 5 for the ultrasonic-assisted LBM process.
reduction in cutting forces and torque [73]. Zheng et al. proposed a novel method to fabricate high aspect ratio
In the past, few researchers have combined processes like conven­ holes by vibration-assisted fs laser drilling system (λ = 775 nm) in which
tional drilling and EDM, laser and conventional drilling, but most of an ultrasonic horn is attached to the workpiece [77]. Ultrasonic vibra­
them are on different machining setups. Laser machining with tradi­ tion of frequency 40 kHz is installed on an adjustable post. The aspect
tional machining tools like micro-drilling is performed on two separate ratio and surface finish of holes were improved with ultrasonic vibration
machines, but the process suffers significantly from alignment errors on nitinol. Hole depth increased from 1.65 mm to 1.95 mm by using
[74]. However, in sequential machining, equipment, maintenance, and ultrasonic vibration assistance. Hole entrance diameter was increased
operation costs become higher due to two or more machining sources. In and became irregular in shape in the presence of vibration. MRR
sequential machining processes, energy sources should interact in the improved significantly, and ultrasonic vibrations reduced the resolidi­
same machining area, one after another, in sequence [71]. fied layer, so the surface appeared cleaner than without vibration
Hybrid machining operation improves surface integrity and pro­ assistance, as evident in 6(b). Vibration assistance also helps to lower
ductivity, lesser tool wear rate and efficient machining. If the hybrid down the redeposition of melted material as, shown in Fig. 6(a). The
machining is performed on the same machine, repositioning error will surface morphology gets improved with US assistance.
be eliminated, and precise parts can be manufactured with a lower Laser hole drilling from the fine mask was carried out by Choi et al.
tolerance value. There is a need to develop an integrated system for on Invar alloy in which vibration changes the focal position of laser
precise machining to benefit from the machining capabilities and ad­ beam continuously [60]. The vibration was applied on the objective lens
vantages of sequential machining [75]. by a micro vibrator. Taper angle depends on the vibration and changes
focal position. A regenerative amplifier-type fs laser based on Yb: KGW
with a central wavelength of 1027 nm, average power of 6 W, was

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Fig. 6. (a) Material deposition without US assistance (b) with US-assistance [77]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained
from the rights holder].

Fig. 7. SEM of cross surface irradiation at different ultrasonic power (a) 0% (b) 20% (c) 30% (d) 40% [78]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission
to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

Fig. 8. Top surface and cross-section of a hole drilled (a) 20%, (b) 30%, (c) 40% of ultrasonic power [78]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to
reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

utilized in experiments. The workpiece’s thickness was divided into five The exit diameter changes rapidly compared to the entrance diameter
planes, and the laser pulse started striking on top plane position, and with vibration amplitudes, which is evident by the taper angle. The hole
subsequent pulses focus moves downward plane and in a reverse taper depends on the amplitude of vibration, which varied between
manner. Eight pulses accumulated at one hole per vibration cycle. Five 31.8◦ and 43.9◦ at different amplitudes ranging from 1 to 13 µm at the
focal planes, including the sample front and back sides, were defined by frequency of 100 Hz. Taper angle was decreased with an increase in
dividing the material into four parts along its thickness. Focusing con­ amplitude.
dition on top found the better result and was used for further analysis. Melting and surface vaporization mechanism in argon and ultrasonic

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 9. Vibration displacement effect at 50 µJ/pulse energy with 500 Hz frequency of laser [79]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse
must be obtained from the rights holder].

vibration-assisted laser drilling understood by Alavi et al. on Stainless vibrations to the focusing lens instead of the workpiece with pulse en­
steel. Vibration of different amplitude range is given to the workpiece by ergy of 50 mJ/pulse and a scanning speed of 0.01 mm/s. The experi­
continuous-wave CO2 laser. It was observed that without vibration, a re- mentation was performed by Ti sapphire fs laser at 795 nm wavelength.
solidified region is visible on the workpiece surface. Increasing the However, depth shows improvement with an increase in displacement
amplitude of vibration increases the depth of the resolidified region with heights, as exhibited in Fig. 9 [79]. With the introduction of vibration,
an increased diameter, as shown in Fig. 7 (a-d) [78]. Resolidified region heat transfer was more efficient due to local force convection. As a
is narrower without vibration, as seen in Fig. 7(a); However, applying result, the ablated particles cooled faster and had less tendency to
vibration of different amplitude with similar laser irradiation results in agglomerate.
material ablation and results in the deeper crater, as shown in Fig. 7 (b- Ultrasonic vibration assistance to LBM improves the surface quality.
d) can be seen. SEM image of cross-section shows that vibration assis­ Redeposition and recast problems can also be solved by vibration
tance fabricates straight holes, and spatter is observed less at a lower assistance. Kang et al. applied ultrasonic vibration to the laser polishing
amplitude of vibration. However, increasing vibration amplitude in­ method [164]. VALBM can create higher aspect ratio holes, and chan­
creases the redeposition of material surrounding holes, as shown in nels and upcoming research needs a wide range of experimentation and
Fig. 8 (a-c). At lower ultrasonic power(20%), spatter can be seen sur­ modelling of process on different metals and ceramics.
rounding to hole without any material built up. By increasing, ultrasonic
power, heavy material built up clearly can be seen surrounding to hole.
3.2. Magnetic field-assisted LBM
It appears in the early stage of melting, expulsion in the form of droplets.
Park et al. performed fs laser machining by applying ultrasonic
To improve LBM, researchers are looking into an opportunity in the

Fig. 10. (a) Static MFALMM (b) Dynamic MFALMM.

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Fig. 11. Schematics of (a) Depth and (b) inlet diameter variation of holes with different magnets set and spinning speeds [53]. [Reproduced by permission of the
publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

Fig. 12. Effect of magnetic field on debris diameter and height [80]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the
rights holder].

area of magnetic field-assisted laser machining (MFALBM). An external speeds of 0,100 and 350 rpm. HAZ and inlet diameter was diminished by
magnetic field was created by permanent magnets and was applied to 37% and 30%, respectively. The diameter and depth did not affect
improve LBM process efficiency. The external magnetic field creates spinning speed because of the non-uniform distribution of the magnetic
Lorentz force, which increases electron speed, boosts plasma density, field, resulting in magnets’ rotation [53]. Depth and inlet diameter
and improves process performance [53,80]. MFALBM was tried on variation of holes with different magnets set and spinning speeds is
refective material, but it is still challenging for laser beam machining. shown in Fig. 11.
Machining of highly reflective Aluminum 6061 material (Reflectivity Ho et al. performed magnetic field-assisted laser percussion drilling
90%) was performed with the MFALBM process with Nd: Yag laser at to explore the feasibility of machining of highly reflective material
532 nm (270 mJ pulse energy). Permanent magnets have developed Al5052 by ns Nd: Yag Laser (532 nm) [80]. A circular, hollow NdFeB
static and dynamic magnetic fields, as shown in Fig. 10. For a static permanent magnet of 10 mm diameter was used with a variable inner
magnetic field, a permanent magnet was attached directly to the sample hole size of 1.5, 3, and 4.5 mm. The magnetic field’s effect on the
on both sides of the plate [53]. Drilling was performed at the interface of diameter of the hole, depth, height, and debris diameter was analyzed at
two plates. The dynamic magnetic field was developed by a hollow brass a different pulse energy of 120 and 200 mJ. The quality of the hole was
tube-driven set of permanent magnets attached to ball bearing, through improved significantly in the magnetic field-assisted laser percussion
which laser beam passes. The height of plasma was investigated at drilling method. Depth of the hole had shown improvement by 87.7%
different magnetic fields. At the smaller magnetic field, the plasma was without a magnetic field. This effect happened due to Lorentz force,
shorter. In the static magnetic field, the drilled hole profile was exam­ which assists molten material in lifting upwards, and expansion of
ined with different pairs of magnets and found depth is higher with the plasma increased the removal rate of material from the sidewall, as
assisted magnetic field. The deepest hole was found with one pair of the shown in Fig. 12(a). Similarly, debris height is shown improvement in
magnet. The hole depth was increased by 133%, and the inlet diameter the presence of a magnetic field (Fig. 12(b)).
decreased by 33% in the magnetic field presence. In the dynamic mag­ An external unidirectional magnetic field was applied in laser-
netic field, depth and diameter were analyzed at different spinning induced plasma micromachining (LIPMM) to improve the plasma

