SEC Assignment

Semester 6

Scope of Educational Psychology:

Motivation

Radhika Chaturvedi
19/BAP/175

Submitted to:
Ms. Monali Sharma
As we enter the twenty-first century, the field of education is indeed at an inflection point,
facing challenges such as adjusting to an increasingly internationalised and diverse
environment, instructional technology, new educational innovations, and a more sophisticated
understanding of learning science. Educational psychology is a truly multidisciplinary field,
drawing on the greatest research from fields including human development, education,
sociology, and anthropology, human factors and ergonomics, genetics and biopsychology,
cognitive psychology, social psychology, and quantitative psychology. Educational
Psychology's purpose is to use the finest knowledge from all of these fields to better
understand the psychology and practice of education.

The field of educational psychology involves the study of memory, conceptual processes, and
individual differences (via cognitive psychology) in conceptualising new strategies for
learning processes in humans. It has been built upon theories of operant conditioning,
functionalism, structuralism, constructivism, humanistic psychology, Gestalt psychology, and
information processing. Educational psychology has seen rapid growth and development as a
profession in the last twenty years. School psychology began with the concept of intelligence
testing leading to provisions for special education students, who could not follow the regular
classroom curriculum in the early part of the 20th century. However, "school psychology"
itself has built a fairly new profession based upon the practices and theories of several
psychologists among many different fields. Educational psychologists are working side by
side with psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and
counsellors in an attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining
behavioural, cognitive, and social psychology in the classroom settings.

Educational psychology's scope is ever-expanding as a result of ongoing research in the

area. It is a discipline that is woven around the learner. As a result, there is a need to
understand the learner and the ways for doing so. Individual differences and measurements,
overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, characteristics of his
growth and development, and each stage from childhood to maturity are among the themes
covered. In every method of teaching and learning, the teacher is a powerful force. It
discusses the teacher's role. It highlights the importance of a teacher's 'knowing oneself' in
order to appropriately play his part in the educational process. His drive, his problems, his
anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc throw light on the essential personality traits,
interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as to inspire him to become
a successful teacher. Educational psychology aids in determining what learning experiences
are desirable, at what point of the learner's growth and development, so that these experiences
can be acquired more easily and with more satisfaction.

Educational Psychology carries on to the rules, principles, and theories of learning after
getting to know the learner and selecting what learning experiences should be supplied.
Remembering and forgetting, seeing, concept development, thinking and reasoning, problem
solving, learning transfer, techniques and means of successful learning, and so on are all part
of the learning process. The environmental influences and learning circumstances that occur
in the middle of the learner-teacher relationship also hold importance. Topics include
classroom climate and group dynamics, learning and evaluation strategies and aids,
approaches and practises, and supervision.

Motivation has been defined as an individual's driving factor behind all of their actions. The
impact of an individual's needs and desires on the direction of their conduct is significant.
Your emotions and achievement-related goals serve as sources of motivation. Extrinsic,
intrinsic, physiological, and achievement motivation are examples of distinct types of
motivation. Motivation might sometimes take a more negative form. The desire to succeed or
achieve greatness can be defined as achievement motivation. Individuals will meet their
wants in a variety of ways, and are motivated to succeed for a variety of internal and external
reasons. All of our behaviours are motivated by motivation. The dynamics of our behaviour,
which include our needs, goals, and ambitions, is referred to as motivation. The goal of
achievement motivation is to achieve success and fulfil all of our life goals. Goals for
achievement can influence how a person conducts a task and signify a desire to demonstrate
competence. Our natural conduct in many contexts is influenced by these underlying
physiological motivational urges. The majority of our objectives are motivated by rewards,
and they range from basic hunger to the need for love and the formation of mature sexual
relationships. Biological necessities, creative impulses, and achieving success in competitive
businesses are all examples of motivations for achievement. Motivation is significant since it
has a daily impact on our lives. Our inner urge to achieve influences all of our behaviours,
activities, thoughts, and beliefs.