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 13. Typical micro-channel cross-sections made by LIPMM in the presence of magnetic fields in configurations (a) longitudinal upward (b) downward (c)
transverse (strength 5400 gauss) (d) without magnetic field [81]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the
rights holder].

investigated by Wang et al. [165]. Magnetic field-assisted laser hole-

cutting of magnesium alloys was explored systematically with and
without using water immersion by fs and ms laser for blind holes and
through holes. And, it was found that the magnetic field increases the
entrance diameters for blind and through holes while decreases the
blind-hole depth. The average grain size number in HAZ near the hole
was improved for grain refinement by increasing the magnetic field
strength [165].

3.3. Electric field-assisted LBM

Researchers also explored the possibility of electric field-assisted

laser machining. Laser interaction phenomena were studied with the
electric field. An external electric field was created with positive and
negative terminal surroundings to the laser and material interaction
zone, as shown in Fig. 14.
Fig. 14. Schematics of EFALBM [82]. Chao et al. performed electric field-assisted laser percussion drilling
for highly reflective material aluminium 5052 by ns Nd: Yag (532 nm).
characteristics of steel. Magnetic fields of different configurations of The effect of electric field and influence of different electrode configu­
magnetic line direction were tried, namely longitudinal upward and rations have been measured in penetration depth and inlet diameter
downward, transverse to channel cross-section as shown in Fig. 13(a-d). [82]. Finite element analysis was conducted using Comsol software to
Longitudinal fields lead to a more significant enhancement in plasma simulate the electric field. Depth of penetration increases in the electric
energy than transverse fields by the wider and deeper cavity. The field medium because of the drilled material movement, which was
channel’s depth and width were increased with the magnetic field, accelerated by the external electric field applied by the electrode and
which further improved the MRR [81]. electric force removed the charged particle.
The combined effect of the magnetic field, water and LBC was Zheng et al. performed ultrashort laser pulse machining of silicon
wafer for MEMS application. Electric field significantly affects the
cleanliness of the surface and reduction of contamination [83]. Detailed
data will be required to conclude the pro and cons of the EFALBM on a
wide variety of materials.
Electric field assisted LBM still need to explore, and a significant
contribution is needed in this area. Combinedly, ElectroMagnetic Field-
Assisted Laser Process possibility also exploring by a few research
groups [166]. In this decade, a newer methodology will be showing an
impact on research.

3.4. Fluid assisted-laser micromachining

Laser micromachining assisted by fluids such as water, gases, alco­

hols, and the salty solution is described. Fluids-assisted laser micro­
machining solves drawbacks such as burrs, dross, re-deposition, and re-
casting. However, fluids such as water also decrease thermal stresses and
Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of underwater LBMM process [85]. microcracks of surfaces [84]. Researchers have developed experimental

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 16. Comparison of surface roughness of the microchannel in (a) air and (b) water [88]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be
obtained from the rights holder].

setups to analyze the process parameters’ effect and understand material system with short pulse width like femtosecond and picosecond pulses
removal mechanism in these hybrid processes. are costlier. So, the water-assisted laser micromachining technique is
utilized to diminish excessive heat in work material from the machining
3.4.1. Water-assisted laser micromachining zone during ablation [85]. Along with machining, it was expected to
Micro components like holes and channels were examined post-laser heat work material from the machining zone amid removal. Fig. 15
micromachining, and thermal drawbacks on surface quality were shows a schematic of water-assisted LBM.
observed. The common thermal drawbacks observed are HAZ, recast Recently few researchers proposed liquid-assisted LBM to overcome
layer, debris, and cracks. Thermal effects were present due to longer problems for different materials in different liquid mediums. The most
pulse width, such as millisecond to the microsecond, but the machining popular liquid used is water, which is available at a low cost.

Fig. 17. Effect of scanning speed on (a) kerf width, (b) kerf depth (c) surface roughness, (WH = 10 mm) [88]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 18. (a) Effect of laser fluence on hole taper (b) spatter deposition and irritated areas for different scan speeds [90]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

Underwater or jet water-assisted LBM with different lasers like CO2 and characterization concluded that oxygen percentage at the middle of the
Nd: Yag was recently performed in a liquid-assisted machining format to channel is higher in the air than underwater because of oxidized debris
minimize thermal stresses [86]. A thin layer of water covers the work­ and recast layer ejected away by water. The cooling effect of water
piece to remove excess heat and debris. If the layer is thick, then a sig­ causes lesser oxidation of melted material. Optimum scanning speed,
nificant loss of laser pulse energy was observed. The researchers also number of scans, and pulse energy obtained for better surface quality are
tried water-assisted machining by flowing water layer or water through shown in Fig. 17(a-c). In underwater LBM, kerf width and depth showed
the nozzle or as some droplet, but flowing water or by nozzle helped to the same trend as dry LBM, in which both dimensions decreases with
improve MRR by removing debris from the machined zone and remove scanning speed. However, roughness decreases first then start increasing
taperness of holes. Mistry et al. simulated liquid-assisted LBM by FEA with scanning speed, as shown in Fig. 17(a-c)
technique [87]. Underwater laser ablation was carried out by Wuttisarn et al. to
Behera et al. implemented underwater Nd: Yag LBM and analyzed improve the metal removal and reduce thermal damage [89]. A nano­
the thermal effect of the LBM process such as recast layer, HAZ, debris, second pulse laser with a wavelength of 1064 nm, pulse duration of 120
and thermal crack for fabricating microchannels on stainless steel 304 ns, and pulse frequency of 30 kHz was used in this study. Water was
[88]. They used a 10 mm thick water layer above the workpiece surface, supplied by a nozzle of 3 mm diameter at an angle of 45◦ at lower
maintained during machining. Surface roughness was observed 2.7 pressure to improve metal removal. Experiments were performed by ns
times lesser in water compared to air, as seen in Fig. 16. Elemental pulse laser of 1064 nm wavelength with 70% scan overlap and spot size

Fig. 19. Entrance and exit hole diameter in (a) air and (b) water.[90]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the
rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 20. Comparison of a linear channel in (a) air (c) underwater; hole in (b) air (d) water (e) effect of water depth on the etching depth [91]. [Reproduced by
permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

of 20.3 µm on titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) sheet. Surface morphology was surface roughness due to water ablation. There was a too-short time for
compared in air, underwater layer, and flowing water, which showed material interaction and inadequate ablation at high scanning speeds,
flowing water film achieved higher depth than the stationary water whereas bubbles prevent water from removing debris efficiently at slow
layer. The laser travel speed effect was also analyzed on cavity depth and speeds. The single and double microchamber microfluidic devices were
taper angle with different water flow rates. A higher flow rate increases successfully fabricated.
the depth and reduces taperness. This higher flow rate was caused by the In another study, An et al. fabricated a nozzle (i.e., through-hole) on
momentum of water, which can induce a more significant amount of microfluidic devices to sort out the problem of nozzle alignment during
material removal and stepper cut profile with a lower taper. assembly over microchannel by water-assisted fs laser machining on
Micro-drilling of 50 µm of hole size on silicon sheets is performed in glass [93]. A bubble was formed in a water droplet, which removed
the air and underwater stream using the trepanning technique. A water debris from the machining zone. After machining, a gap of 2 s was
layer of 1 mm above the workpiece is available during laser drilling maintained to allow water droplets to carry debris with them. This
[90]. Wee et al. studied the impacts of laser parameters on scattering method was found effective to fabricate complicated microfluidic
deposition, irradiated area, and taper. Lower scanning speed is suitable systems.
for minimum hole taperness, spatter deposition, and irradiated areas Laser machining followed by water quenching of alumina was
underwater compared to the air shown in Fig. 18(a,b). The poor circu­ analyzed by Barnes et al. [94] using continuous-wave CO2 laser with an
larity of the hole at the exit in air drilling and a small exit area was x–y computer numerical controlled (CNC) positioning. First, a layer of
observed. This is because of material solidification at the entrance. The 1–2 mm of water was spread on the w/p surface, which was removed by
less irradiated area was observed in underwater machining because of constant air stream flow and making the laser spot dry, as shown in the
less redeposition of material, and residual inside holes were cleaned by schematic diagram Fig. 21. A comparison of water-assisted with dry
water as exhibited by Fig. 19(a, b). laser machining was carried out. A temperature profile was achieved
Crack less fluidic channels and holes were fabricated underwater by using a thermocouple in HAZ to analyze thermal stresses during cutting.
laser micromachining on pyrex glass by Chung et al. [91]. CO2 laser FEA was performed to predict temperature and stress is HAZ. Analysis of
equipment performed the laser ablation with a maximum laser power of cracks on different power and feed rates in both conditions, i.e., the laser
30 W. The thermal cracks were absent in underwater machining. This alone and water-assisted, was shown in Fig. 22 (a, b).
was primarily attributed due to the occurrence of crack failure due to Water assisted fs laser helical drilling was compared with the air
thermal stress, so through cutting had difficulty, as shown in Fig. 20 (a- medium of alumina ceramic [167]. Water assistance increased the hole
d). A smaller water depth is required through cutting with fewer passes, entry and exit diameters, reduced the taper angle, and increased the hole
as evident in Fig. 20(e). Lower water depth for the higher thickness may cross-section area. Water assistance could reduce the amounts of resid­
cause cracks due to insufficient cooling. ual debris and redeposition of ablated material on the hole sidewall.
High-speed fabrication of microchamber for microfluidic application There was almost no residual debris and redeposition of ablated material
was carried out by An et al. Water assisted fs laser drilling was per­ on the hole sidewall near the hole exit.
formed on silica glass in this study [92]. Inner walls of microfluidic The researcher tried to combined gas and water-assisted laser
chambers were analyzed by SEM and were found improvement in machining in few studies available [168,169]. Spray mist assisted laser

Fig. 21. Schematic of laser and air stream with water layer [94].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 22. Process maps based on power and feed rate (a) Alumina cut with laser (b) Alumina cut with laser and water [94]. [Reproduced by permission of the
publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

kerf. It plays a crucial role in laser fusion [95,96]. The molten material is
removed out due to aerodynamic interaction between molten metal and
assists gases, which has an enormous effect on cutting quality and pro­
duces flow separation phenomena, as shown in Fig. 23 [95,153].
Another function of assist gas is to protect focusing optics against va­
pours or spatters from the interaction zone. Assist gas can be supplied
coaxially in cutting head through nozzles. The problems associated with
cutting quality can be solved by controlling assist gases pressure, which
is controllable by a flow meter and depends on nozzle orifice diameter.
Different gasses, i.e., argon, oxygen, nitrogen, air, helium, can be sup­
plied during the process. When reactive gas such as oxygen is used, it
delivers additional exothermic energy by chemically reacting with
molten metal. This reaction supplies additional energy, which enhances
the cutting process [97]. Inert gases such as argon, helium can be used
for better cut quality and act as shielding [98].
Oxygen assisted laser cutting of mild steel is performed to analyze
the oxidation reaction of iron [99]. An exothermic reaction took place,
Fig. 23. Aerodynamic interactions in LBC using a conical sonic nozzle [153]. which produced a melted iron oxide layer (FeO) and was removed by
[Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be ob­ oxygen pressure. A brittle layer of FeO of few microns was observed
tained from the rights holder]. during cutting in the machining zone and was amorphous. The tem­
perature of the melting zone had not reached the boiling temperature of
machining technology forms a thin and fast-flowing water film on the FeO. Authors have further given guidelines to mild machine steel in
CVD diamond coating surfaces [168]. Sprayed droplets were radially oxygen assisted manner. High-speed cutting will be preferable in mild
dispersed from the impingement point and an ellipse-shaped water film steel. The focused laser beam was passed through the nozzle co-axially
zone due to the nozzle’s tilt. Spray assisted method was found better with the oxygen jet. Nitrogen was also used sometimes in cutting,
compared to underwater and dry machining. which does not react chemically in the melting zone.
Water assisted LBM reduces thermal stress and cracks on the work­ Jurag et al. created 25 different structures on Austenite Cr-Ni steel
piece surface. It reduces HAZ around the drilled hole or channel. Also, (X5CrNi18-10) (1 mm thick sheet) with Nd: Yag laser considering pro­
significant improvements in surface roughness is observed in this cess parameters like laser power, spot diameter, the position of a focal
process. point in three different mediums, i.e., argon, air, ethyl alcohol. These
structures were observed by confocal microscopy [100]. Oxidation of
3.4.2. Gas-assisted LBM the surface took place in the air, which resulted in black coloured
Assist gas aids in cutting and evacuates molten material from the structures on the surface of the sample. In alcohol, no oxidation was

Fig. 24. Laser cut surface in different mediums (a) Nitrogen, (b) Compressed Air, (c) Argon [102]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse
must be obtained from the rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

helium and argon leads to an oxide-free edge formation when examined

with XRD. SEM image showed a considerable recast layer of high
hardness that was difficult to remove.
LMM in three different gas, i.e., compressed air, argon, and nitrogen,
was performed. Their effects on laser cut quality factor, HAZ, surface
morphology and corrosion resistance of Titanium alloy were analyzed
by Shanjin et al. [102]. Burning of the surface was observed, which
produced wider kerf due to the exoergic reaction of oxygen. In the air
medium, oxygen and nitrogen are present, which formed a thin layer of
hard and brittle oxide and nitride reacting to Ti alloy, which resulted in
wider HAZ. Microcracks were observed while cutting in the presence of
oxygen, as shown in Fig. 24. These are due to the surface’s tension force
and the brittleness of titanium oxide and titanium nitride. Very small
microcracks were also found when machining with nitrogen. The
thickness of HAZ was more at a lower pressure due to the gas flow and
Fig. 25. HAZ layer thickness variation with gas pressure [102]. [Reproduced cooling effect. The thickness of HAZ was lower in argon compared to
by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the others, as shown in Fig. 25. Riveiro et al. performed CO2 laser cutting of
rights holder]. Al-Cu alloy by coaxial supersonic nozzle for better cut quality and better
MRR in assist gas medium [103].
observed, but laser character changed in specific areas of the structure. In another study, laser cutting of aluminium in different mediums of
Other maximum and minimum MRR was studied in alcohol and air. assist gas Ar, N2, O2, and compressed air was performed [104]. The
Micromachining of electrical grade silicon steel was performed to chemical composition of the surface of the laser-cut edge was studied. As
show the effects of shielding gas (He, Air, Ar, O2) and gas pressure by shown in Fig. 26, a better edge cut was achieved when cutting with
Jackson et al. [101]. They used three lasers of 1064 nm, 532 nm, and argon at higher power. Surface roughness was maximum when using
355 nm wavelengths, with a maximum power of 8,5 and 3 W. They oxygen and minimum with argon. HAZ was minimum with nitrogen and
found oxygen allows faster machinability of Si steel. However, the maximum with oxygen due to its exothermic chemical reaction. Argon is
depth-etch rate was highly dependent on assist gas pressure. The melting preferable for dross free cutting. Kerf width was found to be minimum in
of the surface was more prominent because of the fondness for oxygen. argon and maximum in air.
Silicon reacted with oxygen and produced a surface layer on the cut
front of silicon dioxide (SiO2). This formed a semi-impermeable seal 3.4.3. Other fluid-assisted LBM
over the underlying material, thereby inhibiting the reaction between The researchers also tried to perform fluid-assisted LBM with fluids
the oxygen and the molten material. Machining in the presence of other than water. Hwang et al. fabricated a high aspect ratio

Air Oxygen Nitrogen Argon

Fig. 26. Surface morphology of cut edge of samples processed by different gas [104]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be
obtained from the rights holder].