The role of educators and students in educational environments has been altered and resized
as a result of recent technological and economic advances. Education in the twenty-first
century is undergoing significant transformations based on concepts, theories, principles, and
methodologies. The most crucial factor that educators may address in order to promote
learning is motivation. Motivation has been the subject of numerous theories. Student,
instructor, topic, method/process, and environment are the five major components influencing
student motivation, according to Williams (2011). Motivation is described as "the act or
process of motivating; the state of being motivational; a motivating force, stimulus, or
influence; incentive; drive; something (such as a need or desire) that leads a person or pupil
to act" (Merriam-Webster, 1997).

Palmer (2007) examines "student motivation as a critical component of high-quality

education." How can we tell if a pupil is motivated? They pay attention, get right to work on
duties, ask questions and volunteer answers, and appear to be joyful and enthusiastic."
Williams & Williams (Williams & Williams, 2011). Brophy defined desire to learn as a skill
gained "through general experience but encouraged most directly through modelling,
communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialisation by significant
individuals (particularly parents and instructors)" in the late 1980s. Cherry (2010) defines
motivation as "the process that begins, leads, and maintains goal-oriented behaviours."
(Gregory, 2009; Nukpe, 2012) offers another explanation for motivation. Brennen, (2006)
believes motivation to be “… the level of effort an individual is willing to expend toward the
achievement of a certain goal” Guay et al. (2010) describes it simply as “reasons underlying
behaviour” (Nukpe, 2012).

There are several sources of motivation to learn. Curiosity is a powerful learning motivator.
Since people adapt to surprising events fairly quickly, curiosity must be maintained as a
constant source of motivation. To keep students engaged, teachers can use strategies such as
vary the tone of voice, occasionally using relevant humour, etc. Students are more motivated
to learn things relevant to their interests. Goal setting is an important source of motivation.
When people set goals, they set an external standard against which they internally assess their
current level of performance. Setting goals improves self-motivation and performance to a
greater extent.When students set goals, they try to evoke positive judgments about their
competition or avoid making negative judgments about their competition. The
recommendation to promote a learning goal orientation contradicts many current pedagogical
practices that try to instil confidence in the learner within the framework of an achievement
orientation. Motive fit is the degree to which learning tasks meet specific student needs or
align with student values. A need can be defined as "any deficiency in the human organism or
lack of something that the person needs or thinks he needs for his general well-being". The
instructor must be sensitive to individual performance and belonging needs. Motivation also
comes from students' beliefs about themselves. According to Bandura, self-efficacy involves
the belief that one can produce a certain behaviour, whether one actually can do it or not.
Students can be assured that certain activities will produce certain outcomes. These
expectations are called outcome expectations.

Some motives are biological, like our want for meals or water. However, the reasons that we
are able to be extra inquisitive about are extra psychological. In general, we discuss
motivation as being intrinsic (springing up from inner elements) or extrinsic (springing up
from outside elements). Intrinsically encouraged behaviours are executed due to the feel of
private pride that they bring, even as extrinsically encouraged behaviours are executed which
will get hold of something from others. Think approximately why you're presently in
university. Are you right here due to the fact you revel in getting to know and need to pursue
an schooling to make yourself an extra well-rounded character? If so, then you definitely are
intrinsically encouraged. However, in case you are right here due to the fact you need to get a
university diploma to make yourself extra marketable for an excessive-paying profession or
to fulfil the needs of your parents, then your motivation is extra extrinsic in nature.

In reality, our motivations are frequently a combination of each intrinsic and extrinsic
elements, however the nature of the mix of those elements may extrade over time (frequently
in methods that appear counter-intuitive). There is an old adage: “Choose a job that you love,
and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning that if you enjoy your
occupation, work doesn’t seem like . . . well, work. Some studies indicate that this isn’t
always the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999).
According to these studies, receiving a few types of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting
paid) for carrying out behaviours that we revel in ends in the ones being concept of as
paintings not offering that identical enjoyment. As a result, we would spend much less time
carrying out those reclassified behaviours withinside the absence of any extrinsic
reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun.
Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she often whips up pastries in the
evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store’s bakery department
leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department.
Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has
much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that
changes her motivation to do it. What Odessa has experienced is called the overjustification
effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead
to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for
continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).
Other research advises that intrinsic motivation won't be so prone to the results of extrinsic
reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements which include verbal reward may truly boost
intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa’s
motivation to bake in her free time may stay excessive if, for example, clients often praise her
baking or cake reasoning skills.
These obvious discrepancies withinside the researchers’ findings can be understood through
thinking about numerous elements. For one, bodily reinforcement (which includes money)
and verbal reinforcement (which includes reward) may also have an effect on a character in
very one of a kind methods. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) have a tendency to have
extra poorer results on intrinsic motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., reward).
Furthermore, the expectancy of the extrinsic motivator through a character is crucial: If the
character expects to get hold of an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the
challenge has a tendency to be reduced. If, however, there may be no such expectation, and
the extrinsic motivation is supplied as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the challenge
has a tendency to persist (Deci et al., 1999).
In addition, the way of life may also have an effect on motivation. For example, in
collectivistic cultures, it's far not unusual place to do matters to your own circle of relatives
individuals due to the fact the emphasis is at the institution and what's fine for the complete
institution, in preference to what's fine for anybody character (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, &
Norenzayan, 2001). This cognizance on others presents a broader angle that takes into
consideration each situational and cultural effects on conduct; thus, an extra nuanced
rationalisation of the reasons of others’ conduct will become much more likely. (You will
study extra approximately collectivistic and individualistic cultures whilst you find out about
social psychology.)
In academic settings, college students are much more likely to revel in intrinsic motivation to
study after they experience a feel of belonging and admiration withinside the school room.
This internalisation may be improved if the evaluative factors of the school room are
de-emphasised and if college students experience that they workout a few manipulations over
the getting to know environment. Furthermore, offering college students with sports which
are challenging, but doable, together with a motive for carrying out numerous getting to know
sports can decorate intrinsic motivation for the ones tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Consider
Hakim, a first-yr regulation scholar with publications this semester: Family Law and
Criminal Law. The Family Law professor has an alternative intimidating school room: He
likes to position college students immediately with hard questions, which frequently leaves
college students feeling belittled or embarrassed. Grades are primarily based totally
completely on quizzes and exams, and the teacher posts effects of every take a look at the
school room door. In contrast, the Criminal Law professor allows school room discussions
and respectful debates in small groups. The majority of the course grade isn't exam-based,
however it is based on a scholar-designed research mission on a criminal offence problem of
the scholar’s choice. Research indicates that Hakim may be much less intrinsically
encouraged in his Family Law direction, in which college students are intimidated withinside
the school room, and there may be an emphasis on teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is
likely to experience a higher level of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where
the class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and where
students have more influence over their learning activities.

Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioural learning theory posits a primary
factor in motivation. Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated
stimuli energise and direct behaviour (Huitt & Hummel, 1997a). Operant learning states the
primary factor is consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase
behaviour; the application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in
behaviour (Huitt & Hummel, 1997b). There are several motivational theories that trace their
roots to the information processing approach to learning (Huitt, 2003b). These approaches
focus on the categories and labels people use to help identify thoughts, emotions,
dispositions, and behaviours.
One cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory
proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering
certain "attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under
control or not under control. The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a
combination of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible. In
a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a
self-attribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the person has an attribution of
ability (internal, no control) as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the
learning process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behaviour (e.g., I'm not good at
this). If the person has an external attribution, then the person will have a believe that nothing
the person can do will help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for
demonstrating what has been learned is completely outside the person). In this case, there is
nothing to be done by the individual when learning problems occur.
A second cognitive approach is expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) which proposes the
following equation:
Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy)*Connection of Success and
Reward (Instrumentality)*Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valance or
Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of
motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in relatively high levels in order for
motivation to occur. That is, if an individual does not believe he or she can be successful at a
task OR the individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success OR
the individual does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the
individual will engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory,
all three variables must be high in order for motivation and the resulting behaviour to be high.

The third cognitive approach is cognitive dissonance theory which is in some respects
similar to disequilibrium in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (Huitt & Hummel,
2003). This theory was developed by Leon Festinger (1957), as social psychologist, and
states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief
and an action, individuals will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is
that if an appropriate amount of disequilibrium is created, this will in turn lead to the
individual changing his or her behaviour which in turn will lead to a change in thought
patterns which in turn leads to more change in behaviour.