Fig. 27. Measured depth and diameter of drilled hole corresponding to the holes [105]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be
obtained from the rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

However, air or oxygen is preferred for exothermic assistance in the

removal mechanism of melting and vaporization.

4. Assisted machining with laser as secondary process

In this section of the article, the laser beam processes assisting other
micromachining processes such as turning, milling, ECM, and EDM are
reviewed. Previously, researchers also termed it hot machining. Devel­
opment of such processes will be benefitted by faster machining to
improve production capacity in industrial applications. A significant
reduction in cutting forces and tool wear is observed in turning and
milling. However, laser heating improves MRR in ECM and EDM
processes.

4.1. Laser-assisted turning process

Laser-assisted turning is used to machine difficult to machine ma­

terial by combining laser beam and conventional single-point turning
Fig. 28. Setup laser-assisted turning [109]. tools for cylindrical workpieces. Here, the laser beam assists machining,
acting as a secondary process, and primary machining was carried out
with a turning tool [106,107]. It has an application to reduce the
microchannel on 1.25 mm-thick optical glass by liquid-assisted fs laser
diameter of the circular part. In laser-assisted turning, the laser beam
machining [105]. A femtosecond laser of 800-nm wavelength with pulse
energy is utilized to heat circular rotating workpiece, and interaction
energies ranging from 3 to 33 µJ was used for experimentation. No post-
between tool and workpiece causes removal of material [109]. The
machining and treatment of the channel is required. Straight channel
workpiece softens and becomes ductile, and there is a significant
drilling was done at different scanning speeds in air, methanol, distilled
decrease in cutting forces. The laser beam is incident perpendicular or at
water, and isopropanol alcohol. The machined channel appeared bright
an angle on a rotary workpiece, as illustrated in Fig. 28. Although there
when liquid assisted machining was done and appeared dark in absence.
is a need to optimize the optimum cutting power of laser beam. Higher
Distilled water and methanol assisted drilled hole was deeper, and an in
power may cause thermal cracks and poor surface integrity [160].
iso-propane assistance hole was non-uniform. Ultrasonic waves
Wang et al. performed laser-assisted micro-turning of Al2O3 rein­
improved the aspect ratio up to 40:1 while the diameter uniformity also
forced particle aluminium matrix composite using 150 W Nd: Yag laser
improved, as shown in Fig. 27. 3D channel, bent holes, and the curved
and carbide turning tool [110]. Radial force Fy and axial force Fx
channel were also fabricated on glass and found low viscosity liquid to
reduced by 50%, and main cutting force Fz reduced by 10%, as depicted
be more effective for removing debris. The heating of liquids decreased
in Fig. 29. Tool wear was analyzed by studying the change in effective
viscosity, which was preferable for effective material removal.
tool diameter due to softening of the workpiece, which further reduces
Posa et al. performed Experimental laser micro machining using 40
the push forces of Al2O3 particle on composite on the tool’s clearance
W CO2 Laser on Borosilicate Glass with a chemical mixture of ethyl
face, so a significant reduction was observed.
acetate, silica, camphor, and aluminium borosilicate. Results show two
Panjehpour et al. performed LAT of AISI52100 steel and focussed
times increase in width of the slot, four times increase in depth of the
on the impacts of average power, pulse repetition rate, pulse energy,
slot, and seven times increase in material removal rate (MRR) on an
cutting velocity and feed rate on MRR, temperature, specific cutting
average [162].
energy, surface finish, microstructure, tool wear rate, and chip forma­
The above studies conclude that assist gas aids in improving the
tion [111]. Nd: Yag laser was utilized for machining, and cutting force
machining process for metal removal and a significant surface quality
was measured by strain gauge sensor. A non-contact type infrared
improvement. Inert gases can also be chosen for a high surface finish.
camera also measured the temperature. A regression model was

Fig. 29. Comparison of cutting force in conventional and assisted cutting [110]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained
from the rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 30. Chip morphology at different power and microhardness [111]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the
rights holder].

Fig. 31. Comparison of surface roughness with laser power and rake angle [112]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained
from the rights holder].

Fig. 32. (a) Unmachined surface (b) conventional method machined (c) LAM machined [112]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must
be obtained from the rights holder].

developed for temperature based on the experiment. In LAT, specific without laser assistance. This was due to a significant reduction in pull
cutting energy was reduced by 25%, while the temperature and surface out resulting in a better surface, and due to laser heating, the ductility
roughness also lowered for LAT compared to conventional turning. LAT- increased of the machining region. High negative rake angle caused
produced chips are continuous, and by an increase in power, its curva­ rubbing of surfaces. So poor surface finish was achieved, as illustrated in
ture also increased, which shows the thermal softening effect as Fig. 31. Optimum laser power needs to be selected deliberately so sur­
exhibited in Fig. 30 (a). LAT further increases the microhardness of the face roughness does not increase drastically. Overheating causes ther­
surface, which is due to severe plastic deformation, as shown in Fig. 30 mal cracks, and material flows to the side of the tool nose and built-up.
(b) [111]. The ductile mode of machining causes better surface finishes in LA
Single point diamond tool (SPDT) assisted by micro-laser machining SPDT, as shown in Fig. 32.
on silicon with cutting fluid performed by Mohammadia et al. [112] Silicon has poor machinability due to its brittle nature. Mechanism of
using IR CW laser. They considered laser parameters (laser power) and ductile mode machining of silicon by high-pressure phase trans­
SPDT parameters (cross–feed rates and rake angle) to analyze the effect formation (HPPT) with LAM was investigated by Ravindra et al. [113]
on surface roughness. The laser beam was delivered through the cutting by infrared (IR) diode laser. A tool was developed to supply laser beam
tool and aligned with the tool with beam delivery optics. LAM setup was along rake angle to heat workpiece surface, as shown in Fig. 33. Opti­
mounted on a precise diamond turning machine [112]. In roughing pass, mum power condition resulted in the deepest cut and getting the surface
roughness increased by 80% with laser assistance as compared to as the original. Process characterization was established for cutting and

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

was performed experimentally and numerically by Ayed et al. [115].

The developed cutting model understood the mechanism of chip for­
mation. Significant cutting force reduction was reported due to cutting
conditions and laser characteristics.
Researchers are also working on modelling the process to analyze the
mechanism and understanding. A 3D longitudinal and orthogonal
turning FEA model was developed to observe the effect of laser power,
cutting velocity, and rake angle on cutting edge radius and thrust force
for LAM of AISI D2 tool steel turning by Singh et al. [116]. They
observed a 30% reduction in flow stress with laser assistance.
LAT is successfully employed in different ways to improve process
capability and improvement in product quality. Tool life and surface
quality improvement, and reduction in cutting force are significant at­
tributes of the process compared to the conventional method.
Fig. 33. Schematic of the HPPT region at the tool-workpiece during LAT [113].
[Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be ob­
4.2. Laser-assisted milling process
tained from the rights holder].