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from
lower level needs for survival and safety to higher level needs for intellectual achievement
and self actualization. Maslow called four lower level needs-for survival, then safer; followed
by belonging, then self esteem. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling
them decreases. He labelled the three higher level needs, intellectual achievement, then
aesthetic appreciation and finally, self-actualization being needed.
When they are met, a person’s motivation does not cease, instead it increases to further
fulfilment. Unlike the deficiency needs, there being needs can never be completely filled. The
strive for improvement is always there in the individual. Maslow’s theory has been criticised
because the people do not always appear to behave as the theory would predict. Sometimes,
people get motivated by many different needs; at the same time. All the needs are
interrelated. Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency
needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before
moving to the next higher level. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future
time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. The first four
levels are:
1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;
2) Safety/security: out of danger;
3) Belongingness and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and
4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.

According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the
deficiency needs are met. Maslow's initial conceptualization included only one growth that
needs self-actualization. Self-actualized people are characterised by:
1) being problem-focused;
2) incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life;
3) a concern about personal growth; and
4) the ability to have peak experiences.
Maslow later differentiated the growth need of self actualization, specifically naming two
lower-level growth needs prior to the general level of self actualization (Maslow & Lowery,
1998) and one beyond that level (Maslow, 1971). The growth needs in this revised
formulation are:
5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;
6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfilment and realise one's potential; and
8) Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self
fulfilment and realise their potential.
Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-transcendent,
one becomes more wise (develops the ability to efficiently and effectively make decisions
and solve problems based on personal experience) and becomes fluid in interacting with the
environment in a wide variety of situations. Maslow's ultimate conclusion that the highest
levels of self actualization are transcendent in nature is especially important as it comes from
someone who spent most of his professional life investigating the topic.

In 1938 Henry Murray developed a system describing personality in terms of needs; the
system organised personality in terms of motives, presses and needs. Murray defined a need
as a "potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances".
Environmental factors also play a role in how these psychogenic needs are expressed in
behaviour, these are what Murray called "presses".
Theories of personality based on needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a
reflection of behaviours controlled by needs. While some needs are temporary and changing,
other needs are more deeply seated in our nature. According to Murray, these psychogenic
needs function mostly on the unconscious level but play a major role in our personality.

Murray identified needs as one of two types:

Primary Needs: Primary needs are basic needs that are based upon biological demands, such
as the need for oxygen, food, and water.
Secondary Needs: Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as the need for
nurturing, independence, and achievement. While these needs might not be fundamental for
basic survival, they are essential for psychological well-being.

a) Ambition Needs
Ambition needs are related to the need for achievement and recognition. The need for
achievement is often expressed by succeeding, achieving goals, and overcoming obstacles.
The need for recognition is met by gaining social status and displaying achievements.
Sometimes the ambition even involves a need for exhibition, or the desire to shock and thrill
other people.
b) Materialistic Needs
The materialistic needs centre on the acquisition, construction, order, and retention. These
needs often involve obtaining items, such as buying material objects that we desire. In other
instances, these needs compel us to create new things. Obtaining and creating items are an
important part of the materialistic needs, but keeping objects and organising them is also
important.
c) Power Needs
The power needs tend to centre on our own independence as well as our need to control
others. Murray believed that autonomy was a powerful need involving the desire for
independence and resistance. Other key power needs that he identified include abasement
(confessing and apologising), aggression (attacking or ridiculing others), blame avoidance
(following the rules and avoiding blame), deference (obeying and cooperating with others),
and dominance (controlling others).
d) Affection Needs
The affection needs are centred on our desire to love and be loved. We have a need for
affiliation and seek out the company of other people. Nurturance, or taking care of other
people, is also important for psychological well-being. The need for succorance involves
being helped or protected by others. Murray also suggested that play and having fun with
other people was also a critical affection need. While most of the affection needs a centre on
building relationships and connections, Murray also recognized that rejection could also be a
need. Sometimes, turning people away is an important part of maintaining mental wellness.
Unhealthy relationships can be a major detriment to an individual's well-being, so sometimes
knowing when to walk away can be important.
e) Information Needs
The information needs centre around both gaining knowledge and sharing it with others.
According to Murray, people have an innate need to learn more about the world around them.
He referred to cognizance as the need to seek knowledge and ask questions. In addition to
gaining knowledge, he also believed that people have a need for what he referred to as
exposition, or the desire to share what they have learned with other people.

Each need is important in and of itself, but Murray also believed that needs can be
interrelated, can support other needs, and can conflict with other needs. For example, the
need for dominance may conflict with the need for affiliation when overly controlling
behaviour drives away friends, family, and romantic partners. Murray also believed that
environmental factors play a role in how these psychogenic needs are displayed in behaviour.
Murray called these environmental forces "presses." Murray believed human nature involved
a set of universal basic needs, however, he said that individual differences on these needs lead
to the unique personalities that each person has. Murray said that everyone has the same basic
set of needs but that individuals differ in their priority of those needs. According to him,
some needs are temporary and transient, whereas others are deeply seated in our nature.
These psychogenic needs function mostly on the unconscious level, but play a major role in
our personality. Frustration of these psychogenic needs plays a central role in the origin of
psychological pain. (Shneidman ES. The Suicidal Mind. Oxford University Press; 1996)
Murray distinguished each need as unique, but recognised shared attributes among the needs.
Needs can also conflict, for example, the need for achievement may conflict with the need for
nurturance.

The Instructor is a key extrinsic aspect in the educational environment. Staying calm,
removing negative thoughts or feelings, disengaging stress, remembering that students have
their own realities and are doing their best, not taking students' actions personally,
remembering that students are not bad but are in the process of development, and maintaining
a sense of humour are all skills that teachers should possess. (1992, Whistler). Shulman
(1987) defines "pedagogical content knowledge" (PCK) as "the blending of content and
pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organised,
represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for
instruction" (Williams & Williams).

There are a number of factors that influence instructors' success in the process of teaching
and learning in an academic setting, including:
1. a promotion; 2. a monetary prize; 3.
3. Clear, fair, and explicit institutional policies;
4. Performance evaluation - should provide feedback for improvement; lead to administrative
decisions related to reward/punishment; public assessment in the sense that an event should
be organised with the staff + students, expressing gratitude and appreciation for the best and
bringing change to their status at the university; staff evaluation, which is very important to
improve the climate at the university;
5. Gratitude and high academic levels;
6. Creation of interests (training, purchase literature, access to databases,
collaborations with other universities, etc.);
7. Academic Advancement, sense of achievement and status with;
8. Liability;
9. Contribution;
10. Autonomy - the highest level;
11. The quality of students;
12. Teaching load, but not only;
13. Climate / organisational culture - relationships between colleagues. (Mapo,
2016).

Schools should not be a place where students acquire personal information while the teacher
explains a plethora of topics and the student remains an individual liability at all times, that
is, without contributing directly, but rather as an active student (Dewey, John). The root word
for motivation, according to Taylor (2012), is movere (to move). Internal forces, persistent
qualities, behavioural responses to stimuli, and systems of beliefs and affects all play a role in
learning motivation. She explained that motivation research can be divided into two
categories: behavioural and cognitive theories. "View motivation as a change in the rate,
frequency, or form of behaviour as a function of environmental events and stimuli,"
according to behavioural theories. By regulating the external environment, teachers can
mould student responses. Cognitive theories, on the other hand, emphasise the internal
structures and processing of information and beliefs. When it comes to evaluating motivation,
cognitive theories emphasise the relevance of perceptions of competence, values, affects,
objectives, and social comparisons (Taylor, 2012). Motivation is something that every
educator should be concerned about. If our educational system is to appropriately educate
young people for the difficulties and expectations of the twenty-first century, students,
teachers, parents, school administrators, and other members of the community must possess
this quality. Of course, the ways in which these distinct groups of people produce and use
motivation are vastly different. Students require a desire to learn, parents require it to track
their children's educational development, and teachers require it to teach.