Micro milling technique can produce 3D surfaces of the smallest

feature size, 10 µm, with rotary micro end mills at 50,000 RPM or more.
The physical cutting process leads to cutting forces, and material
removal depend on uncut chip thickness. Micro end mills typically lead
to failure by complete fracture [117]. In the LAM laser beam, preheat the
workpiece at a location just ahead of micro end mills, as shown in
Fig. 34. Preheating before machining softens the workpiece and de­
grades the workpiece’s mechanical property reducing cutting forces
[118–120]. LAM process is shown improvement in tool life and surface
characteristics [161].
Lahoti et al. developed a four-axis LAMM machining system to
perform machining of a tool steel (62 HRC). A relatively low power
(max. 35 W) Ytterbium-doped continuous wave near IR (1.06 mm) fiber
laser is used for machining. No assist gas is used. Machined micro­
groove’s surface finish and dimensional accuracy were superior over the
cutting distance in LA micro-milling with minor tool wear. In surface
roughness, profile consistency was achieved with laser assistance [121].
In Fig. 35, surface roughness shows the inverse response with laser
assistance when contrasted with traditional machining and appeared
Fig. 34. Schematic of laser-assisted milling [118].
improvement with cutting speed, although groove depth accuracy
improved.
thrust forces considering parameters laser power, cutting velocity, rake
Two new laser machining parameters, i.e., laser angle and laser
angle edge radius [113].
power, were introduced for laser-assisted machining by Venkatesan
Cutting force reduced by 60% while machining Inconel 718 by LAT
et al., and optimization of the process cutting force and temperature for
in the study carried out by Venkatesan et al. [114]. From the result,
Inconel alloy was carried out [122]. Nd: YAG laser source with
they recommended work surface temperature in the range between 750
maximum 2 kW power used for machining and empirical equation was
and 880 ◦ C during LA turning of Inconel for maximum force reduction.
also produced. Improvement in tool life was found to be 43% in LAM as
They analyzed the contribution of laser power for cutting force and
compared to without assistance. In LAM assisted machining, reduction
found reduction by 19%, 26%, and 53% in feed force, thrust force, and
of 34%, 34%, and 38% in cutting forces in X, Y, and Z direction were
cutting force, respectively.
found compared to conventional machining, as evident in Fig. 36(a).
Optimization of LAT for conventional turning and laser parameters
Fig. 36(b) shows that the tool wear rate was at least six times

Fig. 35. (a) Experimental setup, (b) Surface roughness variation with cutting distance for different cutting speeds [121]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 36. (a) Force comparison in conventional and LAM, (b) tool wear comparison between conventional tool after 5.5 min and LAMM tool after 33 min of machining
[122]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

Fig. 37. (a) Cutting force with and without laser power, (b) Surface roughness variation with different laser power [123]. [Reproduced by permission of the
publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

conventional machining compared to LAMM for stainless steel. For assistance. Burr height was also primarily because of increment in
In718 and Ti alloy, there was no significant reduction in tool wear ductility by softening workpiece in laser assistance, as evident in Fig. 38
observed, which may require a wide range of experiments. (b). Surface roughness depends on the spot size of the laser beam. Sur­
The effect of laser parameters and cutting parameters while doing face roughness increases if the laser spot diameter is more than tool
LAM on H-13 tool steel was studied by Singh et al., and cutting forces diameter in LAMM due to thermal softening consequences.
and surface finish were analyzed for micro grooving applications [123]. A finite Element Analysis (FEA) based thermal model on anticipating
A 2–10 W solid-state Ytterbium fiber laser is integrated with a precision the width and depth of HAZ in LAM was developed by Yang et al. [124].
2-axis motion control stage. Thermal softening causes a significant A 2.5 kW Nd: YAG laser system was utilized to generate a laser beam. A
reduction in cutting forces and increases surface roughness, as shown in thermal model was developed to predict the width and depth of HAZ,
Fig. 37(a). An increase of 48% in roughness was observed when laser which depends on laser parameters and material properties. A travelling
power increased from 5 W to 10 W, although cutting speed was different, laser source having a Gaussian profile was considered in FEA for laser
as exhibited in Fig. 37(b). The temperature profile between the work assisting machining of Ti6Al4V. The absorptivity and emissivity of the Ti
material and the cutting tool demonstrates the most extreme tempera­ alloy were determined by measuring temperature with a thermocouple.
ture at the laser beam centre. Predepicted value of width and depth of HAZ showed closeness to
Kumar et al. looked for potential in laser-assisted micro-milling measured.
process in the manner of cutting force, tool wear, MRR, surface finish, HAZ dimensions were predicted in LAMM in another study for micro
and burr formation [153]. A 35 W CW fiber laser (1.06 µm wavelength) grooving operation H-13 tool steel with 10 W power at different scan­
is used for thermal machining. There were 69% lesser cutting forces ning speeds [125]. The authors have developed a set-up for micro
observed in LAMM than traditional micro-milling, as depicted in Fig. 38 grooving operation, as shown in Fig. 39(a). FEA model developed for
(a). Also, catastrophic failure of the tool was observed in a significantly moving Gaussian laser beam to predict temperature distribution. The
earlier stage without laser assistance. One more crucial observation was thermocouples were used to observe maximum temperature when the
found in the tool’s corner radius; it is extensively smaller than conven­ laser beam nearest to it. Simulated and experimental results were
tional micro-milling in LAMM. Gradual wear was observed while using compared at different scanning speeds for temperature, which predicted
non-laser-assisted machining, which indicated rounding of the cutting HAZ and temperature within 15% accuracy, as evident in Fig. 39(b).
tool’s corner due to abrasive wear, as illustrated in Fig. 38(c). In the laser-assisted machining process, optimum parameters are
It was also observed without laser-assisted machining, the groove needed for both machining processes, i.e., laser and cutting processes.
profile changed significantly due to rapid tool wear. The depth observed Tagliaferriet et al. optimize process parameters of laser for HAZ
in laser-assisted milling was higher as compared to without laser extension, track width, temperature. Laser power and scanning velocity

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 38. (a) Changes in the maximum resultant force with groove number (b) Burr height versus cutting distance (c) SEM micrographs of the tool before and after
cutting [153]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

Fig. 39. (a) LAMM setup (b) Simulation and experimental results for 5 W laser power [125]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must
be obtained from the rights holder].

had a strong influence on LAM. They observed that laser power and cutting force was also reduced in dry conditions in LAMM machining. An
scanning velocity have significant effects compared to other factors, average 10% reduction in cutting force was observed in dry LAMM
defocus and surface quality [126]. machining. Precise and uniform groove geometry was observed during
Bucciarelli et al. compared the machineability of A-286 steel in dry, LAMM. Fig. 40 shows the quality of channel produced by LAMM is better
wet, with and without laser-assisted micro-milling conditions [127]. A than wet and dry condition; however, at higher power burr is more due
Ytterbium-doped continuous wave fiber laser (IPG Photonics – YLM 30) to softening of the material
with a Gaussian beam of 1070 nm nominal wavelength is focused on a Ahn et al. compared the specific energy requirement for LAM and
diameter spot of 300 µm. They observed a decrease in tool wear rate by CMM by tangential force and MRR. It is observed lower with different
29% compared to wet micro-milling with LAMM. An average of 10% feed and rotational speed values.[109]. At a depth of cut of 0.2 mm, the

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Dry Wet 12W 18W

Fig. 40. Comparison of surface quality in dry and wet conditions [127]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the
rights holder].

Fig. 41. LAJECM process mechanism [128].

Fig. 43. Comparison of LAJECM and JECM for different material [129].
[Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be ob­
tained from the rights holder].

machining holes with faster speed. LAJECM is a hybrid process in which

LBM and ECM’s combined effect will improve machining quality and
high precision. ECM is a well-established process and has many appli­
cations because of no thermal stress and surface defects. A low power
laser beam is combined co-axially with an electrolyte jet for localized
heating in LAJECM for noncontact machining.
Pajak et al. developed a setup for LAJECM in which laser beam and
electrolyte emerge from a nozzle of 0.1 mm diameter. The laser (power
density 47.5 W/mm2) is used for hybrid machining. Electrolyte jet en­
ergy, laser beam energy, and electrolyte flow energy are balanced for
Fig. 42. Comparison of LAJECM and JECM [128]. [Reproduced by permission causes of electrochemical dissolution [128]. They developed an empir­
of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder]. ical model to compare MRR and taper for JECM and LAJECM consid­
ering variable inter-electrode gaps, voltage, flow velocity, and
specific cutting energy of LAM decreased by a maximum of 60%. Radial electrolyte concentration. Results show taperness decreased by 40%,
force and tangential force is observed significant lower in the LAM and MRR increased by 55% in hole drilling of silicon, as shown in
method. Fig. 42.
Different scholars tried to develop LAM in the lab and studied its In another study, LAJECM was performed to machining Hastelloy,
attributes on tools and workpieces. Modelling of cutting force, tool wear, titanium, stainless steel (SS), and aluminium. The result showed
surface roughness and MRR were also covered in past studies. improvement in MRR 20%,25%, 33%, and 54% and taper reduction
Comparative analysis shows process improvement in process efficiency 38%, 40%, 41%, and 65% respectively. In LAJECM, laser beam energy
with laser assistance to micro-milling. makes the hole-making process faster regardless of the JECM process
variable [129]. Titanium and oxygen form TiO2, so laser beam breaks
4.3. Laser-assisted electro-chemical machining the layer more quickly than JECM, and improvement in MRR was
observed in Hastelloy and SS machining. Roughness result shows up to
In laser-assisted ECM, both processes are combined to overcome the 25% improvement in LAJECM compared to JECM for all materials
limitation of each other. In ECM, precision is limited, and in LBM, shown in Fig. 43.
thermal stress causes defects. In laser-assisted electrochemical A theoretical model for the explanation of the effect of localization of
machining (LAECM), two different principles remove the material electrochemical dissolution in the LAJECM process was developed by
simultaneously in which LBM works on the energy of photons while Silva et al. [130]. The combined effect of laser beam energy and elec­
ECM has ions energy, as shown in Fig. 41. Electrolyte sent in the form of trolyte jet energy causes the dissolution of material in the machined
the jet supplied co-axially with the laser beam reduces the recast layer in area. Theoretically, energy distribution was calculated for different
laser drilling. Laser-assisted jet ECM(LAJECM) is popular for precise

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

periphery in LAJECM. However, laser drilling in the air shows spatters

and recast. MRR efficiency in ns LBM is 50% higher than jet electro­
chemical laser drilling (JECM-LD) shown in Fig. 45(e).
In another study, the temperature distribution in w/p and IEG
analyzed for localized heating with FEA modelling was done [70]. In the
laser localized heating zone, the temperature was 1.75–3.25 times
higher than the electrolyte temperature in different metals depicted in
Fig. 46. Temperature decreased with an increase in thermal conductivity
of metal of localized heating zone. Temperature above 100 ◦ C was a
cause of bubble formation in the electrolyte. Higher the temperature of
the localized zone causes higher MRR. Temperature first increases and
get stable, then decreases, which shows heating leading to boiling than
stable machining and closure of machining.
Fig. 44. Process energy for aluminium alloy, U = 140 V, C = l0% [130]. Wang et al. proposed a novel approach of hybrid laser and shaped
[Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be ob­
tube electrochemical machining process. Both the laser beam and elec­
tained from the rights holder].
trolyte jet are guided to the machining zone through the inner hole of a
specially designed tubular electrode. The laser beam is reflected many
inter-electrode gaps (IEG) for aluminium and found LAJECM have times in the tube to reach the machining zone to achieve the combined
higher energy than JECM, as exhibited in Fig. 44. effect of ECM and LBM to fabricate high aspect ratio holes. Results
Zhang et al. performed LAJECM for drilling on stainless steel of 0.5 showed that the machining precision and the material removal rate
mm thickness by two different lasers, 1064 nm and 532 nm. Fig. 45 (a, b) (MRR) were improved by 60.7% and 122.7%, respectively, compared
shows the difference in the mechanism of machining of LBM and LAJEM with that pure ECM. Experimental results showed electric current
principle for surface appearance of blind holes [131]. From Fig. 45 (c, increased from 0.7 to 1.08A with the laser power of 20 W, an increase of
d), it has been observed there is no spattering and recast around the hole 54.3%, compared with that without laser [158].

Fig. 45. Comparison in the mechanism for the blind hole (a) LBM (b) JECM-LD; Micrograph of the periphery drilled hole (d) LBM (d) JECM-LD (e) Effect of energy
per pulse on MRR [131]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Pre-Machining by Laser ablation Post Machining by EDM

Fig. 48. Sequential LBM AND EDM machining method [133].

So the sequential process is alternate for higher efficiency machining.

Li et al. performed LBM and EDM sequentially in application hole
micro-drilling for fuel injection nozzles. An Nd: YAG laser (1064 nm
wavelength) with 10–40 µs pulse length at a repetition rate of up 2000
Hz with 15 mJ/pulse for drilling pilot holes. A pilot hole of 140 μm
Fig. 46. Temperature in the laser localized zone and electrolyte with diameter was drilled by laser and sequentially rimmed by the EDM
machining time [70]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission process. The authors also replaced the standard EDM electrode dressing,
to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder]. which takes 4 s, with a new online cutting to dress the tool between
machining of each hole, which took 1 s. Process schematic is shown in
Fig. 47. Drilling time also improved by 70% in the sequential process
than EDM drilling alone [132]. They also claimed that this technique
reduced the cost by 42% (excluding the initial capital investment) and
increased the production capacity by 90%. EDM also removed the
problem of HAZ and recast layer after LBM drilling. It is also pertinent to
note that both machining processes (LBM and EDM) directly engaged in
removing the material from the machined parts in this hybrid technique.
LBM and EDM were combined to get faster machining with LBM and
finishing by EDM to improve the surface quality and MRR further.
Rashid et al. analyzed the combined process effect on HAZ, surface
quality, machining time, and material composition. A 100 W fiber laser
Fig. 47. Sequential laser and EDM performed [132].
carried out primary machining. They concluded that surface roughness
after LBM was 1.54 µm and, after sequentially applying EDM, reduced
Previous studies concluded laser assistance to the ECM process im­
further to 0.23 to 0.28 µm at different feed rates [133]. The chemical
proves MRR and machining efficiency. However, the process is limited
composition of the workpiece also severely affects the machined zone. It
to an electrically conductive material. Researchers also model the
was observed that carbon content decreased after EDM, while oxygen
hybrid process to understand the interaction of the hybrid process.
content increased after the laser process but decreased to the original
Further experimentation is needed for the industrial application of the
after the EDM process.
process for highly precise parts.
Kim et al. performed sequential machining of LBM and EDM to
allow faster machining and reduce tool wear for conductive materials
5. Laser-based sequential machining processes [134]. A Yb-doped pulsed fiber laser (wavelength 1064 nm) with a pulse
length of 100 ns was used in the experiment for laser ablation. Pre
This section reviews the hybrid process in which laser machining is machining is performed by laser ablation and post-machining by EDM in
used sequentially with the process such as EDM, conventional drilling dielectric fluid, as shown in Fig. 48. The machining was performed on
and milling. However, in this decade, these processes still need to be the same machine, and the workpiece travelled by XY stage to two
explored by researchers in more depth. Here laser machining is used for different machining processes, i.e., first to ns pulsed laser and then to
the primary machining of holes, micro-grooves and predefined shapes. microwire EDM. The hole quality characteristics were enhanced after
Final geometry and surfaces will be the result of the secondary EDM, which had a considerable amount of recast layer during laser
machining process. ablation. Machining time was reduced to halves in the sequential
method, and tool wear showed only 12% improvement. Laser predrilled
5.1. Sequential LBM and EDM machining processes holes made uncomplicated debris removal and the machining rate was
higher than standard EDM drilling. Micro grooves were also created
At present, researchers are continuously working on combining LBM using the hybrid process of laser pre deburring and post EDM. A perfect
and EDM processes. The hybrid process can fabricate highly precise U-shaped microchannel requires a vertical wall, which was fabricated by
holes, channels, cut sheets and create 3D geometries. The combined the sequential method. As laser-produced less HAZ with high aspect
effect of both the process has been analyzed and demonstrated by re­ ratio but introduced V shape channel. 3D geometries, such as a micro
searchers. The laser acts as a faster machining process in the hybrid pyramid, hemisphere, snail-shape, and circular were also tried without
process; however, EDM produces a high finish surface. In EDM, the cost additional polishing.
of hole making getting higher due to the breakage of electrodes and Ahmari et al. performed hybrid machining with LBM and EDM. A
lower MRR. However, the industrial standard hole cannot achieve in pilot hole was fabricated by laser drilling, and the pilot hole was finished
LBD due to larger recast and heat-affected zones except ps and fs laser. by EDM [135]. The laser machining setup of Nd: YAG laser operating at

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

fabrication on different materials. LBD process drills a primary hole, and

the final dimension of the hole is achieved by the drilling tool with lesser
forces.
Okasha et al. performed micro-drilling on Inconel 718 sequentially
by laser and conventional micro tools at a 30◦ acute angle. In pilot laser
hole drilling, oxygen and air were used as assist gases [136]. Post laser
drilling, the micro-drilling technique finished the hole. They observed
minimal burr and no wall destruction when performed LBM through
holes drilling with air as assist gas followed by mechanical drilling
compared to a mechanically drilled hole. Tool life also showed 2.5X
improvement in the sequential process when compared to the traditional
drilling process. Air assistance shows 1.5 times faster machining than
oxygen in the same laser cutting condition because of the formation of
oxides.
In another study, a sequential LBM-drilling process to drill 500 µm
holes on a 2 mm sheet of Inconel 718 was done by two approaches [74].
The pilot hole was drilled in the first approach using a laser followed by
a mechanical twist drill. In the second approach, drilling was performed
in three steps, i.e., laser pilot drilling followed by mechanical central
drilling and then twist drilling, as shown in Fig. 49. Laser pilot drilled in
range of 391–450 µm. The laser pilot-mechanical drilling technique
Fig. 49. Sequential laser and conventional drilling [74].
reduced thrust force by 57% and 37% in a two-step and three-step
approach. Laser drilled holes were found to be inferior in roundness in
a wavelength of 1064 nm. Both processes were performed on two both approaches. However, the roundness of the laser pilot-mech hole is
different machines. Compared to EDM, the hybrid process showed a similar to conventional mechanical drilled holes. The tool life showed a
50–65% faster machining rate. The pilot hole was drilled by laser dril­ significant improvement in both the laser-mech and laser pilot mech
ling, and then another setup of RC circuit based EDM was utilized for approaches. A single tool in conventional, laser-mech, and laser pilot
further machining and investigation. In the hybrid process, the hole is mech methods can drill 106, 304, and 458 holes, respectively.
straight, and debris particles do not promote machining as through pilot The above studies conclude that drilling can be accomplished with
hole dielectric and debris flows out of the hole. Hole quality is poor in sequential laser and drilling tools. Improvement in tool life and circu­
laser machining. High MRR, lower taper, and lower overcut were larity of holes and reduction in cutting force are significant benefits.
observed in LEDM, which benefited from the hybrid process.
Rashid et al. performed the LBMM-μ-EDM-based sequential micro­
5.3. Sequential LBM and conventional micro milling
machining process. Results show 2.65 times lesser production time for
holes compared to EDM [159]. High tool wear rate and short circuit rate
As discussed in the above section, hole making, highly finished
were observed during the μ-EDM operation if low laser power and high
microchannels, micro-grooves, and precise shape can be achieved using
scanning speed were used for the LBMed holes.
a sequential laser and micro-milling tool. In Laser milling processes,
Researchers successfully employed Sequential LBM and EDM to
recrystallization of material occurs due to heating and oxidation, which
fabricate high-quality micro-holes and channels. A machining setup
results in the variation of material property. To achieve material prop­
needs to be developed for the combined process to avoid alignment
erty as original, sequential LBM and conventional micro-milling is uti­
errors.
lized by the researcher. The fundamental difference is to use the laser’s
heat energy to soften the metal, and heated metal gets removed by tool
5.2. Sequential LBM and conventional micro-drilling motion. The cutting stress developed due to the removal of material is
lesser than CMM, which leads to reduced forces. The milling tool follows
Laser micro-drilling suffers from drawbacks of roundness error, the laser beam path, and heat-affected material gets removed in ductile
taperness, spatter and lower aspect ratio. However, conventional micro- mode due to melting.
drilling suffers from high tool wear, cutting forces, and higher tooling The manufacturing of hot embossing dies have limitations such as
costs. Researchers combined these processes for high-quality hole accuracy, surface integrity, material properties, and size < 100 μm.

Fig. 50. (a) Machining time in hybrid machining (b) 3D structure fabricated by sequential laser and conventional machining [137]. [Reproduced by permission of
the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 51. (a) The sequential process of laser machining–milling with subsequent surface functionalization (b) Surface roughness of 5 µm after laser structuring and 2
µm after polishing and (c) structure comparison of the laser-structured areas and laser polished area [138]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to
reuse must be obtained from the rights holder].

Fig. 52. Comparison of cutting force and surface roughness [109]. [Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Permission to reuse must be obtained from the
rights holder].

Schubert et al. [137] combined micro-milling and LBM for fabricating more efficient machining of the component, as shown in Fig. 51 (a).
complicated microstructures on hot embossing dies, which have appli­ Surface roughness in the microchannel obstructs flow in the system.
cations in microfluidic systems. The milling cutter diameters of 0.1, 0.3 After laser structuring, the roughness of 5 µm and polishing of 2 µm was
and 0.5 mm were used. The fabricated microstructures are shown in achieved, as shown in Fig. 51(b). The corresponding surface structure is
Fig. 50(b) and machining time for sequential and single milling pro­ shown in Fig. 51(c), which shows polished laser surfaces are smoother in
cesses with different tools are shown in Fig. 50(a). comparison to non-polished ones. Polishing reduces the surface peaks,
Mould and dies are also fabricated by micro-milling laser structuring and a better surface structure was achieved, as evident in Fig. 51 (c). The
and laser polishing sequentially, as Grossa et al. [138] show. Sequential surface roughness creates interference of capillary filling for the
methods create an accurate geometrical dimension and are quick and microfluidic channel in the embossed part.

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

A new method of laser-induced oxygen assisted micro-milling was components produced during manufacturing. The data of measuring
introduced by Xia et al. [109,156,172]. Oxygen is supplied during laser sensors will be directly fed into the machine controller for adaptive
heating at 2 W of power by a pulsed fiber laser, forming an oxide layer control of the processes [145,146]. If the laser machining is com­
on the surface and a sub-layer of oxide with lower hardness. So, the bined sequentially with conventional machining, a force and torque
lower milling force and better surface finish of the micro-channel was sensor is also needed to acquire feedback during micromachining
achieved as shown in Fig. 52. and take further corrective actions. Geometric dimension and surface
Kadivar et al. performed laser-assisted micro-milling of stainless finish measurements will be needed in-between processes [147].
steel. In the process, laser structure is formed on the surface, and the Noncontact measurement during the process or in-between pro­
machining is performed with coolant assisted micro milling in achieving cessed through Microscope, Confocal sensor, or 3D profilometer can
lower forces. The fundamental difference is here, instead of the heat also be one option. Process monitoring includes temperature mea­
energy of the laser beam, the surface has been structured so cracks axial surement, image processing, and tool wear measurement.
cracks are developed. Results show lower nominal and tangential force • Process development: In the future, researchers should actively look
with a structured surface. Also, the temperature developed due to tool to combine laser with other processes like abrasive finishing, nano
machining was observed lower.[157]. finishing process, RP systems, water jet machining, honing, ECH and
Exploration of new laser-based micromachining process mechanics others [148].
and feasibility studies for newly developed materials shows wide
research and application scope of the process. Moreover, such kinds of Sequential or assisted micromachining process + measurement + finish­
investigations are very encouraging for newcomers who choose target ing = final product
materials and process mechanics to be explored. More such advance­ Laser polishing is also emerging as one possibility, so necessary
ments in the process are needed so that the smallest aspects, application analysis with the same laser source or different can be done. A high
possibilities, and any process variants mat not remain untouched degree of process control will be needed to combine assisted or
sequential laser micromachining methods.
6. Future scope
• Mechanism understanding: There is a requirement to develop new
The primary research areas and researcher’s contributions in laser- sequential and assisted processes and understand the mechanism of
based hybrid micromachining are discussed in the previous sections. removal in these processes [149]. Understanding process physics and
Due to the complexity of hybrid process mechanics, a lot of work is still surface integrity, metallurgical characterization also needs to be
required to be done. In the end, the process challenges with respective done. Also, the theoretical mathematical model can help in Figuring
remedies and future scopes are presented. out the mechanisms. The majority of laser-assisted processes in
which laser energy is used either as a primary or secondary source for
• Industrial applications: Till now, laser-based hybrid micro­ removal mechanism needs to be studied. Sequential process criti­
machining processes have been confined to lab research only. In this cality and dependence on the removal mechanisms must be inves­
decade, there is an expectation of converting lab research to indus­ tigated in future studies [150].
trial applications or in shapes of industry-ready products. An • Cyber-Physical System development: In the upcoming era of
extensive study and necessary experimentation will be required to be manufacturing, machining systems are not only capable of
done as per applications, so a cost-effective product with better machining, but also, they should be compatible with i4.0. A cyber-
quality can enter the market [139,140]. It can also collaborate with physical systems-based multiprocessor system needs to be devel­
clinical research for different biocompatible structure fabrication. In oped to manufacture the actual 3D part without any end-user
MEMS, different geometries, lab on chips application on silicon and monitoring of the system. CPS-based applications need to be devel­
other materials can also be analyzed with these methods. Biocom­ oped to verify the feasibility of proposed mechanisms, which calcu­
patible and biodegradable stent manufacturing is an emerging lates machining time, numbers of passes required to achieve targeted
application with the LHMMP process. Microfluidic structures, geometric dimensions, and roughness value based on the operator’s
channels, and nozzles are applications for hybrid machining, input process parameters and roughness value [151].
• System development: There is a need to develop systems capable of
performing laser-based sequential and assisted machining on the 7. Conclusion
same or different machine tools. Also, it is in demand to develop 3D
complex geometrical products, which are still needed in real-life The present article describes the overall review of the research and
applications. For complex geometry, multi-axis systems need to be developments carried out in the Laser-based hybrid micromachining
developed having five axes or more to integrate hybrid processes process and its application areas. This is envisaged as the technology for
[141]. There should be provisions to combine conventional and non- manufacturing highly complicated micro shapes with few microns of
conventional processes. So, the difficult geometries can easily be dimension on various engineering materials, especially for hard mate­
machined in any kind of material. If LBM assists EDM or ECM, it will rials and biocompatible materials. In the upcoming decade, challenges
limit the workpiece material range to only electric conductive ma­ will be to control the dimensional tolerances of micro parts for precision
terial. So, there is a need to look for other options for electrically non- manufacturing of sub microns and nano-level with hybrid machining
conductive materials [142]. If the sequential machining will be technology. After a comprehensive review of the previous research,
performed on the same machine, it helps avoid repositioning, which challenges and future research scopes are also described.
is a major drawback. If machining is performed on different stations, Laser-based hybrid micromachining processes overcome the limita­
alignment of the processes will be critical. Misalignment can cause tion of LBM and other conventional and non-conventional processes.
improper functioning of micro-devices. Some fixtures or devices will Products with better surface integrity, better geometric tolerance, high
be needed, which can align reference planes of the workpiece for precision, higher MRR, low-cost machining, higher productivity, lower
both the machines [143]. machining time can be achieved by laser-based sequential and assisted
• In situ measurement and process monitoring: Precise components machining. If LBM is combined with EDM, ECM, or conventional
are required for miniature applications, so measurement in LHMMP machining, lower tool wear has been achieved. Past studies show
is essential for maintaining the product’s quality [69,144]. An in-situ assisted and sequential LBM performance in the research area for
metrology attachment needs to be developed and integrated into the micromanufacturing. However, complex 3D geometry creation will
micromachining system to measure and inspect the micro focus in the next decade on assisted and sequential machining. Laser

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

Fig. 53. (a) Research performed in laser-based hybrid machining processes. (b) Laser-assisted machining (c) Sequential laser machining process. [VALBM Vibration
assisted LBM; MFALBM Magnetic field-assisted LBM; FALBM Fluid assisted LBM; EFALBM Electric field-assisted LBM; GALBM Gas-assisted LBM; LAM Laser-Assisted
Milling; LAECM Laser-Assisted ECM; LAT Laser-Assisted Turning].

machining is the dominant technique for faster machining. Laser and assisted manner. In the future, if required, we need to look at more than
EDM combined gave significant results as per studies reported in pre­ two processes simultaneously or sequentially. There is a need to study
vious sections. process material interaction among different hybrid machining methods
LHMMP has primary literature (84%) in the laser-assisted machining and develop a new approach. It is now concluded that LHMMP is quite
process, as evident in Fig. 53(a). In assisted machining, Laser-assisted novel and adaptable, which can deliver free form surfaces. Besides
milling (26%) work is performed, which is a major contributor in pre­ incorporating the LHMMP method, other hybrid machining methods can
vious studies. The process has been analyzed mathematically, and be considered and combined, which can be considered another
modelling of the process is carried out. Fluid assisted LBM (19%) having intriguing subject as it would overcome various shortcomings con­
a significant portion of water-assisted LBM. There is a need to investi­ fronted until now with the machining processes [152].
gate different liquids and chemicals also. Moreover, 17% of research has
been carried out in gas-assisted LBM, which is favourable for efficient Declaration of Competing Interest
machining with different materials. Vibration assisted (5%) and Electric
field-assisted (2%) are relatively new areas that need to be investigated The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
further for micromachining applications and performance interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
improvements. the work reported in this paper.
In sequential laser machining, 50% study were reported in LBM and
EDM sequential machining. This is due to post-laser machining, EDM Acknowledgement
improves the machined part’s surface characteristics as shown in Fig. 53
(c). Sequential LBM and conventional milling (25%) is required to be The authors, would like to acknowledge the financial support under
investigated for 3D geometries and complex shapes. LAECM (12%) for the Technology Development program from the Department of Science
improvement in ECM process. and Technology, Govt of India, to conduct research.
Moreover, literature mostly belongs to process mechanism under­
standing, and there are no commercial applications in this area.
Research is limited to two processes only, either in sequentially or

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A.K. Sahu et al. Optics and Laser Technology 146 (2022) 107554

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